LS* 


Edward  III.  Women  Servants 

rom  an  old  MSS.  |      of  tho  17lh  Century 


Gentleman  and  Ladies  of  rank 
in  the  15th  Century. 


, 


Henry  XI.  and  Becket.  |        Soldiers  of  the  llth  Century. 


* 


• 


Gentleman  in  time  of   I    Pikeinan  and  Musketeer  of  the    I     Officer  and  Sergeant  in  the  reign    W 
William  III.         J  17th  Century.  |  of  George  1. 


Lady  Handson.       |  Queen  Anne  of  Denmark.  |  Gentleman  and  Lady  in  time  of  Charles  I- 


Sesostris,  or  Rameses  the  Great.     See  page  657. 


- 


Ruiiu  of  Hougomont  —  Battle  Ground  of  Warterloo. 


Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Birth-plnce. 


1 


Pompeii  Restored 


Restoration  of  the  Roman  Forum. 


Battle  Monument,  Baltimore. 


U.  S.  Military  Academy,  West  Point. 


POPULAR 

CYCLOPEDIA  OF  HISTORY, 

ANCIENT  AND  (MODERN, 

FORMING    A 

COPIOUS  HISTORICAL  DICTIONARY 


. 
CELEBRATED  INSTITUTIONS,  PERSONS,  PLACES.,  AND  THINGS ; 


WITH    NOTICES    OF    THE 
PRESENT  STATE  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  CITIES,  COUNTRIES,  AND  KINGDOMS 

OF    THE    KNOWN    WORLD: 

TO    WHICH    IS    ADDED 

A   CHRONOLOGICAL  VIEW 


MEMORABLE  EVENTS, 

EARTHQUAKES,    VOLCANIC    ERUPTIONS,    STORMS,    CONFLAGRATIONS,     DISEASES, 
FAMINES,    INVENTIONS,    DISCOVERIES,    BATTLES,    TREATIES,    SET- 
TLEMENTS,   ORIGINS    OF    RELIGIOUS    SECTS,    ETC. 

BY  F.  A.  DURIVAGE.  v 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  ENGRAVINGS. 


HARTFORD: 

PRINTED  AND  PUBLISHED  BY  CASE,  TIFFANY  &  BTJRNHAM 
1844. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1841,  by 

CASE,  TIFFANY  AND  Co., 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut. 


">'    '•' 
f  '  * 

-.,4J^ 


PREFACE. 


EVERY  general  reader,  has  frequent  occasion  to  consult  some 
authority,  for  historical,  and  biographical  dates  and  facts.  The 
only  works,  suitable  for  such  a  purpose,  are  the  Encyclopedia  of 
Lieber,  Rees,  Brewster,  and  others,  of  a  similar  kind.  These 
are  costly  and  extensive  works,  and  are  therefore  in  the  hands 
of  comparatively  few  persons ;  beside,  they  are  too  cumbrous  for 
easy  and  frequent  reference.  The  importance  then,  of  a  volume 
like  the  present,  that  may  lie  familiarly  upon  the  table,  or  the 
shelf ;  ready  at  call  to  answer  the  thousand  questions  that  arise  on 
historical  points,  is  too  plain  to  require  discussion.  Its  utility,  at 
all  events  its  convenience,  even  to  those  who  possess  ample  libra- 
ries, and*  whose  minds  are  stored  with  historical  data,  appears  to 
the  writer  to  be  great.  But  it  is  more  especially  designed  for 
family  use,  and  for  the  young. 

The  author  considers  the  matter  in  this  point  of  view.  Every 
reader  of  a  book,  a  magazine,  or  newspaper,  meets  with  frequent 
references  to  historical  subjects,  which  he  knows  nothing  about, 
or  obscurely  remembers,  or  but  partially  understands.  If  he  has 
%t  hand,  a  volume  which  will  readily  answer  any  inquiries  which 
arise  in  his  mind,  he  will  turn  to  it,  and  thus  remove  his  igno- 
rance, or  clear  away  the  doubt  and  obscurity  which  rest  upon  his 


• 


2  PREFACE. 

understanding.     If  he   has  no  such  work  at  easy  command,  he 
will  in  most  cases  let  the  matter  pass. 

The  present  volume,  is  particularly  designed  to  supply  to  every 
general  reader,  such  a  book  of  reference  as  is  here  alluded  to.' 
It  is  believed,  that  if  tolerably  wejl  executed,  it  cannot  fail  of 
being  acceptable.  It  is  particularly  commended  to  the  attention 
of  parents,  that  in  the  absence  of  any  other  suitable  work,  ih.s 
may  be  placed  within  the  reach  of  their  children,  and  that  the 
habit  of  consulting  it  as  a  dictionary  of  history,  and  historical 
biography,  whenever  curiosity,  doubt,  or  question  may  suggest, 
be  inculcated  upon  them.  The  store  of  pji^l^e  practical  know- 
ledge that  will  thus  be  laid  up,  will  be  of  iilj,,  'able  value. 

It  is  not  however,  as  a  mere  book  of  relVrciu  that  this  volume 
is  offered  to  the  public.  The  materials,  are,  it  is  true,  extracted 
to  a  great  extent,  from  books  familiar  to  the  public.  The  author, 
however,  has  gathered  many  traits,  anecdotes  and  adventures, 
from  less  common  sources,  and  interspersing  throughout  its  pages, 
these  and  other  illustrative  sketches,  he  has  sought  to  enliven  the 
work,  and  thus  render  it  more  amusing,  attractive,  and  readable, 
than  mere  books  of  reference  usually  are.  Many  of  the  articles 
are  more  extensive  than  in  the  voluminous  Encyclopedias,  before 
mentioned.  Many  interesting  topics,  not  found  in  them,  are  also 
introduced.  The  history  of  our  own  country,  will  be  found  fully 
treated  of,  under  different  heads.  The  lives  of  eminent  political 
characters  in  all  ages,  as  well  as  the  lives  of  those,  whose  great- 
ness in  science  or  literature  inscribed  their  names  upon  the  ages  in 
which  they  flourished,  are  given  ;  some  of  them  at  considerable 


PREFACE. 


length.     Many  characteristic  anecdotes  of  these  persons  are  Intro- 
duced.    Several  topics,  as  Druids,  El  Dorado,  Knighthood,  'Chiv- 
alry, Fanes,  &c.  &:c.,  which  are  frequently  alluded  to  in  books, 
.are  treated  of  with  particularity. 

.The  Chronological  View  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  will  be  found 
to:  contain  a  great  amount  of  interesting  and  valuable  knowledge. 
I  B  some  instances,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  facts  are  repeated 
here,  which  have  appeared  in  other  parts  of  the  volume.  They 
are,  however,  given,  with  the  view  of  rendering  this  portion  of  the 
work  as  complete  in  itself,  as  possible. 

The  reader  by  ri,v  ^ug  his  eye  over  the  pages  of  the  Chrono- 
logical View,  wi'1  y  see  the  plan  upon  which  it  is  arranged. 
He  will  find  it  i  contain,  beside  many  other  things,  the  chro- 
nology o'f  the  following  topics. 


Abdications, 

Ambassadors, 

Agriculture, 

Alliances, 

Architecture, 

Astronomy  from  the  earliest  times, 

Balloons, 

Battles,  Sieges,  &.C., 

Bible, 

Cholera, 

Circumnavigators, 

Commerce, 

Congress, 

Conspiracies, 

Councils,  . 


Discoveries,  geographical,  in  modern 

times, 
Founding   of  Cities,    Towns,   King  f 

doms,  and  States, 
Earthquakes, 
Eminent  Persons,  in  all  ages  ;  ancient 

and  modern, 
Engraving, 
Eras, 

Famines  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
Fires  in  different  places, 
Frosts  in  various  places, 
Fruits  —  introduction  of, 
Gardening, 
Hieroglyphicks, 


PREFACE. 


Hurricanes  in  different  countries,  Poet  Laureats, 

Labor,  price  of  at  various  times,  Popes, 

Laws,    Courts    of    Justices,    Oaths,    Rain,  violent. 

Taxes,  &c.  Rebellions, 

Libraries,  Religious  Orders,  Sects,  &c. 

Living  Characters  of  eminence,  Revolutions, 

Longevity,  instances  of  ancient  and    Sculpture, 

modern,  Sea  Fights, 

Manufactures,  Ships  and  Ship  Building 

Massacres  in  all  ages,  Silk,  manufacture  of, 

Meteors  and  Meteoric  Stones,  Slave  trade, 

Military  and    Religious   Knights  and    Sovereigns  of  different  countries, 

Titles  of  Honor,  Storms  in  different  countries, 

Mount  Auburn,  Taxation, 

Painting,  Treaties  in  modern  times, 

Pedestrians,  Wars. 

Beside  the  above  topics,  there  are  many  others,  exhibiting  the 
dates  of  important  inventions,  discoveries,  and  improvements  in 
arts  and  sciences,  and  remarkable  and  interesting  events,  generally. 
The  work  is  arranged  with  a  view  to  compress  a  groat  amount  of 
matter  into  the  smallest  compass,  that  the  bulk  of  the  volume 
may  not  render  it  inconvenient,  and  that  its  expense  may  not 
hinder  its  general  circulation. 

In  preparing  so  extensive  a  publication  for  the  press,  the  author 
cannot  hope  that  he  has  wholly  escaped  error,  or  that  some  omis- 
sions may  not  be  noticed.  But  he  trusts  that  the  volume  may  be 
found  sufficiently  accurate  and  complete,  to  fulfil  the  proper  design 
of  such  a  work,  and  that  it  may  prove  a  valuable  accession  to  the 
means  of  diffusing  useful  knowledge. 


A   POPULAR 

CYCLOPEDIA  OF  HISTORY. 


AAR 

AARON,  the  first  high-priest  of  the  Jews, 
sonoi'Amram  and  Jochebed,wasthe  brother  of 
Moses,  and  three  years  his  elder,  being  born 
about  1574  B.  C.  When  God  had  determined 
to  free  the  Israelites  from  the  cruel  bondage  of 
the  Egyptians,  he  sent  Aaron  and  Moses  to  the 
court  of  Pharaoh  to  announce  his  will.  The 
awful  annunciation  served  only  to  confirm  the 
obduracy  of  the  Egyptian  tyrant,  and  he  would 
not  yield  his  faith,  until  miracles  were  shown 
him.  Then,  at  the  command  of  God,  Aaron 
changed  his  rod  into  a  serpent,  but  the  magi- 
cians of  the  court  did  likewise,  each  of  their 
rods  becoming  a  serpent.  Aaron's  rod  swal- 
lowed up  those  of  the  sorcerers,  but  still  the 
heart  of  the  king  was  hardened.  On  the  refu- 
sal of  the  monarch  to  permit  the  departure  of 
the  Israelites,  and  at  the  command  of  the  Lord, 
the  waters  of  Egypt  were  changed  into  blood; 
the  plague  of  frogs,  the  murrain  of  beasts,  the 
plague  of  hail,  locusts,  and  other  calamities, 
bore  witness  to  the 
of  God.  The 

born  of  the  Egyptians,  but  those  of  the  Israelites 
were  spared.  Aaron  was  gifted  with  great 
eloquence  which  was  displayed  upon  various 
occasions,  when  he  manifested  his  zeal  in  his 
mission.  The  departure  of  the  Israelites,  and 
their  miraculous  preservation,  are  too  well 
known  to  require  particular  notice  here.  Moses, 
when  he  went  to  receive  the  laws  from  God  on 
mount  Sinai,  was  accompanied  by  Aaron,  Na- 
dab,  Abihu,  and  seventy  of  the  eld"ers  of  Israel, 
to  whom  God  showed  himself;  but  Moses  alone 
remained  forty  days.  Giving  way  to  the  cla- 
mors of  the  people,  Aaron  made  them  an  idol 
out  of  the  ornaments  and  trinkets  furnished  by 
the  women  and  children,  the  image  being  in 
the  form  of  a  calf,  like  the  ox  Apis  worshipped 
by  the  Egyptians. 

When  Moses  returned  from  the  mount,  he 
reproached  Aaron,  whose  fault  appears  to  have 
been  want  of  firmness,  for  he  was  terrified  at 


the  power  and  just  indignation 
angel  of  the  Lord  smote  the  first- 


AAR 

the  threats  of  the  idolaters.  The  punishment 
0^  those  who  rebelled  was  exemplary,  23,000 
being  slain  in  one  day.  Aaron  and  his  four 
sons  became  priests  of  the  Lord,  and  the  cere- 
mony of  their  assumption  of  the  holy  office  was 
as  august  as  the  occasion  demanded.  Aaron 
never  entered  the  land  of  promise,  a  punish- 
ment for  his  disbelief  in  the  power  of  God  to 
produce  water  from  the  rock.  When  the  Is- 
raelites arrived  at  Mount  Hor,  Moses,  Aaron, 
and  Eleazar,  his  son.  ascended  it  in  obedience 
to  the  commands  of  the  Lord.  There,  in  the 
sight  of  the  people,  Moses  unrobed  the  high 
priest,  and  clad  Eleazar  in  his  garments.  Aaron 
then  sank  into  the  arms  of  his  brother,  and  died, 
aged  one  hundred  and  twenty -three  years,  forty 
of  which  he  passed  as  priest,  the  office  being 
made  hereditary  in  his  family. 

AARON,  or  Haroun  al  Raschid,  was  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  of  the  Saracenic  caliphs, 
and  the  territories  which  he  governed  extended 
from  Egypt  to  Khorassan.  He  was  no  less 
distinguished  for*  his  taste,  and  the  encourage- 
ment he  afforded  to  literature  and  the  arts,  than 
for  his  power.  He  was  the  second  son  of  the 
caliph  Mahadi,  and  succeeded  his  elder  brother, 
Hadi,  A.  D.  786.  He  differed,  in  so  many  re- 
spects, from  the  despots  of  the  east,  that  he 
obtained  the  name  of  al  Raschid,  the  Just,  al- 
though many  of  his  deeds  would  seem  to  destroy 
his  claims  to  the  title.  The  caliph  was  fond 
of  personally  ascertaining  the  condition  of  his 
people,  when,  divested  of  the  dazzling  attributes 
of  rank,  he  feared  no  concealment  on  their 
part.  Many  instances  of  the  wisdom  and  jus- 
tice of  his  decisions  have  comedown  to  us,  and, 
among  others,  the  following.  A  merchant, 
having  lost  a  purse  containing  a  large  sum  of 
money,  caused  the  loss  to  be  proclaimed,  with 
an  accurate  description  of  the  purse  and  the 
value  of  its  contents,  offering  a  large  reward  to 
the  person  who  should  find  and  restore  it  to  the 
owner.  After  some  days  had  elapsed,  a  poor 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


AAR 

laborer  presented  himself  before  a  magistrate 
with  the  purse,  and  claimed  of  the  merchant 
(who  was  summoned)  the  reward  which  belong- 
ed to  him.  The  merchant,  rejoiced  at  finding 
his  money,  thought  to  avoid  payment  of  the 
reward,  by  declaring  that  the  purse  contained, 
in  addition  to  the  money,  an  emerald  of  great 
value,  which  the  finder  must  be  compelled  to 
restore.  The  poor  laborer  was  overwhelmed 
by  this  assertion,  and  the  magistrate  appeared 
at  a  loss,  but  the  caliph,  who  was  present 
in  disguise,  advanced  and  decided  the  case. 
"  Since,"  said  he,  "  the  merchant  declares  that 
the  purse  which  he  lost,  contained  a  sum  of 
money  and  an  emerald,  and  since  the  finder 
of  this  purse  swears,  and  the  seal  upon  the 
purse  proves,  that  he  has  taken  no  precious 
gem,  this  cannot  be  the  purse  which  the  mer- 
chant has  lost.  Let  then  its  present  holder 
endeavor  to  discover  the  real  owner,  and,  failing 
to  do  so,  appropriate  the  prize  ;  and  let  the  mer- 
chant make  diligent  search  for  the  money  and 
the  emerald  which  he  has  lost ;  the  present  pro- 
perty being,  as  he  has  proved,  none  of  his." 

Haroun  was  an  ardent  lover  of  learning,  and 
caused  it  to  be  disseminated  throughout  his 
realms.  He  was  a  warm  admirer  of  the  an- 
cient classics,  and  translations  of  the  IHad  and 
Odyssey,  with  other  works  of  antiquity,  made 
his  people  acquainted  with  the  beauties  of 
Greek  and  Roman  literature.  He  invaded  the 
Greek  empire  no  fewer  than  eight  times,  con- 
quering in  802,  the  emperor  Nicephorus,  who 
had  refused  to  pay  him  the  customary  tribute. 
The  Greek  monarch  was  compelled  to  pay  a 
heavier 'tribute  to  the  caliph,  and  promise  not  to 
rebuild  the  frontier  towns  which  had  been  ruin- 
ed and  plundered.  The  caliph's  destruction  of 
the  family  of  the  Barmecides  displays  the  stern 
resolution  of  a  despot.  He  had  experienced 
the  cares  of  Yahia,  the  head  of  the  Barmecide 
family,  who  had  superintended  his  education, 
and  the  eldest  of  Yahia's  sons  was  a  general 
who  had  served  his  country  well ;  the  second 
was  GiafFer,  the  caliph's  prime  vizier,  and  the 
two  other,  sons  were  in  responsible  and  digni- 
fied stations.  The  Barmecides  were  in  favor 
with  all  classes,  and  GiafFer  stood  high  in  the 
graces  of  the  caliph.  Indeed,  so  warmly  at- 
tached was  the  latter  to  his  vizier,  that,  for  the 
Bake  of  enjoying  his  company  with  that  of  his 
beloved  sister  Abassa,  he  united  them  in  mar- 
riage, but  placed  capricious  restrictions  upon 
their  intimacy.  On  the  disobedience  of  the  pair, 
all  the  violent  passions  of  the  caliph  were  aroused. 
He  publicly  sacrificed  GiafFer  to  his  resentment, 


6  ABB 

and  impoverished  the  whole  family.  Haroun,  at* 
the  height  of  splendor  and  fame,  sent  an  emhjas- 
sy  to  the  emperor  Charlemagne,  bearing,  among 
other  presents,  a  water-clock,  an  elephant,  and 
the  keys  of  the  holy  sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  '  j 
The  caliph  was  seized  with  a  mortal  illness 
while  preparing^  to  depart  upon  a  military  ex- 
pedition, and  died  at  Tous.  in  Khorassan,  in 
the  47th  year  of  his  age,  and  the  Ji3d  of  his 
reign.  .None  of  the  caliphs  of  the  Saracens  ever 
attained  the  height  of  power  and  popularity 
which  Haroun  al  Raschid  gained,  and,  although 
some  of  his  acts  are  inexcusable,  yet,  consid- 
ering the  examples  furnished  by  his  age,  and 
the  preceding,  we  cannot  withhold  from  him 
a  large  share  of  praise.  Haroun  is  one  of  those 
characters,  which  are  equally  the  delight  of  his- 
tory and  romance,  and  while  the  graver  acts  of 
his  reign  employ  the  pen  of  the  rigid  annalist, 
his  varied  adventures  are  themes  for  the  gay 
eloquence  of  such  works  as  the  Arabian  Nights 
Entertainments. 

ABAUZIT,  Firmin,  a  Protestant  author  of 
celebrity  and  learning,  was  born  in  Languedoc, 
1(179,  and  died  in  17U7,  having  for  a  long  time 
filled  the  office  of  public  librarian  at  Geneva. 
His  writings  are  principally  upon  theological 
subjects,  and  he  was  distinguished  for  accuracy 
and  penetration.  His  knowledge  was  great  and 
embraced  the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences. 
Wise  and  modest,  he  was  pronounced  a  "  great 
man"  by  Voltaire,  himself  as  learned  as  Abauzit, 
although  destitute  of  that  unaffected  piety  which 
formed  so  bright  an  ornament  to  the  character 
of  the  latter. 

ABBAS,  Shah,  the  Great,  ascended  the 
throne  of  Persia  in.  1589,  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  arms,  wresting  Ormus  from  the  Portu- 
guese in  1G22,  aided,  however,  by  the  Brilish. 
During  his  reign,  Ispahan  became  the  capital  of 
Persia.  His  death  took  pliioe  in  Ki'^M. 

ABBASSIDES.  The  caliphs,  who,  during 
the  8th  and  9th  centuries,  made  Bagdad  their 
capital,  are  distinguished  in  history  as  the  Mas- 
sides.  Their  sway  extended  over  Persia.  Arabia, 
and  Syria.  The  caliph  Al-Mansur,  iii7t^,  built 
Bagdad,  and  raised  the  Saracenic  empire  to  its 
highest  point  of  splendor  and  fame.  Al-Modi, 
to  whom  the  empire  was  transmitted,  did  not 
permit  its  reputation  to  wane,  and.  under  Ha- 
roun al  Raschid,  the  dignity  of  the  Caliphate 
?rved  and  adorned.  After  Haroun, 


\\as    preser 
Al- 


Al-Amin,  and  Al-Mamun.  Under  Al- 
Motasser  the  governors  of  several  provinces  as- 
serted their  independence,  and  Bagdad  alone 
was  governed  by  the  caliph. 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ABB  ' 

ABBEt",  or  monastery,  is  a  house  erected  for 
the  dwelling  of  males  orfemales  who  have  taken 
the  monastic  vow,  which  binds  them  to  relinquish 
all  worldly  interests,  and  devote  themselves  to 
the  performance  of  religious  duties,  living  in  a 
j3T state  of  celibacy.     St.  Anthony,  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury, instituted  the  monastic  life,  and,  in  the 
'•    same  century,  St.  Pachomius  founded  regular 
I     communities  of  religious  professors.     A  monas- 
'     tery  receives  its  title  from  that  of  the  ecclesi- 

iastic  governing  it.  An  abbey  is  governed  by 
an  abbot,  or  abbess,  a  priory,  by  a  prior,  or  prior- 
ess, &c.  The  term  nunnery,  is  applied  to  a  re- 
ligious house  inhabited  by  females. 

The  buildings  inhabited  by  different  religious 
communities,  were  originally  of  the  plainest 
kind,  but  increased  in  extent  and  splendor  with 
their  revenues,  until,  from  the  humble  dwellings 
of  unpretending  ecclesiastics,  they  became  the 
abodes  of  luxury,  brilliant  with  costly  architec- 

'  tural  decorations,  and  hiding,  within  their  lofty 
walls,  the  revels  of  men  whose  piety  was  but  a 
cloak  for  unlimited  indulgence.  The  buildings 
constituting  an  Abbey  or  monastery,  consisted 
principally  of  churches,  cloisters,  refectories, 
chapters,  parlors,  dormitories,  courts,  gardens, 
&c.  The  choir  and  interior  buildings  of  con- 

-  vents  were,  and  are  still,  fenced  in  by  grates, 
and  inaccessible  to  visiters.  The  churches 
consisted  of  the  choir,  an  altar,  a  nave,  isles, 
chapels, and  a  tower.  The  cloister  comprehends 
the  galleries  or  covered  porticoes  of  a  monastery 
in  which  the  monks  take  their  exercise,  and 
surrounds  an  open  space,  which  is  generally 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  flowers,  neatly 
distributed  in  parterres,  interspersed  with  grass- 
plots,  and  refreshed  by  careful  irrigation.  The 
cloisters  were  sometimes  adorned  with  valua- 
ble paintings,  and  were  generally  finished  spe- 
cimens of  art.  The  refectory  of  an  abbey,  is 
the  hall  in  which  the  fathers  eat.  The  refectory 
furnished  at  first  frugal  fare,  and  the  holy  fa- 
thers did  not  tarry  long  in  it,  but  with  the 
declension  of  ecclesiastical  simplicity,  the  cha- 
racter of  their  meals  was  changed,  and  they 
made  the  walls  of  their  eating-room  ring  with 
the  merriment  created  by  high  living  and  rich 
wines.  The  refectory  of  the  Abbey  of  Saint 
Dennis  at  Paris,  has  been  celebrated  for  its 
architectural  beauty. 

The  chapter  is  a  place  of  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent, built  for  the  reception  of  assemblies  to 
discuss  the  private  affairs  of  the  house,  and 
provided  with  seats,  and  a  great  table.  The 
chapters  are  ordinarily  ornamented  with  splen- 
did pictures.  The  parlor  is  a  kind  of  cabinet, 


ABB 

where  visitors  converse  with  the  monks  or  nuns 
through  a  kind  of  grated  window.  Formerly 
convents  contained  parlors,  in  which  novices 
''were  allowed  the  privilege  of  conversing  to- 
gether, at  hours  of  recreation,  but  even  then 
they  were  overheard  by  their  superiors,  who 
were  provided  with  places  for  eaves-dropping. 
The  dormitories  are  wings  in  the  building, 
which  contain  the  cells  of  its  inhabitants.  They 
are  generally  commodious,  and  have  broad  and 
well-litrhted  staircases,  from  regard  to  the  weak- 
ness of  the  aged,  and  are  situated  in  the  second 
story,  in  order  to  render  them  airy  and  healthy. 
Here  the  monks  enjoy  their  brief  repose,  from 
which  they  are  awakened  to  acts  of  devotion, 
or  to  bend  in  solitude  before  the  crucifix,  with 
its  accompanying  mementoes  of  mortality,  ap- 
pearing lost  in  the  reveries  of  religious  enthusi- 
asm. The  gardens  of  monasteries,  generally 
exhibit  neatness,  and  are  not  the  least  favorite 
appendage  to  the  dwellings  of  the  monks. 

The  monks,  in  the  ages  of  general  darkness, 
that  is  from  600  to  1500,  preserved  in  their 
monasteries  many  valuable  volumes,  and  kept 
alive  the  spark  of  learning,  which,  but  for  their 
exertions,  would  have  been  extinguished.  Re- 
ligious houses  were,  for  ages,  the  sole  deposi- 
tories of  literature  and  science,  and  their  inhab- 
itants were  actively  employed  in  the  duties  of 
education.  In  England,  one  person  or  more 
in  each  convent,  was  appointed  to  instruct 
pupils,  and  these  were  the  children  of  those 
neighbors  who  chose  to  send  them.  They  were 
instructed  in  grammar  and  church  music,  free 
of  expense.  In  the  nunneries,  females  were 
taught  to  read  and  work,  and  the  daughters  of 
noblemen  and  gentlemen,  as  well  as  of  the 
poorer  people,  were  indebted  to  the  nuns  for  a 
large  part  of  whatever  knowledge  they  possess- 
ed. Many  poor  descendants  of  noble  families 
looked  to  monasteries  for  refuge,  and  having 
taken  the  vow,  made  use  of  the  influence  of 
friends,  to  gain  high  ecclesiastical  offices.  Ma- 
ny of  the  monks  were  men  driven  to  enter  reli- 
gious houses  by  the  pangs  of  remorse,  and  who 
hoped  to  expiate  a  career  of  crimes,  by  seclu- 
sion from  the  world,  and  the  observance  of  the 
most  austere  rites  of  the  church.  These  as  well 
as  some  who  were  unaffectedly  pious,  lived  a 
blameless  life,  but  there  were  others  whose 
profligacy  was  unrepressed,  because  hidden  by 
that  veil  of  hypocrisy  which  they  closely  drew 
around  them.  Many  monks  were  skilful  paint- 
ers, as  the  richly  illuminated  manuscripts  of 
other  days  prove,  and  numerous  were  the  le- 
gends of  saints,  gorgeously  blazoned  upon  pages 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ABB  8 

of  vellum,  that  filled  the  shelves  of  the  holy 
fathers.  Living  a  life  of  undisturbed  seclusion, 
those  who  possessed  a  literary  turn,  had  ample 
time  to  indulge  their  propensity,  though  very 
few  literary  works  of  any  merit  have  issued 
from  the  monasteries. 

The  year  306  is  that  in  which  the  earliest 
monasteries  were  established  in  Egypt,  under 
the  conduct  of  St.  Anthony, and  hence  sprang 
•hortly  afterwards,  many  others  in  various  pla- 
ces. In  3GO,  the  earliest,  monastery  in  France, 
that  of  Saint  Martin,  was  established.  In  the 
beginning  monasteries  were  inhabited  by  lay- 
men. For  more  than  six  centuries  all  the 
eastern  monasteries  were  independent  of  each 
other,  and  governed  by  abbots  who  were  an- 
swerable to  their  bishops  only.  In  the  ninth 
century  under  Louis  the  Mild,  many  monasteries 
were  united  under  the  government  of  St.  Ben- 
edict, hut  on  the  death  of  this  abbot,  the  houses 
again  separated,  and  remained  independent  of 
each  other".  In  the  tenth  century  St.  Odo, 
bishop  of  Cluny,  united  to  this  abbey  many 
monasteries,  placing  them  under  the  conduct 
of  the  abbot  of  Cluny.  The  first  monasteries, 
in  times  of  trouble  and  darkness,  preserved  the 
spirit  of  religion,  and  were 'sanctuaries  in  which 
piety  and  learning  sought  refuge  from  the  ig- 
norance, irreligion  and  persecutions  of  the  world. 
A  mild  light,  denied  to  the  rest  of  mankind, 
was  shed  upon  those  who  took  upon  themselves 
the  fulfilment  of  monastic  vows.  The  con- 
duct of  the  monks  was  regulated  by  the  plain 
commands  of  the  Scriptures,  and  antiquity  was 
followed  in  the  celebration  of  religious  ceremo- 
nies, and  the  practice  of  Christian  virtues.  The 
monks, as  remarked  above,  were,  for  many  cen- 
turies, the  preservers  of  literature,  many  valua- 
ble works  of  the  present  day  having  been  rescued 
from  destruction  by  monastic  libraries. 

Since  the  revival  of  letters,  and  the  triumph  of 
the  Reformation,  monasteries  have  ceased  to  be 
aught  but  burdensome  to  the  Catholic  countries 
in  which  they  still  exist.  A  comparative  glance 
at  ;i  Catholic  and  a  Protestant  country,  will  at 
onco  expose  the  evil  effects  of  these  establish- 
ments at  present.  The  enormous  abuses  oflhe 
monastic  system  in  England,  called  loudly  for 
reform,  when  Henry  VIII  applied  himself  lo 
the  work  witli  an  unsparing  hand,  and  in  1534 
.1  all  tin-  monasteries  in  England.  At 
this  time  the  hospitality  of  the  monks  was  un- 
limili-il,  and  a  multitude  of  idle  gentry  subsisted 
wholly  upon  it,  passing  their  lives  111  truing 
from  one  religious  house  to  another.  The 
change  made  by  Henry,  proved  of  incalculable 


ABB 


advantage  to  the  state  and  the  country  in  gen- 
eral. The  suppression  of  the  greater  houses 
produced  the  king  a  yearly  income  of  100,000£_ 
in  addition  to  an  immense  treasure  in  plate  and 
jewels.  Before  their  dissolution,  the  monks  had 
a  greater  revenue  than  that  seized  by  the  king, 
part  of  which,  accruing  from  pensions,  he  did 
not  immediately  secure.  The  number  of  monks 
at  this  time  in  England,  in  the  monasteries,  and 
in  chapels  and  hospitals  belonging  to  them,  was 
computed  at  50,000. 

The  council  of  Castile,  in  the  project  for  re- 
form, which  was  presented  to  Philip  III  in 
1619,  supplicated  the  king  to  obtain  from  the 
pope  a  diminution  of  the  nmrxber  of  religious 
orders  aud  monasteries  which  were  daily  in- 
creasing, and  producing  the  most  mischievous 
results.  They  encouraged  idleness,  said  the 
council,  because  the  majority  sought  the  monas- 
teries less  as  a  pious  retreat,  than  as  affording 
opportunity  for  idleness,  and  a  shelter  from 
want.  The  strength  and  preservation  of  the 
kingdom  depended  on  the  number  of  useful  and 
industrious  men,  which  was  diminished  by  the 
monastic  institutions.  Meanwhile  the  expenses 
of  state  fell  wholly  upon  secular  shoulders,  while 
the  monks  were  exempt  from  taxes,  and  retain- 
ed with  a  firm  grasp  the  immense  wealth  which 
they  accumulated.  The  destruction  of  monas- 
teries, was  felt  at  the  time  as  a  serious  evil,  but 
every  nation  which  lias  converted  them  to  the 
use  of  the  public,  has  been  a  gainer,  and  at  the 
expense  of  temporary  evil,  has  enjoyed  a  lasting 
good.  "  It  is  an  undeniable  fact."  says  Vol- 
taire, "  that  there  is  no  catholic  kingdom  in 
which  a  proposal  has  not  been  often  made  to 
restore  to  the  stale  a  portion  of  those  citizens 
of  which  monasteries  have  deprived  it,  but 
statesmen  are  rarely  struck  with  a  distant  uti- 
lity, sensible  though  it  may  be,  particularly 
when  the  future  advantage  is  balanced  by  pre- 
sent difficulty."  At  thisenlightened  period'  there 
is  but  one  opinion  with  regard  to  tiie  destruc- 
tion of  monasteries,  and  that  is,  that  they  were 
unworthy  of  approbation  in  the  beginning,  and 
that  their  continuance  would  have  been  a  very 
serious  obstacle  to  the  improvement  and  pros- 
perity of  those  countries,  which  have  risen  to 
opulence  and  happiness  since  their  downfall. 

The  age  for  the  admission  into  the  monastic 
state,  was  fixed  at  sixteen  years,  by  the  Council 
of  Trent,  the  decrees  of  which  were  issued,  in 
•  W&ccessive  sessions,  from  1545  to  15GH.  The 
diminution  of  the  papal  power,  and  the  enlight- 
ened spirit  of  the  age,  in  the'ldth  century,  exert- 
ed a  strong  influence  upon  the  public  mind  with 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


ABB 

regard  to  monasteries  in  Catholic  countries,  and 
they  lost  many  of  their  privileges  and  much  of 
the  protection  previously  given  them  by  law. 
Joseph  II.  of  Austria,  in  1781,  abolished  some 
orders  of  monasteries,  and  limited  the  number 
of  inmates  in  others.  In  France  thev  were 
all  abolished  in  1790.  During  the  reign  of 
Napoleon,  all  the  states  incorporated  with 
France,  as  well  as  other  Catholic  countries  of 
Europe,  abolished  them,  with  the  exception  of 
Spain,  Portugal,  Naples,  Austria.  Poland,  and 
Russia.  Recent  events  have  contributed  to 
improve  their  condition  in  Italy,  and  Pius  VII. 
procured  means  for  the  maintenance  of  old,  and 
the  foundation  of  new  ones  in  France,  Bavaria, 
and  Naples,  while  in  Austria  they  have  become 
extinct. 

ABBOT.  The  word  abbot  is  derived  from 
the  Hebrew  ab,  father,  and  signifies  the  Supe- 
rior of  a  monastery  erected  into  an  abbey.  The 
abbots  were  one  degree  above  the  laymen. 
They  were  originally  subject  to  the  bishops, 
but  attempting  t<\_  obtain  independence,  were 
punished  by  the  enactment  of  some  severe  laws 
by  the  council  of  Chalcedon.  They  were  not, 
however,  wholly  unsuccessful,  many  of  them 
obtaining  the  title  of  lord,  the  privilege  of  wear- 
in!'  the  mitre,  and  other  badges  of  distinction. 
The  different  classes  are  thus  named, — Abbots, 
mitred  and  not  mitred ;  croziered  and  not 
croziered  :  oecumenical,  cardinal,  &c.  The  mi- 
tred abbots  were  ordered  by  Pope  Clement  IV. 
to  wear  only  a  mitre  adorned  with  gold,  leaving 
jewels  to  the  bishops.  The  croziered  abbots 
bear  the  crozier,  or  pastoral  staff.  The  oecum- 
enical, or  universal  abbots  are  known  only  to 
the  Greeks.  At  present,  abbots  are  distinguish- 
ed into  regular  and  commendatory,  the  former 
of  whom  are  actual  monks,  while  the  latter  are 
seculars  who  have  previously  undergone  the  ton- 
sure, or  shaving  of  the  crown  of  the  head,  and 
bind  themselves  to  take  orders  when  they  come 
of  age.  The  monks  under  his  jurisdiction  pay 
unconditional  obedience  to  the  abbot,  whose 
office  requires  him  to  manage  the  affairs  of  the 
abbey,  regulate  the  conduct  of  the  brotherhood, 
and  see  that  the  rules  of  the  order  are  not  in- 
fringed. From  the  6th  century  the  bishops  were 
priests,  and  from  the  year  787,  had  the  power 
of  conferring  the  lower  orders  of  priesthood. 

ABBOT, George,  born  in  1562,  and  made  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  1610.  He  strenuously 
opposed  some  measures  of  King  James,  thereby 
disproving  the  assertion  that  he  owed  his  rise 
to  acts  more  worthy  of  a  courtier  than  an 
ecclesiastic.  Having  the  misfortune  to  kill  a 


)  ABD 

game-keeper  of  lord  Zouch,  he  ever  afterwards 
lasted  upon  Tuesday,  the  day  on  which  the 
unhappy  event  took  place.  Though  deprived 
of  his  office  by  Charles  I.  in  consequence  of  his 
opposition  to  a  project  of  the  king,  he  was  re- 
stored to  it  by  parliament,  and  died  at  the  age 
of  seventy -one  in  1633. 

ABBOT,  Charles,  viscount  Colchester,  a  man 
of  considerable  talent  as  an  author  and  orator, 
was  speaker  of  the  British  House  of  Commons, 
from  1302  to  1817.  He  was  born  in  1775,  and 
died  in  1H29. 

ABBESS.  An  abbess  is  the  superior  of  a 
convent  of  nuns,  and  has  the  authority  of  an 
abbot.  The  abbesses  are  incapacitated  from 
performing  the  spiritual  functions  of  the  priest- 
hood, although  some  abbesses,  in  former  times, 
confessed  their  nuns,  a  privilege  which  thev  are 
said  to  have  forfeited  by  the  unwarrantable 
curiosity  which  they  displayed.  The  institution 
of  abbots  was  prior  to  that  of  abbesses,  since 
the  first  virgins  who  devoted  themselves  to  the 
service  of  God,  remained  in  their  paternal 
dwellings.  In  the  4th  century  they  assembled 
in  monasteries,  but  it  was  not  until  the  time  of 
Pope  Gregory  that  they  had  buildings  appro- 
priated exclusively  to  them.  The  abbess  was 
anciently  chosen  by  the  community  from  among 
the  oldest  and  most  talented  nuns  :  she  received 
the  blessing  of  the  bishop,  and  her  authority  was 
perpetual.  Some  abbesses  enjoyed  the  privilege 
of  selecting  a  priest  to  perform  the  spiritual 
duties,  the  exercise  of  which  was  denied  to 
themselves.  These  were  the  power  of  ordain- 
ing, the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  bap- 
tism, 'confirmation,  the  eucharist  or  Lord's 
supper,  penance,  extreme  unction,  and  matri- 
mony. Extreme  unction  in  cases  of  mortal 
disease,  is  performed  by  anointing  the  head, 
hands,  and  feet  with  consecrated  oil,  at  the 
same  time  offering  up  prayers  for  the  soul  of 
the  dying. 

ABBT,  Thomas,  a  German  philosophical 
writer,  of  great  merit,  born  at  Ulm  in  Suabia, 
173d.  and  died  in  1766. 

ABDALLEE,  Shah,  emperor  of  Eastern 
Persia,  was  the  determined  opponent  of  the 
Great  Mogul,  and  victorious  at  Panniput  in 
1761. 

ABDALONIMUS,  a  descendant  of  the  Sido- 
nian  kings,  but  so  poor  as  to  be  compelled  to  cul- 
tivate the  soil  for  subsistence.  The  excellence 
of  his  character  and  conduct,  induced  Alexan- 
der, on  taking  Sidon,  to  place  him  upon  the 
throne,  from  which  Strato  was  banished,  and 
extend  his  dominions. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


ABE 


10 


ABE 


ABEL,  the  twin  brother  of  Cain  and  the  se- 
cond son  of  Adam.  The  character  and  occu- 
pations of  the  brothers  were  different.  Abel 
was  keeper  of  a  flock  of  sheep,  while  Cain 
was  a  husbandman,  and  tilled  the  earth  for  a 
support.  In  process  of  time  Abel  brought  to 
the  Lord  an  offering  of  the  firstlings  of  his  flock, 
which  proved  acceptable  in  his  eyes.  Cain's 
offering  of  the  fruit  of  the  ground  was  displeas- 
ing to  his  Maker,  and  his  anger  at  beinjj  re- 
jected, was  unrepressed.  It  was  not  without 
cause  that  the  Lord  slighted  the  offering  of 
Cain,  for,  observing  his  displeasuie,  he  said ; 
"  Why  art  thou  wroth,  and  why  is  thy  counte- 
nance fallen?  If  thou  doest  well,  shalt  thou 
not  be  accepted?  and  if  thou  doest  not  well,  sin 
lieth  at  the  door."  From  the  moment  of  his 
rejection,  a  dark  project  occupied  tire  mind  of 
Cain,  and  he  regarded  his  brother  with  eyes  of 
hatred  and  menace.  When  they  were  in  the 
field  together,  the  fierce  Cain  sprang  upon  his 
gentler  brother,  and  slew  him.  This  was  tin- 
first  murder  committed  on  the  earth.  A  mo- 
ment after  the  commission  of  the  evil  deed,  fear 
fell  upon  the  murderer,  and  the  voice  of  God, 
asking  for  his  brother  Abel,  smote  upon  his 
heart,  like  a  tone  of  thunder.  He  endeavored 
to  evade  the  inquiry,  but  drew  down  upon  his 
head  the  just  denunciation  of  the  offended 
Deity.  For  the  sake  of  Cain,  the  earth  was 
cursed,  and  forbidden  to  yield  him  its  fiuils 
without  intense  labor,  and  the  criminal  was 
made  a  fugitive  and  vagabond  on  the  face  of  the 
earth.  Yet,  that  his  life  might  be  spared,  a 
mark  was  fixed  upon  him,  and  the  Lord  said, 
"  Whosoever  slayeth  Caiu  vengeance  shall  be 
taken  on  him  sevenfold.' 

The  belief  of  some  of  the  fathers  of  the 
Christian  church  that  Abel  died  unmarried, 
gave  rise  to  the  sect  of  Abelitcs,  Abelians,  or 
Abelonians,  who  remained  single,  but" adopted 
children  and  educated  them  after  their  own 
manner  and  in  their  own  principles.  Near 
Hippo,  in  Africa,  this  society  flourished  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  4th  century,  and  their  follow- 
ers at  the  present  day.  are  found  in  the  persons 
of  the  Shakers. 

ABEL,  son  of  Valdirnir  II.  king  of  Den- 
mark, gained  the  sc.eptre  by  assassinating  his 
brother  Eric  in  J5250.  A  revolt  of  the  Prisons 
caused  the  loss  of  his  life.  His  appellation  was 
certainly  a  misnomer. 

ABELARD,  Peter,  properly  Abailard,  a 
monk  who  was  famous  for  his  learning  ;md  his 
unfortunate  love  for  the  beautiful  Heloise.  He 
was  born  in  1071),  in  the  village  of  Palais,  near 


Nantes.  He  early  relinquished  his  claims  to 
his  father's  estates,  in  favor  of  his  brothers,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  literature  and 
the  sciences.  At  Paris  his  lame  was  great,  and 
here  he  established  a  school,  lecturing  on  rhet- 
oric and  other  subjects  to  iarge  and  admiring 
audiences.  When  his  fame  was  greatest,  he 
forgot  his  duty  and  his  character  in  the  society 
of  Heloise,  the  niece  of  Fulbert,  a  canon  of  the 
city.  He  atoned  for  his  misconduct  by  marry 
ing  the  object  of  his  affections ;  but  her  removal 
to  the  convent  of  Argenteuil,  exasperated  Ful- 
bert and  drew  down  upon  Abelard,  his  fierce 
vengeance.  Heloise  finally  took  the  veil  at 
Argenteuil,  a  ceremony  by  which  a  nun  renoun- 
ces the  world,  and  pledges  herself  to  the  obser- 
vance of  religious  vowe.  She  afterwards  be- 
came abbess  of  the  Paraclete,  a  religious  house 
founded  by  Abelard.  Abelard  was  accused  by 
his  enemies  of  promulgating  heretical  doctrines, 
but  succeeded  in  vindicating  himself.  After 
his  refutation  of  the  charges  of  his  adversaries, 
he  lived  in  strict  seclusion,  when  the  pangs 
of  grief,  acting  upon  a  constitution  broken  by 
injury  and  the  severity  of  mo'iastic  discipline, 

Suit  an  end  to  his  existence.  He  died  at  the  ab- 
ey  of  San  Marcel  at  Chalons-Stir-Saune,  at  the 
£i<re  of  (!3,  in  1142.  His  body,  at  the  request  of 
Heloise,  was  buried  in  the  Paraclete,  where  she 
contemplated  being  laid  by  his  side  in  death. 
She  survived  him  many  years,  and  a  popular 
tradition  asserts  that  when  she  was  removed 
into  the  funeral  vault  the  dead  monk  unclosed 
his  arms,  and  received  her  in  their  gaunt  em- 
brace. The  ashes  of  the  unhappy  pair  repose, 
at  present,  in  a  chapel  at  Paris,  where  they 
were  deposited  in  Itil7. 

ABENSBERG,  a  district  and  town  in  Bava- 
ria, situated  on  the  Abens,  83  miles  from  Ratis- 
bon  ;  population,  1 ,080.  Here  Napoleon  gained 
a.  brilliant  victory  over  the  Austrians,  in  1809, 
which  led  to  llie'affairs  of  Landshut  and  Eck 
inuhl,  and  the  taking  of  Ratisbon. 

ABERCROMB1E,  Sir  Ralph,  a  British  offi- 
cer of  distinction,  born  in  J738,  at  Tillibodie  in 
Clackmannanshirc.  His  military  talents  raised 
him  from  a  cornetcy,  to  the  rank  of  General. 
In  the  battle  of  Cateau  he  led  the  advanced 
guard.  His  masterly  retreat  from  Holland  has 
been  highly  commended  by  military  men.  In 
]7!)5  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  forces  in  the  West  Indies,  and  took 
Demerara,  Kssequibo,  St.  Lucia.  St.  Vincent, 
and  Trinidad.  lie  met  his  death  at  Alexan- 
dria in  1-01.  while  engaged  in  repelling  the 
French.  In  that  action,  fatal  for  him,  he  dis- 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ABO 


11 


ABO 


played  the  chivalric  valor  of  a  knight  of  the 
olden  time.  Dismounted  and  suffering  from 
two  mortal  wounds,  Sir  Ralph  disarmed  his 
adversary,  and  gave  the  sword  into  the  hands 
of  Sir  Sydney  Smith.  He  survived  about  a 
week.  His  memory  was  honored  by  his  coun- 
trymen, and  a  costly  monument  erected  in  St. 
Paul's,  a  public  token  of  the  respect  of  England 
for  as  brave  and  true  a  soldier  as  ever  fought 
beneath  her  banner. 

ABERDEEN,  the  most  important  of  the 
northern  cities  of  Scotland.  Its  latitude  is  about 
57°  north.  Population  is  estimated  at  about 
40,000  It  contains  two  universities  ;  the  cotton 
manufacture  and  salmon  fisheries  afford  sub- 
sistence and  wealth  to  numbers  of  its  inhabitants. 

ABIPONIANS,  a  warlike  nation  of  South 
American  Indians  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  de 
la  Plata,  frequently  engaged  in  war  with  the 
Spaniards.  They  appear  to  despise  the  arts 
of  agriculture,  and  subsist  by  hunting  and  fish- 
ing.0 Their  arms  are  iron-headed  lances  and 
arrows.  They  feed  on  tiger's  flesh,  imagining 
that  it  gives  them  indomitable  courage  and  fe- 
rocity. Their  women  are  described  as  pretty, 
and  having  complexions  but  a  shade  darker 
than  those  of  the  Spanish  ladies.  They  are 
governed  by  Caciques,  whose  authority  is  mere- 
ly nominal,  since  the  tribes  renounce  it,  when- 
e'ver  the  opinions  of  their  rulers  are  at  variance 
with  their  own. 

ABO,  until  ]S17,  the  capital  of  Finland, 
the  chief  place  of  export  from  Finland  to  Swe- 
den. and  containing  a  population  of  12.500  in- 
habitants. Its  sugar-works,  and  manufactures 
of  leather,  linen,  sail-cloth,  cordage,  &c.  are 
successful.  As  a  ship-building  place,  it  pos- 
sesses considerable  importance.  The  univer- 
sity was  liberally  endowed  by  the  Emperor 
Alexander,  but  it  has  since  been  transferred  to 
Helsingfors.  In  1827  the  whole  city  was 
burnt  down,  but  the  Russian  government  la- 
bored to  repair  the  loss.  In  history  Abo  is  not- 
ed for  several  treaties  concluded  within  its 
walls. 

ABOUKIR,  formerly  called  Canopus,  is  an 
Arabian  village  containing  but  about  100  in- 
habitants. Its  bay  is  spacious,  and  has,  upon 
the  western  side,  a  castle  of  considerable 
strength.  It  is  10  miles  from  Alexandria,  upon 
*..ie  coast  of  Egypt.  In  modern  history,  Abou- 
kir  is  renderedf  famous  by  the  important  naval 
battle  fought  here  between  the  French  and 
Encrlish  fleets,  the  latter  commanded  by  Admi- 
ral kelson,  on  the  first  of  August,  1798.  Buona- 
*rte's..army  was  conveyed  to  Egypt  by  the 
2 


French  fleet  which  sailed  from  the 
of  Toulon,  on  the  19th  of  May,  1798.  As 
soon  as  intelligence  of  this  reached  the  Eng 
lish  fleet  before  Cadiz,  admiral  St.  Vincent 
despatched  rear-admiral  Nelson,  with  14  ships 
of  the  line,  to  the  Mediterranean,  with  or- 
ders to  find  and  attack  the  French  fleet. 
Nelson,  burning  for  fame,  and  eager  to  meet 
the  enemy,  at  length  found  the  fleet  in  the 
road  of  Aboukir,  August  1.  The  signal  for 
battle  was  immediately  given.  The  French 
captains,  who  had  been  assembled  on  board  tJie 
admiral's  ship,  hastened  to  their  posts,  and  an 
English  ship  instantly  commenced  the  attack. 
The  French  fleet  was  disposed  in  the  form  of  a 
crescent,  following  the  curve  of  the  bay,  and 
anchored  as  close  as  possible  to  an  island  on 
which  was  erected  a  powerful  battery  of  can- 
non and  mortars.  Nelson  ordered  a  part  of  his 
fleet  to  break  through  between  the  island  and 
the  French  line  of  battle,  and  to  coast  along 
until  they  gained  the  enemy's  rear,  while  the 
remainder  of  the  English  fleet  approached  the 
enemy's  front,  and  anchored  within  pistol-shot. 
These  orders  were  executed  with  skill  and  dar- 
ing, and,  at  half  past  six  in  the  evening,  the 
battle  began,  just  as  the  setting  sun  threw  a 
fiery  hue  upon  the  fearful  scene.  The  fire  of 
the  English  was  well  directed,  and  deadly.  At 
the  end  of  one  hour,  five  French  ships  were 
disabled  and  captured.  Admiral  Brueys  was 
shot  as  he  was  directing  the  fight  from  his  ship 
L'Orient.  After  the  admiral  was  shot,  Capt. 
Casabianca  and  crew,  determined  to  maintain 
the  honor  of  the  flag-ship,  fought  her  with 
great  spirit.  The  captain  was  mortally  wound- 
ed and  carried  below,  while  his  son,  a  youth 
of  12  years  old,  remained  at  his  post,  notwith- 
standing the  vessel  took  fire.  Although  the  hot 
flames  rolled  over  head,  and  the  powder-maga- 
zine was  momentarily  expected  to  take  fire, 
the  gallant  boy  would  not  leave  his  post,  but 
shared  the  fate  of  the  splendid  vessel,  which 
was  blown  to  atoms.  The  fate  of  Casabianca 
has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  beautiful  poem 
by  one  of  the  most  tale'.ited  poetesses  of  the 
present  day  ;  Mrs.  Her.ians.  The  concluding 
lines  of  '  Casabianca  '  are  very  forcible. 

There  came  a  burst  of  thundering  sound  — 
The  boy  —  oh!  where  was  he  1 

Ask  of  the  winds  that  far  around 
With  fragments  strewed  the  sea.  — 

With  mast,  and  helm,  and  pennon  fair, 
That  .well  had  borne  their  part  — 

But  the  noblest  thing  that  perished  there, 
Was  that  young  and  faithful  heart 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ABR 


12 


ABR 


L  Orient  blew  up  after  having  been  fought  for 
four  hours.  She  was  a  superb  vessel — a  120 
gun  ship,  with  a  crew  of  1000  men,  out  of 
whom  but  80  or  90  were  saved  from  destruc- 
tion. The  scene  of  the  combat  must  have  been 
awfully  sublime,  for  the  cannonading  continued 
all  night,  and  day  dawned  upon  a  scene  of  de- 
struction and  dismay.  The  French  suffered 
severely,  and  their  naval  power  was  annihilat- 
ed. Only  two  ships  of  the  line,  and  two  frig- 
ates got  olF  clear.  Nine  ships  of  the  line  were 
taken,  one  blown  up,  and  one  frigate  sunk. 
The  T;:  rich  themselves  set  fire  to  and  burned 
a  ship  of  the  line  and  a  frigate.  The  success 
of  the  British  was  a  severe  blow  to  Buonaparte, 
as  it  cut  off  his  communication  with  France, 
and  inspired  his  enemies  with  fresh  hope  and 
resolution,  giving  spirit  to  the  coalition  formed 
against  the  power  which  had  so  suddenly  at- 
tained a  giant  strength. 

ABRADATES,  a  king  of  Susa.  His  wife, 
Panthea,  having  been  taken  prisoner  by  Cyrus, 
was  well  treated,  in  consequence  of  which  her 
husband  joined  the  troops  of  the  conqueror, 
but  was  killed  in  the  very  first  battle  which  he 
fought  for  him.  His  wife,  in  despair  at  his 
death,  killed  herself  upon  his  corpse.  They 
were  both  honored  and  lamented  by  Cyrus. 

ABRAHAM,  the  Patriarch  of  the  Jews,  was 
born  at  Ur,  in  Chaldffia,  2000  years  before  the 
birth  of  Christ.  He  was  descended  from  Shein, 
the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  but  was  kept  from 
idolatry,  and  passed  the  early  part  of  his  life  in 
the  house  of  his  father  Terah.  Abraham  found 
favor  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord  who  revealed  to 
him  the  good  fortunes  for  which  he  was  destin- 
ed, and  commanded  him,  with  his  wife  Sarah, 
his  father,  and  his  nephew,  tojeave  his  earlv 
abode,  and  settle  in  Ilaran,  in  Mesopotamia. 
Following  in  all  things  the  direct  commands  of 
God,  Abraham,  after  the  death  of  his  father, 
led  a  wandering  life,  visiting  a  variety  of  places. 
While  lie  remained  at  Mamre,  Lot,  between 
whom  and  Abraham  there  wns  a  rupture,  settled 
at  Gomorrah.  In  spite  of  this  separation,  the 
heart  of  Abraham  was  not  estranged  from  his 
nephew,  for  when  he  learned  tlrat  Gomorrah 
had  been  entered  by  the  Arabs,  who  carried  off 
Lot,  his  family,  and  property,  he  pursued  the 
robbers  and  succeeded  in  rescuing  his  nephew 
and  all  that  was  his.  The  Lord  displayed  to 
Abraham  the  blessings  which  he  designed  ii  r 
him,  and  assured  him  of  the  birth  of  a  son. 
This  event,  however  ardently  desired,  appeared 
unlikely  to  lake  place,  on  account  of  the  years 
of  Abraham  and  Sarah. 


The  enormous  crimes  of  Sodom  and  Gomor- 
rah, having  excited  the  indignation  of  God,  he 
sent  three  angels  to  destroy  the  rebellious  cities. 
They  visited  Abraham  and  his  wile,  and  assured 
them  that  the  promise  made  by  the  Lord  would 
be  fulfilled,  and  that,  upon  their  return,  they 
would  be  parents.  At  the  time  decreed  by  the 
Lord,  Sarah,  then  ninety  years  old,  became 
the  mother  of  a  son  whom  she  called  Isaac 
After  the  birth  of  Isaac,  Abraham  drove  out  to 
the  wilderness  Hagar,  a  bond-woman,  who  was 
the  mother  of  one  of  his  sons.  Their  miracu- 
lous preservation  is  one  of  the  most  affecting 
incidents  recorded  in  scripture.  When  Isaac 
had  reached  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and 
was  dearly  beloved  by  his  father,  God,  wishing 
to  make  a  trial  of  his  faith,  commanded  Abra- 
ham to  sacrifice  his  son,  saying  ;  "  Take  now  thy 
son,  thine  only  son  Isaac,  whom  thou  lovest, 
and  get  thee  into  the  land  ofMoriah;  and  offer 
him  there  for  a  burnt-offering  upon  one  of  the 
mountains  which  I  will  tell  thee  of."  The 
command  of  the  Lord  was  listened  to  with 
meek  obedience ;  Abraham  made  immediate 
preparations  for  departure,  and  arrived  at  the 
appointed  place  with  his  dearly  beloved  son. 
Without  faltering,  the  man  of  "God  built  the 
altar  of  the  wood  which  he  had  provided, 
and  bound  Isaac,  and  laid  him  upon  the  pile. 
It  was  a  fiery  ordeal,  but  the  faith  of  Abraham 
was  unshaken.  "  And  Abraham  stretched 
forth  his  hand,  and  took  the  knife  to  slay  his 
son.  And  the  angel  of  the  Lord  called  to  him 
out  of  heaven,  and  said,  Abraham,  Abraham. 
And  he  said,  Here  am  I.  And  he  said,  Lay  not 
thine  hand  upon  the  lad,  neither  do  thou  any- 
thing unto  him,  for  now  I  know  that  thou 
fearest  God.  seeing  thou  hast  not  withheld  thy 
son,  thy  only  son,  from  me." 

At  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
years,  Sarah  died  at  Hebron,  in  the  land  of 
Canaan.  Abraham  again  married,  and  became, 
by  Keturah.  father  of  six  children;  viz.  Zimran. 
Jokshan,  and  Medan ;  Midian,  Jshbah.  and 
Shnah.  The  age  and  death  of  the  patriarch 
are  thus  recorded  in  the  Bible.  •'«  And  these 
are  the  days  rf  the  years  of  Abraham's  life 
which  he  "lived,  a  hundred  three  score  and 
fifteen  years.  Then  Abraham  gave  up  the 
ghost,  nnd  died  in  a  good  old  age,  nn  old  man, 
and  full  of  years  ;  and  was  gathered  io  his  peo- 
ple." His  "body  was  interred  ne.ir  that  of  his 
wile  Sarah,  in  a  sepulchre  wrought  in  a  cave 
purchased  of  the  sons  of  Seth.  The  Arabians 
as  well  as  the  Jews,  derive  their  origin  from 
Abraham,  and  the  name  of  the  patriarch  is  in 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ABR 


13 


ABY 


terwoven  with  the  legends  of  the  Romish  and 
Greek  churches.  In  the  tales  of  the  Arabians, 
many  fabulous  adventures  are  attributed  to 
Abraham,  and  the  truth  is  obscured  by  the 
narrators  of  his  history.  The  Koran  makes 
mention  of  the  patriarch's  name,  and,  according 
to  many  Mahometan  writers,  he  went  to  Mecca 
and  there  commenced  the  building  of  the  tem- 
ple. The  tomb  of  Abraham  is  still  an  object 
of  veneration  to  many  sects. 

ABRAHAM,  heights  of.      See  Quebec. 

ABRANTES,  a  city  of  Portugal,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Estremadura,  and  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tagus,  has  a  population  of  3,50(1. 
The  abruptness  of  its  hills,  the  strength  of  its 
castle,  and  the  state  of  its  river,  render  it  a  place 
of  great  importance  in  a  military  point  of  view. 
In  1762  the  Portuguese  defended  it  against 
the  Spaniards,  and  in  1808  it  was  garrisoned  by 
Junot,  one  of  Napoleon's  generals,  who  from 
the  perseverance  with  which  he  marched  to 
this  place,  in  spite  of  many  obstacles,  and  the 

gallantry  with  which  he  made  himself  master  of 
isbon  with  1 ,500  grenadiers,  was  named  duke 
of  Abrantes.  When  the  place  was  surrender- 
ed to  the  English  they  strengthened  it  to  such 
a  degree,  that  it  was  believed  to  be  almost  im- 
pregnable. 

ABRUZZO,  a  country  in  the  northern  part 
of  Italy,  is  divided  into  Ulterior,  and  Citerior, 
which  are  the  northwestern  and  southeastern 
portions.  It  is  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
Neapolitan  kingdom,  and  bounded  on  the  north 
and  west  by  the  territories  of  the  church,  on 
the  south  by  Puglia,  and  Terra  di  Lavoro,  and 
on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic.  Its  population  is 
estimated  at  (328,500.  The  country  is  crossed 
by  the  lofty  Apennines,  and  its  climate  is  severe. 
The  spring  rains  and  thaws  often  swell  the 
streams  to  such  an  extent,  that  bridges  are 
swept  away,  and  all  communication  broken  up. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  valleys,  which  are  fer- 
tile, are  generally  shepherds,  and  fine  herds 
feed  upon  the  eminences  and  pasturage  spots 
of  the  valleys.  It  has  been  regarded,  from  the 
nature  of  the  ground,  and  the  circumstance  of 
but  one  military  read  leading  into  the  king- 
dom, a  place  of  immense  importance  in  war, 
and  a  sure  defence  to  Naples.  In  the  hands  of 
a  patriotic  and  resolute  population,  it  might  be 
all  this,  but  the  past  has  shown  how  much  a 
resolute  enemy  can  accomplish  against  indo- 
lent or  dispirited  defenders.  The  Austrians, 
French  and  Spaniards,  have  fbund  it  but  a 
frail  barrier  against  the  march  of  conquest. 
The  ravines,  the  mountain  fastnesses,  the  tan- 


gled woods,  localities  which  might  have  made 
it  the  theatre  of  a  famous  struggle,  are  only 
infamous  and  terrible,  as  the  retreat  of  the 
lurking  bandit,  and  the  midnight  murderer. 
The  Neapolitan  territories,  and  those  of  the 
church  suffer  severely  from  the  predatory  spirit 
of  the  lawless  peasants,  who  are  agriculturists 
and  brigands,  and  support  their  families  by  an 
union  of  both  characters.  They  frequently 
exchange  shots  with  the  guards  of  travellers, 
when,  these  worthies  are  steady  enough  to 
stand  to  their  arms,  although  not  infrequently 
policy  and  cowardice  induce  these  gentlemen 
to  make  oif  with  all  possible  speed,  leaving  the 
unfortunate  strangers  to  the  tender  mercies  of 
a  rapacious  and  case-hardened  banditti. 

ABSALOM,  in  Scripture,  the  rebellious  son 
of  King  David,  noted  for  the  beauty  of  hisluxu- 
riant  tresses,  which  caused  his  death  by  getting 
entangled  in  the  boughs  of  a  tree  from  which 
he  hung  suspended  until  slain,  contrary  to  the 
orders  of  his  fond  father.  The  grief  of  King 
David  for  his  loss  is  touchingly  expressed  in 
the  sacred  writings,  where  his  history  may  be 
perused  at  lentrth. 

ABSALOM,  bishop  of  Rothschild,  archbish- 
op of  Denmark,  and  counsellor  of  Waldemar 
I,  a  distinguished  divine,  statesman,  general, 
navigator,  and  author  of  celebrity,  died  A.  D 
1201. 

ABU-BEKR,  founder  of  the  empire  of  the 
Almoravides,  Morocco,  in  1050.  His  conquests 
in  Spain,  in  1091.  gained  him  great  renown. 

ABUDA,  an  Italian  town,  famous  for  the 
defeat  of  Odoacer  in  490,  by  Theodoric,  King 
of  the  Ostrogoths. 

ABU-OBEDIAH,  who  died  of  pestilence 
A.  D.  639,  was  a  companion  of  Mohammed,  and 
conquered  Syria,  together  with  a  large  portion 
of  Palestine. 

ABULFEDA,  or  Ishmael,  prince  of  Hamah 
in  Syria,  an  Arabian,  famous  for  his  historical 
and  geographical  writings,  and  surnamed  the 
pillar  of  religion,  and  the  prince  of  victory. 
He  was  a  native  of  Damascus,  and  born  A.  D. 
1273.  Although  inheriting  the  throne  of  Hamah 
from  his  uncle,  he  was  debarred  for  a  long  time 
from  the  enjoyment  of  his  rights,  but  wJien 
gained,  the  kingdom  remained  undisturbed 
under  his  sway,  until  the  time  of  his  death, 
which  took  place,  A.  D.  1333. 

ABYDOS,  a  city  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the 
Dardanelles,  of  Milesian  origin,  famed  for  the 
bridge  of  boats  constructed  by  order  of  Xerxes. 
andlamUiar  to  all  readers  as  the  residence  of 
Hero,  the  mistress  of  Leander,  who  swam  the 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


ABY 


14  ABY 


Hellespont  to  meet  her,  until 

"  that  night  of  stormy  water, 
When  Lc7e — who  sent — forgot  to  save 
The  lorn.-,  the  beautiful,  the  brave, 
The  only  hope  of  Sestos'  daughter." 

Lord  Byron,  whose  lines  we  have  just  quot- 
ed, performed  Leander's  feat  in  company  with 
Mr.  Ekenhead,  an  Englishman.  The  turbu- 
lence of  the  currents  renders  the  passage  a  crit- 
ical undertaking.  The  inhabitants  of  Abydos 
gallantly  defended  their  city  against  Philip  of 
Macedon. 

.Another  Mytlos  in  Upper  Egypt,  was  famed 
for  the  magnificence  of  the  palace  of  Alemnon 
and  tin:  temple  of  Osiris.  Some  splendid  ruins, 
manifesting  its  former  grandeur,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  village  of  El-Berbi. 

ABYLA,  a  mountain  of  Africa,  directly 
opposite  to  Calpe,  Gibraltar.  These  two 
mountains  were  formerly  called  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules,  from  a  tradition  that  this  gifted  mor- 
tal, the  Samson  of  the  Greeks,  forced  them 
asunder  to  form  a  junction  between  the  waters 
of  the  Atlantic  aiid  Mediterranean.  In  this 
tale  we  perceive  the  reminiscence  of  a  great 
convulsion  of  nature  separating  Europe  and 
Africa. 

ABYSSINIA  is  a  country  of  great  extent, 
nf  which  the  ancients  possessed  very  little 
knowledge.  It  is  sometimes  called  Abassia, 
Habesh,  and  Upper  Ethiopia.  The  name  is 
thought  by  most  authors  to  be  derived  from 
the  Arabic  Hiibesh,  which  signifies  the  accident- 
al meeting  of  a  number  of  persons  in  one  spot. 
The  Portuguese  gave  this  country  the  name  of 
Prester  or  Presbyter  John's  emp'ire,  but  it  ap- 
pears that  there  is  no  foundation  for  the  suppo- 
sition that  any  such  person  ever  dwelt  or  was 
heard  of  in  Abyssinia.  The  ancients,  who 
were  very  little  acquainted  with  the  kingdom, 
represented  its  extent  as  far  greater  than  the 
reality  proved.  It  is  at  present  bounded,  on 
the  northeast,  by  the  Red  Sea;  on  the  east, 
and  southeast,  by  the  kingdom  of  Adel ;  on  the 
south,  by  the  Gingire ;  on  the  west  by  the 
Nile,  and  on  the  northwest,  by  Sennaar.  Its 
three  grand  divisions  are  Tigre,  Amhara,  and 
fchoa  and  Efat.  The  most  ancient  book  of 
Abyssinian  history  is  the  Chronicle  of  Axuin, 
from  which  it  is  understood  that  Abyssinia  was 
the  kingdom  of  Shrba  or  Scba,  the  visit  of  whose 
queen  to  King  Solomon  is  spokert  of  in  the  Sa- 
cred Writings.  The  government  of  Abyssinia 
is  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  the  want  of  writ- 
ten laws  has  placed  the  persons,  pronerly,  and 
lives  of  the  subjects,  in  the  hands  of  the  sove- 


reign. The  queen  of  Sheba  had  a  son,  of  whom 
Solomon  was  the  father.  From  this  prince, 
whose  name  was  Menileh,  the  sovereigns  of 
Abyssinia  claim  to  be  descended.  It  is  affirm- 
ed that  Abyssinia  was  the  kingdom  of  that 
3ueeii  Candace,  whose  minister  worshipped  at 
erusalem.  On  his  return,  he  was  baptized  by 
Philip  the  deacon,  from  whom  the  Abyssinians, 
by  their  own  confession,  received  Christianity. 
The  last  act  of  the  queen  of  Sheba's  reign  enact- 
ed, 1.  That  the  crown  should  thenceforth  be 
hereditary  in  the  descendants  of  Solomon : 

2.  That  no  females  should  ascend  the  throne  : 

3.  That   the    heirs-male    of  the    royal    family 
should  be  sent  prisoners  to  a  high  mountain, 
where  they  were  well  treated,  and  allowed  a 
large  revenue  for  their  support,  but  where  they 
were  compelled  to  remain  until  they  died,  o"r 
the  succession  was  opened  to  them.     This  fact 
forms  the  groundwork  of  Dr.  Johnson's  inte- 
resting tale,  entitled  '  Rasselas,  or  the  Happy 
Valley.' 

The  Jewish  religion  was  prevalent  in  Abys 
sinia  until  nearly  the  middle  of  the  4th  centu- 
ry. Others  imagine,  as  above  stated,  that  the 
Abyssinians  embraced  Christianity  with  their 
queen  who  was  converted  by  her  prime  minis- 
ter or  eunuch.  About  M50,  in  the  reign  of 
Zara  Jacob,  an  attempt  was  made  to  introduce 
the  Romish  religion.  About  JfiCO  the  P^irtu- 
gueso  priests  were  banished  by  Menas.  and  th< 
Catholic  religion  was  suppressed.  In  1GOO  it 
revived.  In  1G32,  in  consequence  of  the  un- 
satisfactory conduct  of  the  Catholic  clergy, 
their  hierarchy  was  abolished.  Since  1714, 
when  the  clergy  were  executed.  Catholics  have 
almost  disappeared  from  the  country.  The 
Christian  religion  has  since  been  prevalent, 
with  a  mixture  of  Judaical  observances  in  pub- 
lic worship.  Yet  we  can  hardly  term  that  a 
Christian  church  which  permits  polygamy. 
The  saints  of  the  Abyssinians  surpass  in  mira- 
cles those  of  the  Latin  calendar.  There  is  an 
immense  number  of  churches  in  Abyssinia 
The  paternal  and  sole  bishop  of  the  country  is 
styled  Mima,  which  means,  ot/r  Father.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  called  upon  to  ordain,  at  one 
time  10,000  priests,  and  6000  deacons.  The 
attention  of  Missionary  and  Bible  societies 
have  been  turned  to  lliis  country,  and  the. dif- 
fusion of  the  sacred  writings  among  the  people, 
is  regarded  as  the  greatest  benefit  which  could 
be  conferred  upon  them. 

The  punishments  in  Abyssinia  nre  severe, 
and  frequently,  as  well  as  unfeelingly  inflicted. 
Death  on  the" cross,  hanging,  stoning  to  death, 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ACH 


15 


ACH 


flaying  alive,  and  plucking  out  the  eyes,  stand  ployed  by  the  early  poets  to  distinguish  all 
foremost  in  the  dark  catalogue.  The  bodies  of  Greece.  After  Greece  became  a  Roman  pro- 
thoee  who  suffer  death  for  treason,  murder,  and  vince,  Achaia  included  all  the  Grecian  states 
the  commission  of  some  other  crimes,  rarely  but  Macedonia  and  Thessaly.  80  years  after 
receive  the  rites  of  sepulture.  Pieces  of  dead  the  Trojan  war,  the  descendants  of  Achasus,  who 
carcasses  are  frequent  in  the  streets  of  Gondar,  first  dwelt  in  the  country  near  Argos,  being 
and  nightly  attract  numbers  of  wild  beasts,  driven  out  by  the  Heraclidas,  seized  upon  the 
The  hyenas,  whose  craving  for  human  flesh  13  12  Ionian  cities,  and  kept  them.  These  were 
well  known,  rush  to  their  banquet  as  soon  as  Pellene,  JKigira,  jEges,  Bura,  Tritcea,  yEgion, 
night  settles  on  the  city,  howling  over  the  Rhypae,  Olenos,  Helice,  Patrae,  Dyme,  and 
bones  for  which  they  have  contended  fiercely.  Pharce.  The  inhabitants  of  the  three  last  cities, 
The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Abyssinians  284  years  B.  C.,  formed  the  famous  confederacy 
prove  the  shocking  cruelty  and  brutality  of  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Jlch&an  League, 
this  people.  Their  festivities  are  disgraced  by  subsisted  in  full  force  upwards  of  140  years, 
the  most  revolting  practices.  When  the  guests  Aratus  and  Philopaemen,  by  their  splendid  tal- 
are  assembled,  the  cooks  cut  steaks  from  the  ents  and  virtues,  gave  honor  to  this  confedera- 
cattle  at  the  door  while  they  are  yet  alive,  and  cy.  For  three  years,  assisted  by  Philip  of 
roaring  with  agony.  The  guests  wipe  their  Macedon,  they  warred  with  the  yEtolians,  and 
fingers  upon  the  cakes  which  they  afterwards  being  strengthened  by  fresh  accessions,  achiev- 
eat.  The  people  are  illiterate  and  depraved,  ed  the  liberation  of  their  country  from  foreign 
and  their  whole  country  exhibits  the  appear-  enemies.  The  Romans,  however,  proved  too 
ance  of  hopeless  wretchedness  and  poverty.  powerful  for  the  League,  and  destroyed  it,  after 

Abyssinia  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Sen-  a  year's  hostility,  14?  years  B.  C. 
naar,  on  the  west  and  south  by  Sennaar,  Kor-  ACHEEN,  Atcheen,  Achem,  or  Achen;  a 
dofan,  and  some  barbarous  tracts  of  country  part  of  Sumatra,  of  considerable  extent,  and,  in 
which  are  almost  unknown,  and  on  the  east  by  parts  fertile.  It  is  inhabited  by  a  race  of  men 
the  Red  f^ea.  The  King  lives  at  Gondar,  but  of  fine  appearance,  and  comparatively  liberal 
is  possessed  of  little  more  than  the  name  of  and  well-informed.  They  are  Mahometans, 
sovereign.  The  ranges  of  mountains  which  fill  — bold  and  enterprising  as  merchants  and  ma- 
up^Sie  extent  of  the  country  are  lofty  and  re-  riners.  Acheen,  the  capital,  contains  36,000 
markable.  The  products  of  the  country  are  inhabitants.  The  government  is  vested  in  the 
rich  and  various,  but  its  commerce  is  exclu-  hands  of  a  despot,  whose  authority  is  heredita 
sively  in  the  hands  of  Turks,  Jews  and  Arme-  ry.  The  chief  trade  is  with  Hindostan. 
nians.  ACHILLAS,  a  general  of  Ptolemy,  and  the 

ACAPULCO,  on  the  south  west  side  of  murderer  of  Pompey  the  Great. 
Mexico,  is  the  best  harbor  in  possession  of  the  ACHILLES,  as  the  poets  tell  us,  was  the 
Mexicans.  The  city  has  fine  artificial  and  nat-  son  of  Peleus.  a  Thessalian  kin<j,  and  Thetis, 
ural  defences,  and  contains  4.000  inhabitants,  daughter  of  Nereus,  grandson  of  ^Eacus.  The- 
inostly  colored.  It  is  hot  and  unhealthy,  yellow  tis,  m  order  to  preserve  her  beautiful  boy  from 
fever  and  cholera  morbus  being  prevalent  dis-  the  dangers  of  war,  dipped  him  in  the  Styx,  (a 
orders.  Silver,  cochineal,  Spanish  cloth,  and  river  ofliell)  which  rendered  him  invulnerable 
peltry,  are  the  principal  articles  of  export.  with  the  exception  of  the  heel  by  which  she 

ACARNANIA,  now  II  Carnla,  a  II  Despo-  held  him.  Having  been  warned  that  if  Achil 
tato,  Albania,  was  formerly  called  Curetis,  a  les  went  to  the  Trojan  war,  he  would  mee*. 
country  of  Epirus,  separated  from  JEtolla.  by  death  after  a  glorious  career,  while,  in  remain 
the  Aehelous,  and  long  an  independent  state,  ing  at  home,  he  would  attain  a  good  old  age, 
After  having  been  conquered,  it  was  permitted  Thetis  disguised  her  boy  in  a  female  dress,  and 
to  retain  its  own  laws  until  the  destruction  of  sent  him,  under  the  name  of  Pyrrha  to  be  edu- 
Corinth  by  Mummius,  when  it  was  united  to  cated  at  the  court  of  Lycomedes,  king  of  Scy- 
the province  of  Acliaia.  ros,  who  brought  him  up  with  his  daughters. 

ACCUM,  Frederic,  a  German  chemist,  who  The  Greeks  were  informed  by  the  prophet 
delivered  lectures  in  London  in  1803,  and  did  Chalcas,  that  Troy  could  not  be  taken  without 
much  towards  the  introduction  of  gas-lights  the  aid  of  Achilles,  and  accordingly,  Ulysses, 

ACHAIA  was  a  portion  of  the  Peloponnesus,    the  most  wily  of  the  Greeks,  went,  as  a  mer- 
ofvery  limited  breadth,  and  stretching  along  the    chant,  to  the  court  of  Lycomedes.      Here  he 
bay  of  Corinth.     The  name  is  sometimes  em-    was  surrounded  by  the  princesses,  before  whose 
2* 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  HISTORY. 


ACH 


16 


ACH 


eager  eyes  he  spread  out  his  sparkling  store, 
taking  care  to  mingle  implements  of  war  with 
feminine  articles.  While  the  daughters  of  the 
King  seized  upon  the  trinkets,  Achilles  posses- 
sed hiinseit'  of  the  arms.  The  gleaming  breast- 
plate, and  the  burnished  spear  ill  matched  the 
garb  he  wore,  and  the  fiery  hero  was  soon  in- 
duced to  cast  it  off,  and  take  part  with  the 
Greeks  in  their  expedition.  Phoenix  and  the 
Centaur  Chiron  had  instructed  him  in  mental 
and  bodily  accomplishments,  and  the  former 
accompanied  him  to  Troy.  Achilles  is  one  of 
the  bravest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  Homeric 
heroes,  being  the  subject  of  some  of  the  finest 
verses  iu  the  Iliad.  The  following  glowing 
description  is  from  the  19th  book  of  the  immor- 
tal poem. 

The  silver  cuishes  first  his  thighs  infold: 

Then  o'er  his  breast  was  braced  the  hollow  gold: 

The  brazen  sword  a  various  baldric  tied, 

That,  starred  with  gerns,hung  glittering  at  his  side; 

And,  like  the  moon,  the  broad  refulgent  shield 

Blazed  with  long  rays,  and  gleamed  athwart  the  field. 

Next,  his  high  head  the  helmet  graced;  behind 
The  sweeping  crest  hung  floating  in  the  wind: 
Like  the  red  star,  that  from  his  flaming  hair 
Shakes  down  diseases,  pestilence  and  war, 
So  streamed  the  golden  honors  from  his  head, 
Trembled  the  sparkling  plumes,  and  the  loose  glories 

shed. 

The  chief  beholds  himself  with  wondering  eyes; 
His  arms  he  poises,  and  his  motioiiS  tries; 
Buoyed  by  some  inward  force,  he  Seems  to  swim, 
And  feels  a  pinion  lifting  every  limb. 
And  now  he  shakes  his  great  paternal  spear, 
Ponderous  and  huge!  which  not  a  Greek  could  rear. 
From  Pelion's  cloudy  top  an  ash  entire 
Old  Chiron  felled,  and  shaped  it  for  his  sire:  -s»» 
A  spear  which  stern  Achilles  only  wields, 
The  death  of  heroes,  and  the  dread  of  fields. 

Achilles  proved  himself  no  wavering  or  weak 
partisan.  His  presence  was  a  host,  but  he  also 
sailed  with  50  ships  well  manned,  and  destroyed 
twelve  island  cities,  and  II  on  the  main-land. 
Minerva  and  Juno  aided  him.  Agamemnon, 
whom  the  Greeks  had  chosen  their  leader,  ha- 
ving taken  prisoner  Chryseis,  daughter  of  Chry- 
ses,  priest  of  Apollo,  was  forced  to  restore  the 
maid  to  avert  from  the  Greeks  the  plague  which 
Apollo,  moved  by  the  prayers  of  his  aged  wor- 
shipper, sent  upon  them.  Agamemnon  offended 
Achilles  by  taking  from  him  his  beautiful  cap- 
tive, Briseis,  daughter  of  Brises,  and  wife  of 
Mines,  king  of  Lyrnessus.  Enraged  at  his  loss, 
the  formidable  warrior  retired  from  the  field, 


permitting  the  Trojan  Hector  to  carry  terror 
and  slaughter  through  the  ranks  of  the  Greeks. 
He,  however,  suffered  his  friend  Patroclus  to 
assume  his  arms,  and  take  the  field  at  the  head 
of  liis  own  warriors  ;  but  this  distinguished  hero 
soon  fell  beneath  the  arm  of  Hector.  Burning 
to  revenge  the  death  of  his  friend,  Achilles  de- 
termined again  to  confront  the  Trojans.  His 
mother  brought  him  the  splendid  arms  which 
Vulcan  had  forged  for  him,  and  which  Ho- 
mer has  so  finely  described.  Again  he  burned 
with  a  warrior's  ardor,  was  reconciled  to 
Agamemnon,  and,  refreshed  by  nectar  and  am- 
brosia sent  by  Minerva,  plunged  into  the  heat 
of  battle. 

Achilles  speedily  rolled  back  the  tide  of  war 
He  pursued  the  retreating  Trojans  into  the  river 
Xanthus,  which  became  choaked  with  bodies, 
and  crimson  with  carnage.  The  river-god,  re- 
senting this  sanguinary  pursuit  as  an  insult, 
commanded  Achilles  to  desist,  and  on  the  refusal 
of  the  impetuous  warrior,  overflowed  his  banks, 
and  opposed  him,  assisted  by  the  waters  of 
Simois.  The  west  and  south  winds,  and  the 
aid  of  Vulcan,  sent  by  Juno,  chastised  the  pre- 
sumption of  the  river-god  and  reduced  him  to 
his  original  limits.  Achilles  was  only  prevent- 
ed from  taking  the  city  by  the  interference  ot 
Apollo,  the  protector  of  the  Trojans.  Hector 
confronted  and  fought  Achilles,  by  whom  lie 
was  slain.  His  body,  after  being  attached  tc 
the  chariot  of  the  victor,  and  dragged  round 
the  city,  was  ransomed  by  Priam,  the  venera- 
ble father  of  the  slain  warrior.  Achilles,  falling 
in  love  with  Polyxena,  daughter  of  Priam,  pur- 
chased her  hand  by  a  promise  to  defend  Troy  ; 
but  while  standing  at  the  altar  with  her,  an  arrow 
from  the  bow  of  Paris  pierced  his  lied  and  slew 
him.  His  body  was  a  prize  for  which  a  fierce 
contest  arose.  The  Greeks  sacrificed  his  bride 
upon  his  tomb,  according  to  his  dying  request, 
that  he  might  enjoy  her  society  in  the  Elysian 
fields,  the  paradise  of  the  heathen.  Alexander 
the  Great,  who  venerated  and  imitated  the 
Homeric  heroes,  visited  the  tomb  of  Achilles, 
and  crowned  it,  saying  "  that  Achilles  was 
happy  in  having  Patroclus  for  a  friend,  and 
Homer  for  a  poet." 

ACHMET  I,  emperor  of  the  Turks,  began 
to  reign  in  1603,  and  died  in  1C.17.  The  tran- 
quillity of  this  sovereign  was  disturbed  by  in- 
surrections, and  the  intrigues  of  a  pretender  to 
his  throne. 

ACHMET  II.  was  emperor  of  the  Turks 
from  IG'JI  to  lti'J.~>. 

ACHMET  III,   son   of  Mahomet   IV,  was 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ACH  17 

raised  to  the  throne  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  in 
1705,  by  the  revolt  of  the  janisaries,  who  de- 
posed his  brother,  Mustapha  II.  Achmet,  al- 
though he  apprehended  and  punished  the  leaders 
of  the  revolt,  yet  availed  himself  of  the  fruits 
of  their  crime.  His  reign,  however,  was  by 
no  means  passed  in  tranquillity,  and  repeated 
changes  of  the  viziers  marked  the  insecurity 


ACR 


felt  by  the  monarch.  Achmet  placed  his  prin- 
cipal reliance  on  the  power  of  gold,  which  he 
sometimes  used  for  good  ends.  When  Cha»lei 


XII  had  been  defeated  at  Pultowa,  he  was  hos- 
pitably received  at  the  Turkish  court,  where  his 
intrigues  soon  kindled  the  flame  of  war  between 
Russia  and  Turkey  ;  but  Achmet  III  was  unable 
to  compete  with  Peter  the  Great,  and  the  mili- 
tary views  of  his  vizier,  were  by  no  means  clear. 
When  the  fortunes  of  the  czar  were  in  the 
hands  of  the  Turks  on  the  borders  of  the  Pruth, 
the  Muscovite  purchased  of  the  vizier  permission 
to  retreat,  but  surrendered  Azof  to  the  Otto- 
mans. Against  the  Venetians,  Achmet  was 
more  successful,  wresting  the  Morea  from  their 
grasp  in  a  single  campaign.  But  the  imperi- 
alists, under  the  able  conduct  of  Prince  Eugene 
of  Savoy,  trampled  on  the  laurels  of  the  Turks, 
and  humbled  the  pride  of  their  sultan.  Achmet, 
by  the  loss  of  Peterwaradin,  and  the  taking  of 
Belgrade  and  Temeswar,  was  forced  to  sign  the 
treaty  of  Passarowitz.  In  1718,  the  sultan  lost 
Temeswar,  Orsoa,  Belgrade,  Servia,  and  part  of 
Walachia — a  loss  which  was  compensated,  in 
the  ensuing  year,  by  his  Persian  successes.  A 
re  volt  of  the  janisaries  had  made  Achmet  sultan, 
and  a  similar  rebellion  hurled  him  from  the 
throne  in  1730.  The  celebrated  Caliph  Patrona 
headed  this  revolt.  Achmet  went  in  person  to 
seek  his  nephew,  Mahmoud  I,  and,  saluting 
him  as  emperor,  said  ;  "  Profit  by  my  exam- 
ple :  Had  I  always  adhered  to  my  old  policy 
of  permitting  my  vizier  but  a  short  stay  in  of- 
fice, I  should  have  ended  my  reign  as  triumph- 
antly as  I  commenced  it.  Farewell !  may  your 
career  be  happier  than  mine  !  I  commend  to 
your  especial  care  my  son."  He  then  went  into 
the  obscurity  of  that  prison  from  which  he  had 
drawn  his  nephew.  He  died  of  apoplexy,  on 
the  23d  of  June,  1730,  5  years  and  6  months 
after  his  deposition.  Acbmet  possessed  a  bril- 
liant wit,  and  much  shrewdness,  with  a  ready 
turn  for  public  business.  He  loved  money,  and 
was  the  first  to  levy  imposts  on  the  Turks,  but 
he  was  no  less  attached  to  science,  which  he 
patronized.  He  established  the  first  printing- 
press  at  Constantinople,  1727.  He  was  fond  of 
pleasure,  and  the  Turks  yet  cherish  the  recol- 


lection of  those  splendid  festivals  at  Constant! 
nople,  which  sprang  from  the  luxury,  and  were 
graced  by  the  presence  of  the  sultan.  Achmet 
gave  concerts  of  nightingales,  numbers  of  those 
birds  being  enclosed  in  cages,  delighting  the 
court  with  their  rare  and  plaintive  melody. 

ACHMET,  headed  a  band  of  Turks  and  con- 
quered Egypt  in  8G8. 

AQU1TAINE,  a  province  of  France,  more 
recently  called  Guienne,  and  now  forming  the 
departments  of  Gironde,  and  of  Lot  and  Ga- 
ronne. Here  the  Visigoths  established  a  king- 
dom in  the  early  part  of  the  5th  century. 

ACRE,  called  also,  Jkka,  St.  Jean  d'  Acre, 
and,  in  the  middle  ages,  Ptolemais,  is  a  city  and 
harbor  situated  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  lately  the 
capital  of  a  Turkish  pachalic,  and  now  be- 
longing to  Egypt.  The  famous  mount  Car- 
mel  overlooks  the  city,  which  contains  16,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  the  emporium  of  the  cotton 
trade  of  Syria.  Its  harbor  is  good,  although 
containing  many  sandbanks.  During  the 
crusades,  the  troops  engaged  in  the  Holy  Wars 
made  it  their  principal  landing-place ;  Acre 
was  the  seat  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  till 
1291,  and  from  this  order  arose  the  French 
name  of  St.  Jean  d'  Acre.  Here  the  Turks,  un- 
der the  command  of  Djezzar,  pacha  of  the  place, 
assisted  by  the  British  fleet  under  the  command 
of  Sir  Sydney  Smith,  sustained  a  siege,  during 
Bonaparte's  Egyptian  campaign  After  hav- 
ing succeeded  in  tranquillizing  the  various 
places  which  he  had  taken  and  garrisoned, 
Bonaparte  framed  a  system  of  government 
for  Etrypt  upon  French  models.  On  the  12th 
of  February,  1799,  he  inarched  at  the  head  of 
18,000  men  from  Cairo  to  Syria,  took  El-Arish, 
a  fait  in  the  desert,  and  afterwards  Jaffa,  where 
he  caused  tne  Turkish  prisoners  to  be  shot. 
The  inhabitants  of  Naplous,  were  also  subdued 
without  much  difficulty,  and  from  them  he  ob- 
tained provisions  which  were  absolutely  necessa- 
ry to  the  success  of  his  meditated  siege  of  St.  Jean 
d'  Acre.  At  Safet  he  again  proved  himself  the 
child  of  fortune,  being  completely  victorious. 
Bat  while  indulging  the  hope  of  an  easy  victo- 
ry, the  English  fleet  under  Sir  Sydney  Smith 
appeared  before  Acre,  and,  besides  supply  ing  the 
Turks  with  ammunition,  reinforced  the  garrison 
with  several  hundred  infantry  and  artillery. 
The  French  fought  with  their  usual  gallantry. 
They  made  many  assaults,  rushing  forward 
regardless  of  danger,  trusting  in  their  courage 
and  their  bayonets,  but  they  were  met  with 
equal  gallantry  and  invariably  repulsed.  The 
vexation  of  Bonaparte  was  boundless  ;  he  con 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


ADA  18 


ADA 


tinually  planned  new  attacks,  which  were  baf- 
fled, and  repulsed  with  great  loss  to  the 
French.  In  vain  did  the  well-directed  guns  of 
the  besieger's  artillerists  pour  a  heavy  fire  upon 
the  Turks.  The  batteries  were  wrapped  in 
constant  flame  but  the  garrison  held  bravely 
out,  until  the  siege  was  finally  raised.  During 
the  siege,  Bonaparte  was  by  no  means  inactive, 
he  met  the  enemv  40,000  strong,  upon  the  plain 
of  Fiuli,  with  23,000  men.  On  the  16th  and  17th 
of  April,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Jordan,  the  terri- 
ble battle  of  Mount  Tabor  was  fought.  On  the  re- 
treat of  the  French  from  St.  Jean  d'  dcre,  it  is  said 
that  a  body  of  French  soldiers,  who  were  sick  of 
the  plague,  were  poisoned  by  order  of  Bona- 
parie ;  but  this  has  been  frequently  denied.  Of 
the  kindness  of  Bonaparte  to  his  sick  soldiers  we 
have  many  proofs.  Very  recently,  Louis  Phi- 
lippe, the  present  king  of  the  French,  having 
his  attention  called  to  an  old  veteran  who  had 
been  in  the  army  of  Napoleon,  rode  up  and 
shook  hands  with  him.  The  old  man  was  not 
nattered.  "  When  I  was  sick  with  the  plague 
at  Jaffa,"  said  he,  bluntly,  "  the  emperor  shook 
hands  with  me — but  he  didn't  have  gloves  on." 
The  siege  of  St.  Jean  d'Acre  lasted  61  ikivs.  and 
was  attended  with  great  loss  to  botli  parties. 
The  place  was  besieged  and  cantured  by  the 
Pacha  of  Egypt  in  1832. 

ACTIUM,  a  promontory  now  called  Capo  di 
Fiffolo,orJlzio,ontlie  gulf  of  Arta,on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Greece,  at  the  extremity  of  Acarna- 
nia.  Here  was  fought  the  most  memorable  na- 
val battle-  of  antiquity,  since  the  stake  was  the 
empire  of  the  world,  B.  C.  31.  The  leaders  of 
the  hostile  forces  were  Mark  Antony  and  Oc- 
tavius.  The  latter  had  80,000  infantry.  12,000 
cavalry,  and  260  ships  of  war,  while  Antony 
had  100,000  infantry,  12,000  cavalry,  and  220 
ships  of  war.  The  battle  was  hotly  contest- 
ed. The  conduct  of  Cleopatra,  the  beautiful 
Egyptian  queen,  who  had  captivated  Antony, 
proved  disadvantageous  to  him,  for.  seized  with 
a  panic,  she  fled  from  the  battle  with  her  sixty 
galleys,  the  most  brilliant  vessels  brought  into 
action.  Antony,  whose  energies  had  been 
prostrated  by  a  course  of  dissipation,  followed 
the  queen,  and  a  disgraceful  rout  among  the 
troops  on  shore  completed  his  ruin,  while  the 
sovereignty  of  the  world  was  the  prize  of  Octa- 
vius,  afterwards  Augustus  Ccesar. 

ADAM,  the  father  of  mankind,  formed  of 
clay  by  God,  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  creation 
of  the  world.  His  history  is  related  in  Genesis. 

ADAMS,  John,  was  born  at  Braintree,  Mas- 
sachusetts, October  19,  1733.  He  was  the 


descendant  of  those  whom  persecution  for  con- 
science'sake  had  driven  from  their  firesides  in 
England.  Henry  Adams,  the  great  grand-father 
of  John,  came  to  America  in  1630.  Mr.  Adams 
having  evinced  an  uncommon  fondness  for 
learning,  was  prepared  by  Mr.  Marsh,  preceptor 
of  Josiah  Quincy,  for  entrance  into  Harvara 
College,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by 
strength  of  mind,  application,  and  spotless  mo- 
rality. He  was  graduated  in  1755,  and  re- 
ceiled  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  in  1758. 
He  commenced  the  study  of  law  at  Worcester 
with  Mr.  James  Putnam,  defray  ing  his  expenses 
by  his  income  as  instructor  in  Greek  and  La- 
tin. Massachusetts  had  long  been  the  scene  of 
a  continual  struggle  ;  the  British  agents  striving 
to  extend  their  power  and  the  colonists  con- 
tending for  freedom.  In  1758  Mr.  Adams, 
leaving  the  office  of  Col.  Putnam,  entered  that 
of  Jeremiah  Gridley.  attorney-general,  who 
had  previously  directed  the  law  studies  of 
James  Otis,  and  who,  in  allusion  to  his  two 
talented  pupils,  said,  "  I  have  trained  up  two 
young  eagles,  who  are,  one  day  or  other,  to 
pick  out  my  eyes."  In  1759  Mr.  Adams  was 
admitted  to  the  Suffolk  bar,  and  commenced 
practice  in  Quincy.  In  1761,  he  was  admitted 
to  the  degree  of  barrister  at  law,  and  very  soon 
afterwards  his  father's  decease  put  him  in  pos- 
session of  a  small  landed  property.  In_  the 
February  of  this  year  the  British  cabinet  enjo'ined 
the  Massachusetts  custom-house  officers  to  exe- 
cute their  oppressive  acts  of  trade,  applying  to 
the  Supreme  provincial  judicature  for  writs 
of  assistance,  a  kind  of  general  search-warrants. 
The  applications  made  in  consequence  to  the 
court  at  Salem  were  resisted  on  the  ground  of 
their  unconstitutionality.  When  it  was  deter- 
mined to  argue  the  matter  by  counsel  in  Bos- 
ton, Mr.  Otis  was  engaged  to  defend  the  rights 
of  the  Salem  and  Boston  merchants,  and,  that 
lie  might,  do  it  with  the  more  freedom,  he  relin- 
quished his  office  of  advocate-general  in  the 
court  of  admiralty — a  lucrative  station.  Mr. 
Adams,  who  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  affair, 
was  present  at  the  discussion,  and  thus  eulo- 
gizes the  orator.  i;  Otis  was  a  flame  of  fire  ! 
With  a  promptitude  of  classical  allusion,  a 
depth  of  research,  a  rapid  summary  of  historical 
events  ,ind  dates,  a  profusion  of  legal  authori- 
ties, a  prophetic  glance  of  his  eyes  into  futurity, 
and  a  rapid  torrent  of  impetuous  eloquence, 
he  hurried  away  all  before  him.  American,  in- 
dependence intg  ihvn  "ml  tin  re  born." 

In  1764,  he  married  Abigail  Smith,  daughter 
of  the  Rev.  William  Smith   of  Weymouth,  a 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ADA  1 

lady  of  great  beauty  and  worth,  whose  pat- 
riotism and  piety  rendered  her  worthy  of  her 
husband.  Mr.  Adams  published  in  the  Boston 
Gazette  several  articles  under  the  title  of  "An 
Essay  on  Canon  and  Feudal  Law,"  which  were 
reprinted  in  England,  and  gained  great  com- 
mendation. The  author  was  then  unknown. 
In  the  year  1765  he  removed  to  Boston,  where 
his  business  was  highly  prosperous.  The 
friends  of  the  crown  attempted  to  purchase  his 
apostasy  by  the  offer  of  the  office  of  advocate- 
general  in  the  court  of  admiralty,  but  he 
refused  "  decidedly  and  peremptorily,  though 
respectfully."  He  was  appointed,  in  1769, 
chairman  of  the  committee  chosen  by  the  town 
of  Boston  to  draw  up  instructions  to  their  rep- 
resentatives to  resist  the  unpardonable  and  in- 
creasing encroachments  of  the  crown.  At  this 
time  the  indignation  of  the  friends  of  liberty 
was  excited  by  the  presence  of  an  armed  force 
in  the  town,  while  a  band  of  hirelings  surround- 
ed the  state-house,  and  cannon  were  directed 
against  its  doors.  Mr.  Adams  displayed  his 
sense  of  honor  and  firmness  by  advocating  the 
cause  of  the  soldiers  who,  when  attacked  by  the 
mob,  in  State  Street,  on  the  5th  of  March,  fired 
upon  them  and  killed  several.  Such  was  the 
excitement  of  the  public  mind  that  a  word  in 
defence  of  the  British  was  almost  sure  of  being 
punished  by  the  loss  of  popularity,  and  yet  Mr. 
A.  in  company  with  Josiah  Quincy.  and  Mr. 
Blowers,  scrupled  not  to  defend  the  soldiers  on 
their  trial.  In  consequence  of  this,  all  were 
acquitted  but  two,  who,  being  found  guilty  of 
man-slaughter,  were  dismissed  with  a  slight 
branding.  In  May,  1770,  Mr.  Adams  received 
a  proof  that  his  popularity  was  undiminished, 
by  his  triumphant  election  to  the  legislature  of 
his  native  stale.  The  active  part  which  he 
took  in  resisting  despotism  in  every  shape,  and 
espousing  the  cause  of  his  countrymen  in 
every  way,  brought  him  under  the  displeasure 
of  governor  Hutchinson,  who  negatived  the 
choice  of  Mr.  Adams  as  counsellor,  in  1773.  In 
1774,  Gcv.  Gage  rejected  him,  and  he  was  soon 
chosen  member  of  the  committee  employed  to 
prepare  resolutions  on  the  Boston  port-bill.  In 
consequence  of  the  dissolution  of  the  Assembly 
by  Gage,  Mr.  Thomas  Gushing,  Mr.  Samuel 
Adams,  Mr.  John  Adams  and  Mr.  Robert  Treat 
Paine,  were  chosen  to  the  first  continental 
congress.  Mr.  Adams's  friend  Sewall,  who 
held  the  post  of  attorney-general  of  the  prov- 
ince, and  had  espoused  the  ministerial  side  of 
the  question,  told  him  that  the  power  of  Great 
Britain  was  immense,  that  she  would  abide  by 


&  ADA 

her  measures  and  carry  them  through,  and  that 
opposition  would  involve  the  malcontents  m 
ruin.  Mr.  Adams's  reply  was  characteristic; 
"I  know,"  said  he,  "that  Great  Britain  has 
determined  on  her  system,  and  that  very  de- 
termination determines  me  on  mine.  You 
know  that  I  have  been  constant  and  uniform 
in  my  opposition  to  her  designs.  The  die  is 
now  cast.  I  have  passed  the  Rubicon.  Sink 
or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish  with  my 
country  is  my  fixed,  unalterable  determina- 
tion." 

Mr.  Adam*  to°k  his  seat  in  Congress  the 
first  day  of  the  session,  September  5,  1774. 
The  ensuing  year,  when  the  news  of  the  af- 
fairs of  Lexington  and  Concord  had  reached 
Congress,  when  they  had  determined  on  war, 
and  were  looking  for  a  commander-in-chief, 
general  Ward  was  proposed,  and  Mr.  Adams 
was  the  only  one  who  dissented,  and  urged 
the  nomination  of  Washington.  The  next  day 
Washington  was  nominated  and  chosen  unan- 
imously. On  May  6,  1776,  Mr.  Adams  moved 
a  resolution,  recommending  the  colonies  "  to 
adopt  such  a  government  as  would,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  representatives  of  the  people, 
best  conduce  to  the  happiness  and  saiety  of 
their  constituents  and  of  America."  It  was 
not  without  a  hard  struggle  that  this  passed  on 
the  ISthof  the  same  month,  and  preluded  Lee'a 
daring  resolution  of  the  7th  of  June  following, 
declaring  the  dissolution  of  the  connexion  with 
Great  Britain.  On  the  4th  of  July,  the  Declar- 
ation of  Independence,  with  but  few  alterations 
from  the  words  of  Mr.  Jefferson,  passed.  The 
committee  which  had  been  chosen  to  prepare  it 
was  composed  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  John 
Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Roger  Sherman, 
and  Robert  R.  Livingston.  Mr.  Jefferson  and 
Mr.  Adams  were  deputed  a  sub-committee  to 
prepare  the  instrument,  and  the  former  did  so 
at  the  instigation  of  the  latter.  The  declaration 
did  not  pass  without  the  most  strenuous  oppo- 
sition by  many  members  of  Congress,  includ- 
ing some  leading  and  able  men.  Mr.  Adams 
overcame  all  arguments  offered  against  it,  by  an 
overwhelming  torrent  of  splendid  eloquence. 
In  the  words  of  Mr.  Jefferson.  "  the  great  pillar 
of  support  to  the  declaration  of  independence, 
and  its  ablest  advocate  and  champion  on  the 
floor  of  the  house,  was  John  Adams."  His 
speech  on  the  subject  of  independence  is  said 
to  have  been  unrivalled.  One  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished orators  of  the  present  day,  Mr. 
Webster,  has  done  honor  to  the  style  and  sen- 
timents of  Mr.  Adams,  in  alluding  to  his  bright 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


ADA 


est  effort.  He  tells  us  that  he  spoke  right  on, 
and  that  the  torrent  of  his  manly  reasoning 
carried  conviction  along  with  it.  Mr.  Webster 
gives  what  we  may  weft  suppose  to  be  a  portion 
of  Mr.  Adams's  speech,  concluding  with  this 
powerful  and  patriotic  language.  "  Sink  or 
swim,  live. or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  am  for 
the  declaration.  Living,  it  is  my  living  senti- 
ment, and,  by  the  blessing  of  God,  it  shall  be 
my  dying  sentiment — Impendence  now  and 
independence  forever  !  " 

Un  the  recall  of  Mr.  Silas  Deane,  who,  with 
Dr.  Franklin,  arid  Mr.  Arthur  Lee,  was  a  com- 
missioner at  the  court  of  Versailles,  Mr.  Adams 
was  appointed  to  fill  his  place,  Nov.  28,  1777. 
Mr.  Adams,  embarking  on  board  the  Boston 
frigate,  arrived  safely  at  his  place  of  destina- 
tion, notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  an  English 
fleet  to  intercept  him.  On  his  return,  being 
chosen  member  of  the  convention  to  form  a 
plan  of  government  for  Massachusetts,  he  was 
placed  upon  the  sub-committee  whose  task  it 
was  to  draught  the  plan  of  a  constitution.  The 
general  project  and  some  particular  features  of 
the  plan  belong  to  Mr.  Adams.  He  went  abroad 
again  upon  public  business  and  visited  Holland 
and  France.  The  definitive  treaty  of  peace 
which  he  visited  Paris  to  negotiate,  in  1762, 
with  Dr.  Franklin,  Mr.  Jay,  Mr.  Laurens,  and 
Mr.  Jefferson  for  colleagues,  was  ratified,  Jan. 
14,  1734.  The  next  year  Mr.  Adams  was  ap- 
pointed the  first  minis'ter  to  London.  Having 
returned  to  the  United  States,  he  was  chosen 
vice-president,  the  first  elected  under  the  new 
constitution,  and  was  re-elected  in  1793.  On 
the  resignation  of  Washington,  Mr.  Adams  was 
chosen  president,  entering  upon  office,  March 
4, 17!)7.  The  administration  of  Mr.  Adams  was 
not  popular,  and  at  the  expiration  of  his  term 
of  four  years,  March  4th.  1801,  Mr.  Jefferson, 
his  adversary,  was  found  to  be  elected  by  a 
majority  of  one  vote. 

After  Mr.  Adams's  retirement  from  public 
life,  he  occupied  himself  with  literary  and 
agricultural  pursuits  at  his  seat  at  Quincy,and, 
with  the  exception  of  a  severe  affliction,  the 
loss  of  his  wife,  his  days  glided  calmly  away 
until  the  4th  of  July,  182b'.  On  that  day  he  died, 
with  the  sentiment  upon  his  lips  which  he  had 
uttered  with  such  force  fifty  years  before  upon 
the  floor  of  Congress— independence  forever !  On 
the  morning  of  that  eventful  day.  the  penis  of 
the  bells,  and  the  report  of  cannon  awakened 
him.  He  was  asked  if  he  knew  what  day  it 
was.  "  Oh!  yes" — replied  he — "  it  is  the  glori- 
ous 4th  of  July — God -bless  it — God  bless  you 


20  ADA 

all !  "  In  the  course  of  the  day,  he  said  "  it  is  a 
great  and  glorious  day  !  "  Before  his  death,  he 
said  "  Jefferson  survives."  He  was  mist! 


staken. 

On  that  very  day,  an  hour  after  noon.  Jetferson 
breathed  his  last. 

ADAMS,  Samuel,  a  distinguished  character 
in  our  revolution,  was  born^in  Boston,  Sept. 
27th,  1722.  Pie  was  descended  from  a  family 
which  had  been  among  the  earliest  settlers  i,i 
New-England.  Mr.  Adams  received  his  edu- 
cation at  Harvard  College,  and  was  graduated 
with  the  usual  academical  honors,  in  1740.  On 
taking  the  degree  of  A.  M.  he  discussed  the 
following  question  ;  "  Whether  it  be  lawful  to 
resist  the  supreme  magistrate,  if  the  common- 
wealth cannot  be  otherwise  preserved?"  and 
maintained  the  affirmative  with  great  ability. 
He  commenced  the  study  of  divinity  but  found 
his  attention  completely  absorbed  by  politics, 
which  then  excited  an  universal  interest.  Hia 
sentiments  soon  endeared  him  to  the  patriotic 

farty,  who  placed  him  in  the  legislature  in 
7(J(J.  From  that  time  forward  he  distinguished 
himself  as  one  of  the  most  active,  able,  and 
uncompromising  advocates  of  independence. 
He  was  on  every  committee,  his  hand  was  em- 
ployed upon  every  report,  and  his  voice  heard 
upon  every  subject,  involving  opposition  to  the 
tyrannical  measures  of  the  colonial  government. 
The  enemies  of  America  heard  that  Mr.  Adams 
was  poor,  and  those  among  them  who  believed 
in  the  omnipotence  of  British  gold,  asked  why 
this  demagogue  was  not  silenced  bv  a  bribe. 
Governor  Hutchinson  answered — "  Such  is  the 
obstinacy  and  inflexible  disposition  of  the  man, 
that  he  can  never  be  conciliated  by  any  ofh'ce 
or  <nft  whatever." 

In  177-1  he  was  sent  to  the  first  Congress  of 
the  old  confederation.  He  was  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in 
177G.  He  was  active  in  the  convention  which 
formed  the  constitution  of  Massachusetts,  was 
placed  in  the  senate  of  the  sta-te,  presided  for 
several  years  over  that  body,  anu  was  elect- 
ed lieutenant-governor  in  178!).  In  1791,  on 
the  death  of  Hancock,  he  was  chosen  governor, 
and  was  yearly  re-elected  until  1797.  His  re- 
tirement from  public  life  took  place  in  that 
year;  and,  on  October  2d,  180'?,  lie  ^xjiired  at 
his  house  in  Winter  Street.  Boston,  In  the  82d 
year  of  his  age.  Mr.  Adams  foresaw  the 
course  which  the  colonies  were  obliged  to  take 
from  the  beginning.  He  was  aware  that,  upon 
the  side  of  the  British,  there  would  be  no  con- 
cessions— no  retractions — that  they  entertained 
a  contemptuous  opinion  of  the  force  and  spirit 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ADD 


21 


ADD 


of  the  colonies,  and  would  abide  by  their  own 
measures.  He  received  warning  at  Lexington, 
on  the  night  of  the  18th  of  April,  of  the  intend- 
ed British  expedition,  which  turned  out  so  dis- 
astrou^ly  for  them,  and  prepared  to  mako  his 
escape  at  day-dawn  across  the  fields.  Turning 
to  the  friends  who  accompanied  him,  he  ex- 
•laimed, "  This  is  a  fine  day!  "  His  remark  was 
thought  to  allude  to  the  weather,  and  one  of  his 
companions  answered;  "  It  is  really  a  pleasant 
dajr."  "  I  mean,"  said  he,  his  eye  lighting 
up,  as  he  spoke,  "  1  mean  this  is  a  glorious  day 
for  my  country  !  " 

There  was  a  certain  narrowness  and  sternness 
in  the  political  and  religious  opinions  of  Samuel 
Adams.  He  was  a  strict  Calvinist,  and  regarded 
with  no  favor  opinions  at  all  at  variance  with 
those  of  his  sect.  He  was  firmly  attached  to 
habits  and  principles  in  which  he  had  been 
bred  up,  and  too  fond  of  making  important  mea- 
sures conform  to  a  certain  code  of  his  own.  He 
undervalued  the  services  of  Washington  dur- 
ing the  revolutionary  war,  thinking  him  too 
slow  and  cautious,  and  being  impatient  for  some 
decisive  stroke,  which  the  cominander-in-chief 
would  not  have  failed  to  strike  whenever  the 
opportunity  occurred.  After  the  war  was 
happily  concluded,  and  there  could  be  but  one 
opinion  of  the  services  of  Washington,  Mr. 
Adams  feared  for  his  country,  when  the  man 
who  had  led  her  through  the  perils  of  the  araied 
struggle  was  made  her  chief  magistrate.  He 
feared  the  popularity  of  Washington — but  his 
was  an  error  of  judgment.  .No  unprejudiced 
man  who  had  regarded  the  previous  course  of 
the  Father  of  his  country,  could  fear  that  he 
would  prove  either  a  Caesar  or  a  Cromwell. 
Mr.  Adams  possessed  those  manlv  virtues  which 
eminently  fitted  him  for  a  revolutionary  epoch, 
and  when  the  cloud  hung  darkest  over  his 
country.  II;H  character  and  resources  appeared 
most  strikingly.  Of  an  austere  and  unyielding 
mind,  he  was  yet  dignified  and  courteous  to  a 
high  degreei-  He  was  never  shackled  by  pecu- 
niary considerations,  and  would  have  died  in 
poverty,, had  not  the  death  of  an  only  son  sup- 
plied his  wants,  while  it  grieved  him  to  the 
soul.  A  colleague  of  Mr.  Adams  has  thus  de- 
scribed Uim  in  a  tone  of  jrood-humored  carica- 
ture :  :  Sa,-.iuel  Adams  would  have  the  state  of 
Massachusetts  govern  the  Union,  the  town  of 
Boston  govern  Massachusetts,  and  that  he 
•hould  govern  the  town  of  Boston,  and  then  the 
whole  would  not  be  intentionally  ill-governed.' 

ADDISON.  Joseph,  an  author  of  celebrity, 
was  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  and  was  born  at 


Milston,  Wiltshire,  England,  in  1672.  At  the 
age  of  15  he  entered  at  Queen's  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  distinguished  himself  by  a  Latin  poem 
on  the  inauguration  of  William  and  Mary.  In 
1695.  he  published  some  English  poems,  partly 
translations  from  Virgil.  Having  obtained  a  pen- 
sion, he  set  out  on  his  travels,  during  which  he 
commenced  his  tragedy  of  Cato,  and  wrote  his 
celebrated  Dialogue  on  Medals.  Of  his  Travels, 
which  he  published  on  his  return,  Dr.  Johnson 
said,  that  '  they  might  have  been  written  at 
home.'  In  1704,  a  poem  on  the  victory  of 
Blenheim  procured  him  the  office  of  commis- 
sioner of  appeals.  In  170G  he  was  chosen 
under-secretary  of  state,  and  in  1709,  went 
to  Ireland  as  lord  Wharton's  secretary,  at  the 
same  time  deriving  an  income  of  300  pounds 
per  annum,  from  his  appointment  of  keeper 
of  the  records  in  Bermingham's  tower.  The 
Tattler,  Spectator,  and  Guardian,  periodical 
papers  commenced  by  Steele,  owed  their  ce- 
lebrity in  a  good  degree  to  the  contributions 
of  Addison.  In  the  papers  which  he  wrote, 
and  which  were  read  with  avidity  by  all  classes, 
Addison  displayed  the  versatility  of  his  genius, 
being  grave,  gay,  and  critical  by  turns,  and 
maintaining  a  pure  style  in  each  department 
which  he  touched.  The  harmony  of  his  sen- 
tences, and  the  easy  flow  of  his  polished  lan- 
guage have  made  him  a  model  to  all  who  wish 
to  acquire  a  correct  and  elegant  style.  The 
success  of  his  tragedy  of  Cato,  produced  in 
1713,  was  owing  less  to  the  merit  of  the  piece, 
which  is  better  adapted  to  private  perusal 
than  public  exhibition,  than  to  the  state  of 
party  feeling ;  anything  liberal  in  tone  being 
warmly  supported  by  the  Whigs. 

The  pen  of  Addison  ivas  devoted  to  political 
subjects  for  a  long  time,  and  he  was  employed 
a  second  time  as  secretary  to  the  viceroy  of  ire- 
land,  and  afterwards  was  appointed  one  of  the 
lords  of  trade.  Having  fixed  his  affections  on 
the  Countess  of  Warwick,  he  obtained  her 
hand  with  difficulty,  and  was  married  in  1716. 
The  union,  however,  was  anything  but  happy. 
The  proud  countess,  feeling" the  superiority  of 
rank,  treated  her  husband  with  contempt,  and 
made  his  fireside  so  uncomfortable  that  he  often 
forsook  it  for  a  tavern.  In  1717  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state,  but,  finding  himself 
incapable  of  filling  the  office  with  honor,  he 
retired  with  a  pension  of  £1,500.  lie  publish- 
ed a  work  entitled  Evidences  of  Christianity, 
which  was  calculated  to  do  much  good. 
Throughout  his  life  he  was  a  sincere  Christian. 
He  died  in  1719,  and  on  his  death-bed  he  sent 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ADR 


22 


for  lord  Warwick,  his  pupil,  a  youth  of  disso- 
lute habits,  and  said  to  him  ;  '  I  have  sent  for 
you,  young  man,  to  show  you  with  what  calm- 
ness a  Christian  can  die.  A  brother  poet  in 
allusion  to  this  scene,  says; 
'  He  taught  us  how  to  live,  and  —  oh!  too  high 
The  price  of  knowledge  —  taught  us  how  to  die.' 
The  manners  of  Addison  furnished  an  in- 
stance of  the  intimate  connection  betwen  mod- 
esty and  talent.  He  was  timid  and  reserved 
in  society,  speaking  little  when  out  of  the 
circle  of'  familiar  friends.  '  I  have  never  seen 
a  more  modest  or  more  awkward  man.'  was 
the  remark  of  lord  Chesterfield,  the  best  judge 
and  most  accurate  observer  of  manners  that 
ever  lived.  Button's  coffee-house  was  the  fa- 
vorite resort  of  Addison  and  cotemporary  wits. 
ADRIAN,  or  Hadrian,  Publius  /Elius,  the 
successor  of  Trajan,  and  15th  Emperor  of 
Rome.  He  was  born  at  Rome  A.  D.  7t>.  His 
talents  are  said  to  have  been  of  a  high  order, 
and  his  memory  uncommonly  retentive,  in  proof 
of  which  it  is  alleged  that  he  could  repeat  a 
book,  from  beginning  to  end,  which  he  had  once 
read  with  attention.  His  learning  was  exten- 
sive, and  his  military  talents  great.  His  good 
qualities,  however,  were  not  more  numerous 
than  his  evil  propensities,  and  he  never  gained 
the  esteem  of  his  predecessor  Trajan.  It  was 
to  Plotina,  the  wife  of  Trajan,  who  forged  a  will 
in  which  Adrian  was  named  her  husband's 
successor,  that  he  owed  his  elevation  to  the 
throne,  A.  D.  117.  In  Britain,  he  built  a  wall 
between  Carlisle  and  Newcastle,  to  guard  the 
Britons  from  the  incursions  of  the  Caledonians. 
Having  quelled  a  rebellion  of  the  Jews,  he  built 
a  city  called  ./Elia  on  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem. 
He  has  been  accused  of  a  too  great  love  of 
pleasure,  and  of  irresolution  and  cowardice.  He 
purchased  peace  of  some  warlike  tribes  that  had 
attacked  Illviia.  He  travelled  on  foot  through 
the  provinces  of  his  kingdom,  wishing  to  in- 
spect personally  the  administration  of  justice. 
But  to  gain  popularity  he  scrupled  not  to  de- 
scend to  the  mean  familiarity  of  bathing  with 
his  subjects.  He  showed  his  contempt  of 
Christianity  by  erecting  a  statue  to  Jupiter  on 
the  spot  where  Jesus  rose  from  the  dead,  and 
one  to  Venus  on  Mount  Calvary.  At  I!ai;c, 
he  was  seized  with  dysentery  and  wished  to 
terminate  his  agonies  bv  suicide.  On  being 
prevented,  he  exclaimed,  that  the  lives  of  others 
were  in  his  hands,  but  not  his  own.  He  died 
July  10th,  13d,  in  the  »>5d  year  of  his  age,  and 
the'21st  of  his  reign.  —  Six  Popes  have  borne  the 
name  of  Adrian. 


ADRIANOPLE,  in  Turkish,  Edrcne.  is  situ- 
ated on  the  banks  of  the  Maritza.  formerly  He- 
brus,  a  navigable  river  of  Ronielia,  anciently 
Thrace.  Its  nilly  situation  renders  it  a  pleasant 
residence,  and  its  palace,  valley,  and  mosques, 
a  splendid  one.  Nearly  a  third  of  the  popula- 
tion, 100.000.  are  Greeks.  Its  most  important 
export  is  oil  of  roses,  the  best  of  which  it  fur- 
nishes. The  city  was  built  by  Adrian,  and  in 
the  4th  century  successfully  resisted  the  Goths. 
Amurath  took  it  in  1360,  and  it  became  the 
capital  and  residence  of  the  Ottoman  rulers,  for 
a  century,  until  its  fame  yielded  to  that  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  treaty  of  Adrianople  conclud- 
ed, Sept.  14,  1829,  terminated  the  war  between 
Russia  and  the  Porte. 

ADRIATIC  SEA,  or  Gulf  of  Venice,  washes 
the  shores  of  Italy,  Illyria,  Dalmatia,  Albania 
and  Epirus.  It  is  200  leagues  long,  and  50 
broad.  The  doge  of  Venice,  claiming  the  ex- 
clusive sovereignty  of  this  sea,  formerly  wedded 
it  annually  with  sing-ular  and  splendid  ceremo- 
nies, throwing  a  ring  into  its  waves.  This  was 
done  upon  Ascension  day. 

jEGINA,  now  Eghinu  an  island  thirty  miles 
in  circumference,  in  the  Saronic  srulf,  formerly 
independent,  wealthy,  and  famed  for  the  com- 
mercial spirit  of  its"  inhabitants.  Its  capital 
bore  the  same  name. 

jELFRIC,  the  brave  and  talented  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  who  lived  in  the  10th  century. 
He  translated  the  historical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  distinguished  himself  for  his 
resistance  to  the  Danes.  His  death  took  place 
in  1005. 

jELIANUS,  CLAUDIUS;  a  native  of 
Italy,  who  flourished  A.  D.  221.  He  wrote  in 
Greek  and  has  transmitted  to  posterity  two 
works,  one  a  natural  history,  the  other  a  vol- 
ume of  anecdotes  and  tales. 

JEMIL1US  PAULUS,  a  brave  end  noble 
Roman,  father  of  Scipio  Africanus  the  Younger. 
He  defeated  Perseus,  king  of  Macedon,  and 
celebrated  his  success  by  a  triumph.  B.  C.  It38; 
which  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  death  of 
his  two  sons,  and  the  heroic  fortitude  with  which 
he  bore  their  loss,  thanking  the  gods  that  they 
were  chosen  for  victims,  so  that  the  Roman 
people  might  be  shielded  from  calamity. 

jENEAri,   a   Trojan    prince,    whose   his 


tory 

has  been  rendered  doubtful  by  the  tales  of  the 
poets.  He  is  the  hero  of  the  jJEneid  <if  Virgil. 
who  represents  him  as  the  son  of  Anchises  a;id 
the  goddess  Venus.  The  former  he  bore  in 
safety,  from  the  flames  of  Troy,  which  lie  had 
defended  until  valor  was  of  no  avail.  He  re- 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


X.SC  2 

tired  to  Mount  Ida,  where  he  built  a  fleet,  and 
sailed  in  quest  of  a  settlement.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  cotemporary  with  Dido,  and.  after 
landing  and  plighting  his  faith  to  the,  Carthagi- 
nian queen,  to  have  left  htr  a  prey  to  pangs  so 
poignant  as  to  deprive  her  of  judgment,  in  which 
state  she  threw  herself  upon  a  funeral  pile  and 
was  burned  alive.  This,  however,  is  a  poetical 
anachronism.  ./Eneas,  after  various  adventures, 
and  great  sufferings,  landed  on  the  coast  of 
Latium,  in  Italy,  where  he  was  hospitably  re- 
ceived by  king  Latinus,  who  bestowed  upon  the 
stranger  the  hand  of  his  daughter  Lavinia;  this 
jrift  involved  ^neas  in  a  war  with  Turnus,  a 
disappointed  rival,  who  was  signally  defeated 
by  the  son  of  Venus.  The  history  of  .ZEneas  is 
wholly  traditional. 

JEOLIANS,  a  Thessalian  tribe,  who  establish- 
ed several  small  states  in  Greece,  while  a  portion 
settled  JEolis,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  ancient 
Troad.  They  united  themselves  in  a  confedera- 
cy, and  were  free  while  they  preserved  it.  They 
afterwards  became  subjected  to  the  Lydians, 
and  then  to  the  Persians,  whose  yoke  they  shook 
off,  with  assistance  from  the  Athenians.  This 
gave  rise  to  the  Persian  war,  B.  C.  500.  After 
many  vicissitudes,  they  were  subdued  by  the 
Romans  in  consequence  of  their  hostility  to  that 
formidable  people  in  the  Mithridatic  war.  The 
fertility  of  the  country  induced  them  to  engage 
natively  in  agricultural  avocations.  The  name 
^Eolic  is  applied  to  a  dialect  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, very  nearly  resembling  the  Doric. 

.ZEOLUS,  a  king  of  the  ^Eolian  islands,  who, 
from  inventing  sails,  was  called  by  the  poets  the 
God  of  the  winds.  He  was  also  a  skilful  astron- 
omer and  musician,  playing  upon  the  harp  with 
singular  success. 

JESCHINES,  an  Athenian  orator,  the  rival 
of  Demosthenes,  born  3:-)3,  died  323,  B.  C.  He 
at  first  led  a  life  of  wandering  poverty,  but  be- 
came an  actor,  a  pupil  of  Plato  and  Socrates, 
and  attained  some  distinction.  Having  lost 
the  favor  of  the  people,  he  fled  to  Samos  and 
Rhodes,  where  he  taught  rhetoric  until  his 
death.  Another  JEschines,  a  philosopher,  was  a 
poor  disciple  of  Socrates. 

^SCHYLUS.  a  Greek  tragic  poet,  was  born 


at  Eleusis,  in  Attica,  525  B.  C.  His  family 
was  noble,  and  he  was  no  unworthy  member  of 
it.  When  the  storm  of  war  broke  over  his 
country,  and  the  troops  of  Persia  poured  into 
Greece,  he  took  up  arms  in  her  defence,  and 
beheld  the  cause  of  liberty  triumphant  at 
Salamis  and  Marathon.  The"  characters  in  his 
dramas  are  few,  but  prominent,  and  their  lan- 


guage and  conduct  are  never  beneath  the  dig- 
nity of  the  tragic  muse.  Influenced  by  a  stern, 
gloomy,  arid  relentless  fate, they  trod  the  stage 
with  all  the  accompaniments  of  scenic  pomp, 
music  and  dancing,  which  the  poet  brought  to  in- 
hance  the  effect  of  his  grand  conceptions.  Sev- 
en of  his  best  tragedies  have  descended  to  us, 
but  more  than  sixty  are  lost.  Disgust  at 
the  success  of  inferior  rivals,  induced  the  poet 
to  abandon  his  native  country  for  Sicily,  where 
he  was  hospitably  received  by  the  king,  Hiero, 
at  whose  court  he  died,  456,  B.  C.,  a<red  70. 

oESCULAPIUS,  believed  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  medicine,  and  worshipped  as  a  divin- 
ity in  many  cities  of  Greece.  He  is  generally 
represented  with  a  long  beard,  and  grasping  in 
one  hand  a  staff"  entwined  by  a  serpent,  the  em- 
blem of  convalescence,  the  other  hand  support- 
ed by  a  serpent.  Sometimes  he  was  denoted 
by  a  serpent  only.  He  was  believed  to  be  the 
son  of  Apollo,  the  God  of  medicine. 

2ESOP.  whose  fables  have  been  so  celebrated, 
was  born  in  Phrygia,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor, 
about  the  52d  Olympiad,  the  first  year  of 
which  corresponds  with  the  572d  year  before 
Christ.  The  age  in  which  he  lived  is  noted  in 
Grecian  history  as  that  in  which  Solon,  the  fa- 
mous lawgiver,  flourished.  In  his  youth  JSsop 
was  a  slave.  Among  the  Greeks  the  condition 
of  the  slaves  was  abject  and  pitiable  indeed  ;  the 
Spartans,  in  particular,  regarding  them  in  the 
light  of  brute  beasts,  whom  it  was  allowable 
to  kill  upon  the  least  provocation,  and  even 
without  the  slightest  offence.  It  does  not, 
however,  appear  that  ^fisop  experienced  any 
great  severity  of  treatment.  His  first  master 
was  one  Dinarchus,  who  resided  at  Athens, 
the  most  enlightened  and  celebrated  city  of  all 
Greece.  Here  it  was  that,  in  the  golden  age  of 
the  country,  the  arts  both  of  war  and  peace 
flourished,  and  hence  Athens  was  regarded 
with  veneration  by  the  philosophers  of  all 
countries.  Yet  at  the  period  at  which  ^Esop 
dwelt  in  Athens,  this  city  had  not  attained  to 
any  degree  of  refinement,  but  was  plunged  in 
that  darkness  which  overshadowed  the  whole 
of  Greece,  before  Pisistratus  seized  the  reins  of 
power. 

jEsop  passed  into  the  hands  of  Xanthus  of 
Samos,  who  afterwards  sold  him  to  ladmon  of 
the  same  place.  There  were  no  fewer  than 
three  islands  to  which  the  ancients  gave  the 
name  of  Samos.  That  of  which  we  speak  was 
situated  off  the  coast  of  Ionia.  It  was  suppos- 
ed to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  the  goddess 
Juno,  to  whom  a  magnificent  temple  was  erect- 


.   CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


JESO  «   1 

ed,  no  remains  of  which,  however,  have  escaped 
the  ravages  of  time.  The  fertility  of  the  island 
and  the  sgjubrity  of  its  climate,  gained  it  uni- 
versal admiration,  and  made  its  possession  an 
object  of  great  importance.  Its  natural  produc- 
tions were  numerous  ;  and  various  kinds  of 
birds  and  animals  were  found  in  and  about  it. 
It  was  formerly  not  so  much  noted  for  its  wine  as 
it  is  at  present,  the  Samian  wine  being  consider- 
ed by  the  moderns  as  equal  to  that  of  Cyprus, 
while  it  was  very  much  underrated  by  the  an- 
cients. 

After  he  haH  obtained  his  freedom,  JEsop  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  talents,  and  particu- 
larly by  his  peculiar  art  of  inculcating  useful 
truths  under  the  cloak  of  fiction.  This  inven- 
tion is  attributed  to  him,  and  Phtedrus  acknow- 
ledges this  in  his  own  fables.  "  The  words," 
says  the  latter,  "  are  mine,  but  the  invention 
belongs  to  ^Esop."  It  is,  however,  probable 
that  fables  originated  with  the  Oriental  nations, 
from  whom  JEsop  borrowed  them. 

Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  whose  wealth  was  so 
immense  as  to  be  his  principal  distinction,  hear- 
ing of  the  fame  of  JEsop,  invited  him  to  his 
court.  It  has  been  said  that  the  personal  ap- 
pearance of  JEsop  was  far  from  being  prepos- 
sessing ;  that  he  was  of  small  size  and  dreadfully 
deformed ;  that  Croesus  was  at  first  disgusted  at 
beholding  a  figure  so  entirely  at  variance  with 
his  preconceived  ideas  of  the  man ;  and  that 
JEsop  speaking  of  his  own  deformity,  said  ;  <;  It 
is  not  the  exterior  of  the  vase  that  we  should 
regard,  but  the  quality  of  the  wine  which  it  con- 
tains." But  these  accounts  have  been  proved 
to  be  without  foundation,  and  are  now  consid- 
ered fabulous.  The  conduct  of  jEsop  and 
Solon,  both  of  whom  were  at  the  same  time 
at  the  court  of  Croesus  exhibited  a  marked 
contrast.  The  fabulist  played  well  the  part 
of  an  accomplished  courtier,  but  the  stern  law- 
giver rigidly  adhered  to  the  truth  in  all  he  said. 
Solon  having  displeased  the  monarch  by  the 
independent  tone  which  he  assumed,  jEsop 
said  to  him,  "  You  should  never  speak  to  kings, 
or  only  tell  them  what  will  flatter  them." 
"  Not  so,"  said  Solon  ;  "  we  must  never  speak 
to  kings,  or  only  tell  them  useful  truths." 

./Esop  had  lived  too  long  in  slavery  not  to 
have  acquired  habits  of  submission  and  defer- 
ence towards  those  whom  circumstances  had 
made  his  superiors.  He  found  no  difficulty  in 
winning  the  entire  confidence  of  Crossus.  The 
latter,  wishing  to  consult  the  oracle  of  Delphi 
with  regard  to  Cyrus,  who  menaced  him  with 
rain,  sent  thither  JEsop  with  instructions  to 


offer  up  sacrifices  to" the  deity  in  the  name  of 
the  king  of  Lydia,  and  to  present  to  each  inhab- 
itant of  Delphi  a  considerable  sum  of  money. 
The  Delphic  oracle  of  Apollo  was  one  of  the 
most  -noted  of  antiquity;  and  thither  went 
crowds  of  those  who  sought  to  acquire  from  the 
priestess  a  knowledge  of  futurity.  Delphi, 
now  the  village  of  Castri,  stood  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Parnassus,  which  was  the  haunt  of 
Apollo  and  the  nine  Muses.  The  priestess  of 
the  temple  pretended  to  be  inspired  by  the  tute- 
lar deity  of  the  place,  and  uttered  words  which 
were  believed  to  be  those  of  inspiration.  Lest 
the  failure  of  their  predictions  should  lead  to 
enlighten  the  minds  of  men  on  the  subject  of 
their  impositions,  the  priests  of  Apollo  framed 
answers  which  were  capable  of  being  construed 
in  different  ways,  and  thus,  by  double  mean- 
ings, frequently  secured  themselves  from  de- 
tection. JEsop  came  to  Delphi,,  pursuant  to 
the  orders  of  Croesus,  and  offered  up  his  sacri- 
fices, but  having  quarrelled  with  the  Delphians, 
he  sent  away  the  money  which  the  Lydian 
monarch  had  intended  for  them,  and  declared 
that  they  were  unworthy  of  such  benefactions. 
The  cause  of  this  quarrel  is  not  exactly  known, 
but  it  is  most  probable  that  the  natural  shrewd- 
ness and  intelligence  of  jEsop  enabled  him  to 
make  a  discovery  of  the  artifices  employed  to 
deceive  those  who  referred  to  the  oracle  jfor  in- 
struction, and  that  his  indignation  impelled  him 
to  reproach  the  priests  with  theirimposition.  The 
Delphians,  enraged  at  the  conduct  of  the  bold 
stranger,  and  fearing  that,  if  permitted  to  de- 
part, he  might  reveal  enough  to  destroy  their 
character  and  hopes  for  ever,  determined,  if  pos- 
sible, to  eftect  his  ruin.  To  accomplish  their 
purposes,  they  hid  a  golden  cup  which  had  been 
consecrated  to  Apollo,  among  his  effect*,  and 
then  charged  him  with  having  stolen  it  Ho 
indignantly  denied  the  charge,  and  represented 
the  gross  injustice  of  arresting  him.  His*  ene- 
mies, however,  were  inexorable  ;  a  search  was 
made,  and  the  golden  cup  having  been  f<  und 
in  his  possession,  he  was  condemned  to  dt-uth, 
and,  pursuant  to  his  unjust  sentence,  hurled 
from  the  summit  of  a  high  rock.  Soon  after 
this  bloody  deed,  heavy  calamities  fell  upon  the 
Delphians,  which  they  did  not  fail  to  attribute 
to  the  indignation  of  the  gods,  aroused  at  their 
inhuman  conduct.  Various  methods  were  re- 
sorted to  in  order  to  appease  the  just  indigna- 
tion of  their  deities.  At  length  they  offered  to 
make  restitution  to  the  descendants  of  JEsop,  if 
any  such  existed.  J£sop,  however,  was  a  soli- 
tary being,  the  last  of  his  race.  But  a  relation 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


JESO 


25 


of  ladmon  his  last  master','came  forward,  claim- 
ed, and  received ,  the  proffered  indemnity.  The 
authorship  of  the  fables  attributed  to  jEsop  has 
been  a  source  of  much  dispute  among  different 
writers.  It  is  thought  that  most  of  the,  fables 
which  have  descended  to  us  with  his  name  were 
not  of  his  invention.  The  fables  of  jEsop  at- 
tained a  very  great  celebrity  in  Greece, —  a 
'  celebrity  which  succeeding  ages  have  confirm- 
ed. Socrates — the  great  and  good  Socrates, 
whose  own  wisdom  and  virtue  acquired  him  a 
deathless  reputation,  was  an  early  and  warm 
eulogist  of  jEsop,  some  of  whose  fables  he  ar- 
ranged in  verse,  well  knowing  that  in  this 
way  they  would  be  most  likely  to  descend  to 
posterity.  Many  collections  of  the  fables  of 
jEsop  have  been  made,  but  it  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark that  the  very  worst  collection  is  that 
which  has  been  oftenest  printed.  It  was  by 
Planudes,  a  Greek  monk  of  the  14th  century, 
and  accompanied  by  a  Life  of  JEsop  ;  a  work 
full  of  puerile  conceits  and  improbable  anec- 
dotes. 

^sop  was  peculiarly  happy  in  the  applica- 
tion of  his  fables.  Having  visited  Athens  soon 
after  Pisistratus  had  usurped  the  authority, 
and  found  the  Athenians  shrinking  beneath 
the  yoke  which  had  been  imposed  upon  them, 
he  related  to  them  the  following  fable.  '•'  Once 
upon  a  time,  the  frogs,  thinking  it  a  fine  thing 
to  have  a  ruler,  petitioned  Jupiter  to  give 
them  a  king.  Yielding  to  their  wishes,  the 
God  threw  down  a  huge  log,  from  which  they 
at  first  fled  in  dismay.  But  finding  it  quiet  and 
harmless,  they  at  length  ventured  to  approach, 
and  soon  after  grew  weary  of  its  inaction,  and 
complained  bitterly  to  Jupiter  of  their  stupid 
ruler,  desiring  one  more  active.  Indignant  at 
their  querulous  cries,  Jupiter  sent  down  as  king 
a  stork,  whose  activity  made  up  for  the  long 
sloth  of  the  log  ;  in  fact,  he  was  never  idle,  but 
darting  here  and  there,  preyed  upon  his  sub- 
jects with  restless  ferocity,  until  the  remnant 
of  the  frogs  groaned  to  be  restored  to  their  for- 
mer liberty."  The  moral  of  his  fable  was 
apparent  to  the  meanest  understanding.  The 
Athenians  honored  the  memory  of  jEsop,  by 
erecting  a  fine  statue,  executed  by  Lysippus,  to 
the  man  who  was  once  a  slave.  Its  design 
was  to  show  that  the  road  to  fame  was  open  to 
all,  and  that,  with  perseverance  and  mental 
power,  a  man  requires  few  external  advantages, 
to  succeed  in  what  he  undertakes.  The  life  of 
./Esop  was  checkered  with  light  and  shade — 
perhaps  the  latter  predominated,  for,  in  allu- 
sion to  the  misfortunes  of  humanity,  he  was 


wont  to  say  that  "  Prometheus  formed  man  of 
clay,  and  tempered  it  with  tears."  His  deafli 
took  place  about  the  year  5G1  Before  Christ. 

jESOPUS,  Clodius,  a  Roman  aetor,  whose 
dramatic  talents  and  extravagance  combined 
to  make  him  notorious.  Of  his  habits  some 
estimate  may  be  formed  from  the  fact,  that  he 
expended  $3.750  upon  a  dish  composed  of  sing- 
ing and  speaking  birds.  When  upon  the  stage, 
he  forgot  his  real  character  in  his  assumed  one. 
Thus,  while  performing  Atreus,  in  the  scene 
where  he  meditates  revenge  upon  his  brother, 
he  smote  one  of  the  servants,  wJio  interrupted 
him,  with  a  truncheon,  and  killed  him  on  the 
spot.  He  lived  in  the  time  of  Roscius,  and 
flourished  about  the  670th  year  of  Rome. 

^ETIUS,  the  brave  general  of  Valentinian 
III,  who  repulsed  Attila,  and  was  stabbed  bj 
his  suspicious  master  in  454. 

.(ETNA,  now  Monte  Gibello,  situated  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  at  no  great  distance  from 
Catania,  and  famous  for  its  volcano.  Its  eleva- 
tion above  the  surface  of  the  sea  has  been  vari- 
ously estimated,  and  is  somewhat  more  than 
10,800  feet.  Seventy-seven  towns,  cities,  and 
villages,  with  an  aggregate  population  of  one 
hundred  and  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants,  are 
scattered  on  its  sides.  It  exhibits  three  dis- 
tinct climates, — the  hot,  temperate,  and  frigid — 
and  three  distinct  regions — the  fertile,  woody, 
and  barren.  It  measures  100  miles  round 
the  base,  and  its  crater  forms  a  circle  of  about 
3£  miles  in  circumference.  The  summit  is  en- 
veloped in  smoke  and  snow  at  the  same  time, 
while  the  sides  of  the  mountain  present  a  rich 
prospect  of  cultivated  fields,  and  smiling  vine- 
yards. Pindar  is  the  first  writer  of  antiquity 
who  mentions  an  eruption  of  /Etna,  an  occur- 
rence supposed  to  have  been  unknown  in  the 
time  of  Homer.  Nine  eruptions  look  place 
before  the  Christian  era  ;  those  of  modern  days 
being  less  frequent  and  less  formidable  th;tn 
formerly.  The  mountain  furnishes  snow  and 
ice  to  a  large  portion  of  Italy,  and  thus  yields 
an  income  of  from  3  to  4000  dollars  annually 
to  the  bishop  of  Catania,  the  exclusive  proprie- 
tor of  the  trade. 

yETOLIA,  a  country  of  antiquity,  in  the 
middle  of  Greece,  whose  boundaries  varied 
greatly  from  time  to  time.  It  was  strong,  but 
unfruitful,  and  the  inhabitants  illiberal,  given 
to  plunder,  and  avaricious.  Divided  into  small 
tribes,  they  were  proud  of  their  independence, 
and  ardent  lovers  of  freedom.  ARer  the  ruin 
of  Athens  and  Sparta,  they  attained  an  emi- 
nence which  they  had  not  before  possessed.  As 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


AFG 


26 


AFG 


allies  of  the  Romans,  they  rendered  themselves 
formidable,  and  were  no  less  so  when  they  for- 
sook the  former  for  the  Macedonians.  They 
were  conquered  by  Fulvius.  In  war,  their  fine 
cavalry  was  famed  for  the  fierce  impetus  of  its 
attacks. 

AFGHANISTAN,  or  Afghaunistah,  is  the 
country  inhabited  by  the  Afghans,  or.Cabulists, 
and  has  also  been  called  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Abdallians.  The  population  of  Afghanistan  is 
now  composed  of  Afghans,  Mountaineers,  as 
the  name  implies,  Hindoos,  Tadshicks,  Tartars, 
and  Belooches.  It  is  estimated  at  14,000,000, 
of  which  4,300,000  are  Afghans,  and  5,700,000 
Hindoos.  Mahometanism  is  the  professed  rc-- 
ligion.  The  Afghans  are  also  called  Patens, 
and  are  of  Median  descent.  They  formerly 
dwelt  in  the  mountainous  regions  between  Per- 
sia, Hindostan,  and  Bactria.  Time  has  not 
changed  the  roving  disposition  of  the  Afghans, 
and  they  are,  at  the  present  day,  wandering 
tribes,  given,  like  the  Arabs,  to  predatory  ex- 
cursions. The  kingdom  of  Afghanistan,  or 
Caubul  has  subsisted  but  little  more  than  a 
century.  In  1747,  when  the  revolution  in 
Persia  took  place,  after  the  death  of  Nadir- 
shah,  Ahmed  Abdallah,  the  brave  and  popular 
chief  of  the  Afghans,  then  in  the  Persian 
service,  resolvyed  to  throw  off  his  allegiance  to 
Persia.  Finding  his  followers  disposed  to  sub- 
mit to  his  guidance,  he  possessed  himself  of 
the  provinces  of  Candahar  and  Khorassan,  and 
founded  the  kingdom  of  Afghanistan.  The 
kingdom  is  extensive  and  wealthy,  and  the 
climate  salubrious.  In  the  northern  portions, 
the  Hindoo-Koh,  a  continuation  of  the  Himal- 
aya mountains,  rise  to  a  great  elevation,  and 
are  covered  with  snow.  The  variety  of  temper- 
ature is  not  the  least  remarkable  fe'ature  of  the 
kingdom.  The  inhabitants  experience  the  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold.  The  city  of  Ghizni 
is  said  to  have  been  twice  completely  destroyed, 
together  with  all  its  inhabitants,  by  tremendous 
falls  of  snow. 

The  Afghan  country  is  of  considerable  com- 
mercial importance.  It  yields  silver, iron,  lead, 
lapis  lazuli,  sulphur,  and  cotton;  its  horses, 
asses,  dromedaries,  camels,  sheep,  and  oxen,  are 
famous.  Wild  animals  of  different  kinds  are 
numerous. 

The  government  of  Afghanistan  is  monar- 
chical ;  the  kinnr  being  Of"  the  house  of  Sad- 
dosei.  Although  the  tin  one  is  hereditary,  the 
royal  power  is  greatly  restricted  by  the  au- 
thority of  the  chiefs  of  the  different  tribes, 
some  of  whom  are  almost  independent.  The 


government,  however,  upon  the  whole,  appears 
to  be  established  upon  an  unshaken  basis,  and 
there  is  no  lack  of  patriotic  feeling  among 
the  people.  Tjje  British  East  India  Company 
possesses  groat  influence  over  the  Afghans, 
and  likewise  over  the  Persian  Court,  acting  as 
protector  of  the  former,  and  mediator  between 
both.  This  influence  has  been  beneficially  ex- 
ercis'Cd,  and  the  two  nations  are,  for  the  most 
part,  upon  good  terms  with  each  other,  although 
a  private  quarrel  occasionally  breaks  out  be- 
tween the  Persian  governors  and  Afghan 
chiefs.  If  unrestrained  by  European  media- 
tion, the  nations  of  the  East,  jealous  of  each 
other,  Jtvould  weaken  themselves  by  continual 
wars,  which  would  be  highly  disadvantageous 
to  the  commerce  of  the  English,  and  would 
enable  the  Russian  government,  already  so  pow- 
erful, to  make  great  additions  .to  its  Asiatic 
possessions,  and  establish  a  formidable  rivalry 
with  the  British.  Still,  success  has  not  always 
crowned  the  politic  efforts  of  the  British,  in 
spite  of  whom  the  rajah  of  Lahore,  Rungeet 
Singh,  usurped  the  throne  of  Caubul,  in  Af- 
ghanistan ;  and  to  increase  the  displeasure  and 
chagrin  of  the  English,  admitted  into  his  ser- 
vice a  number  of  Russians. 

Cabul,  or  Caubul,  the  capital  of  the  Af- 
ghan empire,  is  famed  for  its  beauty,  and, 
although  of  inconsiderable  extent,  contains 
80,000  inhabitants.  Its  situation  is  romantic, 
being  upon  the  river  Cabul,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Indian  Caucasus.  Candahar,  is  a  place  of  great 
military  and  commercial  importance,  contain- 
ing a  population  estimated  at  100.000;  the 
inhabitants  of  Peshawer  are  also  estimated  at 
100,000  souls.  Balkh,  in  the  ancient  Bactria, 
is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  cities  of  the 
eastern  world ;  inhabited  at  present  by  the 
Usbecks.  Anciently  it  was  famed  for  its  splen- 
dor, extent  and  magnificence.  Alexander  the 
Great,  in  his  eastern  campaign,  in  327,  B. 
C..  married  the  daughter  of  a  BactriaU  chief. 
This  chief,  who  defended  himself  bravely 
aorainst  the  Macedonians,  while  his  family  was 
placed  upon  a  precipitous  rock,  was  named 
Oxyartes.  The  garrison  of  the  rocky  fortress, 
when  summoned  to  surrender,  answered  A'  T- 
ander  contemptuously  that  if  his  men  j 
winged,  he  might  intimidate  them,  but  as  ' 
was,  their  position  was  impregnable.  Alexai. 
der  offeied  rewards  to  those  who  would  attempt 
to  ascend  the  rock,  and  three  hundred  of  the 
most  expert  that  volunteered  were  selected. 
In  the  interstices  of  the  rock,  and  in  the  ice 
upon  its  face,  the  climbers  stuck  iron  pegs,  and 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AFG 


27     ' 


AFR 


ascended  the  most  precipitous  part  in  the  night 
time.  Some  of  the  first  who  ventured,  fell 
headlong,  but  the  summit  was  gained  by  a 
determined  band.  By  order  of^  Alexander,  the 
Macedonians  shook  before  the  eyes  of  the  bar- 
barians long  strips  of  linen,  intimating  that 
they  had  found  wings.  The  garrison  immedi- 
ately surrendered,  tacitly  proving  the  correct- 
ness of  Alexander's  favorite  maxim,  "  that  no 
place  was  impregnable  to  the  brave,  nor  secure 
to  the  timorous.' 

The  Bactrians  were  a  race  holding  a  middle 
station  between  the  Persians  and  Scythians, 
with  much  of  the  polish  of  the  former,  and 
little  of  the  ferocity  of  the  latter.  Their  de- 
scendants still  retain  many  of  the  characterist- 
ics of  the  Bactrians  of  former  days.  Their 
women  were  famed  for  the  brilliancy  of  their 
dark,  shining  eyes,  the  delicate  and  correct  for- 
mation of  their  features,  and  the  richness  and 
transparency  of  their  complexions.  Roxana, 
the  daughter  of  Oxyartes,  was  not  only  distin- 
guished above  those  of  her  nation  in  beauty ,  but, 
with  the  single  exception  of  the  wife  of  Da- 
rius, was  the  loveliest  of  Asiatic  women.  The 
conduct  of  Alexander  towards  his  dazzling  cap- 
tive was  highly  honorable ;  having  conceived 
a  warm  attachment  to  her,  he  married  her, 
pursuant  to  the  wishes  of  his  friend  Hephaes- 
tion,  but  contrary  to  the  advice  of  Craterus. 
The  fears  of  Oxyartes  were  banished  by  Alex- 
ander's avowal  of  his  attachment  to  his  child. 
He  came  into  the  Macedonian  camp,  and  was 
received  with  every  mark  of  attention  and 
respect.  Thus  ties  of  friendship  bound  the 
Bactrians  and  Macedonians  together.  Alex- 
ander, according  to  Strabo,  founded  no  fewer 
than  eight  cities  in  Scgdiana  and  Bactria.  The 
city  of  Anderab  retains  still  a  part  of  Alexan- 
der's name.  The  Alexandria  which  the  Ma- 
cedonian monarch  is  said  to  have  founded,  was 
probably  either  Cabul,  or  else  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  it.  To  return  to  Balk.  In  1221  it 
was  taken  by  the  famous  Genghis  Khan,  who 
put  to  the  sword  nearly  all  its  inhabitants. 

The  Afghans  have  many  curious  customs. 
Among  them,  women  are  generally  well  treated, 
no^-fceing  permitted  to  engage  promiscuously 
labors  of  the  men,  but  being  employed 
Ji  domestic  avocations.  Wives  are,  however, 
.•tfgarded  as  property,  being  invariably  pur- 
chased, and  those  of  the  upper  classes  living  in 
total  seclusion,  though  their  privacy  is  luxuri- 
ous, and  their  style  of  life  magnificent.  Want 
of  feeling  is  not  in  general  a  fault  of  the  Af- 
ghans, and  females  are  frequently  regarded 
3* 


with  a  tenderness,,  and  devotion,  which  recall 
the  ages  of  chivalry,  of  which  these  feelings  are 
worthy.  Many  a  yoirng  Afghan,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  passionate  attachment  to  some 
young  woman  to  whom  his  plighted  faith  be- 
longs, resolutely  bids  a  farewell  to  home,  and 
labors  for  a  long  time  in  a  distant  place,  until 
lie  procures  a- sufficient  sum  of  money  to  buy 
her  from,  her  father.  Instances  of  cruelty  to 
women  are  of  infrequent  occurrence.  The 
Afghans  are  not  insensible  to  the  advantages 
of  education,  and  are  rather  liberal  in  their 
allotments  of  land  for  the  support  of  public 
teachers,  who  are  invariably  ministers  of  reli- 
gion. They  are  an  imaginative  people,  and 
take,  delight  in  those  wild  narratives  which  it 
is  the  sport  and  province  of  Oriental  imagina- 
tions to  create. 

Afghanistan  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Mount 
Hindoo-Koh,  or  Paropamisus;  on  the  east  by 
the  Indus  and  Mount  Soliman ;  on  the  south, 
by  the  valley  of  Bolahn,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  great  desert  of  Persia. 

AFRICA  formed  a  third  part  of  the  world, 
which  was  known  to  the  ancients,  by  whom  it 
was  regarded  in  its  true  light,  as  a  country  of 
vast  importance.  They  gave  it  the  name  of 
Libya  and  divided  it  into  two  parts,  viz  :  Africa 
Propria,  and  Africa  Interior.  The  former  of 
these,  or  the  territory  of  Carthage,  included 
several  countries  inhabited  by  twenty-six  dif- 
ferent nations,  comprehending  two  provinces, 
the  Regio  Zeugitana  and  Byzacium,  corres- 
ponding with  the  kingdom  of  Tunis.  Ham 
and  his  descendants  are  thought  to  have  first 
peopled  Africa.  Egypt  was  peopled  by  Miz- 
riam.  Africa  Interior  included  those  distant 
and  southerly  portions  of  Africa  which  seem 
to  have  been  little  known  to  the  ancients ; 
their  knowledge  did  not  extend  much  beyond 
the  tropic  of  Cancer,  which  seemed  the  limit 
both  of  their  victories  and  researches.  Those 
parts  of  Africa  which  they  did  not  visit,  their 
fertile  imaginations  peopled  with  various  races 
of  men  endowed  with  strange  attributes,  and 
singular  tales,  thus  originating,  have  been 
handed  down  even  to  our  own  times.  Thus 
we  hear  of  nations  of  curious  dwarfs,  of  men 
who  dwelt  in  trees  like  monkeys,  of  races 
forming  a  connecting  link  between  man  and 
the  brutes,  and  of  tribes  whose  history  has 
been  invented  by  wild  imaginations  in  their 
wildest  nights.  Of  these,  as  stories  belonging 
more  to  the  annals  of  fiction  than  those  of  tact, 
no  further  notice  will  be  taken. 
Herodotus  says  that  a  Phrenician  fleet  cur- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


AFR  2£ 

cumnavigatcd  Africa,  taking  its  departure  from 
a  port  in  the  Red  Sea,  604  years  B.  C.,  and 
terminating  its  voyage  in  three  years.  Many 
of  the  nations  and  states  of  Africa  at  a  very 
early  period,  had  made  great  advancement  in 
the  liberal  arts.  The  northern  part  of  Africa 
was  inhabited  by  several  enterprising  nations, 
whose  extensive  commerce  rolled  abundant 
wealth  into  the  land.  With  their  riches  the 
power  of  these  states  increased — Egypt  and 
Ethiopia  became  famous,  and  Cartilage,  send- 
ing forth  her  fleets  to  every  part  of  the  then 
known  world,  acquired  a  reputation  and  a 
power  which  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Ro- 
mans. The  latter,  proud  and  powerful,  deter- 
mined on  the  conquest  and  ruin  of  their  wealthy 
rivals. 

The   Carthaginian   or  Punic  wars,  as   they 
were  called,  brought  forth  all  the  energies  of 
the   hostile   parties.     The  Carthaginians  con- 
fided in  their   inexhaustible   wealth,  and   the 
superiority  of  their  navy,  the  Romans  in  their 
superior  hardihood  and   energy.     This  is  not 
the  place  to  describe  in  detail  the  events  of  the 
Punic   wars.     The   Romans   were   ultimately 
victorious,  and.  above  all  others  of  their  leaders, 
Scipio  acquired  the  greatest  renown.     For  his 
successes  and  his  struggles  in  Africa,  he  ob- 
tained the  name  of  Jlfricanus.     It  must  not  be 
supposed   that  the  Carthaginians  tamely  sub- 
mitted to  the  Roman  arms ;  on  the  contrary, 
even   to    the    last,   they   defended    their    city 
against  the  invaders,  with  unequalled  bravery. 
Gold  and  silver  vessels  were  surrendered   by 
the  luxurious  Africans  to  procure  the  means  of 
carrying  on  the  war,   and   the   "women,   with 
patriotic  devotion,  cut  off  their  fine  long  hair, 
and  twisted  it  into  bow-strings.     All  their  exer- 
tions were  unavailing.     The  skill  and  bravery 
of  the  Romans,  who  fought  under  the  eve  and 
oxample  of  Scipio,  prevailed.     As  the  Roman 
troops  drove  the  Carthaginians  before  them  in 
every  quarter,  a  few  firm  friends  of  Carthage, 
among  whom  were  the  wife  of  Asdrubal,  the 
Carthaginian    general,   and    her   children,  en- 
deavored to  maintain  their  position  in  the  tem- 
ple in  which  they  had  sought  refuge.     Finding 
it  impossible  to  defend  this,  the  wife  of  Asdru- 
bal determined  to  set  fire  to  it  and  perish  in  the 
flames.     She  dressed  herself  accordingly  in  a 
splendid  garb,  and,  having  fired  the  building, 
first  stabbed   her   children,  and  then  plunged 
into  the  flames.    The  Romans  were  not  satisfied 
until  they  had  completely  destroyed   the  city. 
Thus  fell,  in  the  146th  year  B.  C.,  one  of  the  most 
renowned  of  ancient  cities,  after  its  proud  inha- 


t  AFR 

bitants  had  enjoyed  the  sovereignty  of  the  seas 
for  more  than  six  hundred  years.  The  period 
of  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom  of  Carthage 
has  not  been  clearly  established,  but  the  fame 
of  founding  it  has  been  generally  ascribed  to 
Dido,  a  Tyrian  princess,  who  fled  to  Africa  to 
avoid  the  persecutions  of  her  brother  Pygma- 
lion. She  outwitted  the  natives  in  making  por- 
chase  of  a  piece  ef  land  whereon  to  build  her 
citadel.  They  agreed  for  a  certain  sum  to  give 
her  as  much  land  as  she  could  encompass  with 
a  bull's  hide  (byrsa).  When  the  money  was 
paid,  the  artful  princess  cut  the  hide  into  nar- 
row thongs,  with  which  she  found  herself  able 
to  enclose  a  very  large  space.  The  citadel, 
which  she  subsequently  erected  on  this  spot, 
was  called,  in  memory  of  the  transaction, 
Byrsa. 

The  most  celebrated  kingdom  of  Africa  was 
undoubtedly  Egypt.  The  Egyptians  were  early 
proficients  in  the  sciences  and  the  liberal  arts, 
and  to  them  men  came  from  all  civilized  coun- 
tries for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  informa- 
tion. Some  of  the  most  celebrated  men  among 
the  Greeks,  acquired  a  great  portion  of  their 
learning  in  Egypt.  Ancient  Egypt  was  divi- 
ded into  three  parts,  viz :  Upper  Egypt,  or 
Thebais,  now  Said ;  Middle  Egypt,  or  Hep- 
tanomis,  now  I'ottuiii  :  and  Lower  Egypt, 
the  most  valuable  portion  of  which  was  the 
Delta,  now  called  Kuhari  or  /.'//.  The  most 
accurate  general  description  of  Egypt  that  we 
have,  has  been  given  by  Volney,  "in  a  single 
sentence.  "  To  describe  Egypt  in  two  words," 
says  he,  "  let  the  render  imagine,  on  one  side,  a 
narrow  sea  and  rocks ;  on  the  other,  immense 

Slains  of  sand ;  and  in  the  middle,  a  river 
owing  through  a  valley  of  150  leagues  in 
length,  and  from  three  to  seven  wide,  which,  at 
the  distance  of  eighty  leagues.from  the  sea,  sep- 
arales  into  two  arms,  the  branches  of  which 
wander  over  a  country,  where  they  meet  with 
no  obstacles,  and  which  is  almost  "without  de- 
clivity." 

The  Ancient  Egyptians  paid  great  attention 
to  agriculture,  and  availed  themselves  of  their 
arts  to  redeem  vast  trncts  of  land,  from  the  wa- 
ters, rendering  them  fertile,  and  adapting  them 
to  tillage.  In  former  times  the  region  which 
eventually  received  the  name  of  Tx>wer  Egypt 
and  the  Delta,  was  covered  with  water,  and 
consequently  Egypt  was  but  a  limited  tract  of 
land.  The  accounts  which  ancient  writers  give 
of  the  early  history  of  Egypt  are  so  contradic- 
tory and  improbable,  that  it  is  needless  to  allude 
to  them  in  a  work  which  professes  to  deal  wira 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AFR 


29 


AFR 


matters  of  fact.  Menes,  the  first  king  of  Egypt, 
is  said  to  have  conferred  great  benefits  upon  his 
subjects.  He  redeemed  a  vast  extent  of  land 
from  the  waters,  was  the  spiritual  instructer  of 
the  Egyptians,  introduced  splendor, and  founded 
solemn  and  magnificent  feasts.  After  many 
vears  of  uninterrupted  prosperity,  Egypt  fell 
under  the  sway  of  some  rude  adventurers  who 
founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Hycsos  or  shepherd 
kings,  which  commenced  about  2048  years  B. 
C.,  and  lasted  until  the  year  1825  B.*C.,  when 
the  shepherd  kings  were  expelled. 

Jacob  settled  in  the  land  of  Goshen,  1706  B. 
C.  The  departure  of  the  Israelites  happened, 
according  to  some  writers,  during  the  reign  of 
Amenophis,  the  Pharaoh  who  pursued  them 
into  the  Red  Sea,  and  was  overwhelmed  by  its 
returning  waters.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
Pharaoh  was  a  title  borne  by  all  the  kings  of 
Egypt  in  common.  Egypt  was  divided  into 
twelve  kingdoms  after  the  death  of  Sethon, 
675  years  B'.  C.  Psammetichus  made  himself 
master  of  the  whole  country  in  6GO  B.  C.  After 
a  prosperous  reign  he  was  succeeded  by  Fha- 
raoh-Necho,  his  son,  616  B.  C.  This  monarch 
was  defeated  by  the  famous  Nebuchadnezzar, 
king  of  Babylon.  525  years  B.  C.,  Egypt  was 
made  tributary  to  Persia  by  Cambyses.  the  son 
of  Cyrus.  The  Egyptians  revolted,  but  were 
again  subjugated.  Another  revolt  was  success- 
ful, and  for°a  short  time  the  Egyptians  enjoyed 
their  independence,  but  350  years  B..C.,  Ar- 
taxerxes  Ochus  restored  the  Persian  dominion. 
331  B.  C.  Alexander  the  Great  compelled  the 
Egyptians  to  submit  to  his  arms.  On  the  death 
of  this  great  conqueror,  Ptolemy,  one  of  his 
generals,  took  possession  of  the  kingdom,  323 
years  B.  C.  and  founded  the  dynasty  of  the 
Ptolemies,  which  lasted  until  the  defeat  of  An- 
tony and  the  death  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra, 
when  E^ypt  became  a  Roman  province  in  the 
year  B.  C.  30,  and  the  2d  of  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus. In  the  year  640.  Egypt  was  conquered  by 
Amron,  general  of  OmarTcaliph  of  the  Saracens. 
The  library  of  Alexandria,  which  had  been 
collected  with  care,  and  contained  manuscripts 
of  immense  value,  was  consumed  by  the  orders 
of  Omar.  Egypt  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Saracens  until" A.  D.  1174,  when  Saladin  es- 
tablished the  Turkish  empire  in  Africa.  The 
Mamelukes  obtained  the  supremacy  in  1250. 
In  1517.  Egypt  passed  from  the  hands  of  the 
Mamelukes,  being  joined  to  the  Turkish  do- 
minions by  the  Sultan  Selim.  It  is  now  gov- 
erned by  an  independent  prince. 

Egypt  was  the  theatre  of  a  determined  strug- 


gle between  the  French  and  English,  when  the 
star  of  Napoleon  first  began  to  shed  its  light 
upon  the  destinies  of  Europe.  In  the  contest, 
some  memorable  battles  were  fought.  In  that 
of  the  Pyramids,  the  Mameluke  cavalry  was 
almost  wholly  annihilated  by  the  prowess  of 
the  French  infantry. 

The  ancient  Egyptians,  notwithstanding  their 
character  for  wisdom  and  learning,  were  grossly 
idolatrous,  worshipping  animals,  and  regarding 
as  sacred,  oxen,  cats,  crocodiles,  sheep,  &c. 
The  advantage  taken  of  this  superstitious  char- 
acter by  Cambyses  is  well  known.  Placing  in 
front  of  his  ann^the  animals  worshipped  by  the 
Egyptians,  he  advanced  against  them  boldly,  be- 
ing" well  aware  that  they  would  not  strike  a  blow 
for  fear  of  injuring  the  creatures  they  adored. 

The  ancient  government  of  Egypt  was  the 
subject  of  eulogy  among  all  nations,  and  legis- 
lators from  various  countries  came  to  Egypt  to 
examine  its  institutions  in  order  thence  to 
gather  hints  for  the  improvement  of  their  own. 

The  fertility  of  the  land,  the  variety  of  the 
fruits,  and  the  thousand  natural  advantages 
which  it  possesses,  might,  by  judicious  manage- 
ment, make  Egypt  one  of  the  most  wealthy  and 
flourishing  countries  in  the  world.  A  liberal 
government  and  enterprising  public  officers, 
would  soon  restore  it  to  the  rank  which  it  once 
held.  As  a  commercial  country,  it  possesses 
inestimable  facilities.  Bees  are  now  carefully 
reared  ;  honey  forming  an  important  article  of 
trade.  The  verdure  of  Upper  Egypt  generally 
withers  at  the  end  of  four  or  five  months,  and 
commences  earlier  than  in  Lower  Egypt.  In 
consequence  of  this,  the  Lower  Egyptians  col- 
lect the  bees  of  several  villages,  in  large  boats; 
each  hive  having  a  mark  by  which  the  owner  can 
recognise  it.  The  men  having  charge  of  them 
then  commence  the  gradual  ascent  of  the  Nile, 
stopping  whenever  they  come  to  a  region  of 
herbage  and  flowers.  At  break  of  day  the  bees 
issue  from  their  cells  in  thousands,  and  busily 
collect  the  sweets  of  the  flowers  which  are  spread 
in  luxuriant  profusion  around  them,  returning  to 
their  hives  laden  with  honey,  and  issuing  forth 
again  in  quest  of  more,  several  times  in  the 
course  of  the  day  Thus  for  three  or  four 
months,  they  travel  in  a  land  of  flowers,  and 
are  brought  back  to  the  place  whence  they 
started,  with  the  delicious  product  of  the  sweet 
orange-flowers  which  perfume  the  Said,  the 
roses  of  Faioum,  and  the  jessamines  of  Arabia. 
The  sugar-cane  is  an  Egyptian  production,  and 
one  of  great  value  ;  olive  and  fig-trees,  produc- 
ing the  most  delicious  fruit,  and  palm-trees  are 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


AFR 


30 


AFR 


also  found  in  abundance.  The  palm  is  one  of 
the  most  useful  of  the  Egyptian  trees.  The 
fruit  is  agreeable,  and  the  bark,  as  well  as  the 
leaves  and  rind  of  the  fruit,  yield  materials  for 
cordage  and  the  sails  of  the  boats.  The  Mam- 
eluke javelins  are  made  of  the  ribs  of  the 
branches  of  this  tree. 

The  condition  of  the  poor  people  of  Egypt  is 
deplorable.  The  tyranny  of  their  rulers  wrests 
from  them  the  fruit  of  their  hard  labors,  and 
leaves  them  but  a  miserable  sustenance  which 
they  can  hardly  be  supposed  to  enjoy.  Rice 
and"^  corn  they  cannot  eat,  for  all  that  they  raise 
must  be  carried  to  their  maKers,  who  leave 
them  for  food  dourra,  or  Indian  millet,  of  which 
they  form  a  very  unpalatable  and  coarse  kind 
of  bread  without  any  leaven.  With  the  addi- 
tion of  water  and  raw  onions,  this  is  their  food 
throughout  the  year.  They  know  no  luxury 
beyond  a  meal  of  the  above  articles  improved 
by  a  little  honey,  cheese,  sour  milk,  and  dates. 
A  shirt  of  coarse  linen  dyed  blue,  and  a  black 


handkerchief  rolled  around 


ong 
it,  fo 


rm  their  cos- 


cloak, a  cloth  bonnet,  with  a  long  red  woollen 

handk 

tume. 

It  will  not  be  expected  that  we  shall  attempt 
any  history  of  the  various  other  states  and 
nations  of  Africa,  in  an  article  which  must 
necessarily  be  little  more  than  a  brief  general 
view  of  the  country.  The  Barbary  States  pre- 
sent but  little  to  interest  us.  The  Turks  did 
not  displace  the  Saracens  in  Africa  until  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  century,  when  the  latter 
began  to  be  fearful  that,  without  the  assistance 
of  the  Turks,  they  should  be  enslaved  by  the 
Spaniards.  At  first,  the  Turks  stretched  over 
the  Saracens  the  protecting  arm  of  power,  but 
when  the  danger  was  averted,  the  power  was 
employed  in  enslaving  them.  The  Mohamme- 
dan nations  upon  the  shore  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean have,  at  various  times,  rendered  them- 
selves formidable  by  their  piracies.  The  Alge- 
rines  were  most  notorious  for  their  sea-robberies. 
The  United  States,  indignant  at  the  presump- 
tion of  the  dey  of  Algiers,  who  levied  tribute 
from  Americans,  resolved  to  compel,  instead 
of  purchasing,  forbearance  from  the  Algerines, 
who  soon  found  that  they  were  wholly  unable 
to  cope  with  our  naval  power.  The  French 
expedition  fitted  out  against  Algiers,  just  before 
Charles  X.  was  compelled  to  quit  his  throne 
and  country,  was  completely  triumphant,  and 
the  dey,  permitted  to  retire  with  his  private 
treasure,  went  to  Italy  to  pass  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  The  French  still  retain  possession 
of  Algiers. 


Of  the  numerous  kingdoms  and  tribes  inhab- 
iting the  interior  of  Africa,  we  have  ample 
descriptions  in  the  works  of  the  enterprising 
travellers  who  have  recently  made  so  many 
discoveries  in  a  country  hitherto  comparatively 
unknown.  A  mere  enumeration  of  the  names 
of  these  would  be  tedious,  and  more,  it  would 
be  vain  to  attempt.  The  celebrated  Mungo 
Park,  who  fell  a  victim  to  the  ardor  of  scien- 
tific research,  describes  the  inhabitants  of  the 
interior  df  Africa  as  being  of  three  races,  viz : 
the  Mandingoes  or  proper  negroes,  native  child- 
ren of  Nigritia  ;  the  Foulahs,  or  white  ^Ethiopi- 
ans  of  Ptolemy  and  Pliny ;  and  the  Moors. 
These  last  are  Mohammedans,  bigoted,  intoler- 
ant, treacherous,  and  bloody.  Agriculture  forms 
the  principal  occupation  of  the  negroes,  while 
the  Moors,  true  to  their  ancestral  character, 
are  either  wandering  shepherds  or  roving  mer- 
chants, with  no  fixed  habitation. 

In  writing  or  in  reading  the  history  of  Africa, 
what  painful  reflections  are  suggested  by  the 
contemplation  of  that  infamous  traffic  which 
has  brought  so  much  misery  upon  the  natives 
of  this  country  !  Africans  have  been  regarded 
as  degraded  and  worthless  beings,  who  have  no 
claim  upon  the  kindness  of  the  inhabitants  of 
other  countries,  and  whom  it  was  even  meritori- 
ous to  enslave.  It  has  been  asserted  in  general 
terms,  that "  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe  have 
some  good  as  well  as  ill  qualities,  except  the  Af- 
ricans.". Their  want  of  proper  education,  the 
tyranny  of  their  rulers,  and  the  innumerable 
defects  of  their  governments,  have  contributed 
to  keep  them  in  a  state  of  degradation,  for 
which  they  were  not  originally  intended.  Alas  ! 
how  many  of  their  crimes  may  we  not  trace 
to  European  agency  !  The  joyous  disposition 
even  of  an  African  slave  manifests  itself  after 
the  first  pangs  of  captivity  and  sad  recollection 
have  passed  "a way.  If.  then,  amidst  the  worst 
evils,  the  gaiety  of  the  African  is  not  wholly 
banished,  may  we  not  imagine  that  lie  would 
enjoy  enviable  happiness  if  placed  under  a  just 
and  enterprising  government,  and  permitted  to 
display  his  native  energies  and  powers?  Much 
has  been  done  to  alleviate  the  condition  of  the 
blacks,  and  England,  together  with  a  large 
portion  of  America,  has  abolished  that  slavery 
which  the  worldly  interests  of  men  induced 
thorn  so  long  to  continue.  The  American  Col- 
onization Society  have  established  a  colony  on 
the  western  coast  of  Africa,  on  which  they  have 
bestowed  the  name  of  Liberia.  Thither  are 
sent  manumitted  slaves,  and,  after  having  strug- 
gled against  manifold  obstacles,  the  colony  is 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AFR 


31 


AGA 


now  in  a  very  flourishing  condition,  enjoying 
the  fruits  of  useful  knowledge  and  religion. 

The  trade  in  gold  and  ivory  is  carried  on  upon 
the  western  coast,  in  barter  for  woollen  and 
linen  manufactures,  hardware,  and  spirituous 
liquors,  which  are  the  articles  of  exchange. 
The  Dutch,  French,  and  Portuguese  have  their 
various  settlements  for  the  purposes  of  trade. 
The  possession  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  being 
a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance,  was  for  a 
long  time  a  source  of  contest  between  the  Dutch 
and  English.  It  was  taken  by  the  English  in 
1797,  and  after  having  been  surrendered  to  the 
Dutch,  in  1802,  was  again  occupied  by  the  former 
in  1806.  and  has  since  remained  in  their  posses- 
sion. Cape  Town  is  resorted  to  by  ships  bound 
to  the  Indian  ocean,  for  supplies  of  water  and 
provision.  The  Hottentots,  or  Bushmen,  as  they 
are  called,  are  undoubtedly  a  degraded  race,  but 
instead  of  endeavoring  to  better  their  condition, 
the  Europeans  have  contributed  to  prolong,  and 
in  fact  consolidate  their  evil  habits,  furnishing 
them  with  spirituous  liquors,  the  agency  of 
which  ensures  their  destruction,  or  reduces 
them  to  an  abject  state  which  is  far  worse  than 
death  itself.  The  cruelty  practised  on  the 
natives  by  the  Dutch — and  that  too  with  the 
sanction  of  government— almost  exceeds  belief. 

When  a  party  of  Dutch  wished  to  settle  in 
any  spot,  they  proceeded  to  clear  it  by  the  death 
of  the  natives,  with  as  much  coolness  as  an 
American  squatter  would  exhibit,  in  hewing 
down  the  forest-trees  to  open  a  place  for  the 
erection  of  his  log-house,  or  in  picking  off  with 
his  rifle  a  few  of  the  wild  animals  which  threat- 
ened to  be  troublesome.  The  Dutch  manner  of 
proceeding  was  summary.  Having  selected 
the  hut  of  some  poor  wretch  as  an  object  of 
destruction,  they  first  set  fire  to  it.  Let  us 
imagine  the  dismay  and  horror  of  a  poor  family 
at  finding  flames  breaking  forth  around,  above 
them,  in  every  direction.  Rushing  forth,  the 
wretched  owners  of  the  miserable  dwelling 
would  implore  pity  from  their  cruel  enemies. 
The  Dutchmen,  or  boors,  would  be  too  much 
engaged  in  loading  their  pieces  and  discharging 
them  upon  the  males,  to  heed  the  cries  of  the 
females  who,  with  their  children,  were  gener- 
ally saved.  The  indifference  with  which  the 
boors  regard  the  death  of  the  bushmen.  is  stri- 
kingly illustrated  in  the  following  anecdote.  A 
boor,  presenting  himself  at  the  secretary's  office 
at  Cape  Town,  after  having  traversed  a  lonely 
tract,  was  asked  if  he  had  not  found  the  Bush- 
men troublesome  ?  "  Not  very,"  replied  he, 
with  great  coolness,  "  I  only  shot  four." 


Africa  is  a  country,  the  history  and  geogra- 
phy of  which  may  be  studied  with  great  interest 
and  advantage.  To  the  intelligent  traveller 
it  is  replete  with  wonders.  He  lingers  among 
the  gigantic  remains  of  ancient  art  and  splen- 
dor, which  abound  in  Egypt,  with  a  feeling  of 
veneration ;  recalling,  as  he  dwells  upon  the 
spot,  the  busy  scenes  of  the  past,  the  actors  of 
which  sleep  beneath  the  dust  of  centuries,  their 
perishable  remains  contrasting  with  the  vast 
monuments  of  their  enterprise  and  wealth, 
which,  not  the  less  surely,  because  at  a  later 
period,  will  be  crumbled  into  atoms  by  the  stern 
hand  of  time.  Then,  too,  the  presence  of  these 
antique  relics  recalls  ideas  of  the  troubled  times 
of  Israel,  when  the  yoke  of  the  Egyptian  Pha- 
raoh pressed  heavily  upon  her  children,  till  they 
were  rescued  from  the  land  of  bondage  by  the 
power  of  the  Omnipotent,  who  rolled  back  the 
strong  tides  of  the  sea,  to  let  them  pass.  The 
contemplation  of  these  early  scenes  awakens  in 
the  well-trained  mind  a  thought  of  Him,  of 
whom  we  know  that  whatever  be  the  chance 
or  change  of  time,  though  kingdoms  may  pass 
away,  and  cities  be  crumbled  into  dust,  "  His 
word  endureth  for  ever." 

The  peninsula  of  Africa  forms  a  vast  trian- 
gle, containing  11,500.000  square  miles.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean ; 
on  the  east  by  Asia,  the  Red  Sea,  and  the 
Indian  Ocean  ;  and  on  the  south  and  west  by  the 
Southern  and  Atlantic  Oceans.  It  contains 
vast  ranges  of  mountains,  immense  deserts,  and 
regions  inhabited  by  great  numbers  of  animals. 
How  little  was  known  of  this  vast  country  by 
the  ancients,  and  how  wide  a  field  it  affords, 
for  the  investigation  of  modern  men  of  science  ! 

AGAMEMNON,  leader  of  the  Greeks  in  the 
Trojan  war,  was  king  of  Mycene  and  Argos, 
son  of  Plisthenes,  and  brother  of  Menelaus, 
the  seduction  of  whose  wife  lighted  the  flames 
of  war.  Returning,  after  the  destruction  of  the 
city,  he  was  murdered  by  his  wife,  Clytemnes- 
tra.  either  from  jealousy,  or  on  account  of  her 
love  for  another. 

AG  AT  H  OGLES,  an  adventurer,  who, 
although  of  ignoble  birth,  from  being  a  private 
in  the  Sicilian  army,  made  himself  master  of 
Sicily.  B.  C.  317.  This  he  accomplished  by  the 
death  of  thousands  of  the  Sicilians.  Although 
defeated  by  the  Carthaginians  in  Sicily,  he 
carried  the  war  into  Africa,  where  he  was  suc- 
cessful. After  having  lost  his  sons  and  army, 
by  a  mutiny  in  Africa,  he  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing tranquillity,  B.  C.  306.  In  Italy  he 
conquered  the  Brutii,  and  took  and  sacked 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


AGI  3 

Crotona.  He  was  poisoned  by  his  favorite, 
Maenon,  who  poisoned  the  feather  with  which 
the  king  usually  cleansed  his  teeth  after  dinner. 
The  effect  of  the  poison  was  instantaneous  and 
frightful — the  mouth  and  body  of  the  monarch 
decaying  in  a  few  minutes.  Life  had  not 
forsaken  his  limbs  when  he  was  thrown  upon 
the  funeral  pile.  He  was  an  able  ruler  in  the 
court  and  the  battle-field,  but  cruel,  fond  of 
pleasure,  and  ambitious. 

AGESILAUS,  a  king  of  Sparta,  and  a  dis- 
tinguished leader  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  He 
signalized  himself  by  his  valorous  resistance  to 
the  Persians,  and  successfully  opposed  the  arms 
of  the  Thebans  under  Epaminondas.  Agesi- 
laus  was  lame  and  of  small  stature,  but  brave, 
and  almost  idolized  by  his  troops.  He  was  84 
years  old  at  the  time  of  his  death,  B.  C.  360. 

AGHRIM,  or  Aughrim,  a  village  in  the 
county  of  Galway,  Ireland,  where  the  troops  of 
William  III.  defeated  those  of  James  II.  in  a 
battle  fought  July  12,  1691. 

AGINCOURT,  or  Azincourt,  a  village  in 
the  department  of  Pas  de  Calais,  France,  where 
Henry  V.  of  England,  with  an  army  of  little 
more  than  15,000  men,  defeated  the  flower  of 
the  French  troops,  amounting  to  70  or  100,000 
men,  well  officered  and  equipped.  Henry  en- 
trenched his  troops  strongly,  within  fences  of 
pointed  stakes,  then  first  used,  and  in  modern 
times,  known  under  the  name  of  Cheraux  de 
Frise.  The  rashness  and  disordered  impetu- 
osity of  the  French,  and  the  coolness  and  or- 
derly intrepidity  of  the  English  produced  the 
same  effects  at  Azincourt  as  at  Poictiers.  The 
French  leader,  the  constable  d'Albret,  the  count 
de  Nevers,  and  the  duke  of  Brabant,  the  dukes 
of  Alencon  and  Bar,  the  counts  of  Vaudemont 
and  Marie,  scorning  to  survive  defeat,  rushed 
into  the  thickest  of  the  fight,  and  died,  with  up- 
wards of  10,000  of  their  followers.  The  number 
of  captives  taken  by  the  English  was  14,000,  a 
number  about  equal  to  that  of  the  conquerors. 
The  loss  of  the  English  was  comparatively  small, 
and  the  duke  of  York,  the  only  person  of  con- 
sequence who  fell.  This  nobleman  was  Hen- 
ry's uncle,  and  was  slain  in  defending  the  king 
against  the  duke  of  Alencon,  who  rode  furi- 
ously upon  him.  Alencon  dashed  Henry's 
crown  from  his  head,  with  a  blow  of  his  battle- 
axe,  and  was  preparing  to  despatch  him,  when 
the  king's  attendants  closed  around  him  in  a 
steely  circle,  and  he  fell,  covered  with  wounds, 
the  blood  pouring  from  every  joint  of  his  armor. 
This  ;rreat  battle  was  fought,  Oct.  25th,  1415. 

AGIS  IV,  king  of  Sparta,  the  son  of  Euda- 


2  AGR 

midas,  and  lineal  descendant  of  Agesilaus. 
He  endeavored  to  reform  the  manners  and  con- 
stitution of  Sparta,  but  was  opposed  by  the 
mass  from  interest,  and  condemned  to  be  stran- 
gled. The  executioner  refused  to  perform  his 
dreadful  office,  until  forced  to  it.  Agis  met  his 
fate  with  firmness,  B.  C.  241. 

AGKES,  ST.  was  put  to  death  during  the 
reign  of  Diocletian,  emperor  of  Rome.  The 
Catholics  celebrate  her  festival  on  the  21st  of 
January.  At  Rome,  they  bring  cattle  to  the 
church  of  St.  Agnes  on  "this  day  to  be  blessed 
by  the  priest,  a  ceremony  which  is  thought  to 
preserve  them  from  sickness  till  the  next  year. 
AGNESI,  Maria  Gaetana,  a  talented  and 
learned  lady,  born  at  Milan,  in  1718.  In  a 
Latin  oration,  delivered  in  her  ninth  year,  she 
advocated  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages 
by  females.  At  the  age  of  eleven,  she  was 
conversant  with  Greek,  which  she  spoke  with 
great  fluency,  and  she  afterwards  mastered  the 
Oriental  languages.  Geometry  and  philosophy 
next  engaged  her  attention.  She  was  the  cen- 
tra] ornament  of  the  most  brilliant  and  talented 
circles,  and  her  surpassing  loveliness  of  face 
and  figure  gave  additional  effect  to  the  magic 
of  her  words.  In  mathematics  she  was  no  less 
successful  than  in  other  branches  of  learning, 
and  at  thirty  published  a  treatise  on  the  rudi- 
ments of  analysis,  thought  to  be  the  best  intro- 
duction to  Euler's  works  extant.  She  acquired 
sucli  fame  by  this  performance,  that  she  was 
appointed,  in  her  32d  year,  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  university  of  Bologna.  Incessant 
application  seems  finally  to  have  rendered  her 
melancholy  ;  she  renounced  society,  and  joining 
the  order  of  blue  nuns,  died  in  her  fclst  year, 
1799. 

AGRICOLA,  Cneius  Julius,  a  brave  and 
virtuous  Roman  commander,  and  a  distin- 
guished statesman.  He  subjected  a  great  part 
of  Britain,  A.  D.  70.  Dornitian  recalled  him, 
and  he  died  in  retirement,  A.  D.  93. 

AGRIGENTUM,nowGirgentiorAgrigenti, 
a  town  in  Sicily  about  three  miles  from  the 
coast,  and  forty-seven  miles  south  of  Palermo, 
with  a  population  of  15,000.  According  to 
Diodorus,  in  its  brighter  days,  it  contained  no 
fewer  than  200,000  inhabitants.  It  was  anciently 
famed  for  its  hospitality  and  luxury.  Its  horses 
were  celebrated.  It  contained  many  fine  build 
ings,  the  most  splendid  of  which  \vas  a  temple 
to  Jupiter  Olympius.  Ita  democratic  govern 
ment  was  overthrown  by  Phalaris,  B.  C.  571, 
but  was  again  restored  after  his  death.  After- 
wards it  was  possessed  by  the  Carthaginians. 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AIX 


33 


ALA 


Its  antique  remains  attract  the  attention  of 
modern  travellers. 

AGRIPPA,  Henry  Cornelius  a  native  of 
Cologne,  born  in  1486,  and  noted  tor  his  acquire- 
ments, talents,  and  eccentricity.  For  his  military 
services,  he  was  knighted.  He  was  acquainted 
with  eight  languages,  and  made  pretensions 
to  magic,  which  procured  him  invitations  from 
various  personages  of  celebrity,  who  sought  to 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  futurity.  After  a  life 
full  of  change  and  incident,  he  died  at  Greno- 
ble, in  1535. 

AGRIPPA  I,  grandson  of  Herod,  tetrarch  of 
Trachonites,  and  king  of  Judea.  St.  James 
perished  in  a  persecution  commenced  by  him. 
The  occasion  and  manner  of  his  death  are  rela- 
ted, Acts  xii.  20 — 23,  under  his  patronymic 
name  of  Herod. 

AGRIPPA,  Marcus  -Vipsanius,  the  son-in- 
law  and  friend  of  Augustus,  whose  fleet  he 
commanded  in  the  battle  of  Actium. 

AGRIPPINA,  the  elder,  wife  of  Germanicus 
Caesar,  whom  she  accompanied  in  his  German 
expeditions.  She  was  banished  A.  D.  33,  by 
the  cruel  Tiberius,  who  hated  her  for  her  vir- 
tues and  popularity,  to  the  island  of  Pandataria, 
where  she  starved  herself  to  death. 

AGRIPPINA,  the  younger,  daughter  of  the 
above,  was  born  at  Cologne.  She  was  pos- 
sessed of  talents,  but  intriguing,  dissolute,  and 
ambitious.  She  was  married  to  her  uncle 
Claudius,  the  emperor,  whom  she  poisoned  to 
clear  the  throne  for  her  wicked  son  Nero,  who 
assassinated  her,  when  she  became  troublesome 
after  his  elevation. 

AHASUERUS,  the  king  of  Persia,  whose 
marriage  with  Esther,  and  protection  of  the 
Jews,  are  described  in  the  Scriptures.  He  is 
probably  the  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  of  the 
Greeks,  whose  reiom  began  B.  C.  465. 

AHAZ,  son  of  Jotham,  and  king  of  Judah, 
reigned  from  743  to  728  B.  C.,  and  was  con- 
temporary with  the  prophets  Isaiah,  Hosea,  and 
Micah. 

AIGUILLON,  duke  d' ;  a  peer  of  France, 
and  minister  of  Foreign  affairs  under  Louis 

XV.  He  was  witty,  but  little  acquainted  with 
political  science.     On  the  accession  of  Louis 

XVI,  he  was  removed,  and,  having  been  soon 
after  banished,  he  died  in  exile  in  1780. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  in  German  Aachen, 
a  German  city  on  the  borders  of  Belgium, 
lying  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Meuse,  in  a 
rich  valley  encompassed  by  hills.  The  city,  in 
1828,  contained  a  population  of  35,800.  It  was 
the  birth-place  of  Charlemagne  according  to 


some  authors,  and  contains  many  buildings  and 
monuments  of  historical  interest.  It  was  the 
northern  capital  of  Charlemagne,  who  held  a 
splendid  court  here,  and  was  buried  in  its  cathe- 
dral. Succeeding  emperors  conferred  so  many 
privileges  on  the  city,  that  it  was  remarked  that 
"  the  air  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  gave  freedom  even 
to  the  outlaws."  In  diplomacy,  it  is  famous 
for  more  than  one  Congress  of  powers,  and  par- 
ticularly for  that  of  1748,  in  which  peace  was 
concluded  between  England,  France,  Holland, 
and  several  German  powers. 

AJACCIO,  or  Ajazzo,  the  capital  and  finest 
city  of  Corsica,  containing  o',57()  inhabitants. 
It  is  famous  for  being  the  birth-place  of  Napo- 
leon. Its  coral  and  anchovy  fisheries  make  it  a 
place  of  some  commercial  importance. 

AJAX.  The  name  of  two  of  the  Homeric 
heroes  (Telamon  and  Oileus),  formidable  in  the 
Trojan  war,  whose  history,  however,  is  purely 
mythological. 

AKBAH,  a  Saracen  conqueror,  who  over- 
ran Africa  from  Cairo  to  the  Atlantic,  was  kill- 
ed in  a  revolt  of  the  Greeks  and  Africans.  He 
lived  in  the  first  century  of  the  Hegira. 

AKBAR,  or  Akber, "Mohammed,  sultan  of 
the  Moguls,  in  155t>.  He  regained  Delhi  from 
the  Patans,  quelled  several  revolts,  conquering 
the  whole  country  of  Bengal,  and  taking  Cash- 
mere and  Sind.  He  pardoned  his  son  Selim, 
who  had  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  de- 
throne him.  Akbar  died  in  1(505,  of  grief  for 
the  loss  of  one  his  sons. 

AKENSIDE,  Mark ;  an  English  poet  and 
physician,  the  son  of  a  butcher,  born  at  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne,  in  1721.  He  was  intended 
for  the  ministry,  but  preferred  the  study  of 
medicine.  He  never  had  much  success  in  the 
practice  of  his  profession,  but  as  a  poet  ac- 


'uired  great  renown.     His  "  Pleasures  of  the 
magination,"  will  be  read  as 


0 ,  „ as  long  as  the  Eng- 
lish language  exists.  He  was  a  scholar,  and  a 
man  of  strict  morality.  He  died  of  a  fever  in 
1770,  in  the  49th  year  of  his  age. 

ALABAMA,  a  state  of  great  importance, 
was  very  recently  detached  from  Mississippi. 
In  1817,  it  was  erected  into  a  territorial  gov- 
ernment, and  became  a  slate  in  1820.  The 
rapidity  with  which  the  population  of  Alabama 
has  increased,  has  been  surprising  even  to 
those  who  are  accustomed  to  behold  the  rapid 
rise  of  the  new  states  of  this  country.  It  is 
asserted,  and  with  truth,  that  no  portion  of  the 
western  country  has  exhibited  so  speedy  an 
increase  of  population.  In  1800,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  that  part  of  Mississippi  which  now 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


ALA 


34 


ALA 


forms  the  state  of  Alabama,  amounted  to  only 
2,000,  while  ten  years  later,  the  same  region  con- 
tained 10,000.  In  J820,  the  number  of  inhabi- 
tants was  found  to  amount  to  127,000;  and.  in 
1840,  it  reached  590,756.  The  length  of  the 
state  is2SO  miles;  its  breadth,  1GO  ;  and  it  con- 
tains 52,000  square  miles.  It  may  be  well, 
before  entering  into  any  historical"  detail,  to 
give  a  brief  general  description  of  the  physical 
appearance  of  the  country.  The  land  is  divided 
into  several  regular  terraces,  or  belts,  as  it 
were,  which  rise  above  each  other  from  the 
gulf  of  Mexico.  Of  these  the  southern  belt  or 
terrace,  is  flat  and  swampy,  containing  several 
savannahs.  Pine  is  the  prevalent  timber. 
Pleasing  and  varying  undulations  distinguish 
the  northern  belt. 

The  greater  part  of  Alabama  is  separated 
from  Tennessee  valley  by  abrupt  and  precipi- 
tous hills,  or  rather  mountains,  which,  in  some 
places,  rise  to  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet  above 
the  gulf  level.  The  swamps  in  the  vicinity  of 
Florida  are  numerous,  and  covered  with  cy- 
press, gum,  and  loblolly  pine-trees,  while  the 
uplands  are  timbered  with  the  long-leaved  pine. 
What  are  termed  the  hummock  lands,  the  fer- 
tility of  which  is  lasting,  form  a  belt  between 
the  pine  ridges  and  the  bottoms,  and,  as  the 
French  imagine  that  they  are  well  adapted  to 
the  rearing  of  grape  vines,  it  may  not  be  long 
before  these  slopes  will  be  clustered  with  smi- 
ling vineyards,  and  echo  the  joyous  song  of  the 
vine-dresser,  and  the  merriment  of  the  autum- 
nal vintage.  Yet  corn,  cotton,  tobacco,  beef, 
and  pork,  at  present  constitute  the  main  products 
of  the  state.  It  is  said  that  the  culture  of  the 
sugar-cane  would  not  be  difficult  in  Alabama, 
and  in  it,  groves  of  orange-trees,  undoubtedly 
of  Spanish  origin,  are  not  infrequent.  The 
Creek  Indians  possess  some  of  the  most  fertile 
portions  of  the  country. 

We  cannot  attempt  a  minute  history  of  this 
state,  so  much  are  its  annals  involved  with 
those  of  other  portions  of  the  western  country. 
The  various  contests  between  Spanish,  French, 
and  English  colonists  in  the  great  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  while  they  prove  interesting  and 
instructive  when  treated  of  at  that  length 
which  would  be  requisite  to  do  them  justice, 
involved  in  a  general  view,  would  prove  unsa- 
tisfactory and  destitute  of  all  interest  to  the 
reader.  Some  facts  relative  to  the  early  dis- 
coveries in  the  southern  portion  of  North  Amer- 
ica, will  not  be  jndged  misplaced,  if  they  are 
introduced  here.  Sebastian  Cabot  coasted  the 
tountry,  which  subsequently  obtained  the  name 


of  Florida,  a  very  few  years  after  the  discovery 
of  America  by  Columbus.  The  Spanish  claim 
for  Juan  Pon^  de  Leon  the  merit  of  discove- 
ring Florida,  in  1512,  at  a  time  when  he  was 
engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  that  immortal  foun- 
tain, whose  waters  were  to  restore  to  age  the 
vanished  bloom  and  strength  of  youth.  It  was 
on  Easter  Day  that  land  appeared.  As  this  fes- 
tival is  called  by  the  Spaniards  Pasr.ua  dc  jlvres, 
the  festival  of  flowers,  Leon  gave  the  name  of 
Florida  to  the  new  discovered  country.  Her- 
rera  assigns  a  different  reason  for  the  appella- 
tion in  the  blooming  appearance  of  the  country, 
which  presented  an  astonishing  variety  and 
quantity  of  blossoms.  The  Indians  whom" Leon 
encountered,  far  from  being  effeminate  and 
soft,  like  the  inhabitants  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  were  stern  and  warlike,  exhibiting  so 
decided  a  hostility  to  the  Spaniards,  that  they 
were  glad  to  effect  a  retreat. 

The  French  who  settled  on  the  borders  of  the 
Mississippi  at  an  early  period,  did  not  meet  with 
much  success  at  first,  and  for  a  long  time  the 
French  settleuients  were  insignificant  and  unno- 
ticed. Instead  of  drawing  their  support  from  the 
fertile  bosom  of  the  earth  beneath  their  feet,  they 
are  said  to  have  subsisted  on  provisions  obtain- 
ed from  France  and  the  Spanish  colonies.  So 
slow  were  they  in  appreciating  the  richness  of 
the  soil,  and  so  tenacious  of  established  opi- 
nions and  prejudices,  that  on  a  superficial  exami- 
nation of  facts,  we  are  surprised  to  find  that,  in 
the  northern  and  more  sterile  parts  of  North 
America,  where  a  thousand  obstacles  presented 
themselves  in  the  path  of  the  adventurer,  the 
work  of  colonization  went  on  with  the  greatest 
rapidity.  This  appears  to  have  been  a  wise  ordi- 
nation of  Providence.  The  French  settlers, 
while  they  wanted  the  perseverance  of  the 
English,  and  the  colonial  experience  of  the 
Spaniards,  had  a  singular  facility  in  winning 
the  friendship  and  esteem  of  the  savages.  Yet, 
in  spite  of  this  advantage,  few  of  the  colonies 
they  founded  at  the  south,  went  on  without 
many  interruptions,  while  the  Spanish  settle- 
ments were  generally  permanent. 

Mobile,  now  an  important  and  flourishing 
town,  in  the  lower  part  of  Alabama,  while 
alternately  in  the  possession  of  the  French 
and  Spaniards,  was  little  more  than  a  mere 
military  post.  The  cause  of  this  is,  perhaps, 
partly  to  be  found  in  the  character  of  the 
country  around  it,  which  abounds  in  dreary, 
swampy  lands,  and  stagnant  waters,  while  a 
barren  region  of  pine  woods  is  contiguous. 
Mobile  lies  on  the  west  side  of  Mobile  Bay, and 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ALA 


35 


ALA 


is  situated  on  a  plain  of  considerable  elevation. 
A  swampy  island  opposite  the  city,  makes  it 
difficult  of  access,  but  when  gained,  vessels 
remain  in  perfect  security.  No  sooner  did  it 
come  into  the  hands  of  the  United  States,  than 
its  importance  was  vastly  increased,  and  its 
appearance  changed  for  the  better.  It  is  now 
considered  to  be,  next  to  New  Orleans  and 
Charleston,  the  largest  cotton  market  in  the 
country.  The  former  monotony  of  its  waters  is 
banished  by  the  continual  arrival  and  departure 
of  numerous  steamboats,  which  ply  upon  the 
river  above. 

After  the  English  had  obtained  possession  of 
the  whole  country  east  of  the  Mississippi,  which 
was  ceded  to  them  by  the  French,  in  the  treaty 
of  peace  concluded  between  France  and  Great 
Britain,  Feb.  10th,  1763,  they  encountered  the 
hostilitv  of  the  Spanish,  who  were  in  posses- 


sion of  Louisiana,  and  were  inflamed  against 
the  English  by  motives  of  hostility  and  jeal- 
ousy. The  war  of  the  American  revolution 
placed  the  British  colonists  in  Florida  in  a 
peculiarly  embarrassing  and  dangerous  situa- 
tion. On  the  one  hand  they  were  threatened 
by  the  Spanish  colonists  of  Louisiana,  while, 
on  the  other,  they  feared  the  hostility  of  the 
new  states.  The  Spanish  colonists  in  turn, 
although  fearful  of  the  consequences  of  the 
spread  of  liberal  principles  which  the  success  of 
the  Americans  would  ensure,  and  aware  that  the 
discomfiture  of  the  British  in  Florida  would  be 
a  source  of  congratulation  to  the  Americans,  yet 
so  ardently  desired  the  conquest,  that  they  laid 
aside  all  minor  considerations,  and  determined 
on  attempting  it.  At  this  time,  Galvez,  a  gal- 
lant and  enterprising  officer,  was  the  Spanish 
commander  of  Louisiana.  He  took  the  field 
against  the  British  with  2.300  men.  Natchez 
and  Pensacola  capitulated,  and  Galvez.  in  1780, 
sailed  against  Mobile  with  a  powerful  arma- 
ment. A  storm  overtook  him  in  the  gulf,  and 
the  wreck  of  one  of  his  armed  vessels,  with 
the  wetting  of  his  provision  and  ammunition, 
gave  no  good  omen  of  ultimate  success.  Anv 
other  commander,  so  circumstanced,  would 
have  despaired,  but  Galvez,  keeping  up  a  toler- 
able appearance,  landed  near  Mobile,  and  halted 
in  the  momentary  expectation  of  an  attack 
from  the  British.  He  saw  that  such  an  attack 
would  be  ruinous,  and,  entertaining  no  doubt 
that  the  British  would  commence  hostilities, 
made  preparations  for  relinquishing  his  artillery 
and  military  stores,  and  falling  back,  in  what 
order  he  might,  upon  New  Orleans.  Whether 
from  want  of  foresight,  or  from  cowardice,  the 
English  did  not  attempt  to  disturb  him. 


Finding  himself,  much  to  his  surprise,  un- 
molested, Galvez  took  heart  again,  and  having 
carefully  dried  his  stores  and  ammunition, 
which,  upon  examination,  were  found  not  to 
have  been  spoiled,  though  badly  wet,  he 
marched  upon  Mobile,  which  was  garrisoned 
and  defended  by  regulars  and  militia.  Six 
Spanish  batteries,  playing,  with  well-directed 
aim  upon  the  place,  opened  a  breach,  and  the 
garrison  immediately  capitulated  !  In  this  af- 
fair, the  English  behaved  with  a  hesitation  and 
timidity,  which  it  is  but  justice  to  say,  is 
unusual  in  them.  At  Pensacola,  only  sixty 
miles  off,  General  Campbell  was  stationed  with 
an  overwhelming  force  ;  yet  he  inarched  not  to 
the  relief  of  Mobile,  until  it  was  in  the  hands 
of  Galvez.  The  capture  of  Mobile  by  the 
Spanish,  fills  a  conspicuous  page  in  the  historj 
of  Alabama. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year  1811,  the  troops 
of  the  United  States  were  employed  against  the 
Indians,  who  formed  powerful  hostile  combina- 
tions in  the  western  country.  During  the  war 
with  Great  Britain,  many  bloody  engagements 
were  fought  with  the  Indians.  After  the  surren- 
der of  Detroit,  an  event  which  produced  such  an 
universal  feeling  of  shame  and  degradation  in 
the  west,  the  Indians  sent  news  of  their  triumph 
even  to  the  most  southerly  extremity  of  the 
union,  and  invited  the  neutral  tribes  of  the 
south  to  assume  the  hatchet  on  the  side  of  their 
red  brethren.  The  Creeks  and  Seminoles, 
with  many  other  tribes,  were  not  slow  in 
responding  to  the  summons,  and  became  in- 
volved in  the  war,  which  was  felt,  in  hostile 
incursions,  by  the  entire  frontier,  from  Ten- 
nessee to  the  bay  of  Mobile.  Tecumseh  or 
Tecumthe,  the  famous  Indian  chief,  arming 
himself  with  the  persuasive  predictions  of  his 
brother,  the  prophet,  arrived  among  the  Creek 
Indians  in  1812,  and  urged  them  forward  to 
deeds  of  blood.  The  most  dreadful  outrages 
were  consequently  perpetrated  by  the  Creeks 
along  the  Alabama  frontier,  which  sufFered 
extremely  during  this  war. 

In  1814,  Mobile  was  attacked  by  the  British, 
and  defended  by  Major  Lawrence,  with  a  gal- 
lantry which  has  gained  him  no  inconsiderable 
renown.  His  Spartan  band  of  130  men  were 
resolved  to  suffer  no  stain  to  dim  the  brilliancy 
of  their  starred  banner,  and  to  uphold  it  while 
the  life-blood  ran  warm  in  their  veins.  On  the 
12th  of  September,  a  memorable  day  to  the 
garrison,  intelligence  was  received  at  the  fort 
of  the  landing  of  a  pretty  large  force  of  Indi- 
ans and  Spaniards  in  its  vicinity.  In  the  course 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ALA 


36 


ALA 


of  that  day  two  British  brigs  and  sloops  hove  in 
sight,  and  anchored  at  an  inconsiderable  dis- 
tance. At  half  after  four  in  the  evening  of  the 
15th,  the  Hermes,  Charon,  Sophia  and  Ana- 
conda, with  ninety  guns,  anchored  at  such  a 
distance  from  the  fort,  as  to  admit  of  firing 
upon  it  conveniently.  A  simultaneous  land 
attack  was  begun  by  Captains  Nicholls  and 
Woodbine.  Their  fortifications  were  made 
of  sand,  and  they  brought  a  howitzer  to  bear 
upon  the  fort  at  point  blank  distance ;  but  they 
were  soon  compelled  to  abandon  their  position. 
Still  a  severe  firing  was  maintained  by  the 
ships  and  fort.  The  Hermes,  receiving  a  ra- 
king fire,  ran  ashore,  was  abandoned,  and  blew 
up.  The  Charon  was  almost  wholly  disabled. 
When  the  flag-staff  of  the  fort  was  shot  away, 
Woodbine  and  Nicholls,  thinking  the  foe  van- 
quished, rushed  forward  to  the  fort,  but  were 
awakened  to  a  sense  of  their  error  by  a  mur- 
derous fire  which  sent  them  to  the  right  about 
with  enviable  facility.  What  praise  is  too 
warm  for  the  conduct  of  the  few  Americans 
who  composed  the  garrison,  when  we  consider 
the  numbers  and  advantages  of  the  enemy  ? 
The  600  men  who  attacked  the  fort  by  sea, 
were  supported  by  90  heavy  guns.  Four  hun- 
dred Indians  and  others  made  an  attack  in  the 
rear.  Captain  Lawrence  had  but  about  a  seventh 
of  the  enemy's  numerical  force,  and  20  guns, 
all  badly  mounted,  and  some  of  them  quite 
ineffective.  Yet,  while  he  lost  but  ten  men,  he 
compelled  the  enemy  to  retire  with  a  loss  of 
their  very  best  ship,  and  230  men. 

The  political  metropolis  of  Alabama  is  Tus- 
caloosa,  a  rapidly  increasing  and  improving 
village,  at  the  falls  of  the  Black  Warrior.  The 
spot  on  which  it  stands,  was  but  a  short  time 
since  a  wild  forest,  and  to  a  person  wiio  had 
visited  this  unsettled  woodland,  the  village 
must  appear  like  that  palace  in  the  Arabian 
Nights,  which  was  erected  in  a  single  night. 
The  inhabitants  of  Alabama  are  justly  proud  of 
their  state — proud  of  its  political  and  commer- 
cial importance,  of  its  rapidity,  growth,  and 
character  for  industry.  It  is  a  slave-holding 
state,  and  contains  many  opulent  planters,  who 
have  all  the  lavish  hospitality  which  distin- 
guishes them  wherever  they  may  dwell.  Ala- 
bama can  boast  of  very  few  institutions,  lit- 
erary or  religious;  but  in  the  character  of  the 
people,  there  is  a  regard  for  literature  and  reli- 
gion, which  will  supply  the  want  before  long. 
The  laws  of  this  State  exhibit  no  very  marked 
difference  from  those  of  other  stales.  The 
senators  serve  for  a  term  of  three,  and  the  rep- 


resentatives  for  one  year.  There  is  a  supreme 
and  a  circuit  court,  with  subordinate  courts, 
appointed  by  the  legislature,  who  choose  the 
judges,  the  latter  holding  their  offices  during 
good  behavior. 

The  boundaries  of  Alabama  are  as  follows  : 
north  by  Tennessee;  east  by  Georgia;  south 
by  Florida  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  west 
by  Mississippi. 

ALAMANNI,  Luigi,  a  celebrated  Italian  poet 
a  native  of  Florence,  born  in  1495.  Being  at 
variance  with  Clement  VII.  he  fled  to  France 
to  avoid  the  power  of  the  pope,  but  returned  to 
Florence  when  it  became  independent.  When 
it  was  subjected  to  the  Medici,  he  sought  the 
protection  of  Francis  1.  of  France,  and  was 
esteemed  by  that  monarch,  and  by  Henry  II, 
who  employed  him  in  several  affairs  of  conse- 
quence. He  died  of  dysentery,  at  Amboise. 
His  writings  embraced  almost  every  depart- 
ment of  poetry. 

ALAND,  a  cluster  of  islands  in  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  belonging  to  Russia.  The  ground  is 
stony  and  the  soil  thin.  Eighty  of  the  islands 


are  inhabited,  and  the  aggregate   population  is 
more  than  thirteen   thous 
island  is  forty  miles  long. 


e   popuatio 
The  princi 


ipal 


ALANI  or  Alans,  a  warlike  tribe  that  left 
their  abodes  near  Mount  Caucasus,  in  Asia. 
when  the  Roman  empire  was  declining.  After 
412,  thev  became  lost  among  the  Vandals. 

ALAR1C,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  who  plun- 
dered the  Peloponnesus  in  ;$!>5.  He  appears 
first  as  an  ally  of  the  Romans,  whose  weakness 
he  discovered  and  profited  by.  When  he  first 
threatened  Rome,  his  forbearance  was  pur- 
chased by  a  ransom  of  5000  pounds  of  gold, 
30,001)  po"unds  of  silver,  4000  garments  of  silk, 
3000  pieces  of  fine  scarlet  cloth,  and  3000 
pounds  of  pepper.  In  410,  the  Goths  returned, 
penetrated  the  city,  and  sacked  it.  The  tir.t 
sures  which  had  been  accumulated  during  a 
thousand  years,  vanished  in  three  days  beneath 
the  hands  of  the  rapacious  conquerors.  The 
flames  destroyed  works  of  art  which  the  barba- 
rians were  unable  to  carry  oft',  but  Alai  ic  spared 
the  churches  and  those  who  had  sought  refuge 
in  them.  Alaric  died  at  u  Calabnan  town 
(Cosenza),  A.  D.410,  when  lie  was  preparing  to 
lay  waste  Sicily  and  Africa.  In  order  to  con- 
ceal his  remains  from  the  Romans,  slaves  were 
employed  to  divert  the  waters  of  the  BuHento, 
and  hollow  his  last  resting-place  in  the  channel 
of  the  stream  ;  when  the  earth  had  received  the 
body  of  the  conqueror,  the  waves  were  permit- 
ted to  rush  in  above  it,  and  the  slaves  were 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


ALB 


37 


ALB 


murdered,  that  Alaric's  secret  might  be  in  the 
keeping  of  the  waters  and  the  voiceless  dead. 

ALBA,  a  city  of  Latium,  built,  according  to 
tradition,  by  Ascanius,  the  son  of  JEneas.  Being 
the  rival  of  Rome,  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Ro- 
mans, G65  B.  C.  and  the  inhabitants  were  carried 
to  Rome. 

ALBANI,  Francesco,  a  painter,  born  at  Bo- 
logna, in  1578,  whose  female  forms  have  been 
highly  extolled.  From  the  effeminate  charac- 
ter of  his  subjects,  he  was  called  the  Jlnacreon 
of  painters.  He  died  in  1660,  in  his  82d 
year,  having  lived  long  enough  to  survive  his 
fame. 

ALBANIA,  a  province  on  the  coast  of  the 
Adriatic  and  Ionian  seas,  called  in  Turkish 
Jlrnumd,  in  Albanian,  Skiperi,  anciently  Epirus 
and  Illyria.  It  was  the  kingdom  of  Pyrrhus, 
and  a  few  years  back  was  governed  by  All  Pacha. 
It  is  fertile  and  rich,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
mountains  are  famous  for  courage.  The  wo- 
men in  the  absence  of  male  protectors,  have 
been  frequently  known  to  defend  their  homes 
with  spirit  and  success.  The  population  is 
about  3°0,000. 

ALBANY,  or  Albani,  countess  of,  princess 
Louisa  Maria  Caroline,  or  Aloysia,  born  in  1753, 
in  1772,  married  Charles  Stuart,  the  English 
pretender,  whose  barbarity  and  habitual  intoxi- 
cation, drove  her  to  a  cloister  in  1780,  and 
received  an  annuity  from  the  French  court, 
after  the  death  of  her  husband,  in  1788.  She 
died  at  Florence,  in  1824,  in  her  72d  year.  She 
was  buried  beside  Alfieri,  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Croce.  at  Florence.  Alfieri  was  tenderly 
attached  to  her,  and  attributed  to  her  his  inspi- 
ration. (See  Alficri.) 

ALBANY,  the  seat  of  government  of  the 
State  of  New-York,  situated  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Hudson  or  North  River,  144  miles  north 
of  New- York  city.  Population  33,721.  The 
river  is  navigable  to  Albany,  for  sloops  of  80 
ton's,  and  trade  with  New-York  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  these.  The  Erie  and  Champlain  ca- 
nals unite  above  the  city,  and  are  connected 
with  a  basin  at  Albany.  The  facility  of  com- 
munication which  it  possesses,  renders  it  a  great 
thoroughfare.  Its  exports  are  wheat,  and  other 
articles  of  produce.  The  Dutch  settled  Albany 
in  1614.  It  was  built  up  with  the  disregard  to 
elegance  so  common  among  the  Dutch,  but  its 
modern  buildings,  both  private  and  public,  are 
beautiful  and  tasteful. 

ALBEMARLE  SOUND,  an  arm  of  the  sea, 
extending  sixty  miles  into  the  eastern  coast  of 
North  Carolina,  connected  with  the  Atlantic 


and  Pamlico  Sound  by  small  inlets,  and  with 
Chesapeake  Bay  by  a  canal  which  passes  through 
the  Dismal  Swamp. 

ALBERT  I,  emperor  and  duke  of  Austria, 
crowned  in  1298,  after  defeating  and  slaying 
Adolphus  of  Nassau,  his  competitor.  The  rival 
leaders  engaged  in  single  combat,  and  Adol- 
phus exclaimed,  "  Your  crown  and  life  are 
lost !"  "  Heaven  will  decide,"  was  the  answer 
of  Albert,  as  he  forced  his  lance  into  the  face 
of  his  adversary  and  unhorsed  him.  Albert 
was  assassinated  in  1308,  by  his  nephew  John, 
son  of  the  duke  of  Suabia,  whose  paternal 
estates  he  had  seized.  John  had  often  asserted 
bis  claims,  and  urged  them  upon  Albert  when 
lie  was  departing  for  Switzerland,  on  account 
of  the  revolt  of  the  Swiss.  The  emperor  con- 
temptuously offered  his  nephew  a  garland  of 
flowers.  "  Take  this,"  said  he,  "  amuse  your- 
self with  botanical  investigations,  but  leave  the 
cares  of  government  to  those  who  are  old  and 
wise  enough  to  understand  them."  Albert 
breathed  his  last  in  the  arms  of  a  poor  woman, 
who  was  sitting  by  the  road-side  at  the  time  of 
his  assassination. 

ALBIGENSES,  the  Protestants  of  Savoy 
and  Piedmont ;  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  objects 
of  cruel  persecution  and  of  several  crusades. 

ALBOIN,  king  of  the  Lombards,  ascended 
the  throne  in  561.  When  an  ally  of  the  Ro- 
mans, he  slew  Cunimund,  king  01  the  Gepidse, 
whose  daughter  Rosamond  he  afterwards  mar- 
ried. He  undertook  the  conquest  of  Italy,  r.nd 
had  made  great  progress,  when  he  was  killed 
by  an  assassin,  at  the  instigation  of  his  wife 
Rosamond.  The  cause  of  her  anger  was  his 
sending  her,  during  one  of  his  fits  of  intoxica- 
tion, a  drinking-cup  made  of  her  father's  skill], 
filled  with  wine,  and  compelling  her,  to  use  his 
words,  to  drink  with  her  father. 

ALBRET,  Jane  d',  daughter  of  Margaret, 
queen  of  Navarre,  was  married  at  the  age  of 
eleven  to  the  duke  of  Cleves,  but  the  marriage 
was  annulled  in  1548.  when  she  espoused  An- 
thony de  Bourbon,  duke  of  Vendome,  by  whom 
she  became  mother  of  Henry  IV.  In  J555,  her 
father  dying,  she  became  queen  of  Navarre, 
and  in  1562,  the  death  of  her  husband  left  her 
independent.  She  then  set  herself  to  establish 
the  Reformation  in  her  kingdom,  although 
opposed  by  France  and  Spain.  She  expired 
suddenly,  at  Versailles,  in  1572,  and  her  death 
was  attributed  to  poison. 

ALBUHERA,  a  village  in  Estremadura,  si- 
tuated on  the  Albuhera,  12  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
Badajoz.  Here  the  English  marshal,  Beres- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


ALC 


38 


ALE 


ford,  gained  a  victory  over  the  French,  under 
Soult,  May  16th,  18)1. 

ALBUQUERQUE,  the  name  of  two  Portu- 
guese brothers,  distinguished  for  bravery,  who 
took  Cochin,  in  India,  in  1505.  Francis  was 
lost  on  his  passage  home.  When  Alphonso 
captured  Ormus,  an  island  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  the  king  of  Persia  demanded 
the  tribute  which  he  had  been  accustomed  to 
receive  from  the  princes  of  the  island.  Upon 
this,  Albuquerque  laid  before  the  ambassadors 
a  sword  and  a  bullet,  saying  haughtily,  "  this 
is  the  coin  in  which  Portugal  pays  her  tribute." 
After  a  rash  and  unsuccessful  attempt  upon 
Calicut,  he  took  Goa  and  Malacca.  The  envy 
of  courtiers,  and  the  suspicions  of  king  Emman- 
uel, did  not  spare  even  the  distinguished  merit 
of  Albuquerque,  who  died  at  Goa,  in  1515,  after 
his  ungrateful  master  had  deprived  him  of  his 
place,  and  appointed  his  personal  enemy,  Lopez 
Soarez,  to  fill  it. 

ALCjEUS,  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  born  at  Mity- 
lene  in  Lesbos,  and  contemporary  with  Sappho. 
He  engaged  in  war  with  ardor,  and  his  lays 
breathe  tne  divine  enthusiasm  of  liberty. 

ALCALA  DE  HENAREZ,  a  city  of  Spain, 
in  New  Castile,  situated  on  the  river  Henarez, 
15  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Madrid.  It  was  called  by 
the  ancients  Complutum.  Here  was  printed  the 
first  Polyglot  Bible,  called  the  Complutensian 
Polyglot,  which  cost  Cardinal  Xirnenes  250,000 
ducats.  A  copy  of  it  sold  at  Paris,  in  1817,  for 
j£  676  sterling.  " 

ALCIBIADES,  an  Athenian  general,  famous 
for  his  enterprise,  gallantry,  versatility,  and 
natural  foibles.  He  was  the  son  of  Clinias  and 
Dinomache,  and  was  born  at  Athens,  about -150 
B.  C.  He  was  educated  in  the  house  of  Peri- 
cles, who  was  too  much  occupied  with  state 
affairs  to  pay  much  attention  to  !<he  youth. 
The  impetuosity  of  Alcibiades  displayed  itself 
early,  as  the  following  anecdote  shows.  While 
he  was  playing  dice  in  the  street  with  some 
juvenile  companions,  a  waggon  came  up.  Alci- 
biades requested  the  driver  to  stop,  but  he  refu- 
sed. The  daring  youth  then  threw  himself 
before  the  wheel,  and  exclaimed  ;  "  Drive  on. 
if  thou  darest !"  The  instructions  of  (lie  phi- 
losopher Socrates,  for  a  time  restrained  his  evil 
propensities.  Socrates  fought  by  his  side  in  his 
first  battle,  and,  when  he  was  wounded,  de- 
fended him,  and  bore  him  off  safe.  The 
dissipation  and  extravagance  of  Alcibiades  were 
unbounded.  One  night,  being  at  a  banquet,  he 
laid  a  wager  that  he  would  box  the  cars  of  llic. 
rich  Hipponicus,  and  did  so.  This  excited 


ju 
bi 


general  indignation,  but  Alcibiades  went  to  the 
injured  party,  threw  oft"  his  garment,  and,  pla- 
cing a  rod  in  his  hand,  bade  him  strike  and 
revenue  himself.  Hipponicus  not  only  par- 
doned him  freely,  but  gave  him  his  daughter  in 
marriage,  with  a  portion  equivalent  to  about 
10,500  dollars  of  our  money.  At  the  Olympic 
games,  Alcibiades  would  enter  seven  chariots, 
and  at  one  time  won  three  prizes. 

In  the  Peloponnesian  war  he  encouraged  the 
Athenians  to  engage  in  an  expedition  against 
Syracuse.  lie  was  chosen  general  in  that  war, 
and  in  his  absence,  his  enemies,  having  found 
all  the  statues  of  Mercury  broken,  charged  him 
with  being  concerned  in  the  deed  and  confiscated 
all  his  property.  He  then  fled  to  Sparta,  where 
he  attempted  to  gain  popularity  by  adopting  the 
temperate  habits  of  the  Spartans,  whom  he  wish- 
ed to  rouse  against  the  Athenians.  Finding  this 
of  no  avail,  he  went  to  Tissaphernes,the  Persian 
general.  He  was  afterwards  recalled  by  the 
Athenians,  and  having  compelled  the  Spartans 
to  sue  for  peace,  and  been  successful  in  Asia, 
was  welcomed  to  Athens  with  high  honors.  The 
failure  of  an  expedition,  with  the  command  of 
which  he  was  enti  listed,  a<jain  roused  the  resent- 
ment of  the  people,  and  Alcibiades  fled  to  Phar- 
nabazes.  Lysander,  the  Spartan  general,  indu- 
ced Pharnabazes  to  assassinate  him.  The  atten- 
dants sent  for  that  purpose,  found  him  in  a  castle 
in  Phrygia,  in  company  with  his  favourite  Ti- 
mandra.  They  set  the  building  on  fire,  and  the 
warrior  rushed"  out  to  escape  the  conflagration. 
Dreading  his  valour,  the  cowardly  assassins 
retreated  to  a  safe  distance,  and  shot  him  with 
their  arrows.  Thus  perished  Alcibiades,  in  the 
45th  year  of  his  age,  about  404,  B.  C.  Thucy- 
dides,  Tirnseus.  and  Theopompus,  with  Plu 
tarch  and  Cornelius  Nepos,  among  the  ancients, 
have  written  of  this  hero,  who,  if  he  wanted 
firm  moral  principles,  was  generous,  brave,  per- 
severing, and  gifted  with  distinguished  quali- 
ties. His  eloquence  was  of  that  kind  which 
wins  the  hearts  of  men  imperceptibly  and  unos- 
tentatiously ;  although  it  is  said  that  he  stut- 
tered, and  was  unable  to  pronounce  the  letter 
R. 

ALCIPHRON.  a  distinguished  epistolary 
writer  among  the  Greeks. 

ALCMAN,the  son  of  a  slave,  born  nt  Sardis, 
in  Lydia.  670  years  B.  C.  He  was  a  fine  poet, 
and  Honored  by  his  countrymen. 

ALDENHOVEN,  a  town  between  Juliers 
and  Ai.v-la-Chapelle,  where  the  French  were 
defeated.  March  1.  17-13. 

ALEMANNI,  that  is,  all  men,  the  ancient 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ALE 


39 


ALE 


inhabitants  of  Suabia  and  Switzerland,  united 
in  a  league,  from  whence  Germany  derives  its 
French  name  of  Allemagne.  They  were  the 
determined  opponents  of  the  Romans. 

ALEMBERT,  Jean  le  Rond  d',  a  distin- 
guished mathematician,  and  literary  character, 
born  at  Paris,  in  1717,  died  in  1783.  He  was 
tlie  son  of  Madame  de  Tencin,  and  the  poet 
Destouches,  who  exposed  him  while  an  infant. 
At  ten  years  of  age,  the  principal  of  the  school 


in  which  he  received  his  early  education,  de- 
s pupil  had  learned  all  that  he  could 
teach  him.     He  undertook  to  write  the  mathe- 


clared that  his  pupil  had  l 


matical  part  of  the  French  Encyclopedia,  and 
contributed  many  admirable  articles  to  it,  which 
however,  involved  him  in  the  attacks  made  upon 
the  work.  He  refused  the  brilliant  offers  of 
Frederic  II.  of  Prussia,  and  Catherine  of  Rus- 
sia, to  settle  ift  their  respective  capitals,  and 
lived  in  his  country  till  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  the  66th  year  of  his  age. 

ALEPPO  is  the  capital,  not  only  of  a  pacha- 
lie.  but  of  all  Syria,  and  has  justly  been  ranked 
as  the  third  city  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  Its 
Arabic  name  is  Haleb.  In  former  times  it  pos- 
sessed great  commercial  advantages  which  it 
has  lost  in  later  times.  It  is  supposed  by  many 
to  be  the  Zobah  of  scripture,  which  is  spoken 
of,  2  Sam.  viii.  152.  At  present  little  doubt  is 
entertained  of  its  being  the  Beraea  of  the 
Greeks.  The  river  Kovvich,  on  reaching  Alep- 
po, diminishes  in  size,  although  at  times  it 
increases  to  a  formidable  stream.  When  Aleppo 
was  besieged  by  a  Christian  army,  in  1123,  this 
stream,  swelling  with  augmented  waters,  unex- 
pectedly overflowed  its  banks,  and  swept  away 
the  tents  and  baggage  of  the  besiegers.  Many 
men  perished  in  the  rushing  inundation,  and 
the  siege  was  raised  in  consequence  of  this 
disaster. 

Seen  from  a  distance,  this  city  presents  a 
picturesque  appearance  ;  its  gay  terraces,  grace- 
ful mosques,  airy  arches,  and  shadowing  trees, 
aiford  a  combination  which  is  grateful  to  the 
senses  ;  but  a  nearer  approach,  like  daylight  on 
a  phantasmagoria,  dispels  the  illusion.  Walk- 
ing through  the  streets,  the  eye  wanders  over 
high  stone  walls  which  flank  the  way,  or  turns 
baffled,  from  the  lattices  with  which  the  infre- 
quent windows  of  the  houses  are  churlishly 
guarded.  The  inhabitants  of  Aleppo  differ  but 
little  from  those  of  other  Mohammedan  cities  and 
countries.  They  have  the  same  love  for  indo- 
lent pleasures,  the  same  fondness  for  the  luxu- 
ries of  the  bath,  but  less  intolerance  than  the 
other  Turks.  Thus  the  Armenians  and  Greeks 
4* 


have  churches  and  a  bishop  in  the  city,  and  the 
Syrians  and  Maronites  have  likewise  places  of 
public  worship.  The  Jews  of  Aleppo,  have  in 
their  Synagogue  a  MS.  of  the  Old  Testament 
which  they  consider  to  be  of  great  antiquity 
The  disease  which  is  called  the  JYeal  d' Aleppo, 
to  which  both  natives  and  foreigners  are  sub- 
ject, is  an  eruption  which  leaves  an  indelible 
scar,  and  is  thought  to  originate  in  the  quality 
of  the  water.  As  a  commercial  place,  Aleppo 
has  degenerated  in  modern  times,  but  still  re- 
mains the  emporium  of  Armenia  and  Diarbekii. 
The  English,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  estab- 
lished a  factory  here,  and  consuls  of  various 
nations  reside  in  the  place  at  present.  The 
city,  including  the  suburbs,  is  7  or  8  miles  in 
circumference,  containing  200,000  inhabitants, 
about  one  fourth  of  whom  are  Christians,  the 
remainder  being  Mohammedans  and  Jews. 
Eight  thousand  inhabitants,  together  with  two 
thirds  of  the  city,  were  destroyed  by  earth 
quakes  in  1822,  and  1823. 

ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS ;  a  group,  belong- 
ing to  Russia,  about  100  in  number,  forming  a 
connecting  link  between  Asia  and  America, 
and  separating  the  sea  of  Kamschatka  from 
the  northern  part  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Some 
of  them  are  volcanic ;  they  are  destitute  of 
vegetation,  but  afford  abundance  of  fur  and 
fish.  The  harmless  inhabitants  are  cruelly  trea- 
ted by  the  Russians.  The  English  names  for 
the  islands,  are  the  Fox,  Behrmgs,  or  Copper 
Islands. 

ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT,  son  of  Philip 
of  Macedon,  was  born  in  Pella,  B.  C.  356.  The 
kingdom  of  Macedon  was  raised  to  celebrity  by 
the  exploits  of  Philip,  and  was  destined  to  attain 
a  yet  higher  rank  among  nations  from  the  fame 
of  his  son.  Olympias,  daughter  of  Neoptole- 
mus  of  Epirus,  was  his  mofher.  At  an  early 
age,  he  showed  a  veneration  for  great  deeds 
and  a  determination  to  achieve  them.  Hear- 
ing of  the  victories  of  Philip,  he  exclaimed, 
"my  father  will  leave  nothing  for  me  to  do." 
Aristotle,  the  celebrated  philosopher,  consented 
to  take  charge  of  Alexander's  educatiopfc  Hie 
preceptor  instructed  him  in  the  most  eleganja-a 
well  as  the  most  profound  branches  of  Know- 
ledge, and  never  for  a  moment  forgot  that  it  was 
his  duty  to  fit  him  for  governing  a  great  king- 
dom. 'That  he  might  become  acquainted  with 
military  virtues  and  ambition,  Aristotle  put  the 
Iliad  into  the  hands  of  his  noble  pupil.  Alexan- 
der was  so  fond  of  this,  that  he  never  lay  down 
without  having  read  some  pages  in  it.  Hia 
exclusive  ambition  is  well  illustrated  by  the 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  HISTORY. 


ALE 


40 


ALE 


letter,  which  he  wrote  his  preceptor  on  the  pub- 
lication of  his  Metaphysics.  "  You  did  wrong 
in  publishing  those  branches  of  science  hitherto 
not  to  be  acquired  but  from  oral  instruction. 
In  what  shall  I  excel  others,  if  the  more  pro- 
found knowledge  I  gained  from  you  be  com- 
municated to  all  ?  For  my  part,  I  had  rather 
surpass  the  majority  of  mankind  in  the  sublimer 
branches  of  learning,  than  in  the  extent  of 
power  and  dominion." 

It  was  no  part  of  the  ancient  Grecian  plan 
of  education,  to  permit  the  culture  of  the  mind 
to  supersede  that  of  the  body,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  instructors  of  the  young,  knowing 
that  they  are  indivisible,  trained  the  intellect- 
ual and  corporeal  powers  at  the  same  time. 
Alexander  was  early  accustomed  to  gymnastic 
exercises,  and,  at  a  tender  age,  displayed  his 
strength  and  skill  in  an  extraordinary  manner. 
His  rather  had  been  presented  with  a  superb 
charger  (Bucephalus),  which  no  one  dared  to 
mount.  Alexander  sprang  upon  his  back  and 
succeeded  in  completely  taming  him,  after 
which  the  steed  would  permit  none  but  the 
noble  youth  to  mount  him.  He  bore  him 
through  some  of  the  most  perilous  scenes  of  his 
career,  and,  when  he  died,  was  honored  by  a 
splendid  memorial — the  erection  of  a  city  called 
Bucephalia.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  years,  Alex- 
ander was  appointed  by  his  father,  Regent  of 
Macedon,  when  the  latter  departed  on  his  expe- 
dition to  Byzantium.  In  338,  at  the  battle  of 
Chteronea,  he  conquered  the  sacred  band  of 
Thebans,  and  so  distinguished  himself,  that  Phi- 
lip, embracing  him,  exclaimed  ;  "  My  son,  seek 
another  empire,  for  that  you  will  inherit  is  un- 
worthy of  you." 

When  Pnilip  married  Cleopatra,  and  divorced, 
or,  at  least,  disgraced  Olympias,  Alexander, 
having  taken  the  part  of  his  mother,  incurred 
the  displeasure  of  his  father,  and  was  forced  to 
fly  to  Epirus,  whence,  however,  he  was  soon 
recalled.  Soon  after  this  he  saved  his  father's 
life  in  an  expedition  against  the  Triballi.  Phi- 
*^  lip  was  assassinated, B.C.  336,  when  preparing 
to  make  war  upon  Persia,  at  the  head  of  all  the 
Grecian  forces.  Alexander,  then  twenty  years 
of  age,  ascended  the  throne,  and  soon  gave 
proof  of  talents  to  govern  and  to  conquer. 
From  the  Greeks  he  received  the  chief  com- 
mand in  the  war  against  Persia.  Finding, 
upon  his  return,  that  the  Illyrii  and  Triballi 
were  in  arms,  he  conquered  them  and  forced  a 
triumphant  passage  through  Thrace.  Urged 
by  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes,  the  Atheni- 
ans were  about  to  join  the  Thebans,  who  had 


already  taken  up  arms.  Alexander  promptly 
repaired  to  Thebes,  and  on  the  refusal  of  the 
citizens  to  surrender,  took  it  and  destroyed  it, 
with  the  exception  of  the  poet  Pindar's  house. 
Six  thousand  individuals  were  put  to  the  sword, 
and  30,000  reduced  to  captivity.  The  Athenians, 
although  punished,  were  not  so  severely  hand- 
led, and  the  fate  of  Thebes  had  the  intended 
effect  of  striking  terror  into  all  Greece.  The 
general  assembly  of  the  Greeks  confirmed  Alex- 
ander in  the  chief  command  of  the  forces, 
and  he  determined  to  leave  Antipater,  who  had 
been  a  minister  of  his  father,  at  the  head  of  the 
government.  The  confidence,  which  was  re- 
posed in  this  man,  was  great,  as  appears  from 
the  following  anecdote.  Philip  was  fond  of 
wine,  and  occasionally  indulged  himself  to  ex- 
cess. One  night,  observing  one  of  his  compan- 
ions unwilling  to  drink  deteply,  "  Drink, 
drink,"  said  he,  "all's  safe,  for  Antipater  is 
awake." 

In  the  spring  of  334,  Alexander  crossed  into 
Asia  with  30,000  foot,  and  5,000  horse.  In  the 
plains  of  Ilium,  he  offered  sacrifices  to  Minerva, 
and  crowned  the  tomb  of  Achilles.  Approach- 
ing the  Granicus,  he  learned  that  some  Persian 
satraps,  with  20,000  foot  and  as  many  horse, 
were  prepared  to  oppose  his  progress  to  the 
other  side.  The  passage  of  the  river  was  ef- 
fected in  the  teeth  of  this  force,  and  Alexander 
was  completely  triumphant.  During  the  heat  of 
battle,  the  Macedonian  monarch  was  a  mark  for 
the  weapons  of  the  enemy,  by  the  splendor  of 
his  equipments,  and  the  conspicuous  beauty  of 
his  superb  charger.  The  cities  of  Asia  Minor, 
with  tew  exceptions,  now  opened  their  gates  to- 
the  youthful  conqueror.  In  passing  through 
Gordium,  Alexander  cut  the  Gordian  knot. 
Lycia,  Ionia,  Caria,  Pamphylia,  and  Cappa- 
docia,  were  successively  conquered.  The  con- 
queror was  seized  with  a  severe  illness  in 
consequence  of  imprudently  bathing  in  the 
Cydnus,  which  proved  a  check  to  his  career. 
While  in  a  dangerous  state,  he  received  a,  let- 
ter from  Parmenio,  his  general,  warning  him 
against  his  physician  Philip,  whom  Parmenio 
accused  of  the  design  of  poisoning  his  master. 
Philip  was  at  that  time  preparing  a  potion  for  the 
king ;  and  Alexander,  handing  him  the  letter, 
looked  steadily  in  his  face  while  he  drank  off 
the  draught.  He  recovered. 

Darius,  instead  of  waiting  for  Alexander  on 
the  plains  of  Assyria,  had  advanced  with  an  im- 
mense army  to  the  defiles  of  Cilicia,  whither 
the  Macedonian  followed,  defeating  the  Persi- 
ans in  the  battle  of  Issus,  which  placed  the 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ALE                                 41  ALE 

treasures  and  family  of  Darius  in  the  hands  of  like  leaves  before  the  tempest.  Having  routed 
the  conqueror.  His  generous  treatment  of  the  them  by  the  charge  of  his  horse,  Alexander 
latter  conferred  as  much  honor  upon  Alexan-  hastened  to  the  support  of  his  left  wing,  finding 
der,  as  the  victory  which  preceded  it.  He  that  they  had  been  hard  pressed  and  stood  in 
turned  towards  Coslosyria  and  Phoenicia  for  the  need  of  his  assistance.  Alexander's  principal 
purpose  of  cutting  off  Darius  who  had  fled  to-  object  was  to  capture  the  Persian  monarch  or 
wards  the  Euphrates.  The  Persian  monarch  prevent  his  flight  by  death.  In  the  midst  of 
sent  a  letter  to  Alexander  suing  for  peace,  and  the  crowd  and  crush  of  battle,  Darius  was  no 
the  latter  answered  him,  that  if  he  would  come  inconsiderable  figure,  for  he  was  mounted  on  a 
to  him,  he  should  receive  his  mother,  his  wife,  chariot  of  great  height,  and  surrounded  by 
his  children,  and  his  empire  ;  but  no  notice  was  guards  who  were  splendidly  armed  and  equip- 
taken  of  this  liberal  proposal.  Damascus,  and  ped.  The  Persian  life-guards,  however,  no 
all  the  towns  along  the  Mediterranean,  were  sooner  perceived  the  extraordinary  success  of 
entered  and  taken  possession  of  by  Alexander.  Alexander,  than,  forgetful  of  their  duty,  they 
The  resistance  of  Tyre  was  severely  punished  ;  took  to  flight.  Darius  was  saved  by  the  speed 
after  a  siege  of  seven  months,  it  was  taken  with  of  a  horse  upon  which  he  hastily  threw  him- 
great  difficulty.  In  Palestine,  Gaza,  which  re-  self  after  the  flight  of  his  guards, 
sisted  the  conqueror  like  Tyre,  shared  the  fate  The  immense  wealth  of  the  East  was  depo- 
of  that  city.  Gaza  was  the  emporium  for  the  sited  in  Babylon  and  Susa,  both  of  which 
productions  of  Arabia,  and  a  place  of  considerable  opened  their  gates  without  hesitation  to  the 
wealth  and  importance.  Among  the  plunder,  mighty  victor,  who  continued  his  march  to- 
the  conqueror  gained  great  quantities  of  frank-  wards  Persepolis,  then  the  capital  of  Persia, 
incense,  myrrh,  and  other  aromatics,  the  sight  Ariobarzanes,  with  40,000  men,  had  thrown 
of  which  recalled  a  long-forgotten  anecdote  of  himself  into  the  only  passage  which  opened  on 
his  juvenile  days.  His  governor,  Leonnatus,  Persepolis.  determined  to  defend  it  as  long  as 
observing  him  one  day  at  a  sacrifice,  throw  in-  he  was  able.  He  did  not,  however,  hold  out 
cense  into  the  flame  by  handfuls,  remonstrated,  long,  for  the  troops  of  Alexander,  flushed  with 
and  said,  "  Alexander,  when  you  have  con-  success,  and  impatient  of  opposition,  swept 
quered  the  spice  countries,  you  may  be  thus  away  all  obstacles.  Attacking  the  Persians  in 
lavish  of  your  incense;  in  the  meantime  use  the  rear,  they  were  completely  successful,  and 
what  you  have  more  sparingly."  Alexander  now  Persepolis,  with  all  its  wealth  and  luxury,  was 
sent  his  governor  several  large  bales  of  spices,  won.  In  Persepolis,  Alexander  forgot  his  duty 
accompanied  with  the  following  note  :  "  Leon-  and  his  interest,  in  scenes  of  unexampled  riot  and 
natus,  I  have  sent  you  frankincense  and  myrrh  dissipation.  He  was  intoxicated  with  success, 
in  abundance;  so  be  no  longer  a  churl  to  the  and  inclined  to  believe  himself  the  god  which 
gods."  his  flatterers  would  have  made  him.  It  is  said 
The  Egyptians,  to  whom  the  Persian  yoke  that  on  entering  the  royal  palace,  he  beheld 
had  been  a  galling  burden,  were  well  pleased  the  colossal  statue  of  Xerxes  which  his  soldiers 
with  the  arrival  of  Alexander,  whom  they  grater  had  thrown  down,  and  deliberating  whether  to 
fully  regarded  as  a  deliverer.  His  next  expe-  elevate  it  or  suffer  it  to  lie  neglected,  he  thus 
dition  was  a  visit  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Am-  apostrophized  it ;  "  Shall  we  leave  you  in  this 
mon,  in  the  deserts  of  Libya,  where,  having  condition  on  account  of  the  war  you  made  upon 
consulted  the  oracle,  the  god  is  said  to  have  Greece,  or  raise  you  again  for  the  sake  of  your 
acknowledged  him  as  his  son.  In  the  ensuing  magnanimity  and  other  virtues?"  In  a  mo- 
spring,  learning  that  Darius  had  gathered  an  ment  of  intoxication  and  unbridled  pleasure, 
immense  force  in  Assyria,  and  was  determined  Alexander,  yielding  to  the  persuasions  of  an 
to  fight  to  the  last,  rejecting  all  proposals  for  abandoned  woman,  Thais,  the  Athenian,  fired 
peace,  Alexander  inarched  in  that  direction,  the  capital  of  Persia,  which  was  soon  reduced 
In  331,  a  furious  battle  was  fought  at  Gauga-  to  ruins.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Medus  and 
mela,notfarfroraArbela,inwhich  the  army  of  Araxes,  near  Istakar,  the  ruins  of  the  royal 
Darius  was  oiot  less  than  500,000  strong.  Not-  palace  of  Persepolis  are  still  visible  ;  tall  col- 
withstanding  this  overwhelming  force,  victory  umns  yet  attesting  its  former  magnificence, 
from  the  opening  of  the  combat,  smiled  upon  before  the  vengeance  of  the  Greek  was  wreaked 
the  banners  of  the  Macedonian.  The  thunder-  upon  the  pride  of  art. 

ing  charge  of  his  cavalry,  led  by  himself,  was  The  burning  of  Persepolis  filled    Alexan- 

irresistible,and  scattered  the  thronged  Persians  der  with  remorse,  and,  in  order  to  retrieve 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


ALE 


his  character,  he  set  forth  in  pursuit  of  Darius 
with  his  fine  cavalry.  He  soon  learned  that 
Bessus,  the  perfidious  satrap  of  Bactria,  kept 
his  master  in  custody,  but,  before  he  could 
save  Darius,  Bessus  had  the  unfortunate  mon- 
arch assassinated, B.  C.  330.  He  was  found  lying 
in  his  chariot  covered  with  wounds.  The  per- 
fidy of  Bessus  was  subsequently  punished  with 
death.  Darius  was  interred  with  great  solem- 
nity, and  Alexander  caused  himself  to  be  pro- 
claimed kinff  of  Asia.  While  occupied  in  the 
formation  of  plans  of  vast  importance,  a  con- 
spiracy broke  out  in  the  camp  of  Alexander, 
in  which  Philotas,  the  son  of  Parmenion,  was 
found  to  be  concerned.  Philotas,  though  brave 
and  hardy,  was  addicted  to  pleasure,  to  expen- 
sive amusements,  and  given  to  boasting.  He 
frequently  spoke  slightingly  of  Alexander  to 
the  companions  of  his  pleasures — calling  him 
the  boy,  and  saying  that  his  victories  were  rather 
the  result  of  his  own  exertions  and  those  of  his 
father,  than  of  the  bravery  and  skill  of  Alexan- 
der. Parmenion  endeavoured  to  check  his  son, 
saying,  "  Make  yourself  less  conspicuous,"  but 
his  counsel  was  of  no  avail.  Alexander  heard 
of  the  boastings  of  Philotas  with  indignation  ; 
and  when  the  conspiracy  broke  forth  his  anger 
knew  no  bounds.  Philotas  was  executed,  and, 
by  the  orders  of  Alexander,  the  veteran  Parme- 
nion was  secretly  put  to  death — a  criminal  act 
which  excited  the  displeasure  of  the  whole 
army. 

Meanwhile  Agis,  king  of  Sparta,  threatened 
the  destruction  of  the  power  of  Alexander  in 
Greece,  and  raised  a  powerful  army  to  obtain 
independence,  but  he  was  defeated  by  Antipa- 
ter,  and  the  dissolution  of  the  Grecian  league 
ensued.  Neither  the  severity  of  the  winter, 
nor  the  want  of  local  knowledge  prevented 
Alexander  from  marching  into  the  north  of 
Asia  and  reaching  the  Caspian  Sea.  He  at- 
tacked the  Scythians,  urged  on  by  an  insatiable 
thirst  for  distinction.  On  his  return  to  Bac- 
tria, he  assumed  the  dress  of  the  Persians, 
which  disgusted  the  Macedonians,  who  thought 
the  flowing  robes  of  the  Orientals  too  effemi- 
nate. The  Persians  were  displeased  at  be- 
holding the  Macedonian  officers  entering  the 
royal  presence  without  those  tokens  of  respect, 
which  the  kings  of  their  nation  invariably  ex- 
acted from  their  subjects.  The  low  inclina- 
tions of  reverence  could  only  be  claimed  from 
the  Greeks  on  the  plea  that  Alexander,  as  a 
god,  was  entitled  to  them.  A  blunt  Spartan 
once  satisfied  the  master  of  ceremonies  and  his 
own  scruples,  by  first  dropping  a  ring  and  then 


42  ALE 

stooping  to  pick  it  up  in  the  presence  of  the 
king.  Offended  with  the  independence  and 
freedom  of  Clitus,  Alexander  slew  him  with 
his  own  hand  at  a  banquet.  As  soon  as  he  saw 
the  lifeless  body  of  his  most  faithful  friend  and 
bravest  general  stretched  before  him,  he  was 
seized  with  all  the  agonies  of  remorse. 

The  next  year  Alexander  subdued  Sogdiana, 
and  married  "the  Bactrian  Roxana,  the  loveliest 
of  Asiatic  women.  The  Asiatic  women,  but 
particularly  the  ladies  of  Persia,  were  famous 
for  the  richness  of  their  attire,  and  the  art  with 
which  they  heightened  their  native  beautv. 
"  The  Persian  ladies."  says  an  elegant  writer, 
"  wore  the  tiara  or  turban,  richly  adorned  with 
jewels.  They  wore  their  hair  long,  and  both 
plaited  and  curled  it ;  nor,  if  the  natural  failed, 
did  they  scruple  to  use  false  locks.  They 
pencilled  the  eye-brows,  and  tinged  the  eye-lid, 
with  a  dye  that  was  supposed  to  add  a  peculiar 
brilliancy  to  the  eyes.  They  were  fond  of  per- 
fumes, and  their  delightful  ottar  was  the  prin- 
cipal favorite.  Their  tunic  and  drawers  were 
of  fine  linen,  the  robe  or  gown  of  silk — the 
train  of  this  was  long,  and  on  state  occasions 
required  a  supporter.  Round  the  waist  they 
wore  a  broad  zone  or  cincture,  flounced  on  both 
edges,  and  embroidered  and  jewelled  in  the 
'centre.  They  also  wore  stockings  and  gloves, 
but  history  does  not  record  their  materials. 
They  used  no  sandals  ;  a  light  and  ornamental 
shoe  was  worn  in  the  house  ;  and  for  walking 
they  had  a  kind  of  coarse  half  boot.  They  used 
shawls  and  wrappers  for  the  person,  and  veils 
for  the  head ;  the  veil  was  large  and  square, 
and  when  thrown  over  the  head,  descended  low 
on  all  sides.  They  were  fond  of  glowing  col- 
ors, especially  of  purple,  scarlet,  and  light-blue 
dresses.  Their  favorite  ornaments  were  pearls  ; 
they  wreathed  these  in  their  hair,  wore  them 
as  necklaces,  ear-drops,  armlets,  bracelets,  ank- 
lets, and  worked  them  into  conspicuous  parts 
of  their  dresses.  Of  the  precious  stones  they 
preferred  emeralds,  rubies,  and  turquoises,  which 
were  set  in  gold  and  worn  like  the  pearls.'' 
No  fewer  than  10,000  Greeks,  captivated  with 
their  charms,  married  Asiatic  brides,  and  each 
couple  received  a  present  from  Alexander. 

Soon  after  the  marriage  of  Alexander  with 
Roxana,  a  conspiracy  was  discovered  among 
his  troops,  headed  by  Hermolaus.  All  were 
condemned  to  death  but  Callisthenes,  who  was 
mutilated  and  carried  about  with  the  army  in 
an  iron  cage,  until  his  tortures  became  insuffera- 
ble, and  he  killed  himself  by  poison.  Alexander 
penetrated  into  India  and  was  highly  success- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ALE  43  ALE 

ful.     His  most  determined  enemy  was  Poms,  where  Ptolemy  enclosed  his  remains  in  a  ffold- 

an  Indian   king,  whom  he  effectually  subdued,  en  coffin.-    The  Egyptians  and   other   nations 

When  this  warlike  monarch  was  asked  how  he  paid  divine  honors  to  him  after  his  death.  After 

should   be    treated,    he    answered    Alexander,  summing  up  the  good  qualities  of  Alexander, 

"  Like  a  king."  and  was  consequently  restored  Adrian  adds,  "  If  then  he  erred  from  quickness 

to  his  kingdom.  of  temper  and  the  influence  of  anger,  and  if  he 

Alexander  established  Greek  colonies  in  In-  loved  the  display  of  barbarian  pride  and  splen- 

dia,  and  is  said  to  have   built  no  fewer  than  dor,  I  regard  not  these  as  serious  offences  ;  for, 

seventy  towns,  one  of  which  was  erected  in  in  candor,  we  ought  to  take  into  consideration 

honor  of  his  horse  Bucephalus,  killed  on  the  his  youth,  his  perpetual  success,  and  the  influ- 

banks  of  the  Hydaspes.     Pie  would  have  pene-  ence  of  those  men   who  court  the  society  of 

trated  as  far  as  the  Ganges  but  for  the  murmurs  kings,  not  for  virtuous  purposes,  but  to  minis- 

of  his  army.     He   returned  to  the  Hydaspes,  ter  to  their  pleasures  and  to  corrupt  their  prin- 

and  built  a  fleet  upon  its  banks,  despatching  ciples.     On  the  other  hand,  Alexander  is  the 

part  of  his  army  by  water,  while  the  remainder  only  ancient  king,  who,  from  the  native  good- 

marched  down  its  banks.     His  inarch  through  ness  of  his  heart,  showed  a  deep  repentance 

the  country  was  not  unopposed,  and  he  him-  for  his  misdeeds." 

self  received  a  severe  wound,  from  which,  how-        ALEXANDER  JANN2EUS,  ascended  the 

ever,  he  recovered,  and  sailing  down  the  Indus,  throne  of  Judea  in  106,  B.  C.     He  made  war  on 

reached   the   sea.     Nearchus,  the    admiral   of  the  Arabians,  quelled  the  tumults  of  his  own 

Alexander,  sailed  to  the  Persian  gulf,  while  the  subjects,  and  after  conquering  Syria,  Idumsea, 

conqueror  reached  Babylon  by  land  after  en-  and  Phoenicia,  delivered  himself  up  to  the  most 

countering  incredible  fatigues,  which  cost  him  revolting  excesses,  and  died  at  Jerusalem,  B. 

the  loss  of  many  men.     At  Susa,  he  was  mar-  C.  79. 

ried  to  two  Persian  princesses.     At  Opis,  on        ALEXANDER  SEVERUS.  a  Phoenician  by 

the  Tigris,  he  sent   home   the   invalids    with  birth,  was  related  to  the  emperor  Heliogabalus, 

presents,  and  quelled  a  mutiny  of  his  troops,  who,  however,  attempted   his   life,  in   conse- 

Not  long  after  this,  his  friend  and    favorite,  quence    of  which  the  Praetorian   guards  slew 

Hepha;stion,  died.     It  is  asserted  that  the  fever  the  monster,  and  made  Alexander  emperor  in 


of  Hephffistion  was  brought  on  by  hard  drink-  his  17th  year.     He  proved  himself  worthy  of 

ing.     Alexander's  grief  at  the  loss   of  his  fa-  the  sceptre,  and  having  gained  a  great  victory 

vorite  was  excessive,    and  even    endangered  over  the  Persians,  on  his  return  to  Rome,  was 

his  reason;  for  three  days  he  tasted  no  food,  honoured   by  a  triumph.     When  he  marched 

and  lay,  stretched  upon  the  ground,  either  in  into  Gaul,  where  an  irruption  of  the  Germans 

silent  sorrow  or  loud  lamentation.     The  money  required  his  presence,  he  fell,  by  a  mutiny  of 

expended  on  the  funeral  pile  might  have  erec-  his  troops,  in   the   year  235,  after  a  reign  of 

ted  a  palace  ;  and  all  the  barbarian  subjects  of  twelve  years.     He  was  pious,  temperate,  fru- 

Alexander,  were  ordered  to  go  into  mourninjj.  gal,    humane,    and    so   favorably    disposed  to 

When  Alexander   went   from    Ecbatana   to  Christianity,  that  he  placed  the  statue  of  Jesus 

Babylon,  he  is  said  to  have  been  warned  by  the  in  his  private  chapel. 

astrologers,  that  the  latter  place  would  prove  ALEXANDER,  the  name  of  seven  Popes, 

fatal  to  him.     Despising  these    warnings,   he  the  first  of  whom  introduced  the  use   of  holy 

went  to  Babylon  and  gave  audience  to  the  seve-  water.     The  sixth  was  remarkable  for  his  cru- 

ral foreign  ambassadors,  who  awaited  his  arri-  city  and  the  infamy  of  his  son,  Cassar  Borgia. 

val.     His  mind  was  engaged  in  forming  vast  He  died  in  1503,  having  greatly  extended  the 

plans  for  the  future,  when  he  was  seized  with  Papal  dominions  in  Italy. 

sickness,  after  a  banquet,  and  died,  323  B.  C.  ALEXANDER  NEWSKOI,  grand  duke  of 

Alexander  had  reigned  twelve  years  and  eight  Russia,  a  hero  and  saint  of  the  Russian  Church, 

months,  and  was  thirty-two  years  old   at  the  was  born  in  1218.     Having  become  viceroy  of 

time  of  his  death.     The  vast  possessions  which  Novogorod,  he  successfully  opposed  Vlademir 

he  had  acquired  by  force,  were  deluged  by  con-  II.  king  of  Denmark,  and  the  Teutonic  knights. 

tinual  bloodshed  when  he  was  no  more.     When  In  1240,  he  gained   his  splendid  victory  over 

asked  to  whom  he  left   his  kingdom  —  he  an-  the  Swedes,  on  the  Neva,  and  two  years  after- 

s.wered,  "  to  the  worthiest."     The  body  of  Al-  wards,  overcame  the  Knights  of  the  Sword,  on 

exander   was  interred  with  all  the  pomp  and  the  frozen  surface  of  lake  Peipus.     His  death 

circumstance   of  regal   burial   at    Alexandria,  took  place  in  12G3. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ALE 


ALEXANDER  I,  PAULOWITSCH  (the 
son  (if  Paul),  Emperor  and  Autocrat  of  all  the 
Russias,  and  king  of  Poland,  was  born  in  1777, 
and  crowned  the  5J7th  of  September,  1801.  His 
mother,  Maria,  was  the  daughter  of  duke  Eu- 
gene of  Wirtemberg,  and,  throughout  his  life, 
exerted  a  great  influence  over  Alexander,  by 
whom  she  was  tenderly  beloved.  The  educa- 
tion of  Alexander  was  committed  to  the  em- 
press Catharine  II.  and  Colonel  Laharpe,  his 
father  renouncing  all  care  of  it.  In  1793,  he 
married  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  the  hereditary 
prince  of  Baden.  He  took  part  in  the  conspi- 
racy against  his  father  Paul,  although  it  is 
impossible  to  believe  that  he  entertained  any 
design  against  his  life,  but  saw  safety  to  him- 
self and  others  only  in  the  removal  of  the 
emperor,  from  a  throne  which  he  disgraced  by 
the  reckless  spirit  of  persecution.  Alexander 
sought  to  promote  the  welfare  of  Russia — he 
removed  the  shackles  from  her  commerce  and 
internal  industry  ;  he  regulated  the  interior 
administration  of  his  kingdom ;  he  established 
schools  and  universities  ;  he  bettered  the  con- 
dition of  the  peasantry  ;  he  raised  the  military 
character  of  his  subjects  ;  he  modified  laws  with 
a  liberal  spirit ;  he  provided  for  the  construction 
of  roads  and'canals  ;  he  encouraged  merit  wher- 
ever he  found  it,  and  finally  sought  to  inspire  all 
classes  with  a  spirit  of  union,  patriotism,  enter- 
prise, and  courage.  The  extent  of  his  success  va- 
rious events  contributed  to  prove.  When  Na- 
poleon threatened  the  government  with  subver- 
sion, and  the  Russians  looked  to  their  monarch 
as  their  guide,  they  saw  no  timidity — no  irresolu- 
tion in  Alexander.  "  I  will  not  negociate  with 
Napoleon,"  was  his  resolve,  "  while  one  armed 
enemy  remains  within  my  kingdom."  Yet  he 
was  an  admirer  of  the  brilliant  qualities  of  Na- 
poleon, and  this  sincere  admiration  of  the 
French  emperor,  led  to  their  celebrated  meet- 
ing at  Erfurt,  hi  September,  1808.  Alexander 
then  thought  that,  in  connexion  with  Napoleon, 
he  might  fix  the  destinies  of  Europe.  But  Na- 
poleon could  brook  no  equal,  and  Alexander  no 
superior.  When  the  former  displayed  a  desire 
to  legislate  for  a  country  of  which  he  knew  lit- 
tle, and  that  too  in  defiance  of  the  wishes  and 
welfare  of  its  emperor,  the  friendship  between 
them  was  at  an  end.  In  1814,  the  conduct  of 
Alexander  to  the  Parisians,  when  the  allies  en- 
tered their  capital — the  deference  he  paid  to 
their  wishes  and  opinions — and  his  favourable 
tendency  towards  liberal  principles— gained 
him  their  enthusiastic  admiration.  I  a  all  the 
important  transactions  of  Europe  from  this  pe- 


44  ALE 

riod,  to  the  time  of  his  death,  Alexander  par- 
took, and  exerted  an  immense  influence  in  the 
different  European  courts.  He  was  the  prin- 
cipal contriver  of  the  "  Holy  Alliance,"  but 
probably  from  principle  as  much  as  from  inter- 
est. He  was  the  main  stay  of  this  unhal- 
lowed confederacy,  and  Europe  rejoiced  ac- 
cordingly at  his  death,  which  took  place  at 
Taganrock,  of  a  bilious  fever,  1st  of  Decem- 
ber, 182").  In  his  last  illness,  the  emperor  re- 
fused medicine,  calling  continually  for  "  iced 
water,"  the  onlv  tiling  which  he  would  drink. 
His  illness  lasted  eleven  days.  Three  days  after 
his  death,  the  body  was  exposed  to  permit  the 
people  to  kiss  the  hands  of  their  dead  monarch. 
It  was  then  placed  in  a  coffin,  and  borne  in 
procession  to  the  church  where  it  remained 
forty  days,  and  was  thence  carried  to  St.  Pe- 
tersburg.  A  favourite  servant  of  the  emperor 
drove  the  funeral  car  which  carried  his  remains 
to  the  capital.  The  emperor's  aids-de-camp, 
followed  the  cortege,  three  of  them  being  seated 
in  the  funeral  car.  A  squadron  of  Cossacks  of  the 
guard,  attendants,  and  officers,  attached  to  the 
imperial  suite,  completed  the  train.  It  took  its 
departure  from  Taganrock,  in  the  most  severe 
weather  of  December,  1825.  The  empress, 
wlm  was  tenderly  attached  to  her  husband, 
soothed  his  last  moments,  and  received  his  last 
sigh. 

ALEXANDER.  William,  Lord  Stirling,  was 
a  Major-general  in  the  army  of  the  United 
States  during  the  revolution,  and  distinguished 
himself  throughout  the  whole  of  the  eventful 
struggle,  but  particularly  in  the  battles  of  Long 
Island,  Germantown.  and  Monmonth.  He  died 
at  Albany.  1783,  with  the  reputation  of  a  learn- 
ed, brave,  honest,  and  patriotic  man.  The  title 
of  Lord  Stirling,  was  given  him  by  courtesy,  as 
he  claimed  to  be  the  rightful  heir  to  an  earldom 
in  Scotland,  although  his  claims  were  not  sus- 
tained by  legal  tribunals. 

ALEXANDRIA  (called  Scantlcriu  by  the 
Turks),  was  the  capital  of  Lower  Egypt,  and 
under  the  Ptolemies,  whose  favourite  residence 
i.'.  was,  was  celebrated  Cor  its  wealth,  splen- 
dor, and  arts.  It  was  founded  in  332,  B.  C.  by 
Alexander,  who  employed  the  celebrated  archi- 
tect, Dinociates,  in  beautifying  and  embellish- 
ing it.  There  was  something  singularly  strik- 
ing in  the  birth  of  this  great  city.  Under  the 
patronage  of  Alexander,  it  sprang  up  at  once 
into  beauty  and  importance,  without  encoun- 
tering any'of  those  evils  and  obstacles,  which 
iri'nrrally  obstruct  the  rise  of  a  newly-founded 
place.  The  situation  of  Alexandria,  and  the 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ALE 


45 


ALE 


excellence  of  its  fine  harbours,  appeared  to 
adapt  it  to  the  rank  which  its  founder  hoped 
that  it  would  hold  among  the  cities  of  the 
world.  Ptolemy  Soter,  or  the  Savior,  and 
Ptolemy  Philadelphia,  conferred  great  benefits 
upon  the  city,  which  became  the  seat  of  litera- 
ture and  the  resort  of  the  learned  of  all  coun- 
tries. Its  earliest  inhabitants  were  Greeks  and 
Egyptians.  The  population  was  augmented 
by  colonies  of  Jews  transported  thither  for  that 
purpose.  These  people  made  themselves  fa- 
miliar with  Grecian  lore,  and  translated  into 
the  Greek  language  the  whole  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, a  version  called  the  Septuagint.  Four 
hundred  thousand  volumes  of  the  royal  library 
were  contained  in  a  magnificent  edifice  belong- 
ing to  the  Academy  and  Museum  ;  300,000 
more  were  deposited  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Serapis.  As  all  these  works  were  in  manu- 
script, their  value  was  consequently  immense. 
The  Ptolemies  spared  no  pains  to  enrich  their 
library,  which  became  the  finest  in  the  world. 
When  Julius  Coesar  besieged  Alexandria,  the 
library  was  injured  by  fire,  but  the  loss  was  re- 
paired by  the  library  of  Pergamus  which  Anto- 
ny presented  to  Queen  Cleopatra.  It  is  now 
ascertained  that  the  library  of  the  Serapion,  or 
temple  of  Serapis,  remained  entire  until  the 
time  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  when  the  Chris- 
tians, inspired  by  fanaticism,  stormed  and  de- 
stroyed the  Temple,  effecting  the  destruction 
of  that  library  which  was  the  wonder  of  the 
world,  and  the  loss  of  which  must  ever  be  a 
subject  of  painful  regret.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  fourth  century,  the  only  memorials  of  the 
existence  of  the  library,  were  the  empty  shelves 
which  once  contained  those  invaluable  manu- 
scripts, which  the  elegance  and  care  of  kin<js 
had  brought  together.  When  the  division  of 
the  Roman  empire  was  effected,  Alexandria, 
together  with  the  country  of  which  it  was  the 
capital,  was  included  in  the  Eastern  empire. 
Alexandria  came  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs, 
in  G40.  It  received  the  attention  of  the  Caliph 
Motawakel.  who,  mindful  of  its  former  state, 
restored  both  the  library  and  academy,  in  6-15. 
In  8(58,  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  and  under 
their  sway,  very  rapidly  declined.  Still  its 
commerce  was  in  a  flourishing  state,  and  con- 
tinued so  until  the  close  of  the  15th  century, 
when  the  Portuguese,  by  the  discovery  of  the 
passage  to  the  Indies  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  altered  the  commercial  channel,  and 
enriched  themselves  at  the  expense  of  the 
Egyptians.  The  modern  city  of  Alexandria, 
does  not  stand  upon  the  spot  occupied  by  the 


ancient  city.  The  remains  of  ancient  Alexan- 
dria are  unimportant,  Cleopatra's  needle,  and 
Pompey's  pillar,  being  the  most  conspicuous. 
The  latter  was  erected  by  Pompey.  a  governor 
of  Egypt,  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Diocletian  ; 
but  the  equestrian  statue  which  forineily  sur- 
mounted it,  is  gone.  Some  years  past,  a  party 
of  English  sailors  resolved  to  amuse  themselves, 
and  astonish  the  natives,  by  mounting  to  the 
top,  and  refreshing  themselves  at  an  elevation 
which  should  put  them  above  the  cares  and 
turmoils  of  humanity.  How  to  accomplish 
their  purpose  was  the  next  question.  This  was 
soon  settled.  They  raised  a  line  by  means  of  a 
kite,  and  dropped  it  over  the  pillar,  and  by  this 
means  drew  up  a  rope,  by  which  they  gained 
the  top,  whence,  looking  down  upon  the  spec- 
tators from  a  giddy  elevation  of  68  feet,  they 
congratulated  themselves  on  their  success.  The 
island  of  Pnaros  yet  bears  the  ruins  of  the 
light-house  erected  by  Ptolemy.  This  cele- 
brated building  was  of  white  marble.  Ptolemy 
directed  his  name  to  be  inscribed  upon  the  tow- 
er, but  the  cunning  architect  carvejl  the  name 
of  his  employer  upon  a  tablet  of  plaster,  which, 
decaying  in  time,  displayed  the  name  of  the 
builder,  with  a  dedication  to  the  gods,  claim- 
ing for  himself  all  the  honors  due  to  his  sove- 
reign. The  Turks  have  but  little  sympathy 
with  the  lovers  of  antiquity.  They  deface  the 
most  venerated  remains,  placing  little  value 
upon  any.  probably  espousing  the  oriental  max 
im  ;  "a  living  dog  is  better  than  a  dead  lion." 
A  few  years  ago.  the  Pacha  of  Egypt  employed 
a  renegado  to  collect  all  the  moveable  antiques 
of  every  kind,  that  they  might  be  exposed  for 
sale  to  the  Europeans,  in  a  bazaar  built  for  the 
purpose.  Cleopatra's  needle  was  presented  to 
the  king  of  England  by  the  Pacha,  but  its 
weight.  400.000  pounds,  is 'a.  serious  bar  to  its 
transportation.  The  ancient  Alexandria,  had  a 
population  of  GiiO.OOO;  the  modern  contains 
but  25.000.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  patriarch.  The 
canal  from  Cairo  to  Alexandria,  has  improv- 
ed the  commerce  of  the  place.  It  has  two 
harbors,  of  which  the  Western,  or  Old  Har- 
bor has  the  deepest  water,  and  the  best  an- 
chorage ;  the  New  Port  is  more  shallow  and 
exposed. 

ALEXANDRIA,  (U.  S.  A.)  a  city  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  county  of  Alexandria, 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac,  six 
miles  south  of  Washington.  Population  in 
1800,  4,19(5 ;  in  1840,  8462  ;  blacks,  2.561.  It 
contains  several  public  buildings.  Its  situa- 
tion is  rather  elevated,  and  some  of  its  streets 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ALF 


46 


ALF 


are  well  paved.  Its  trade,  which  is  principally 
in  flour,  is  facilitated,  by  its  favorable  situation 
on  the  Potomac. 

ALEXIS,  or  ALEXIUS  PETROVITSCH, 
son  of  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  was  born  in 
1690.  His  father,  suspecting  him  of  treason, 
disinherited  him  in  1718.  Not  content  with 
this  he  had  Alexis  condemned  to  death,  and 
his  sentence  read  to  him,  which  created  such 
terror  in  his  mind,  that  he  died  in  consequence, 
although  pardoned,  in  four  days.  The  account 
of  his  assassination  in  prison  is  wholly  a  fabri- 
cation. He  had  a  son  who  was  afterwards 
Peter  II. 

ALEXIS  I  (Gomnenus)  Greek  emperor, 
defeated  by  Robert  Guiscard  at  Dyrrachium,and 
by  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor.  In  conjunction 
with  the  crusaders,  he  regained  Nictea,  in 
1097,  but  afterwards  quarrelled  with  them.  He 
flourished  from  1031,  to  1118. 

ALEXIS  II  (Comnenus)  in  consequence 
of  the  misconduct  of  his  mother,  was  compelled 
to  admit  Andronicus  Comnenus  as  his  col- 
league iu  118i5.  This  miscreant  strangled  him 
in  the  year  after. 

ALLXIS  III  (Angelas)  having  deposed 
his  brother  Isaac,  emperor  of  the  east,  and  put 
out  his  eyes,  thought  his  usurped  sovereignty 
secure.  But  he  was  besieged  in  Constantino- 
ple by  the  French  and  Venetians,  who  reinsta- 
ted Isaac.  In  Thrace,  whither  lie  had  fled  for 
safety,  Alexis  fell  into  the  hands  of  Theodore 
Lascaris,  who  put  his  eyes  out,  and  imprisoned 
him  in  a  monastery,  where  he  died. 

ALFIERI,  Victor,  Count,  was  born  at  Asti 
in  Piedmont,  in  174!).  His  family  was  rich 
and  distinguished,  but  his  education  was  ne- 
glected, like  that  of  most  of  the  young  Italian 
nobles  of  his  age  and  rank.  Thus  he  quitted 
the  academy  of  Turin,  with  an  undisciplined 
and  unformed  mind,  and  joined  a  regiment  in 
the  hope  of  finding  something  exciting  in  mili- 
tary pursuits.  But  here  he  was  disappointed, 
the  regiment  was  mustered  only  on  a  few  days 
in  the  year,  and  he  was  compelled  to  seek  some 
other  mode  of  killing  lime.  He  travelled  over 
Italy,  France,  England, and  Holland,  but  want- 
ed the  information  to  render  his  wanderings 
profitable.  On  his  return,  he  commenced  the 
study  of  history,  but,  disgusted  with  its  details, 
again  set  forth  on  his  travels,  from  which  lie 
did  not  return  for  three  years.  He  brought 
back  the  same  restless  and  dissatisfied  spirit. 
He  threw  up  his  commission  in  the  army,  and 
wrote  a  tragedy.  The  success  of  this  first  at- 
tempt, induced  him  to  persevere  j  but,  aware 


of  his  deficiencies,  he  resolved,  in  the  first 
place,  to  become  acquainted  with  Latin  and 
Tuscan.  On  his  journey  to  Tuscany,  where 
he  proposed  studying,  he  became  acquainted 
witli  the  Countess  of  Albany,  to  whom  he  owed 
much  of  his  inspiration.  Settling  his  fortune 
on  his  sister,  he  resided  alternately  at  Florence 
and  Rome,  until  the  death  of  Charles  Stuart, 
•put  an  end  to  the  woes  of  the  Countess  of  Al- 
bany, and  enabled  her  to  marry  him.  They 
lived  together  in  Alsace  and  at  Paris,  until  tlu> 
revolution  in  France  drove  Alfieri  from  a  coun- 
try he  loved,  to  his  native  land,  where  he  resi- 
ded at  Florence  till  his  death,  in  1803.  He 
was  an  ardent  lover  of  freedom,  but  he  mourned 
over  the  crimes  perpetrated  in  her  name.  Alfie- 
ri's  talents  were  great,  but  misapplied,  and  his 
tragedies  are  rather  valuable  as  indicating  his 
powers,  than  as  establishing  his  fame. 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT,  king  of  England, 
was  born  849,  and  died  UOO.  He  was  the  young- 
est son  of  Ethel  wolf,  king  of  the  West  Saxons, 
and  was  born  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire.  He 
went  to  Rome  at  the  age  of  five  years,  and  was 
anointed  by  the  Pop«,  although  he  then  had  an 
elder  brother.  However,  in  872.  lie  ascended 
the  throne.  This  was  an  unpropitions  time, 
for  the  power  of  the  Danes  was  then  great  and 
employed  in  harassing  the  Saxons,  whose  coun- 
try they  ravaged  in  various  directions.  Alfred 
concluded  some  treaties  with  them,  but  they 
were  not  kept,  and,  unable  to  make  head 
against  the  invaders,  he  was  compelled  to  fly. 
and  in  concealment  to  await  a  moment  when 
his  re-appearance  would  be  advantageous  for 
his  country.  In  the  disguise  of  a  harper,  lie 
penetrated  the  Danish  camp  to  gain  informa- 
tion of  tiie  strength  and  hopes  of  his  foes,  and 
having  satisfied  himself  of  both,  directed  his 
nobles  and  their  vassals  to  assemble  at  Soivrood. 
Here  lie  headed  the  troops,  and,  attacking  the 
Danes  at  Eddington.  gained  a  signal  victory. 
He  permitted  those  Danes,  who  were  willing  to 
embrace  the  Christian  religion,  to  remain  in  the 
kingdom  of  East  Anglia,  which  he  surrendered 
to  them.  He  built  forts  to  secure  his  subjects, 
augmented  and  strengthened  his  navv,  and 
established  the  prosperity  of  London  on'  a  firm 
basis.  He  defeated  the  Danes  who  still  per; 
sistcd  in  attempting  to  obtain  footing  in  Eng-  < 
land,  and  made  his  name  a  terror  to  the  pirates. 
He  had  fought  fifty-six  battles  by  sea  and  land, 
in  every  one  of  which  In-  was  personally  enga- 
ged. His  zeal  for  the  reformation  of  laws  and 
manners  is  as  honorable  to  him  as  his  military 
prowess.  He  composed  a  code  of  laws,  institu- 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


I 


ALG 


47 


ALG 


e  trial  by  jury,  and  divided  England  into  was  endowed  with  hereditary  power  by  one  of 
and  tithings.  So  successful  were  his  the  Fatiniite  Caliphs.  The  Zcirites,  as  they 
itions  that  it  is  said  the  crime  of  robbery  were  called,  ruled  until  1148,  when  Roger,  king 
was  unknown,  and  the  most  valuable  goods  of  Sicily,  and  the  Moravites,  possessed  them- 
might  be  exposed  upon  the  highway,  without  selves,  at  different  times,  of  the  whole  of  the 
any  dread  of  thieves.  Alfred  formed  a  parlia-  territory  of  Hassan  Ben  Ali.  Algiers  was  an 
merit  which  met  at  London  semi-annually.  independent  sovereignty  after  1270.  Ferdi- 

He  was  an  ardent  lover  of  learning,  and  was  nand,  who  fitted  out  an  expedition  against  the 
himself  a  distinguished  scholar.  To  promote  it,  Barbary  powers,  in  1509,  subdued  Algiers,  and 
he  invited  learned  men  from  all  parts,  and  erected  a  strong  castle  on  an  island  which  corn- 
established  schools  throughout  his  kingdom,  manded  the  entrance  of  the  city.  Horuc  and 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  Uni-  Hagradin,  after  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  were 
versity  of  Oxford,  or,  at  least,  to  have  exalted  summoned  by  the  Algerines,  and,  appearing 
it  to  a  height  which  it  had  never  before  attained,  with  a  strong  squadron,  were  received  with 
University-college  sprang  from  his  liberality,  every  demonstration  of  joy.  But  Horuc  caused 
He  composed  several  works,  and  translated  the  emir  Selim  Entani  to  be  strangled,  and 
others  for  the  benefit  of  his  subjects.  Among  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king,  in  1518,  by  the 
his  translations  may  be  mentioned  Boetius's  Turks,  whose  intolerance  and  cruelty  drove  the 
Consolations  of  Philosophy.  He  was  industri-  natives  to  seek  for  assistance  from  the  Span- 
ous  and  fond  of  order,  dividing  the  twenty-four  iards,  but  the  fleet  of  the  latter  was  destroyed 
hours  into  three  equal  portions ;  one  devoted  by  storm.  Horuc  Barbarossa  was  killed  before 
to  religious  duties,  another  to  public  affairs,  Oran,  where  the  Spanish  governor  defeated  his 
and  the  third  to  rest.  Alfred  laid  the  foun-  troops,  and  killed  1500  Turks, 
dation  of  the  navy  of  England,  by  build-  Hagradin,  his  successor,  being  satisfied  of  his 
ing  galleys  of  a  size  superior  to  that  of  any  inability  to  defend  himself  against  the  Chris- 
of  the  age.  In  private  life,  he  was  distinguished  tians,  in  1519  sought  the  protection  ofthe  Sultan 
by  piety,  affability,  and  cheerfulness.  His  Soliman,  who  accepted  his  proposals,  made  him 
person  was  commanding  and  stately.  Pacha,  and  gave  him  10,000  Janisaries.  The 

ALGIERS,  Regency  of,  was  founded  about  Spaniards  found  their  position  on  an  island 
J5J8,  by  two  brothers,  Horuc  and  Hagradin,  untenable,  and,  in  1519,  it  was  connected  with 
or  Khair  Eddin,  both  of  whom  were  surna-  the  main  land  by  a  mole.  Charles  V  under- 
med  Barbarossa  or  Red- Beard.  The  Christian  took  the  siege  of  Algiers,  in  the  latter  part  of 
knights,  having  warred  against  the  states  of  1541.  It  was  defended  by  Hassan,  who  had 
northern  Africa,  and  almost  annihilated  the  been  honored  with  the  office  of  Pacha,  after  the 
Moorish  commerce,  Selim  and  Soliman  exhort-  death  of  Hagradin,  and  who  heard  with  some 
ed  their  subjects  to  make  reprisals,  and  to  annoy  alarm  that  Charles  meditated  an  attack  with 
their  Christian  foes  by  committing  extensive  200  sail,  and  30,000  men.  The  ships  and  camp 
piracies.  The  call  was  obeyed  without  reluc-  of  the  Christians  were  destroyed  by  storms 
tance,  and  the  Mohammedans,  crowded  beneath  of  uncommon  violence,  the  destructive  effects 
the  crescent,  prepared  to  extend  the  terror  of  which  were  followed  by  the  ravages  of  earth- 
of  their  name  upon  the  seas.  The  piratical  quakes.  Charles  lost  his  cannon,  military  stores, 
republic  founded  by  the  fierce  chieftains  above-  and  baggage,  and  was  compelled  to  abandon 
named,  was  the  strong  hold  of  religious  fanati-  some  of-his  scattered  troops,  while  15  ships  of 
cism  and  authorised  piracy.  The  barks  ofthe  war,  140  transports,  and  8000  men  perished  in 
Corsairs  swept  the  seas  in  triumph,  and  the  the  storm.  This  success  inspired  the  Moors 
Algerines  distinguished  themselves  above  the  with  the  liveliest  joy,  but  they  attributed  it  en- 
inhabitants  of  the  other  Barhary  states,  by  the  tirely  to  the  pious  exertions  of  Sid-Atica,  a 
fierce  perseverance  with  which  they  pursued  Maraboot,  who  employed  himself  diligently  in 
their  career  of  crime.  A  foreign  soldiery  elected  beating  the  sea  with  his  stick,  until  the  waves 
their  chief  in  Algiers,  and  the  Dey,  chosen  as  lost  alf  patience,  and  rising  in  a  body,  destroyed 
a  general,  was  the  first  among  his  equals  and  the  Christian  fleet.  The  worthy  old  gentleman 
the  ruler  of  the  native  races.  The  soldiers  were  was  buried  with  great  solemnity,  and  his  bones 
not  permitted  to  marry,  and  had  no  participa-  rest  beneath  a  monument  erected  by  his  coun- 
ties in  the  government.  The  city  of  Algiers  trymen.  They  are  said  to  be  gifted  with  the 
jAUezira)  was  built  by  Zeiri,an  Arab  ofdistinc-  magic  power  of  his  stick,  and,  employed  upon 
tion,  in  944,  and  the  family  of  this  able  man  the  waves  with  proper  emphasis,  capable  of 
5 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ALG 


48 


raising  the  wind  to  an  incredible  extent.  Anti- 
quity furnishes  a  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  chas- 
tising the  waters,  for  Xerxes,  enraged  at  the 
turbulence  of  the  Grecian  waves,  caused  them 
to  be  whipped  with  rods. 

In  1703,  the  Spaniards  unsuccessfully  renew- 
ed the  war  with  Algiers.  The  Algerines 
easily  repelled  the  English,  French, and  Dutch, 
the  first  of  whom  made  a  treaty  with  Algiers, 
whose  pride  they  humbled  in  1816.  The  year 
before,  two  United  States'  frigates  had  captured 
a  piratical  frigate  and  brig  of  war,  belonging  to 
the  Algerines,  and  compelled  them  not  only  to 
renounce  their  claim  to  all  tribute,  but  to  make 
indemnification  for  the  losses  which  we  had 
experienced  from  their  piracies.  In  1S17,  the 
Algerines  penetrated  the  North  Sea,  and  there, 
with  surprising  audacity,  captured  ships  which 
did  not  belong  to  tributary  powers,  or  to  those 
who  were  exempted  from  their  depredations  by 
treaty.  Prisoners  taken  by  these  Corsairs  were 
treated  with  the  greatest  severity,  and  only 
permitted  to  be  ransomed  at  enormous  prices. 
Towards  the  latter  part  of  their  career,  the 
pirates  professed  to  consider  captives  not  in  the 
light  of  slaves,  but  as  prisoners  of  war.  Their 
treatment,  however,  instead  of  being  ameliora- 
ted was  more  harsh  than  ever,  and  the  corsairs, 
although  they  respected  the  flags  of  America 
and  other  strong  powers,  in  violation  of  their 
treaties,  warred  witli  the  ships  of  weaker  states, 
and  enforced  the  superiority  of  might  over 
right.  The  jealousy  of  the  European  Stairs 
for  a  long  time  favored  the  encroachments  <.f 
the  Algerines,  until  the  French  prepared  for 
conflict  with  stern  decision.  One  of  the  last 
events  in  the  reign  of  Charles  X,  was  the  entire 
prostration  of  the  power  of  Algiers.  TheDov, 
with  his  personal  treasures,  and  women,  was 
permitted  to  retire,  and  selected  Italy  as  a  retreat. 
The  French  secured  their  conquest  and  estab- 
lished a  government  upon  their  own  principles. 
During  th'>  prosperity  of  Algiers,  a  struggle 
was  kept  up  with  the  Sublime  Porte  about,  the 
appointment  of  the  deys,  and  the  Sultan  finally 
relinquished  the  claim  of  choosing  (hem,  and 
retained  but  a  nominal  authority  over  Algiers. 
The  deys,  whenever  they  displeased  the  fero- 
cious soldiery  they  affected  to  rule,  were  di 
and  put  to  death.  The  lives  of  these  men  were 
proverbially  short. 'but  we  admit  an  exception 
in  the  person  of  Mohammed  III  who  died  in 
17'Jl,  after  a  reign  of  '£1  years,  at  th"  age  of  !i;?. 
Omar  I'ar.ha,  the  opponent  of  Lord  Exmonth, 
was  murdered  in  1817.  Accordingly.  Ali  llo- 
dy  a,  his  successor,  shut  himself  up  in  the  castle 


ALH 

of  Casaba,  where,  by  means  of  his  fifty  -six  can- 
non, and  a  garrison  on  which  he  could  rely, 
he  maintained  the  ascendancy  over  the  city 
and  the  cruel  Turkish  troops,  who  had  mur- 
dered Omar.  Hussein,  successor  of  Hodya, 
rendered  cautious  by  experience,  likewise  occu- 
pied this  strong  castle.  The  government  of 
Algiers  was  despotic,  the  dey  possessing  un- 
limited power,  but  being  assisted  by  a  Divan 
composed  of  his  chief  officers  of  state,  and  first 
ministers.  The  common  soldiers  elected  the 
Dey,  but  no  election  was  permitted  without 
unanimity  in  the  electors.  Therefore,  when 
there  was  a  difference,  the  majority  compelled 
the  weaker  party  to  concur  with  them.  The 
new  Dey  espoused  the  principle  of  proscription, 
and  frequently  put  to  death  incumbents,  for  the 
sake  of  making  State  offices  open  to  his  parti- 
zans.  He  held  a  court  of  justice  on  four  days 
in  the  week,  where  proceedings  were  summary, 
and  condemnation  was  followed  by  punishment 
at  no  long  interval. 

The  State  of  Algiers  lies  between  Tunis  and 
Fez.  The  city,  which  is  strongly  fortified,  is 
on  the  sea-coiist.  Algiers  contains  89,300 
square  miles. 

ALH  A  MA,  anciently  Artigis  Julia,  a  town 
of  Granada,  in  Spain,  situated  on  the  Motril, 
15  miles  from"  Granada.  Population,  G,UO(). 
The  medicinal  baths  and  romantic"  scenery  of 
this  place  have  rendered  it  noted,  but  its  fame 
rests  upon  its  historical  remembrances.  This 
"  Key  of  Granada,"  was  taken  by  the  Span- 
iards, in  HH1,  after  n  most  spirited  resistance 
on  the  p-ii-i  et'  the  valiant  Moors.  • 

ALHAMBRA.  Tlu>  AllUmbra  was  the  for- 
tified palace  of  the  Moorish  kinv*  of  Gra- 
nada —  a  possession  to  which  they  clung  with 
their  litest  irr.isn,  r.nd  which  was  the  best 
beloved  spot.  in  their  terrestrial  paradise.  The 
meaning  <>f  the  Moorish  name  is  the  iu:n  CITY, 
and  it  was  so  called  in  consequence  of  the  color 
of  th»  materials  employe.!  in  ImildiiK.r.  The 
Spanish  term  it  ihe  Hierru  fl<l  -W.  because,  from 
its  situation  on  an  eminence,  it  catches  and  re- 
floe.ts  the  Hrst  beam*  of  the  rising  sun.  The 
palace  compose:;  but  a  small  portion  of  the  for- 
tress, whose  walls  encompass  the  e.'e«t  of  a  lofty 
hill  lisin;:  from  \\\»  .S'/Vrm  J\'trii<!>i.  or  Snowy 
Mountain.  The  fortress  was-  (it  one  time  capa-  ^ 
hie  of.  rty'thousand  mop.  Above  * 

the  palace  is  (he  llnpso  of  the  Generalif,  a 
Moorish  building,  while  a  church  dedicated  to 
St.  Helena,  frowns  the  ascent.  Tii"rcare  two 
pnlac.es,  the  old  Moorish  palace,  and  that  com- 
menced by  Charles  V.  The  former  exhibit* 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


ALH 


49 


AI.I 


remains  of  the  splendor  of  the  arts  among  the 
infidels.  A  striking  portion  of  the  palace  is  the 
Court  of  Lions  which  is  an  hundred  feet  in 
length,  and  fifteen  in  breadth,  surrounded  by  a 
beautiful  colonnade  seven  feet  broad  at  the 
sides,  and  ten  at  the  ends.  Two  splendid  por- 
ticoes, fifteen  ieet  square,  project  into  this 
court.  The  square  is  paved  with  tiles — the 
colonnade  with  white  marble.  The  walls  are 
covered  with  tiles  placed  checker-wise,  which 
gives  them  a  highly  fanciful  appearance.  The 
columns,  upon  which  the  roof  and  gallery  rest, 
are  grotesquely  ornamented  and  irregularly 
distributed.  The  capitals  abound  with  curious 
devices,  among  which,  however,  there  is  no 
representation  of  animal  life.  The  fountain, 
consists  of  twelve  ill-shaped  lions,  bearing  on 
their  backs  a  large  basin,  out  of  which  rises  a 
smaller  one.  Here,  when  the  pipes  were  in 
order,  water  gushed  from  the  inner  basin,  and, 
passing  through  the  lions,  communicated  hv 
channels  with  other  apartments.  The  fountain 
is  of  white  marble  and  inscribed  with  Arabian 
distiches,  like  the  following,  "  fe'ees't  thou  how 
the  water  flows  copiously  like  the  Nile?" — 
"The  fair  princess  that  walks  by  th-is  garden, 
covered  with  pearls,  ornaments  its  beauty  so 
much,  that  thou  mayest  doubt  whether  it  be  a 
fountain  that  flows  or  tears  of  her  admirers.'' 
The  hall  beyond  the  colonnade  on  the  south 
side  was  the  place  chosen  bv  Abouabdoulah  for 
the  execution  of  the  Abencerrages,  and  their 
bleeding  heads  fell,  as  fast  as  they  were  decapi- 
tated, into  the  limpid  waters  of  the  fountain. 
The  hall  of  the  Two  Sisters,  (Torre  de  las  dos 
Hermanns),  was  named  from  two  beautiful  slabs 
of  white  marble,  inserted  in  the  pavement.  EL 
Tocador,  or  the  Tiring  Tower,  was  appropria- 
ted to  the  toilette  of  the  Sultana,  who.  in  one 
part,  had  a  marble  slab  in  the  floor  perforated 
with  holes,  to  admit  vapor  and  perfumes,  for 
the  purification  of  her  person.  The  king's  bed- 
chamber was  furnished  with  fountains  to  cool 
the  atmosphere,  and  the  royal  baths  were  com- 
modious and  superb.  Beneath  were  vaults 
used  as  a  cemetery  by  the  Moorish  monarch. 
The  regret  of  the  Moors  at  leaving  this  place, 
which  wealth,  art,  and  taste,  had  brought  to  a 
degree  of  splendor  which  satisfied  the  imagina- 
tion, can  easily  be  conceived.  They  never 
ceased  to  offer  up  prayers  in  their  mosques  for 
their  restoration  to  Granada.  After  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  believers.  Alhambra  continued 
to  be  a  royal  demesne.  Charles  V  abandoned 
it  as  a  residence  in  consequence  of  earthquakes ; 
and  Philip  V,  with  his  beautiful  queen  Eliza- 


beth of  Parma,  was  the  last  royal  tenant  of 
this  princely  abode.  Subsequently  it  became 
infested  by  a  lawless  population  which  was  ex- 
pelled, but,  owing  to  the  culpable  negligence 
of  officers,  the  palace  was  permitted  to  fall  into 
decay  from  which  the  Moorish  portion  was 
partially  icscued  by  the  exertions  of  the  French 
troops  garrisoned  in  it.  The  French,  on  their 
departure,  blew  up  part  of  the  walls  and  de- 
stroyed its  importance  as  a  military  post.  To 
the  historian,  the  poet,  the  antiquary,  and  the 
artist,  this  relic  of  Moorish  splendor  possesses 
an  indisputable  interest. 

ALL  the  cousin,  and  son-in-law  of  Moham»> 
med.  When  Mohammed  assembling  his  kins- 
men, and  making  known  to  them  his  pretended 
mission,  asked,  who  would  be  his  vizier ;  Ali, 
then  only  14  years  of  age,  started  up  and  ex- 
claimed :  "  I  will  !  Let  but  a  man  advance 
against  thee,  I  will  pluck  out  his  eyes,  dash  in 
his  jaws,  break  his  legs,  and  tear  up  his  belly. 
O  prophet,  I  am  thy  vizier."  So  well  did  he 
keep  his  word,  that  he  was  called  the  Lion 
of  the  Lord,  the  ever-rictorious.  He  should  have 
succeeded  Mohammed,  but  being  opposed  suc- 
cessfully by  Omar  and  Othman,  he  formed  a 
sect  of  his  own,  and  gained  many  followers 
On  the  death  of  Othman,  he  was  declared  Ca 
liph,but  was  assassinated  in  a  mosque,  atCufa, 
in  the  C3d  year  of  his  age,  669. 

ALI,  pacha  of  Yanina,  commonly  called  AH 
Pacha,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  inTepeleni, 
in  1744.  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen",  when  distin- 
guished for  beauty  and  darincr.  headed  the 
troops  whom  the  death  of  his  father  left  with 
no  other  leader.  Being  defeated,  he  commen- 
ced robber,  but  was  so  unsuccessful,  that  he 
was  forced  to  pawn  his  sabre  to  keep  himself 
from  starving.  As  he  was  sitting,  ruminating 
upon  the  hardness  of  his  destiny,  and  carelessly 
turning  up  the  ground  with  his  staff,  he  struck 
upon  something  hard.  Curiosity  induced  him  to 
search  further,  and  he  dug  up  a  chest  of  gold  ! 
He  now  equipped  a  band  of  followers  whose 
crueltv  and  rapacity  made  them  formidable. 
Having  rendered  some  service  to  the  Porte,  he 
was  made  governor  of  some  provinces  in 
Greece,  but  maintained  himself  in  almost  inde- 
pendent sovereignty.  Indeed  lie  boasted  that 
he  never  had  a  master,  and 

"  Laughed  to  scorn  the  death  firman, 
Which  others  tremble  but  to  scan." 
He  became  a  formidable  military  potentate 
between  1790  and  1*21.     In  1822,  his  capital, 
Yanina,  being  taken,  he  was   put  '.o  death  by 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


ALL 


50 


ALP 


order  of  the  Sultan.  He  was  brave  and  able, 
but  cruel,  rapacious,  false,  ambitious  and 
suspicious.  Pouqueville  says  that  he  had  a 
Greek  lady,  Euphrosyne,  and  fifteen  oth^r  wo- 
men thrown  into  the  sea,  because  he  suspected 
that  they  exerted  an  undue  influence  over  his 
son.  If  he  wished  to  possess  himself  of  a  beau- 
tiful Greek  girl,  he  sent  his  executioner  to  her 
parents,  with  this  message  :  "  Your  daughter 
has  found  favor  in  the  eyes  of  Ali."  They 
were  then  forced  to  surrender  her,  or  fly. 

ALICANT,  (anciently  Lucentum)  a  city  and 
port  of  Spain,  on  the  Mediterranean  sea,  Ion. 
29  w..lat.  38^21  N.  Population  25,300.  Its 
harbor  is  good,  and  it  is  the  centre  of  commerce 
between  Spain  and  Italy. 

ALLEN,  Ethan,  brigadier-general  in  our 
revolutionary  army,  born  at  Salisbury,  Con- 
necticut. His  parents  removed  to  Vermont, 
when  he  was  quite  young,  and  here  he  received 
the  greater  part  of  his  education.  Prior  to  the 
commencement  of  hostilities  he  had  given 
proofs  of  daring  and  enterprise.  Soon  after  the 
battle  of  Lexington,  (1775),  incompliance  with 
the  request  of  the  legislature  of  Connecticut,  he 
headed  two  hundred  and  thirty  Green  Moun- 
tain boys,  and  marched  against  the  fortresses 
of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point.  At  Castle- 
ton  he  was  to  have  been  joined  by  a  reinforce- 
ment under  Arnold,  but  the  latter,  unable  to 
raise  the  proposed  force,  set  forward  with  the 
Spartan  band  of  Allen.  On  the  night  of  the 
9th  of  May,  Allen  landed  eighty-three  men 
near  the  fort,  having  with  difficulty  procured 
boats  for  the  purpose.  Day  surprised  him  be- 
fore his  rear  guard  was  brought  over,  and  he 
found  himself  compelled  to  attack  the  place. 
He  concluded  an  animated  speech  by  saying, 
"  I  am  going  to  lead  you  forward — but  the  at- 
tempt is  desperate — and  I  wish  to  urge  no  man 
onward  against  his  will.  Those  who  will  fol- 
low me,  poise  firelocks  !"  Every  firelock  was 
immediately  poised.  On  then,  my  boys!"  said 
Allen,  and  led  the  central  file  to  the  wicket 
gate.  He  was  opposed  by  a  sentry ,  but  brought 
his  men  through  the  covered  way,  and  formed 
them  on  the  parade. 

The  commanding  officer,  Captain  de  la  Place, 
was  undressed.  Allen,  holding  his  sword  over 
him,  demanding  the  surrender  of  the  fortress. 
"In  whose  name?"  asked  the  commander. 
"  In  the  name  of  the  Great  Jehovah,  and  the 
continental  Congress."  On  the  same  day  by 
the  capture  of  Crown  Point,  and  the  only  armed 
vessel  on  Lake  Champlain,  that  important  lake 
was  placed  in  his  power.  In  conjunction  with 


Brown,  he  attempted  the  reduction  of  Montreal, 
but  being  attacked  by  the  British  before  Colo- 
nel Brown's  troops  came  up,  he  was  defeated 
and  made  prisoner.  He  was  treated  with  great 
barbarity  in  hi.s  captivity — carried  to  England, 
and  then  to  Halifax — thence  to  New  York, 
where  he  remained  a  year  and  a  half,  before  he 
was  exchanged  for  Col.  Campbell.  His  health 
having  been  greatly  impaired,  he  returned  to 
Vermont  where  he  was  appointed  to  command 
the  militia.  His  patriotism  was  firm,  and  he 
indignantly  rejected  the  bribes  offered  by  the 
British.  He  died  suddenly,  at  his  estate  at 
Colchester,  February  13th,  178!).  He  published 
some  pamphlets,  one  of  which  contained  an 
open  declaration  of  infidelity.  He  adopted  the 
most  absurd  ideas  of  the  ancients,  with  regard 
to  the  transmigration  of  souls  ;  but  if  we  may 
be  permitted  to  believe  the  following  anecdote, 
his  avowal  of  atheism  was  insincere.  When 
his  daughter  was  dying,  she  sent  for  him,  and 
said  ;  "  Father,  I  am  about  to  die:  shall  I  be 
lieve  in  what  you  have  taught  me,  or  in  the 
Christian  principles  my  mother  teaches  ?"  Af- 
ter a  moment  of  convulsive  agitation,  he  replied : 
"  BelieVe  in  what  your  mother  has  taught  you." 

ALMAZEZ,  a  town  of  Spain,  carried  by 
assault  by  the  British,  under  General  Sir  Row- 
land Hill,  1812. 

ALMEIDA,  a  strong  fortress  in  Portugal,  in 
the  province  of  Beira,  on  the  Coa,  near  the 
Spanish  borders,  containing  2,750  inhabitants. 
It  is  famous  for  the  defeat  of  the  French,  under 
Masse ria,  by  the  British  under  Lord  Wellinn-- 
ton,18ll. 

ALOADDIN,  the  old  man  of  the  mountains, 
was  prince  of  the  Arsacides,  or  Assassins.  He 
resided  in  a  castle  between  Antioch  and  Da- 
mascus, and  his  followers  professed  a  blind 
devotion  to  his  will. 

ALP  ARSLAN,  the  lion's  whelp,  second 
Sultan  of  the  Seljukiati  dynasty,  succeeded  to 
the  throne  in  101W.  He  defeated  the  Greeks 
under  Romanus  Diogenes,  their  emperor.  He 
was  stubbed  in  1072,  by  a  desperate  prisoner 
whom  he  had  sentenced  to  death. 

ALPHONSO.  Ten  kings  of  Castile  bore 
this  name.  The  tenth  was  an  astronomer  of 
great  repute. 

ALPHONSO  IIl,the  Great,  king  of  Leon  and 
Asturias.  succeeded  his  father  in  S(it>,  at  the 
age  of  eighteen.  He  was  successful  against 
the  Moors,  but  the  decline  of  his  life  was  ren- 
dered unlnppy  by  civil  disturbances.  His  sons, 
instigated  by  the  queen,  waged  war  against 
him,  and  were  only  quelled  with  a  vast  loss  on 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ALP 


51 


ALT 


both  sides.  Alphonso  abdicated  in  favor  of  his 
son  Don  Garcia,  but  did  not  resign  his  paternal 
care  of  the  kingdom,  for  when  the  Moors 
threatened  it,  he  headed  the  Spanish  troops, 
gained  a  decisive  victory  and  died  at  Zamora, 
912,  sixty-four  years  old. 

ALPS,  the  loftiest  ridge  of  mountains  in  Eu- 
rope, whose  branches  connect  with  nearly  all  the 
European  mountains.  Mount  Blanc,  the  highest 
mountain  in  Europe,  is  15,31)4  feet  (English) 
high  ;  the  great  St.  Bernard,  10,7*0.  Separating 
Italy  from  Spain,  France  and  Germany,  it  would 
seem  as  if  they  opposed  an  insurmountable  bar- 
rier to  the  march  of  conquest ;  but  they  have 
been  several  times  crossed  by  large  armies,  the 
expeditions  of  Hannibal  and  Bonaparte  being 
the  most  celebrated.  Bonaparte,  when  first 
consul  of  the  French  republic,  passed  the  great 
St.  Bernard,  in  the  year  1800. 

Before  the  allies  even  knew  of  his  departure, 
lie  was  in  Valais,  at  the  house  of  convalescence 
belonging  to  the  monks  of  St.  Bernard ;  there 
he  remained  three  days,  acquiring  a  knowledge 
of  the  local  obstacles  which  he  had  to  surmount. 
From  mount  St.  Bernard,  the  army  began  to 
meet  with  obstacles  which  only  genuine  enthu- 
siasm enabled  them  to  contend  against.  They 
had  to  draw  their  artillery  filong  narrow  paths, 
in  many  places  almost  perpendicular  ;  and  over 
mountains  of  snow.  A  very  small  force  would 
have  arrested  their  progress,  but  they  met  no 
opposition.  They  reached  St.  Peter,  near  the 
great  mountain  St.  Bernard,  on  the  15th  of 
May,  General  Borthier  acting  as  Bonaparte's 
lieutenant.  Here  the  whole  °park  of  artillery 
was  collected.  The  mountain  they  had  to  pass 
over  was  all  wild  and  barren,  with  a  vast  extent 
of  snow  and  ice,  mingled  with  terrific  silence. 
Over  this  frightful  mountain  the  mind  of  Bona- 
parte conceived  the  possibility  of  passing  his 
army  with  all  its  artillery,  baggage,  &c.  The 
cannon,  caissons,  forges,  &,c.  were  immedi- 
ately dismounted  piece  by  piece  ;  a  number  of 
trees  were  hollowed  like  troughs,  in  which  the 
pieces  of  cannon  might  safely  slide,  and  five  or 
six  hundred  men  drew  them  up  these  tremen- 
dous heights ;  the  wheels  were  carried  on 
poles  ;  sledges  conveyed  the  axle-trees ;  and 
empty  caissons  and  mules  were  loaded  with  the 
ammunition-boxes  made  of  fir. 

The  consul  took  no  more  baggage  than  was 
absolutely  necessary.  Five  hours  were  con- 
sumed in  climbing  as  high  as  the  monastery  of 
the  Bernadines,  where  the  good  fathers  gave 
each  individual  a  glass  of  wine ;  this,  though 
frozen,  was  to  them  delicious,  and  not  one 
5* 


would  have  exchanged  it  for  all  the  gold  of 
Peru.  There  were  still  six  leagues  to  go,  and 
the  rapidity  of  the  descent  made  that  distancs 
truly  terrible  ;  men  and  horses  constantly  fall- 
ing, and  often  recovering  with  the  greatest  dif- 
ficulty. The  march  commenced  at  midnight, 
and  did  not  finish  till  about  nine  o'clock  the 
next  evening.  For  nearly  fourteen  leagues  the 
army  had  scarcely  had  a  meal,  or  any  repose, 
yet,  at  the  end  of  the  journey,  sleep  hung  so 
heavily  even  upon  the  most  robust  of  them,  that 
they  resigned  themselves  to  it  without  a  strug- 
gle, or  a  thought  of  their  evening  repast.  Bona- 
parte traversed  a  portion  of  the  way  attended 
only  by  a  peasant.  He  was  dressed  in  the  little 
grey  surtout  and  cocked  hat,  in  which  artists 
delight  to  represent  him.  He  conversed  with 
his  companion,  and  learning  that  his  wishes 
centered  in  the  possession  of  a  little  farm,  in- 
ternally resolved  to  gratify  them.  The  farm 
was  presented  to  the  peasant,  whose  delight  and 
surprise  may  be  readily  imagined. 

ALSACE,  previously  to  the  revolution,  was 
a  province  of  France.  On  the  east,  it  was 
bounded  by  the  Rhine,  separating  it  from  Swa- 
bia,  on  the  south  by  Switzerland  and  part  of 
Tranche  Comte  ;  on  the  west,  by  Lorraine,  and 
on  the  north  by  the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine. 
The  fertility  of  this  province  is  surprising,  it 
being  the  land  of  corn,  oil.  wine,  flax,  tobacco, 
fruits  of  various  descriptions,  a  country  of 
woodland  and  pasturage.  Among  its  mineral 
productions  are  silver^  copper,  iron,  and  lead. 
The  "  arrowy  Rhine,"  is  the  principal  river  of 
Alsace,  but  it  has  several  lakes.  The  common 
language  of  the  country  people  is  German, 
though  French  is  understood  and  occasionally 
spoken.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  pro- 
vince were  the  Rauraci  Sequani,and  Medioma- 
trici.  The  Celts  lost  it  to  the  Romans,  from 
%vhom  it  passed  to  the  Germans,  and  was  won 
by  Clovis,  in  496.  In  8C9,  it  became  a  pro- 
vince of  Germany,  and  was  governed  by  Ger- 
man dukes,  and  under  them,  by  Counts,  who, 
a  century  before  the  extinction  of  dukes,  as- 
sumed the  name  of  landgraves.  By  the  peace 
of  Paris,  Nov.  20th,  1815,  Landau,  a  part  of 
Alsace,  was  separated  from  France,  to  which  it 
had  been  annexed  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick, 
and  now  again  forms  part  of  Germany.  The 
chief  city  is  Strasburg.  and  the  principal  pro- 
ductions wine,  copper, iron,  tobacco,  flax,  mad- 
der, &«.  &c. 

ALTON  A,  after  Copenhagen,  the  largest  city 
of  Denmark.  It  is  situated  on  the  Elbe,  in  the 
dutchy  of  Holstein,  two  miles  from  Hamburg 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


AMB  52 

ALVA,  Ferdinand  Alvarez,  duke  of,  descen- 
ded from  a  noble  family,  born  in  1508,  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  career  of  arms  at  the 
awe  of  seventeen,  and  was  at  the  siege  of  Pavia. 
Charles  V  made  him  a  general,  and  he  was 
commander  at  the  siege  of  Mentz,  where  he 
fought  with  desperate  but  unavailing  valor,  for 
the  siege  was  raised.  He  was  noted  for  exces- 
sive cruelty  and  superstition.  In  the  campaign 
against  the  pope,  Alva  compelled  the  pontiff  to 
sue  for  peace,  and  then  went  to  Rome  to  sup- 
plicate pardon  for  the  offence.  In  1567,  he 
was  sent  to  the  Low  Countries  by  Philip  II  to 
reduce  them  to  the  Spanish  yoke.  The  cru- 
elty of  The  Bloody  Tribunal,  a  council  which  he 
established,  deluged  the  United  Provinces  in 
their  best  blood.  At  first  the  arms  of  Alva 
were  successful,  but  the  malcontents  afterwards 
gainincr  head,  he  relinquished  the  government 
where  he  was  afterwards  employed.  In  Por- 
tugal, he  acquired  renown  by  his  success  in 
drivinor  Don  Antonio  from  the  throne.  He 
died  in  1582. 

A  MADE  US,  the  name  of  several  of  the 
counts  of  Savoy,  of  whom  Amadeus  VI  was 
the  most  famous.  He  lent  his  powerful  aid 
to  John,  king  of  France,  against  Edward  of 
England  ;  and  was  the  ally  of  John  Paleologus, 
(emperor  of  Greece) ,  in  1365.  His  reign  of  forty 
years  was  glorious,  and  his  death  in  1383, 
deeply  lamented. 

AM AZONS.  A  ncient  writers  give  this  name 
to  tribes  of  armed  and  warlike  women  of  which 
they  enumerate  three  nations,  the  African, 
Asiatic,  and  Scythian.  Their  arms  were  bows 
and  arrows,  and  they  admitted  no  men  into 
their  community.  The  accounts  of  them  are 
entirely  fabulous.  Amazania,  in  South  Ameri- 
ca, derived  its  name  from  the  supposition  of 
early  travellers  that  it  was  peopled  by  armed 
women. 

AMBOYNA,  the  largest  and  most  productive 
of  the  Molucca  or  Spice  Islands,  the  centre  of 
the  nutmeg  and  clove  trade,  in  the  Indian 
ocean.  It  is  30  or  40  miles  in  length.  The  in- 
habitants are  wild  and  rude,  much  given  to 
drinking.  The  population  of  Ambovna,  when 
taken  by  the  English,  in  17%,  was  "about  -!"..- 
252;  17,813  being  Protestants.  In  KJ24,  the 
merchants  of  the  English  factory  were  tortured 
and  put  to  death  by  the  Dutch.  Tlie  United 
Provinces  refused  satisfaction  to  James  I  and 
Charles  I,  but  paftd  to  Cromwell  30J,00()  pounds 
as  a  small  iinilomnity. 

AMBROSE,  St.  anoted  father  of  the  church, 
born  in  Gaul,  340.  His  future  greatness  was  au- 


AME 


gured  from  the  circumstance  of  bees  swarming 
about  the  lips  of  the  infant  in  his  cradle,  as  they 
did  about  the  mouth  of  Plato. 

AMERICA,  including  a  vast  extent  of  terri- 
tory, embracing  every  variety  of  climate,  and 
bearing  within  it,  besides  its  precious  ore  and 
gems,  the  germs  of  immense  wealth,  remained 
undiscovered  until  the  llth  of  October,  1492, 
when  Christopher  Columbus,  a  native  of  Ge- 
noa, who  had  sailed  from  Spain  with  three 
fiiiull  vessels  under  the  patronage  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  the  Castilian  monarch,  first  beheld 
a  light  on  the  shore  of  the  new  Continent,  two 
hours  before  midnight.  On  the  ensuing  day 
he  set  foot  in  the  New  World.  Columbus  felt 
the  importance  of  the  discovery,  asyerecting  the 
cross,  and  surrounded  bv  his  crew  and  the  wild 
and  wonder-stricken  natives,  he  took  possession 
of  the  new  country  in  the  name  of  the  sove- 
reigns of  Spain.  The  Christian  adventurers 
did  not  fail  to  kneel  upon  the  sand,  and 
offer  up  their  thanks  for  having  been  preserved 
through  the  perils  of  a  long  voyage,  and  favored 
with  the  most  brilliant  success  to  compensate 
for  all  their  perils.  This  island  was  called 
Guajuihani,  by  the  natives,  a  name  which  Co- 
lumbus altered  to  St.  Salvador,  and  was  one  of 
the  Bahama  islands. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  vast  conti- 
nent which  Columbus  discovered  was  not  call- 
ed by  his  name,  but  derived  its  appellation  from 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  a  Florentine  navigator, 
who  made  some  subsequent  discoveries,  in 
company  with  Alonzo  de  Ojeda,  in  141)9.  Co 
lumbus  did  not  rest  satisfied  with  his  first  suc- 
cessful voyage  or  the  fame  which  he  acquired 
by  it.  but  he  undertook  others.  He  was,  how- 
ever, in  the  end,  the  victim  of  jealousy  and  in- 
gratitude. The  Spanish  colonists  at  Hispaniola. 
became  discontented  and  preferred  complaints 
against  him,  sending  home  accusations  and 
remonstrances  by  every  ship  that  sailed  to 
Spain.  In  consequence  of  this,  Don  Francisco 
de  Bobadilla,  was  sent  out  by  the  court,  and 
invested  temporarily  with  the  chief  power,  be- 
ing permitted  to  use  his  own  judgment  in  quel- 
ling the  disturbances  of  the  colonies.  This 
person  scrupled  not  to  arrest  Columbus  and  put 
him  in  irons,  from  which  he  would  not  suffer 
himself  to  be  freed,  when  he  was  carried  on 
board  the  vessel,  which  was  to  bear  him  to 
Spain.  "  No,"  said  he,  when  the  attendants 
offered  to  remove  them ;  "  the  truth  must  be 
apparent,  and  my  patrons  nre  too  noble,  too  gen- 
erous to  overlooK  me.  Then,  if  fortune  again 
smiles  upon  me,  these  will  serve  as  affecting 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AME 


53 


AME 


memorials  of  sorrow  past  :  I  will  not  part  with 
them,  and  I  even  wish  that,  when  I  am  no  more, 
they  maybe  suspended  "over  my  sepulchre." 
When  he  again  set  foot  in  Spain,  he  might 
have  exclaimed,  in  the  language  of  the  poet ; 


On  tin 


riurap 
uest  li 


lorae  and  honor  V 


Columbus  was  liberated  immediately  by  royal 
order,  and  received  at  court  with  great  respect. 
But  though  Bobadilla  was  recalled,  Columbus 
in  vain  supplicated  to  be  restored  to  his  go- 
vernment ;  he  was  put  off  by  vague  promises, 
and  the  post  finally  given  to  Don  Nicholas 
Ovando,  a  practical  as  well  as  accomplished 
man.  Thus,  after  three  momentous  voyages, 
and  the  acquisition  of  much  fame,  he  found 
himself  displaced  and  thwarted  in  a  point  in 
which  he  conceived  his  honor  concerned,  and 
his  hard-earned  authority  torn  from  his  posses- 
sion. But  it  was  not.  the  nature  of  Columbus 
to  sink  under  his  misfortunes ;  on  the  contrary 
with  four  small  caravels,  the  largest  being  but 
of  seventy  tons  burthen,  he  set  out  on  his  fourth 
voyage  of  discovery  with  the  intention  of  com- 
pleting the  circumnavigation  of  the  irlobe,  vis- 
iting the  Indies,  of  which  Vasco  da  Gama  had 
fiven  so  inspiriting  an  account.  Leaving  Ca- 
iz  on  the  9th  of  May,  1502.  he  reached  Mar- 
tinique, one  of  the  windward  islands,  June  loth. 
Having  touched  at  Cuba,  he  pursued  a  south- 
westerly course,  until  he  reached  Guanaja,  an 
island  on  the  coast  of  Honduras,  whose  inhabi- 
tants had  attained  a  pretty  high  degree  of  civi- 
lization. Their  persons  were  covered  with  cotton 
garments  dyed  with  a  variety  of  bright  and 
pleasing  colors.  He  mentions  a  curious  occur- 
rence as  taking  place  here.  He  had  been  pre- 
sented, among  other  animals,  with  a  peccary, 
or  American  pig,  and  one  of  those  monkeys 
with  prehensile  tails,  indigenous  to  America. 
The  peccary  being  thrown  in  the  way  of  the 
monkey,  the  latter,  by  a  dexterous  use  of  its 
tail,  confined  the  jaws  of  the  pig  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  expose  it  helplessly  to  the  action  of 
the  monkey's  claws.  "  This  appeared  to  me  so 
strange."  Columbus  writes  to  his  patrons,  "  that 
I  thought  fit  to  write  it  down  for  the  informa- 
tion of  your  majesties." 

The  admiral,  in  his  endeavors  to  discover  a 
strait  leading  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  encountered 
great  hardships  and  fatigues,  which  had  a  bane- 
ful influence  upon  his  health,  and  was  finally 
shipwrecked.  Ovando  was  himself  averse  to 
succoring  Columbus,  after  a  messenger  had 
acquainted  him  with  the  peril  of  his  situation  ; 


but  the  people  of  Hispaniola  were  so  well-dis- 
posed towards  the  admiral,  that,  for  the  sake  of 
maintaining  his  own  reputation,  he  was  forced 
to  send  him  relief.  Columbus,  arrived  at  St. 
Domingo,  met  with  a  reception  such  as  to 
banish  for  a  brief  space,  the  remembrance  of 
his  sufferings,  but  his  bodily  weakness  could 
not  be  disguised.  When  sufficiently  recovered, 
he  set  sail  for  Spain,  arriving  there  on  the  7th 
day  of  November,  1504. 

The  services  of  this  distinguished  man  were 
indeed  important.  In  his  third  voyage  he  had 
discovered  the  continent  of  America ;  in  his 
last,  had  received  intelligence  of  the  immense 
wealth  of  Mexico,  which  was  destined  to  in- 
crease to  an  enormous  extent,  the  revenue  of 
Spain.  Columbus  vainly  looked  for  the  reward 
of  his  services;  he  had  stipulated  that  certain 
dignities  and  an  income  should  be  his,  but  he 
found  himself  in  hopeless  indigence.  His  kind 
patroness,  the  queen,  was  no  more,  and  her 
husband,  stern  and  selfish,  disregarded  the 
claims  of  the  enterprising  navigator.  He  evaded 
the  request  of  Columbus  to  be  restored  to  the 
vice-royalty  of  which  he  had  been  deprived, 
and  repeated  disappointments,  in  connexion 
with  his  bodily  infirmities,  hastened  the  death 
of  the  latter,  which  took  place  at  Valladolid, 
on  the  20th  of  May,  1506.  The  claims  to  the 
first  discovery  of  the  New  World,  advanced  by 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  appear  to  be  without  foun- 
dation. He  made,  however,  four  voyages,  and 
was  the  first  to  publish  an  account  of  the  new 
countries.  The  work  which  he  issued  became 
very  popular  and  was  soon  translated  into  sev- 
eral different  languages.  Hence,  for  convey- 
ing a  vast  sum  of  information  to  mankind, 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  attained  a  greater  degree  of 
celebrity  than  he  merited,  and,  by  the  concur- 
rence of  all  classes,  gave  his  name  to  that  ex- 
tensive and  important  country  which  another 
had  discovered. 

Various  navigators,  fired  by  the  accounts  of 
the  new  world,  and  by  the  fame  which  Colum- 
bus had  acquired,  entered  the  lists  of  honor, 
determined  to  make  themselves  celebrated. 
Vincent  Yanez  Pinzon,  one  of  the  companions 
of  Columbus,  discovered  Brazil,  although  Pe- 
dro Alvarez  Cabral  is  generally  thought  to  have 
been  its  discoverer.  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas,  and 
the  pilot  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  sailed  from  Cadiz  in 
1500,  made  a  profitable  voyatre  in  spite  of 
some  adverse  occurrences,  and  added  to  the 
stock  of  information  upon  the  appearance  and 
aft~p.ii  s  of  the  New  World.  An  English  expe- 
dition was  fitted  out  in  1497,  under  Sebastian 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY, 


AME 


54 


AME 


Cabot,  who  examined  Newfoundland  and  the 
continent  in  the  vicinity  of  the  river  St.  Law- 
rence. Nunez  de  Balboa  discovered  the  South- 
ern Ocean,  in  1513.  He  was  transported  with 
delight  as  he  beheld  its  waves  sparkling  in  the 
light  of  the  sun,  and  appearing  to  glitter  with 
that  gold  which  the  natives  told  him  abounded 
in  the  country  which  extended  to  the  south. 
He  then  imagined  that  he  had  reached  the  In- 
dies, a  country  which  it  was  then  the  greatest 
ambition  of  European  adventurers  to  reach. 
He  acquainted  the  Spanish  court  with  his  dis- 
covery, and  solicited'  an  appointment  propor- 
tionate to  the  extent  of  his  services  He  was, 
however,  grievously  disappointed;  the  govern- 
ment of  Darien  was  obtained  by  Davila,  and 
this  rival,  findincr  a  pretext  for  wreaking  his 
vengeance  upon  Balboa,  had  him  executed  pub- 
licly in  1517.  There  were  many  other  voyages 
undertaken  by  the  Spaniards,  which,  did  our 
limits  allow,  we  would  gladly  dwell  upon.  The 
enterprise  and  success  of  Magellan,  among  oth- 
ers, will  not  permit  his  name  to  be  forgotten. 

The  Spaniards  entertained  the  most  exag- 
gerated ideas  of  the  wonders  of  the  New  World. 
To  most  of  them,  it  appeared  a  realm  of  magic, 
a  fairy-land,  in  which  supernatural  occurrences 
were  by  no  means  infrequent.  Thus  Juan 
Ponce  de  Leon,  in  1512,  fitted  out  three  ships 
from  Porto  Rico,  of  which  he  was  governor, 
and  set  forth  in  search  of  an  Indian  fountain 
which  was  fabled  to  restore  all  who  bathed  in 
it,  even  if  they  were  tormented  by  the  infirmi- 
ties of  extreme  old  age,  to  the  freshness,  vigor, 
and  beauty  of  youth.  Although  he  failed  to 
find  the  fountain,  he  made  the  discovery  of 
Florida. 

We  have  alluded  to  the  immense  extent  of 
America,  which,  including  its  islands,  extends 
over  about  one  hundred  and  forty  degrees  of 
latitude.  The  external  appearance  of  the  New 
World,  has  much  which  presents  a  very  marked 
contrast  to  the  superficial  features  of  the  old. 
A  stupendous  chain  of  elevated  mountains 
traverses  the  whole  continent,  running  from 
north  to  south,  and  even  under  the  equator, 
where,  upon  the  low  lands  the  most  intense  heat 
is  felt,  these  tall  mountains  elevate  their  heads 
into  the  region  of  intense  cold.  Every  thing  in 
the  New  World  appears  to  be  of  greater  magni- 
tude than  the  corresponding  objects  in  the  old. 
The  lakes  are  vast  inland  oceans,  exhibiting  in 
storms,  all  the  striking  and  sublime  aspects  of 
the  great  deep,  rolling  as  mighty  waves,  and 
shaken  by  an  equal  convulsion.  The  rivers 
are  of  prodigious  size,  and  the  plains  of  extra- 


ordinary extent.  Over  those  of  South  and 
North  America,  countless  herds  of  wild  cattle 
roam  at  will. 

The  New  World  was  inhabited  by  a  race  of 
men  differing,  in  many  respects,  from  the  na- 
tives of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  The  Indi- 
ans of  North  America  varied,  in  many  particu- 
lars, from  those  of  the  southern  portion  of  this 
vast  continent,  and  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
of  Mexico,  at  the  time  when  they  were  first 
visited  by  the  Spaniards,  had  attained  a  greater 
degree  of  refinement  than  was  found  by  the 
Europeans  in  any  other  quarter  of  the  New 
World.  It  is  not  our  intention  to  enter  into  tho 
long  agitated  and  unsettled  question  of  the  ori- 
gin of  the  aborigines  of  America  ;  whether  the 
ancestors  of  the  American  Indians  emigrated 
from  the  Asiatic  continent,  or  the  inhabitants 
of  the  eastern  hemisphere  swarmed  from  this, 
it  is  at  present  impossible  for  us  to  decide. 
Malte  Brun  has  described  their  general  per- 
sonal appearance  with  his  usual  ability  and 
force  in  the  following  words : — "  The  natives 
of  this  part  of  the  globe  are  in  general  large,  of 
a  robust  frame,  well  proportioned,  and  without 
defects  of  conformation.  They  have  a  bronzed 
or  coppery  red  complexion,  as  it  were  ferru- 
ginous, and  very  like  cinnamon  or  tannin  ;  thei 
hair  black,  long,  coarse,  shining  and  scanty; 
the  beard  thin,  growing  in  tufts;  the  forehead 
short,  the  eyes  elongated,  and  having  the  corn- 
ers pointing  upwards  to  the  temples ;  the  eye- 
brows high,  the  cheek  bones  projecting,  the 
nose  a  little  flattened,  but  marked  ;  the  lips 
wide,  the  teeth  serrated  and  sharp ;  in  the 
mouth  an  expression  of  mildness,  which  is  con- 
trasted with  a  sombre,  and  severe,  and  even 
hard  expression  ;  the  head  rather  square,  the 
face  large  without  being  flat,  but  diminishing 
towards  the  chin  ;  the  features  taken  in  profile, 
projecting  and  strongly  marked  ;  the  belly  high, 
the  thighs  large,  the  legs  bowed,  the  foot  large, 
and  the  whole  body  squat." 

The  North  American  Indians  are  distinguished 
for  a  quick  understanding,  a  retentive  memory, 
and  a  stoicism  which  would  have  excited  the 
envy  of  the  ancient  Grecian  philosophers.  War, 
hunting,  and  fishing,  are  the  employments  of  the 
men,  who  devote  but  little  care  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil,  which  from  its  fertility,  exacts 
but  little.  The  desire  of  revenge  is  one  of  the 
most  powerful  excitements  of  the  Indian.  He 
knows  not  of  the  principle  by  which  a  Chris- 
tian returns  good  for  evil.  An  Indian  rarely, 
if  ever,  forgets  an  injury,  and  the  exceptions 
are  so  few  that  they  have  been  noted  with  somo 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AME 


55 


AME 


care.  One  anecdote,  in  particular,  appears  wor- 
thy to  be  related. 

An  Indian,  having  wandered  far  from  his 
friends,  found  himself  foot-worn  and  thirsty,  in 
the  vicinity  of  a  white  man's  dwelling.  The 
owner  of  the  house  was  standing  at  the  door. 
The  Indian  approached  and  begged  him  for  a 
morsel  of  food  and  a  cup  of  water  to  sustain  his 
sinking  frame.  "  Begone  !  dog  of  an  Indian !" 
was  the  surly  reply  of  the  European.  Some 
years  after  this,  the  Englishman,  being  on  a 
hunting  excursion,  lost  himself  in  the  forests. 
At  the  moment  when  he  had  relinquished  al- 
most all  hope,  he  perceived  an  Indian  wigwam, 
and  having  applied  for  shelter,  was  welcomed 
with  ready  hospitality.  The  Indian  hunter  to 
whom  the  cabin  belonged,  busied  himself  in 
making  every  arrangement  for  the  comfort  of 
his  guest.  His  horse  was  fed  and  cared  for,  a 
supper  was  provided  him,  and,  when  the  hour 
of  rest  arrived,  a  bed  of  soft  skins  invited  him 
to  repose  his  weary  limbs.  In  the  morning, 
when  the  white  man  signified  his  desire  to  de- 
part, the  Indian  offered  to  be  his  guide.  Hav- 
ing conducted  him  to  the  outskirts  of  the  for- 
est, the  Indian  pointed  out  his  path.  The 
European  thanked  him,  and  prepared  to  take 
his  leave.  "  Stay  yet  a  moment,"  said  the  In- 
dian :  "  I  clearly  perceive  that  you  do  not 
know  me,  but  I  know  you  well.  Do  you  not 
recollect  that  some  ten  years  since,  a  poor  In- 
dian presented  himself  at  your  door  and  entreat- 
ed you  to  give  him  a  morsel  of  bread  and  a  cup 
of  water  ?  You  refused  him.  I  am  that  red 
man.  I  swore  to  be  revenged.  Am  I  not  ? 
Now  go  thy  ways,  and  forget  not  to  tell  thy 
white  brethren,  that  there  is  at  least  one  Indian 
who  can  practice  what  they  preach?'' 

We  are  unable  to  give  a  minute  description 
of  the  Indians  ; — the  horrors  of  their  wars,  the 
fortitude  of  the  captives,  tortured  at  the  stake, 
the  adoration  they  pay  to  the  Great  Spirit,  their 
superstitions  and  their  sufferings,  must  be  pour- 
trayed  by  other  pens.  From  the  time  of  the 
first  European  settlements  in  this  part  of  Amer- 
ica, the  number  of  the  Indians  has  dimi- 
nished rapidly,  and  they  are  now  reduced  to  a 
mere  handful,  whom  the  wave  of  emigration  is 
fast  rolling  to  the  shores  of  the  Western  Ocean. 
They  have  seen  their  hunting-grounds  dimi- 
nished, their  forests  swept  away  by  their  white 
foes,  and  the  smoke  of  the  Christian  village  ri- 
sing where  once  their  council-fires  blazed.  But 
in  Mexico  and  many  parts  of  South  America, 
where  the  natives  had  made  some  progress  in 
civilization  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the 


continent,  the  Indians  have  become  fellow-cit- 
izens with  the  whites,  and  the  native  or  mixed 
breeds  compose  the  mass  of  the  population. 

The  discovery  of  America  awakened  the  en- 
terprise of  various  nations  of  the  Old  World,  and 
they  fitted  out  numerous  expeditions  to  conquer 
and  colonize.  North  America,  which  is  of  vast 
extent,  its  surface  containing  about  eight  mil- 
lions of  square  miles,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English,  French,  and  Spanish.  .Mexico,  so 
valuable  for  its  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  inhabi- 
ted at  the  period  of  its  discovery  by  intelligent 
and  peaceable  nations,  was  conquered  by  Fer- 
nando Cortez,  a  Spanish  general,  who  scrupled 
not  to  make  use  of  the  basest  treachery,  and  to 
shed  the  blood  of  the  natives  like  water,  to  ac- 
complish his  purposes.  Mexico  was  for  a  long 
time  attached  to  Spain,  to  which  it  furnished 
immense  wealth,  but  at  present  has  a  republi- 
can government  which  it  can  hardly  be  said  to 
enjoy,  the  country  is  in  such  an  unsettled  state. 
The  eastern  shores  of  North  America,  were 
settled  principally  by  the  English.  In  spite  of 
the  hostility  of  the  Indians,  the  ravages  of  dis- 
ease and  hardship,  the  colonies  increased  rap- 
idly. The  population  of  the  middle  portion  of 
North  America,  now  called  the  United  States, 
was  estimated,  in  1775.  at  about  3,000,000. 
The  number  of  the  colonies  was  thirteen.  Pov- 
erty and  oppression  had  first  driven  them  from 
their  native  land. 

New-England  was  peopled  by  Puritans,  as 
they  were  called— men,  who,  being  refused  the 
liberty  of  worshipping  God  in  the  form  which 
their  consciences  dictated,  in  their  own  land, 
resolutely  severed  the  ties  which  bound  them 
to  a  beloved,  though  oppressed  country,  and, 
traversing  a  vast  ocean,  entered  a  land  inhabi- 
ted by  savages,  and  encountering  every  peril 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  mighty  empire  in  the 
west.  The  mother  country  afforded  them  no 
assistance,  but,  when,  by  their  unaided  efforts, 
they  had  established  their  prosperity,  she  sent 
forth  magistrates  to  govern,  or  rather  to  oppress 
them,  and,  by  heavy  taxes,  endeavored  to  wring 
from  them  the  means  of  propping  up  the  rotten 
institutions  of  the  parent  island.  In  1775,  the 
colonies  took  up  arms  in  defence  of  their  rights, 
declaring  their  independence.  The  colonial 
forces,  inspired  by  the  bravery,  and  directed  by 
the  wisdom  of  George  Washington,  after  a  con- 
test of  eight  years,  vanquished  the  chosen  troops 
of  Great  Britain,  and  became  independent. 
The  present  form  of  government  was  determin- 
ed upon  in  the  year  1789.  The  United  States 
are  twenty-four  in  number,  each  State  having 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


AME  51 

a  legislature,  executive  and  judiciary,  of  its 
own.  All  the  States,  however,  are  united  un- 
der a  General  Government ;  the  legislative 
power  being  in  the  hands  of  a  Congress  which 
consists  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives, the  members  of  which  are  chosen  by  the 
different  States  which  they  represent.  The 
executive  power  is  vested  in  the  hands  of  the 
President,  assisted  by  subordinate  officers.  The 
President  and  Vice-President,  are  chosen  by  the 
State  electors,  and  hold  their  offices  for  a  term 
of  four  years.  The  United  States  Judiciary 
consists  of  seven  Judges. 

The  British  possess  an  immense  territory  in 
North  America,  containing  a  while  population 
of  about  a  million,  and  a  great  number  of  In- 
dian tribes.  The  Canadas,  New  Brunswick, 
Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland,  and  New  Britain, 
are  the  principal  divisions  of  this  territory. 
The  king  of  Great  Britain  appoints  a  Gover- 
nor-General who  rules  over  the  provinces,  and 
in  each  province  there  is  a  Lieutenant-Gover- 
nor,  and  a  provincial  legislature.  The  French 
were  the  chief  settlers  in  these  countries,  and 
retained  possession  of  them  until  1759,  whan 
they  were  taken  by  the  British.  The  contest 
for  the  possession  of  the  Canadas  is  memorable 
for  many  gallant  exploits,  which  arc  blazoned 
on  the  page  of  English  history. 

The  early  history  of  the  West  Indies  abounds 
with  details  of  the  horrible  cruelties  of  the  Span- 
iards, who  scrupled  not  to  adopt  the  most  in- 
human measures  to  complete  the  ruin  of  the 
unhappy  natives.  They  forced  them  to  labor 
in  their  mines,  they  wore  out  their  frames  by 
the  infliction  of  the  most  dreadful  fatigues,  and 
changed  the  luxurious,  peaceful,  and  happy  life 
of  the  islanders,  into  an  existence  of  painful 
toil,  uncheered  by  a  single  ray  of  hope,  or  a  sin- 
gle scene  of  pleasure.  They  caused  a  large 
number  of  the  poor  wretches  to  be  torn  to  pieces 
by  blood  hounds,  whose  sole  occupation  was 
hunting  the  natives.  The  West  Indies,  with 
the  exception  of  Hayti,  which  is  inhabited  by 
independent  blacks,  belong  to  European  go- 
vernments. 

The  i iches  of  South  America  awakened  all 
the  cupidity  of  the  Spaniards,  when  they  first 
began  to  penetrate  into  that  portion  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  they  treated  its  natives  with  the 
greatest  barbarity.  At  the  time  of  its  conquest 
by  Pizarro,  an  ambitious  but  unlettered  Span- 
ish adventurer,  Peru  contained  a  numerous 
and  civilized  population.  Cuzco  was  the  seal 
of  empire,  the  residence  of  the  Peruvian  Incas, 
or  Kings.  They  worshipped  the  sun  and  had 


I  AME 

a  magnificent  temple,  gorgeous  with  gold  from 
floor  to  roof.  With  some  exceptions,  these 
people  were  inoffensive  and  intelligent.  With 
a  force  of  one  hundred  and  seventy  foot  sol- 
diers, Almagro  and  Pizarro  entered  Peru  about 
1513.  By  artifice  Pizarro  gained  the  confidence 
of  the  Peruvians,  by  treachery  repaid  it.  When 
the  poor  natives  were  finally  rouse(d  to  resis- 
tance, the  superior  arms  of  the  Europeans,  ena- 
bled them  to  obtain  an  easy  victory.  The 
kings  of  Spain  were  envied  by  other  European 
monarchs.  for  the  possession  of  the  richest  por- 
tions of  America  ;  but,  as  if  in  punishment  for 
the  crimes  of  conquest,  Spain  has  been  forced 
to  behold  tliose  territories,  obtained  by  guilt  and 
cruelty,  glide,  one  by  one.  froqjlier  grasP>  l'^> 
poor  and  degraded,  she  retains  but  the  bitter 
recollections  of  the  rank  she  once  maintained 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  But  while  Pe- 
ru, Bolivia,  New  Grenada,  Chili,  and  other 
portions  of  South  America,  enjoy  a  republican 
government,  Brazil  is  still  an  empire.  The 
governments  of  South  America  are  by  no 
means  firmly  established,  and  the  fluctuations' 
of  national  policy,  together  with  the  prevalence 
of  bigotry,  superstition  and  licentiousness,  and 
the  want  of  education,  prevent  the  South  Ame- 
rican from  attaining  that  height  of  prosperity 
and  happiness  to  which  a  liberal  and  enlight- 
ened government,  a  wise  toleration  in  religion, 
a  firm  tone  of  morality,  and  an  excellent  system 
of  public  instruction,  have  raised  the  more  fa- 
vored inhabitants  of  the  United  States. 

America  is  upwards  of  5' ,000  miles  in  length, 
and  its  average  breadth  is  1500  to  1800  miles. 
It  lies  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans, 
extending  from  5UJ  S.  latitude,  to  an  unknown 
northern  latitude.  The  lowest  estimate  of  the 
number  of  square  miles  it  contains,  places  them 
at  14.323,000.  North  America  contains  Green- 
laud,  belonging  to  Denmark  ;  British  America, 
(including  New  Britain,  Upper  Canada,  Low- 
er Canada,  New  Brunswick,  Newfoundland, 
Prince  Edward's  Island,  and  Nova  Scotia) ;  the 
Russian  possessions  in  the  northwest;  the 
United  States  ;  Mexico,  and  Guatimala  South- 
America  contains  New  Grenada,  Venezuela, 
the  Equator,  Guiana,  Brazil,  Peru,  Bolivia, 
Chili,  Buenos  Ayres,  or  the  United  Provinces 
of  La  Plata,  Paraguay.  Uruguay,  and  Patago- 
nia. Between  North  and  South  America,  lie 
the  West  India  Islands.  Some  of  the  principal 
rivers  are  the  St.  Lawrence,  Mississippi,  Mis- 
souri, Columbia.  Mackenzie,  Amazon,  La  Plata, 
and  Orinoco.  Long  chains  of  mountains  run 
through  North  and  South  America.  In  the 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AMI 


57 


AMS 


former  are  some  of  the  largest  fresh- water  lakes 
in  the  world— Superior,  Huron,  Michigan,  Erie, 
and  Ontario.  Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton, 
Prince  Edward's,  the  Bermudas,  Rhode  Island, 
and  Long  Island  are  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant islands  belonging  to  North  America. 

AMERICUS  VESPUCIUS,  (Amerigo  Ves- 
pucci), a  Florentine  navigator  of  an  ancient 
family,  born  1451.  His  first  voyage  to  Ameri- 
ca was  made  under  Ojeda,  a  year  after  its  dis- 
covery by  Columbus,  and  yet  the  vast  continent 
bears  his  name,  while  that  of  the  actual  disco v-' 
ercr  is  applied  to  it  only  by  poetical  courtesy. 
Vespucci  died  at  Seville  in  1512. 

AMES,  Fisher,  an  eloquent  American  states- 
man and  writer,  born  in  Dedham,  Mass.  April 
9th,  1758.  His  parents  were  respectable.  He 
was  educated  at  Harvard  College,  which  he 
left  with  a  high  character  for  industry,  regular- 
ity and  talent.  After  instructing  a  school  for 
some  years,  in  1731  he  commenced  the  practice 
of  law,  and  becoming  distinguished  for  his  orato- 
rical powers,  and  his  success  as  a  political  essay 
writer,  was  chosen  member  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  in  the  state  legislature.  He 
was  next  chosen  Representative  of  Suffolk 
county  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
in  which  he  remained  during  Washington's  ad- 
ministration. On  the  retirement  of  Washing- 
ton, Mr.  Ames,  whose  health  had  been  impair- 
ed, occupied  himself  in  farming  at  Dedham, 
and  practising  law.  But  although  his  voice 
was  unheard  in  public,  his  pen  was  not  inactive, 
and  the  publication  of  various  essays  proved  the 
interest  which  he  continued  to  take  in  politics 
until  the  time  of  his  death,  July  4, 1808.  Fisher 
Ames  had  fine  features,  and  a  commanding  per- 
son, and  his  manner  in  speaking  was  expres- 
sive, although  not  characterized  by  studied 
grace.  His  conversational  abilities  are  said  to 
have  been  of  the.  highest  order. 

AMHERST.  a  flourishing  post  town  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  Hampshire  county,  90  miles  W. 
of  Boston.  Its  literary  institutions  are  Am- 
herst  college,  an  academy,  and  a  female  semi- 
nary. 

AMHERST,  Jeffery,  lord,  a  British  general 
officer,  bom  in  1717.  He  commenced  his  mili- 
tary career  in  1731 ,  and  regularly  rose  to  the 
rank  of  field  marshal.  He  was  at  Dettingen, 
Fountenoy,  Rocoux,  and  commanded  at  the 
siege  of  Louisburg,  and  reduced  the  Canadas. 
He  was  successively  Governor  cf  Virginia,  and 
of  the  isle  of  Jersey, 'and  Commander  in  Chief 
of  the  British  army.  He  died  in  179S. 

AMIENS,  a  celebrated  city  in  Picardy,  with 


45,000  inhabitants.     Here  peace  was  concluded 
between  France  and  England  in  1801. 

AMPHITRYON,  a  fabulous  prince  of 
Thebes,  said  to  have  been  the  grandfather  of 
Hercules. 

AMSTERDAM,  the  capital  of  Holland,  at 
the  commencement  of  the  13th  century,  was 
nothing  more  than  an  insignificant  fishing  vil- 
lage, composed  exclusively  of  the  huts  of  fish- 
ermen. Its  growth  was  not  very  rapid,  although 
in  time  it  became  a  place  of  great  importance. 
It  was  formerly  called  Ainstelerdam,  the  dam 
or  dyke  of  the  Amstel.  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  river  Amstel,  and  is  situated  at  its  in- 
flux into  the  arm  of  the  sea,  called  the  Y  or 
Wye,  forming  a  capacious  port,  two  leagues 
from  the  Zuyder  Zea.  The  city  stands  upon  a 
marshy  soil,  in  consequence  of  which  the  buil- 
dings are  raised  on  oaken  piles ;  whence  the  jest 
of  Erasmus,  who  said,  "  that  in  his  country  the 
people  lived  on  the  tops  of  trees."  In  1490 
Mary  of  Burgundy  encompassed  the  city  with 
a  brick  wall,  to  protect  it  from  the  incursions  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Utrecht,  who  were  frequent- 
ly involved  in  quarrels  with  the  Hollanders. 
Soon  after  the  erection  of  this  wall,  the  city  was 
burnt  to  the  ground.  In  1512  it  was  besieged 
by  the  people  cf  Guelderland,  who,  finding  them- 
selves bafficd  in  their  attempt  to  take  the  city, 
fired  the  vessels  in  the  harbor.  The  scene  pre 
sented  by  the  burning  ships  was  awfully  grand  ; 
— the  waters  appeared  like  a  sea  of  molten  gold, 
over  which  a  thousand  volcanoes  poured  their 
volumes  of  fire,  while  the  roaring  of  the  confla- 
gration was  like  the  voice  of  a  tempest.  The 
Anabaptists,  in  1512  and  1525,  filled  the  city  with 
commotion  and  bloodshed.  An  insurgent  chief, 
Van  Geelen.  headed  a  conspiracy  which  had 
for  its  object  the  subversion  of  the  magistracy  of 
Amsterdam,  and  the  assumption  of  power  by  the 
rebels.  Van  Geelen  fixed  his  head  quarters  in 
the  town  house,  where  his  fanatical  troops  dis- 
played their  banners,  and  gave  every  evidence 
that  they  considered  their  victory  certain.  But 
the  burghers  attacked  them  with  great  spirit 
and  resolution,  and  the  fanatics  being  surroun- 
ded, were  put  to  death  to  a  man. 

In  1578.  Amsterdam,  after  a  siege  of  ten 
months,  capitulated  to  the  Hollanders,  stipula- 
ting that  the  Roman  Catholics  should  be  allow- 
ed "the  free  observance  of  their  religious  rites. 
The  Protestants,  however,  did  not  maintain  the 
agreement,  but. drove  the  Catholics  from  the 
city,  destroying  the  altars  and  the  images. 
From  that  time,  persons  of  all  sects  and  nations 
came  to  the  city,  and  the  united  exertions  of  all 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


AMS 


56 


ANA 


succeeded  in  raising  it  to  a  high  rank,  and  ren- 
dering it  fatuous  for  its  opulence  and  industry. 
Amsterdam  is  intersected  by  numerous  canals, 
which  divide  the  city  into  islands,  between 
which  are  built  numerous  bridges,  of  stone,  and 
wood.  Of  vast  commercial  importance,  these 
canals  give  the  streets  through  which  they  pass 
a  highly  picturesque  and  pleasant  appearance, 
rilling  the  air  with  freshness,  and  reflecting  the 
lon<*  rows  of  trees  and  houses  which  line  their 
banks.  Complaints,  however,  are  made  of  the 
effluvia  arising  from  them  in  calm  and  warm 
weather.  The  Ammarach,  a  canal  formed  by 
the  waters  of  the  Amstel,  is  the  principal,  and 
flows  beneath  a  number  of  bridges  of  which  the 
Pont  Neuf  is  the  most  elegant.  This  bridge  is 
600  feet  long  and  has  36  arches. 

A  singular  feature  in  the  scenery  of  Amster- 
dam is  the  enclosure  of  the  city  on  the  side  of 
the  haven  or  Wye,  by  means  of  piles,  which 
are  driven  into  the  ground,  and  connected  with 
immense  horizontal  beams,  affording  openings 
sufficiently  ample  for  the  ingress  and  egress  of 
ships.  These  are  closed  every  evening.  The 
port  is  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  and  crowded  with 
vessels  whose  towering  masts  attract  the  eye, 
and  give  a  lively  appearance  to  the  scene. 

The  streets  of  Amsterdam,  although  narrow, 
are  well-paved,  and  exhibit  that  charming  neat- 
ness, which  is  peculiar  to  the  Dutch,  and  which 
is  equally  conspicuous  in  their  walks  and  in 
their  smart  brick  or  stone  buildings.  The  pop- 
ulation of  Amsterdam  is  estimated  at  more  than 
200,000  persons.  The  government  is  exclusive- 
ly in  the  hands  of  Protestants,  although  there  is 
no  want  of  toleration  to  those  who  differ  from 
the  established  tenets.  The  New  Church,  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Catharine,  is  said  to  have  been  be- 
gun in  1408,  or  1414,  and  to  have  occupied  a 
century  in  its  erection.  The  interior  is  adorn- 
ed with  sculpture,  and  the  paintings  on  the 
glass  windows  are  cf  the  richest  description. 
The  superb  organ  has  been  celebrated  through- 
out the  world.  The  church  contains  a  marble 
monument,  erected  to  the  memory  of  Admiral 
Ruyter. 

The  stadthonse  is  a  beautiful  building,  erect- 
ed on  13,G5!>  piles.  It  was  founded  in  1648.  Its 
breadth  is  2-2  fc-.-t.  its  depth  235,  height  116. 
The  whole  of  this  fine  building  exhibits  proofs 
of  the  characteristic  neatness  and  industry  of 
the  Dutch.  Beneath  the  stadthouse  are  the 
vaults  of  the  Bank  of  Amsterdam,  the  prisons 
for  debtors,  criminals,  <fcc.  At  the  top  of  the 
building  are  six  large  cisterns  of  water,  to  be 
used  iu  case  of  fire,  against  which,  however, 


the  greatest  precaution  is  taken.  The  exchange 
which  is  built  of  freestone,  stands  upon  2000 
wooden  piles,  is  250  feet  in  length,  and  140  in 
breadth.  The  interior  galleries  rest  upon  26 
marble  columns.  The  arsenal  is  a  place  of  im- 
portance, and  there  are  also  schools,  academies, 
hospitals  and  other  public  buildings.  The  prin- 
cipal houses  of  correction  are  the  rasp-house, 
and  the  spin-house.  In  the  former  offenders 
are  employed  sawing  and  rasping  Brazil-wood. 
Those  who  obstinately  refuse  to  work  are  car- 
ried into  the  cellar  into  which  water  is  flowing, 
and,  unless  they  work  briskly  at  the  pump,  they 
are  in  danger  of  drowning.  In  the  spin-house 
women  are  compelled  to  spin  wool,  flax,  and 
hemp. 

The  senate  or  council  of  Amsterdam  was 
composed  of  36  persons  representing  the  whole 
bodv  of  the  people.  It  was  called  the  Voeds- 
chap.  Their  office  was  for  life,  and  in  case  of 
the  death  of  one,  the  survivors  elected  a  succes- 
sor. The  burgomasters  or  echevins  whose  of- 
fice resembled  that  of  aldermen,  were  appoint- 
ed by  the  senate,  and  were  12  in  number.  Out 
of  these,  four  were  chosen  annually,  to  execute 
the  office,  and  were  styled  burgomaster's  re- 
gent. Three  were  discharged  annually  and  their 
place  supplied.  •  In  criminal  cases,  there  was 
no  appeal  from  the  college  of  new  burgomasters, 
who  were  judges;  but  in  civil  actions,  the 
council  of  the  province  constitutes  a  court  of 

In  early  times  Amsterdam  was  strongly  forti- 
fied, but,  in  consequence  of  various  alterations, 
it  can  now  be  defended  only  by  inundating  the 
.surrounding  country.  The  new  canal  from 
Amsterdam  to  Niewe  Diep  is  an  immense  work. 
The  canal  is  50  miles  and  a  half  long,  and  so 
broad  as  to  admit  of  one  frigate  passing  another. 
This  canal  will  greatly  improve  the  commerce 
of  the  city,  as  it  removes  the  necessity  of  un- 
loading large  vessels,  which  must  be  done  be- 
fore they  can  pass  through  the  harbor. 

AMURATH  II,  in  1422.  succeeded  his  father 
Mohammed  I.  Numerous  pretenders  contested 
his  claim  to  the  crown,  which,  after  he  had 
quelled  opposition,  he  relinquished  to  his  son, 
Mahomet,  but  emerged  from  his  retirement 
when  the  latter  was  found  inadequate  to  the 
impcm!  station.  Whenever  he  encountered 
the  Hungarians  and  Janizarirs,  he  defeated 
them.  IlT-  died  in  1451  aged  47. 

ANAHAPTISTS,  a  religious  wet.,  whose 
name  was  given  them  from  their  disbelief  in 
the  efficacy  of  infant  baptism.  They  claim  his- 
torical notice  on  account  of  their  insurrec- 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AND 


59 


AND 


tion  against  the  civil  authority  of  Munster,  and 
->ther  German  provinces.  Their  fanatical  leader, 
John  of  Ley  den,  a  tailor,  defended  himself  in 
Munster  for  a  whole  year.  After  this,  the  pun- 
ishment of  the  leaders  quelled  the  insurrection. 
Munster  was  taken,  June  24,  1535.  . 

ANACREON,a  Greek  lyric  poet  of  Teos,  in 
Ionia,  who  flourished  500  years  B.C.  Polycrates, 
king  of  Samos,  was  his  patron  until  his  death. 
At  Athens  he  was  encouraged  by  Hipparchus, 
but  the  fall  of  the  latter  drove  him  from  Athens, 
and  he  passed  an  old  age  of  gaiety  at  Abdera, 
where  he  was  choked  by  a  grape -stone  in  his 
85th  year.  He  was  the  poet  of  love  and  wine, 
and  much  honored  by  the  Greeks. 

AINAXAGORAS,  one  of  the  Ionic  philoso- 
phers, born  at  Clazomene,  in  Ionia,  500  B.  C. 
died  at  Lampsacus  at  the  age  of  72. 

ANAXIMANDER,  a  disciple  of  Thales, 
whose  chief  study  was  mathematics,  born  at 
Miletus,  610  B.  C.,  died  546  B.  C.  He  made 
some  scientific  discoveries. 

ANGUS  MARTIUS,  succeeded  Tullus  Hos- 
tilius.  the  3d  king  of  Rome,  640  B.  C.  and  died 
618  B.  C.  He  was  a  conqueror,  improved  the 
navigation  of  the  Tiber,  and  established  good 
laws. 

ANDALUSIA,  the  richest  province  of  Spain, 
bounded  north  by  Estremadura  and  La  Mancha ; 
east,  by  Murcia ;  south  by  the  straits  of  Gibral- 
tar, and  west  by  Portugal.  It  is  divided  into  Up- 
per and  Lower,  the  former  of  which  compre- 
hends Granada,  and  the  latter  Jaen,  Cordova, 
and  Seville. 

ANDOVER.  a  township  of  Massachusetts, 
in  Essex  county,  20  miles  N.  of  Boston,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Merrimack  River,  and  water- 
ed by  the  Shawsheen.  It  is  a  pleasant  and 
flourishing  town,  and  contains  5,000  inhabit- 
ants. Its  theological  seminary  is  noted. 

ANDRE.  Major.  Among  the  various  events 
which  contributed  to  give  a  distinctive  char- 
acter to  the  war  of  our  Revolution,  the  fate  of 
Major  Andre,  a  young  English  officer,  can 
never  be  forgotten,  nor  the  sad  story  of  the 
close  of  his  life  ever  read  without  a  deep  and 
painful  interest.  This  young  man  was  hand- 
some, talented,  brave,  enthusiastic,  generous, 
and  accomplished,  beloved  by  all  his  acquaint- 
ance, without  distinction  of  country.  He  en- 
tered the  royal  army  with  high  hopes,  and  was 
well  fitted  to  adorn  an  elevated  station.  His 
history  is  connected  with  that  of  the  worst 
traitor  who  ever  disgraced  the  name  of  Amer- 
ica. This  man  was  General  Arnold.  His 
unrepressed  extravagance  had  led  him  to  incur 


heavy  debts  which  he  saw  no  means  of  dis- 
charging, but  by  accepting  the  gold  of  the 
British,  as  the  price  of  treason  to  his  country. 
In  September,  1780,  Arnold  was  in  command 
of  West  Point,  a  military  post  on  the  North,  or 
Hudson  river,  New  York,  which  was  of  vast 
importance  to  the  Americans.  To  give  noto- 
riety to  his  apostacy,  Arnold  had  selected  this 
fortress,  which  was  almost  impregnable  from 
natural  defences,  and  from  fortifications,  on 
which  no  care  or  expense  had  been  spared. 
Arnold  had  opened  a  correspondence  with  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  under  fictitious  names,  and  the 
pretence  of  mercantile  business,  through  Major 
Andre,  then  holding  the  rank  of  Adjutant-Gen- 
eral. The  young  officer  was  conveyed  up  the 
river  in  the  Vulture  sloop  of  war,  and,  under  a 
pass  for  John  Anderson,  came  on  shore  in  the 
night,  and  had  an  interview  with  Arnold. 
Morning  surprised  them  before  their  business 
was  transacted,  and,  as  it  was  impossible  for 
Andre  to  get  on  board  the  Vulture  by  daylight, 
he  consented  to  remain  hidden  till  the  next 
night.  In  the  course  of  the  day,  the  Vulture 
altered  her  position,  in  consequence  of  a  gun 
being  brought  to  bear  upon  her,  and,  for  this 
reason,  the  boatmen,  at  night,  refused  to  take 
Andre  on  board. 

The  young  officer  now  found  himself  com- 
pelled to  attempt  to  get  to  New  York  by  land. 
Arnold  gave  him  a  pass,  granting  permission  to 
John  Anderson,  "  to  go  to  the  lines  of  White 
Plains,  or  lower  if  he  thought  proper,  he  being 
on  public  business."  Changing  his  uniform, 
which  he  had  previously  worn  under  a  surtout, 
for  a  plain  coat,  he  mounted  a  horse,  passed  the 
American  guards  in  safety,  and  was  congratu- 
lating himself  on  his  escape,  when  three  militia 
men,  suddenly  appearing,  seized  his  bridle- 
rein,  and  demanded  his  business.  Surprised, 
and  off  his  guard,  he  did  not  produce  his  pass, 
but  hastily  asked  the  men  where  they  belong- 
ed. "  Down  below,"  was  the  answer,  meaning 
New  Yprk.  "  So  do  I ;"  replied  Andre,  re- 
joiced to  find  them  friends.  But  he  was  mis- 
taken, and  being  pressed,  he  finally  declared 
that  he  was  a  British  officer.  He  begged 
them  to  suffer  him  to  pursue  his  way,  offer- 
ing them  gold,  and  a  watch  of  great  value. 
John  Paulding,  David  Williams,  and  Isaac 
Van  Wert,  were  poor  men — their  dress  bespoke 
it — but  they  loved  their  country,  and  despised 
a  bribe.  They  might  have  answered  Andre,  in 
the  Words  of  another  American,  on  another 
occasion:  "your  king  has  not  gold  enough 
to  buy  us."  They  carried  Andre  before  Lieut. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


AND 


60 


AND 


Col.  Jameson,  who  commanded  the  troops  on 
the  lines.  The  captors  ol"  Andre  were  rewarded 
by  Congress  with  an  annual  pension  of  two 
hundred  dollars  each,  and  a  silver  medal  bear- 
ing on  one  side  a  shield  inscribed  "  Fidelity  ;" 
and  on  the  other  the  motto  "  Amor  Patrite ;" 
love  of  country. 

Andre  still  passed  as  John  Anderson.  He 
generously  wished  to  save  Arnold,  and  asked 
permission  to  write  to  him.  This  the  com- 
manding officer  incautiously  permitted,  al- 
though in  Andre's  boots  there  had  been  found, 
in  the  hand  writing  of  Arnold,  returns  of  the 
state  of  the  forces,  and  the  condition  of  West 
Point,  with  other  important  papers.  Immedi- 
ately on  the  receipt  of  the  letter,  Arnold  escaped. 
He  was  at  dinner  when  the  letter  arrived.  Ab- 
ruptly leaving  the  table,  he  ran  down  a  steep 
bank,  threw  himself  into  a  boat,  and  was  rowed 
to  the  Vulture,  which  immediately  got  under 
Bail,  and  carried  the  traitor  to  New  York.  Gen. 
Washington  was  soon  apprized  of  the  circum- 
stances, and  the  same  express  which  conveyed 
the  intelligence,  carried  a  letter  from  the  pris- 
oner, frankly  avowing  his  name  and  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  he  had  been  forced  to 
appear  as  an  impostor.  All  the  American  offi- 
cers who  saw  Andre,  were  struck  with  his 
candor  and  manliness,  and  there  was  not  one 
who  did  not  feel  for  his  situation. 

The  consideration  of  his  case  was  referred  by 
General  Washington  to  a  board  of  fourteen 
general  officers,  of  which  General  Green  was 
President,  and  Generals  Steuben  and  La  Fay- 
ette  were  members.  It  was  decided  that  he 
ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  spy,  and  the  stern 
rules  of  war,  and  the  necessity  of  an  example, 
required  that  he  should  die  upon  the  gibbet. 
He  begged  of  Washington  to  be  allowed  to  die 
as  a  soldier,  but  the  patriotism  of  the  General 
refused,  what  his  feelings  would  have  granted. 
Led  to  the  place  of  execution,  Andre,  survey- 
ing the  instrument  of  his  fate,  asked  with 
concern,  "  Must  I  die  by  this  ?  I  am  reconciled 
to  my  death,  but  oh!  not  to  the  mode."  Re- 
covering his  composure,  he  added  :  "  It  will  be 
but  a  momentary  pang."  His  count'-nanre 
was  unruffled,  and  calm,  to  the  very  last  mo- 
ment of  his  life  ; — the  instant  before  he  was 
launched  into  eternity,  it  exhibited  a  sunny 
serenity  and  high  magnanimity  which  touched 
the  hearts  of  all !  At  the  last  moment  he  \V;IH 
asked  if  he  wished  to  say  any  thing.  "  I5ut 
this,"  he  replied:  "You  will  witness  to  the 
world,  that  I  die  like  a  brave  man." 

The   kindest  attentions  were  bestowed   on 


Andre  by  the  American  officers;  particularly 
by  General  Hamilton,  who  did  all  in  his  power 
to  soothe  him.  and  has  described  his  character 
with  his  usual  happy  felicity.  Far  different 
was  the  treatment  of  the  pious  and  patriotic 
Captain  Hale,  a  young  American  officer,  who 
was  taken  as  a  spy,  and  ordered  to  be  executed 
the  next  morning.  He  begged  the  use  of  a 
bible ;  which  was  refused  ;  to  be  allowed  to  write 
a  letter  to  his  mother ;  which  poor  privilege  was 
also  denied  him.  "  The  Americans,'1  said  the 
British  commander,  "  shall  not  know  that  they 
have  a  rebel  in  their  army  who  can  die  with  so 
much  firmness."  On  the  occasion  of  the  capture 
of  some  young  American  officers  upon  Lonjj  l.^i- 
and,  they  were  brought  before  Sir  Henry  Clin- 
ton, who  thus  addressed  them.  Gentlemen,  do 
you  know  that  I  can  hang  every  man  of  you  as 
rebels,  taken  in  arms  against  the  kin<r."  ''  Hang 
and  be  hanged  !  "  bluntly  exclaimed  Lieut. 
Dunscomb, with  the  energvof  a.  rough  soldier; 
"  I  have  lived  for  my  country,  and  I  am  not 
afraid  to  die  for  her." 

Andre's  ashes  were  secured  by  the  British, 
and  conveyed  to  England,  where  a  monument 
is  erected  to  him  in  St.  Paul's,  London.  He 
possessed  some  literary  abilities,  and  wrote  a 
poem  called  the  Cow  Chase. 

ANDREWS,  ST.,  a  city  of  Scotland,  on  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  3!)  miles  from  Edinburgh'.  Pop- 
ulation 5(>2i.  It  has  two  universities,  and  for- 
merly had  a  greater  extent  than  it  has  at  present. 
In  155!),  the  reformers,  with  mistaken  zeal,  de- 
stroyed its  splendid  cathedral. 

ANDROCLUS,  or  Androdus,  a  Dacian  slave, 
who  was  exposed  in  the  arena  of  a  Roman  cir- 
cus, to  fight  a  lion ;  but  the  animal  forbore  to 
injure  him,  because  he  had  formerly  extracted 
a  thorn  from  his  foot  while  in  the  Dacian  wilds. 
Androclus  was  released,  and  used  to  lead  the 
friendly  lion  about  the  city. 

ANDROMACHE,  the  iaithful  and  affection- 
ate wife  of  Hector,  prince  of  Troy ,  of  whom  she 
was  so  fond,  as  to  ii-cd  his  horses  with  her  own 
hands.  After  his  death,  slu-  was  married  to 
Neoptolemus,  to  whose  share  the  lovely  captive 
fell,  and  afterwards  to  Helenus.  son  of  Priam. 

ANDROMEDA,  daughter  of  Cepheus,  king 
of  Ethiopia,  by  Cas<,i',|><>ia.  She  is  tabled  to 
have  been  exposed  by  Neptune  to  n  sea  mon- 
ster, from  which  she  was  delivered  by  Perseus. 
An  explnnation  of  the  fable  is  offered  in  tin- 
supposition  that  she  was  courted  by  the  captain 
of  a  ship,  who  attempted  to  carry  her  away,  but 
was  bathed  by  the  enterprize  and  activity  of  a 
more  faithful  lover. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


ANG 


61 


gera.  Cardinal  Farnese,  wished  to  have  the 
halls  adorned  by  the  pencil  of  Raphael,  to  give 
additional  beauty  to  this  charming  place.  The 


ANGELO,  Buonarotti,  Michael,  was  of  a 
noble  and  ancient  family,  and  born  at  Caprese, 
or  Chiusi,  1474.  Any  one  of  his  high  quali- 
ties would  have  made  the  fortune  of  an  ordi- 
nary man.  He  was  a  distinguished  painter, 
sculptor,  architect,  and  poet,  and  •'  canning 
of  fence."  The  beauty  of  the  Sistine  Chapel 
consists  principally  in  the  perfection  of  his 
paintings.  At  50  years  old,  he  commenced 
painting  the  Last  Judgment  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  in  which  the  grand  and  gigantic  char- 
acter of  his  mind  is  shadowed  forth.  Embrac- 
ing a  multitude  of  figures  in  various  attitudes, 
and  with  different  expressions,  it  is  an  unwea- 
rying object  of  contemplation  for  the  artist  and 
lover  of  the  fine  arts.  Between  Michael  An- 
gelo  and  Raphael,  there  was  a  warm  rivalry, 
the  former  never  forgetting  that  Raphael  had 
perfected  his  style,  only  after  having  diligently 
studied  the  frescoes  of  the  Sistine  Chapel. 

The  Farnesian  family  had  built  a  house  upon 
the  bank  of  the  Tiber,  in  the  street  dclla  Lon- 


artist  accepted  the  proposals  of  his  eminence, 
but  stipulated  that  no  one  should  inspect  his 
work  until  it  was  finished.  But  the  friends  of 
Raphael  spread  abroad  highly-colored  reports 
of  the  triumphs  which  the  painter  had  achieved, 
praising  in  especial,  the  Banquet  of  the  Gods, 
the  Nuptials  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,  and  The 
Triumph  of  Galatea.  These  reports  inflamed 
the  curiosity  of  Buonarotti,  and  he  swore  by 
the  Inferno  of  Dante,  that  he  would  gain  admis- 
sion into  the  Farnesian  villa,  examine  the 
works  of  Raphael,  and  prevent  their  completion. 
Michael  Angelo,  having  discovered  that  Ra- 
phael went  late  to  his  woijk,  disguised  himself 
as  an  acquavitaro,  vender  of  brandy,  and  taking 
with  him  a  huge  basket  filled  with  biscuits  and 
brandy,  directed  his  steps  at  an  early  hour  to 
the  gate  of  the  Farnesian  palace.  His  cries  of 
"brandy!  brandy!"  roused  the  masons—  the 
gate  was  opened,  and  the  acquavitaro  admitted 
in  a  twinkling.  Behold,  Michael  Angelo  in 
the  interior  of  the  Farnesina  !  The  workmen 
were  soon  busily  employed  upon  the  biscuits 
and  the  brandy,  and  he  passed  through  the  cor- 
ridors, and  was  soon  before  the  frescoes  of 
Raphael.  The  fine  picture  of  Galatea  attracted 
his  attention,  and.  noticing  a  scaffold  and  a  wall 
in  readiness  fur  the  painter,  he  ascended  and 
drew  with  a  piece  of  charcoal,  a  gigantic  head 
of  Jupiter,  after  which  he  left  the  villa  precipi- 
tately, without  stopping  for  his  basket.  When 


Raphael  arrived  at  noon,  on  beholding  the 
splendid  head,  he  exclaimed,  "  Michael  An- 
gelo !  "  From  that  day  he  painted  no  more  in 
the  Farnesina,  and  his  works  remained  unfin- 
ished. The  head  which  Michael  Angelo  de- 
signed, remains  still  upon  the  wall,  and  covered 
with  a  glass,  attracts  the  admiration  of  artists 
and  connoisseurs. 

ANGLES,  a  tribe  which  occupied  the  coun- 
try between  the  Weser  and  the  Elbe,  now  a 
part  of  Prussia.  Their  piraces  made  them 
notorious  at  an  early  period,  and  in  the  fifth 
century,  uniting  with  the  Saxons,  their  power- 
ful neighbors  ot  the  north,  under  the  name  of 
Anglo- Saxons,  they  effected  the  conquest  of 
England.  A  small  tract  of  land  near  the  Da- 
nish peninsula,  where  some  of  them  remained, 
is  called  at  the  present  day,  Anaeln. 

ANGLESEA,  or  Anglesey,  the  Monaof  the 
ancients,  an  island  and  county  of  North  Wales, 
situated  in  the  Irish  Sea.  It  has  a  population 
of  4b,U25.  Its  length  is  24  miles,  and  its  breadth 
17.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  adapts  it  for  graz- 
ing, and  grain  and  cattle  are  its  principal  pro- 
ducts. Over  the  strait  of  Menai  which  separates 
it  from  Wales,  a  fine  suspension  bridge  has 
been  erected. 

ANGOLA,  a  country  of  Western  Africa, 
including  the  range  of  coast  from  1  to  12  deg. 
S.,  from  which  40,OUO  slaves  are  obtained  an- 
nually. The  Portuguese  settled  there  in  the 
middle  ages. 

ANGORA,  Ancyra,  or  Angoura;  a  city  of 
Natolia,  or  Asia  Minor,  212  miles  from  Con- 
stantinople, and  containing,  perhaps,  50,000 
souls.  Its  hilly  environs  are  thickly  studded 
with  delicious  gardens,  but  the  once  strong 
fortifications  of  this  delightful  city,  are  decayed. 
The  Angora  shawls  rival  those  of  Cashmere ; 
the  hair  of  the  native  goat  furnishing  the  mate- 
rials. A  considerable  manufacture  of  these  is 
carried  on,  although  the  trade  of  the  place  is 
no  longer  what  it  was.  It  is  built  on  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Ancyra.  Here  Bajazet,  the 
famed  sultan  of  the  Ottomans,  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  Tamerlane,  in  1402. 

ANICH,  Peter,  a  poor  peasant  of  the  Tyrol, 
whose  aptness  for  the  study  of  astronomy  and 
geography  was  not  developed  until  he  was  28 
years  old.  He  was  born  in  1723,  at  Oberpor- 
fess,  near  Inspruck,  and  died  in  1766.  He 
was  encouraged  by  the  Jesuits,  and  made  a 
celestial  and  terrestial  globe,  with  several  math- 
ematical instruments,  remarkable  for  neatness. 
Under  the  patronage  of  the  empress  Maria 
Theresa,  he  drew  a  map  of  the  Tyrol. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


ANN  { 

ANJOU,  anciently  a  fertile,  well- watered, 
and  productive  province  of  France,  now  form- 
ing the  department  of  Maine  and  Loire.  Be- 
fore the  revolution,  it  was  estimated  to  con- 
tain upwards  of  90,000  families.  Angers  is  the 
chief  town.  The  province  has  alternately  be- 
longed to  the  crown,  and  been  bestowed  upon 
princes  of  the  blood.  Louis  XV  conferred  it 
on  his  crrandson,  Stanislaus,  count  of  Provence, 
afterward  Louis  XVIII. 

ANKERSTRCEM,  John  Jacob,  the  murderer 
of  Gustavus  III.  Originally  a  page  at  the 
Swedish  court,  he  was  at  length  raised  to  the 
rank  of  ensign  of  the  royal  guards.  He  joined 
a  conspiracy  the  members  of  which  thirsted  for 
the  blood  of  their  monarch.  Ankerstroem  wish- 
ed to  make  the  deed  of  blood  his  own,  but  the 
Counts  Horn  and  Ribbing  contended  for  it; 
.ots  were  drawn,  and  Ankerstrcem  obtained  the 
post  of  murderer.  At  a  masquerade  at  Stock- 
holm, he  accomplished  his  purpose  by  dischar- 
ging a  pistol  at  the  king.  Having  been  disco- 
vered and  condemned,  he  was  scourged  in  prison 
for  several  successive  days,  dragged  on  a  cart  to 
the  scaffold,  and  executed  April  29,  1792,  glo- 
rying in  the  deed,  and  bearing  all  his  sufferings 
with  singular  fortitude.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
31  years. 

ANNA,  a  heathen  goddess,  in  whose  honor 
the  Romans  instituted  festivals.  Several  fabu- 
lous explanations  of  the  origin  of  these  celebra- 
tions have  been  given,  but  the  most  probable  is 
the  least  remarkable  ;  viz.  that  Anna  was  an 
industrious  old  lady  of  Bovillje,  and  her  apoth- 
eosis the  reward  of  her  kindness  in  daily 
supplying  the  Romans  at  Mount  Sacer  with 
cakes. 

ANNA,  Ivanowna,  empress  of  Russia,  daugh- 
ter of  Ivan,  and  niece  of  Peter  the  Great.  She 
succeeded  Peter  II.  son  of  the  unfortunate 
Alexis,  in  1730.  Anna  displayed  great  boldness 
in  the  very  commencement  of  her  reign,  refused 
to  renounce  a  single  privilege  enjoyed  by  the 
czars,  and  proclaimed  herself  autocrat  of  all  the 
Russias.  She  waged  war  against  the  Persians, 
Poles,  and  Turks.  She  was  born  in  1693,  and 
died  1740. 

ANNAPOLIS,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in 
Ann  Arundel  county,  Maryland.  It  is  situa- 
ted on  the  S.  W.  side  of  the  Severn,  two  miles 
from  its  mouth,  forty  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Wash- 
ington. Population  270'~.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  state  government  and  contains  several  fine 
public  buildings,  .'innapolis  Royal,  is  a  city  of 
Nova  Scotia  with  a  good  harbor. 

ANNE,  queen  of  England,  second  daughter 


2  ANS 

of  James  II,  previously  duke  ofYork,  born  1664. 
In  1683,  she  married  prince  George,  brother  of 
Christian  V  of  Denmark.  In  166d,  she  joined 
the  party  which  invited  the  prince  of  Orange  to 
aid  in  dethroning  his  father-in-law.  She  as- 
cended the  throne,  on  the  death  of  her  slsle1- 
Mary,  and  of  William  III,  in  1699.  During  her 
reign  Gibraltar  was  taken  by  the  English.  Her 
brother  James  (the  pretender),  vainly  attempted 
to  set  foot  in  Scotland,  and  Anne,  with  great 
reluctance,  set  a  price  upon  his  head.  She 
seems  privately  to  have  entertained  for  a  long 
time  the  hope  of  securing  the  succession  to  her 
brother,  and  was  much  grieved  when  convinced 
of  the  futility  of  such  expectations.  Anne  died 
July  20th,  1714,  her  dving  words  being,  "  O, 
my  dear  brother,  how  1  pity  thee  !"  She  pos- 
sessed moderate  abilities,  but  was  amiable  as  a 
wile,  mother,  and  sovereign,  and  distinguished 
by  the  grateful  title  of  good  Queen  Anne.  Her 
reign  was  made  brilliant  by  the  successes  of  the 
English  arms,  and  the  writings  of  the  authors  of 
the  day.  among  whom,  were  Pope  and  Addison. 

ANNE  of  Austria,  queen  of  France,  was 
daughter  of  Philip  III,  of  Spain.  She  became 
the  wife  of  Louis  XIII,  in  1615,  but  lived  upon 
bad  terms  with  him.  On  the  death  of  Louis, 
she  became  sole  regent  during  the  minority  of 
her  son,  Louis  XIV,  but  made  herself  unpopu- 
lar among  her  subjects  by  reposing  unbounded 
confidence  in  Cardinal  "Mazarin.  Affairs  as 
sumed  so  threatening  an  aspect,  that  she  was 
compelled  to  leave  Paris.  Tranquility  was  re- 
stored at  length,  and  when  her  son  assumed 
the  reins  of  power,  in  1661,  she  went  into  retire- 
ment in  v.-hich  she  lived  till  her  death,  in  1666. 

ANNE,  daughter  of  John  III,  duke  ofCleves, 
was  married  to  Henry  VIII  of  England,  who 
fell  in  love  with  her  picture.  He  was  soon 
however,  disgusted  •\\iitli  the  Flanders  mure,  as, 
he  contemptuously  termed  her,  and  she  quietly 
returned  to  her  native  land,  where  she  died  in 
1557.  hnppy  in  escaping  the  deatli  which  the 
santminary" tyrant  inflicted  upon  Anne  Boleyn. 

ANSELM,  a  distinguished  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  (England,)  who,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  12th  century,  maintained  the  powers  of 
the  church,  in  opposition  to  those  ofjhe  crown. 

ANSGAR,  or  Anshgar,  a  saint  of  the  Ro- 
mish church,  born  in  Picardy.  in  800.  died  in 
8(55.  He  was  called  the  Apostle  of  the  .\<,rth, 
from  his  zeal  and  success  in  introducing  Chris 
tianitv  into  Denmark  and  Sweden. 

ANSON.  George,  lord,  was  born  in  1697,  at 
Shugboroucrn  manor,  in  Staffordshire,  England, 
and  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age.  In  his 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ANS 


63 


'27th  year  he  obtained  the  rank  of  post-captain, 
and  when,  in  1739,  a  war  with  Spain  appeared 
inevitable,  he  was  made  commander  of  a  fleet  in 
the  South  Sea.  He  sailed  Sept.  18th,  1740,  but 
encountering  a  violent  storm,  was  prevented,  for 
three  months,  from  doubling  Cape  Horn,  and 
was  rejoined  at  Juan  Fernandez,  by  only  three  of 
his  vessels  in  a  wretched  condition.  The  ori- 
ginal number  was  eight,  five  men  of  war,  and 
three  smaller  vessels.  He  sailed  for  the  coast  of 
Peru,  made  some  prizes,  and  burned  the  town  of 
Paita,  but,  failing  to  intercept  the  annual  Ma- 
nilla galleon,  found  himself  compelled  to  burn 
his  booty,  and  destroy  all  of  his  vessels  but  one. 
Having  equipped  this  one  (the  Centurion),  he 
retreated  to  Tinian,  one  of  the  Ladrone  islands. 
After  having  met  with  some  disasters,  he 
finally  sailed  for  Macao,  which  he  reached  in 
safety,  and  there  formed  the  plan  of  taking 
Acapulco.  To  accomplish  this  bold  purpose, 
he  gave  out  that  he  had  returned  to  England, 
and  this  deceptive  report  circulated  with  great 
rapidity.  Meanwhile,  he  directed  his  course  to 
the  Philippines,  cruising  in  the  vicinity  of 
Cape  Espiritu  Santo.  After  about  a  month, 
the  long  expected  galleon  appeared,  and,  con- 
fident in  her  superior  strength,  eagerly  com- 
menced the  fight.  The  British  fought  with 
that  cool,  dauntless  valor,  for  which  they  are 
distinguished. and  succeeded  in  making  aprize 
of  the  galleon,  which  was  worth  £400,000. 
The  whole  amount  of  the  booty  previously  ta- 
ken was  £000,000.  Anson  then  returne'd  to 
Macao,  where  he  disposed  of  his  prize.  The 
Chinese  were  inclined  to  insult  his  flag,  but  he 
maintained  his  rights  with  his  characteristic 
pertinacity.  From  Macao,  he  sailed  for  Eng- 
land, which  he  readied  June  15lh,  1744,  hav- 
ing escaped  the  French  fleet  which  lay  in  the 
channel.  A nson's  perilous  voyage  threw  new 
light  upon  geography  and  navigation,  and  con- 
ferred lasting  benefits  upon  the  cause  of  science. 
He  was  liberally  rewarded  for  his  bravery  and 
perseverance,  being  made,  soon  after  his  return, 
rear-admiral  of  the  blue,  and  at  no  great  distance 
from  that  period,  rear-admiral  of  the  white.  In 
]  747.he  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  French 
admiral,  Jonquiere,  off  Cape  Finisterre,  and 
was  consequently  raised  to  the  peerage  with  the 
title  of  Lord  Anson,  baron  of  Soberton.  L*  Invinci- 
ble and  La  Gloire,  two  French  vessels,  were  ta- 
ken by  Anson  on  this  occasion,  and  the  captain 
of  the  former,  on  surrendering  his  sword,  said, 
"  Monsieur,  vous  avez  xaincu  I' Invincible,  et  la 
Gloire  vous  suit."  "  Sir,  you  have  conquered 
the  Invincible,  and  Glory  follows  you." 
6* 


ANT 

Lord  Anson  was  made  first  lord  of  the  admi- 
ralty, four  years  after  his  elevation  to  the  peer- 
age. In  1758,  he  commanded  the  fleet  before 
Brest,  protecting  the  landing  of  the  English, 
and  receiving  them  after  their  repulse.  He 
died  in  1762. 

ANSTEY,  Christopher,  a  poet  of  the  18th 
century,  born  in  1724,  died  in  1805.  His  New 
Bath  Guide,  published  in  17G6,  became  imme- 
diately popular  from  its  humor,  wit,  and  origi- 
nality. 

ANTAEUS,  the  fabulous  son  of  Neptune  and 
Terra  (the  Earth),  of  gigantic  stature.  He  re- 
sided in  Libya,  where  he  challenged  every 
stranger  to  single  combat.  What  made  him 
peculiarly  formidable,  was  the  circumstance  of 
the  renewal  of  his  strength  by  his  mother,  eve- 
ry time  he  was  thrown  to  the  earth.  Hercules, 
having  found  out  the  secret  of  his  prowess, 
overcame  him  by  lifting  him  in  the  air,  and 
crushing  him  in  his  iron  grasp.  The  dwelling 
of  this  monster  was  adorned  with  the  skulls  01 
his  vanquished  adversaries. 

ANTENOR,  a  noble  Trojan,  who  makes  a 
conspicuous  figure  in  the  Iliad  of  Homer.  He 
escaped,  like  Jilneas,  and  is  said  to  have  found- 
ed Patavium,  the  modern  Padua. 

ANTHONY,  St.,  the  Great,  first  institutor 
of  the  monastic  life.  His  native  place  was 
Coma,  a  town  of  Upper  Egypt,  where  he  was 
born,  A.  D.  251.  In  235,  he  retired  into  soli- 
tude from  a  devotional  spirit,  and  in  305,  estab- 
lished the  first  community  of  monks.  Being 
disappointed  in  his  attempts  to  gain  the  honor 
of  martyrdom  at  Alexandria,  he  left  the  cotta- 
ges of  his  monks  to  the  care  of  his  pupil  Pacho- 
mius,  and.  in  company  with  two  of  the  brethren, 
retired  to  a  very  remote  desert,  where  he  died, 

A.  D.  356.    The  disease,  called  from  him  St. 
Anthony's  fire,  is  a  malady  of  peculiar  violence 
with  frightful  accompaniments,  in  which  every 
limb  attacked,  becomes  withered,  shrunk,  and 
blackened,  as  if  under  the  influence  of  flame. 
The  life  of  St.  Anthony  in  the  wilderness,  is 
said    to   have  been    fearfully   eventful,   being 
passed  in   combats  with  devils.     The  exploits 
of  the  saint  are  frequently  made  the  subject  of 
paintings,  by   Catholic  artists.     The  order  of 
Anthony  was  established,  which,  even  in  the 
18th  century,  numbered  thirty  convents,  npt 
one  of  which  is  extant  at  present. 

ANTIBES,  an  old  town  of  Provence,  on  the 
Mediterranean,  with  a  safe  and  commodious 
harbor.  Population,  5570.  It  was  founded  340 

B.  C  by  the  Massilians.  who  gave  it  the  name 
of  Antipolis.     In  1747,  it  successfully  resisted 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


ANT 


64 


ANT 


the  Auslrians  and  English.  In  modern  history 
it  is  noted  as  being  the  only  place  where  the 
French  troops  refused  to  join  Napoleon  on  his 
landing  in  181"),  after  his  escape  from  Elba. 

ANTIGONE,  a  daughter  <5f  (Edipus,  king 
of  Thebes,  by  his  incestuous  connexion  with 
Jocasta.  Antigone  was  the  faithful  guide  of 
CEdipus,  after  his  loss  of  sight ;  having  buried 
the  corpse  of  her  brother  Polynices,  against  the 
express  commands  of  Creon,  the  tyrant  ordered 
her  to  be  buried  alive,  but  she  killed  herself  before 
the  execution  of  the  sentence.  (See  CEdipus.) 

ANTIGONUS,  Gonatas,  son  of  Demetrius 
Poliorceles,  a  prince  of  a  peaceable  disposition, 
but  compelled  to  enter  into  war,  first  with  the 
Gauls,  then  with  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus.  When 
his  son  brought  him  the  head  of  the  latter,  he 
expressed  great  indignation,  and  interred  the 
body  with  all  the  respect  due  to  a  great  warrior. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  eighty,  B.  C.  '213. 

ANTIGONUS,  general  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  after  whose  death  he  attempted  to  gain 
the  sovereignty  of  Asia,  but  was  defeated  and 
fell  at  Ipsus.  301  B.  C. 

ANTINOUS,  a  Bithynian  youth,  of  whom 
the  emperor  Adrian  was  excessively  fond. 
When  the  latter  was  on  his  travels,  Antinous 
threw  himself  into  the  Nile  and  was  drowned, 
but  whether  the  act  was  committed  with  the 
intention  of  saving  the  life  of  the  emperor,  or 
from  weariness  of  existence,  has  not  yet  been 
decided.  The  grief  of  Adrian  was  intense,  and 
the  honors  of  divinity  were,  by  his  command, 
paid  to  his  yountr  and"  unfortunate  favorite.  He 
named  a  newly-discovered  star  Antinous,  and 
gave  this  name  to  cities,  while  various  images 
of  the  lost  youth  emanated  from  the  hands  of 
different  artists.  Those  which  have  come  down 
to  us  bearing  the  name  of  Antinous.  are  distin- 
guished for  a  languid  loveliness,  and  a  round- 
ness of  contour,  which  r**e  rabies  the  traits  of 
female  rather  than  manly  beauty. 

ANT1OCH,  or  Antakia.  This  city  anciently 
bore  a  variety  of  names — viz.  .-liitiochia,  Antigo- 
nia,  T/iffjpolis,  Suleucis,  Epiplianc.  and  Rrlilutii. 
It  is  in  Syria,  filly  miles  west  of  Aleppo,  011  the 
Orontes,  twenty-one  miles  from  the  sea.  The 
population  is  less  than  iJO.OOU,  the  houses  low, 
and  the  land  neglected.  The  appearance  of  the 
city  is  melancholy,  and  no  remains  recall  the 
splendors  of  the  day  when  it  was  the  third  city 
in  the  world,  for  beauty,  greatness,  and  popu- 
lation. It  was  built  by  Antiochus  anil  Selencus 
Nicanor,  partly  on  a  hill,  and  partly  in  a  plain. 
It  was  for  a  great  length  of  time  the  residence 
nfthc  Macedonian  kings  of  Syria,  and  the  Ro- 


man governors,  when  Syria  became  a  province 
of  the  empire.  In  the  crusades  it  was  famous 
for  the  defeat  of  the  Turks,  in  1098,  by  Godfrey 
and  the  crusaders. 

ANTIOCHUS.  Several  distinguished  kings 
of  Syria  bore  this  name.  The  first  was  the  ge- 
neral of  king  Philip,  a  Macedonian  by  birth, 
whose  fame  was  eclipsed  by  that  of  his  son  Se- 
leucus. — AntiochusSoter,  the  son  of  Seleucus, 
was  unsuccessful  in  war,  but  is  chiefly  distin- 
guished by  his  passion  for  his  step-mother,  the 
beautiful  Stratonice.  His  struggles  to  quell  his 
misplaced  affection,  threw  him  into  a  lingering 
disorder,  the  cause  of  which  lie  was  unwilling 
to  divulge.  Erasistratus, the  king's  physician, 
penetrated  his  secret  in  the  following  manner. 
As  he  was  holding  the  hand  of  his  patient,  he 
perceived  by  the  accelerated  motion  of  his  pulse 
on  the  entrance  of  Stratonice,  that  love  for  her 
was  the  cause  of  his  disorder.  The  king,  to 
save  the  life  of  his  son,  relinquished  to  him  his. 
young  and  lovely  bride. — Antiochus  the  Great 
succeeded  his  brother,  Seleucus  Ceraunus.  244 
years  B.  C.  Molo,  governor  of  Media,  felt  the 
power  of  his  arms,  and  Ptolemy  Philopater  was 
by  him  compelled  to  give  up  the  whole  ol  Svria. 
Over  the  Parthians,  also,  he  was  completely 
triumphant,  and,  favoring  the  cause  of  Hannibal, 
he  made  war  upon  the  Romans.  He  was,  how- 
ever, dispirited  by  ill-success  in  the  commence- 
ment of  this  contest,  and  not  fully  comprehen- 
ding or  seconding  the  views  of  the  Carthaginian 
general,  was  several  times  defeated,  but  signally 
at  Magnesia,  the  Consequence  of  which  \vas  the 
conclusion  of  a  pe'ace  disgraceful  to  the  Syrian 
monarch.  He  was  killed  in  an  attempt  to  plun- 
der a  temple  of  Jupiter. 

ANTIOCHUS  EPIPHANES,  second  son  of 
the  preceding,  oppressed  the  Jews  cruelly  and 
laid  siege  to  Alexandria.  He  was  compelled  to 
desist  by  the  interference  of  the  Romans  in  be- 
half of  their  ally  Ptolemy.  Nothing  can  show 
in  a  more  striking  light  the  terror  of  the  Roman 
name,  than  the  following  anecdote.  When 
Antiochus  was  on  the  point  of  marching  .against 
Ptolemy,  Popilius  L^nus  arrived  at  his  court  as 
unbiiMador  from  the  Roman  Senate.  He  was 
instructed  to  command  Antiochus  to  relinquish 
his  hostile  project.  Any  other  but  a  Roman  citi- 
zen would  have  been  awed  at  the  presence  of 
the  courtiers  ami  army  of  the  king,  sitting  as 
he  was,  surrounded  bv  all  the  imposing  splen- 
dors of  a  re<ral  camp.  But  Popilius  sternly  de- 
livered the  message  of  the  senate,  and  with  such 
an  air  of  haughty  authority,  that  Antiochus  was 
embarrassed.  He  endeavoured,  however,  to  sa- 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ANT  65 

tisfy  the  ambassador  with  an  evasive  answer ; 
but  Popilius,  with  his  staff,  drew  a  circle  around 
the  king's  seat ;  and  said  sternly  :  "  Pass  not 
that  boundary,  I  command  you,  O  King,  until 
you  have  given  a  plain  answer  to  the  senate's 
demand."  The  king,  overawed  by  this  boldness, 
promised  to  sacrifice  his  project  to  the  wishes 
of  the  Romans.  The  last  Syrian  king  of  this 
name  was  Antiochus  Asiaticus.  On  his  expul- 
sion by  Pompey,  Syria  became  a  Roman  pro- 
vince, ruled  by  governors. 

ANTIPATER,  a  Macedonian,  the  faithful 
minister  of  Philip  and  Alexander,  and  pupil  of 
Aristotle.  He  obtained  the  European  provinces 
on  the  death  of  Alexander.  His  war  with  the 
states  of  Greece  terminated  successfully.  He 
died.  B.  C.  317. 

ANTISTHENES,  founder  of  the  sect  of  the 
Cynics,  was  born  at  Athens,  between  42-1  and 
421,  B.  C.  From  Socrates  he  imbibed  an  en- 
thusiastic love  of  virtue.  He  thought  that  vir- 
tue consisted  in  independence  of  circumstances, 
and  to  maintain  this,  he  thought  it  requisite  that 
our  wants  should  be  reduced  to  the  smallest 
number.  He  affected  a  contempt  for  wealth, 
honor,  the  delights  of  the  senses,  and  know- 
ledge, and  sturdily  walked  the  streets,  in  the 
ragged  garb  of  a  beggar.  Plato  was  one  of  the 
first  to  penetrate  his  whims,  and  guess  at  their 
design,  and  his  brilliant  remark  to  the  Cynic, 
has  not  escaped  oblivion  :  '.'  I  see  your  vanity," 
said  the  sage,  "  through  the  holes  of  your 
coat."  Antisthenes,  however,  was  a  virtuous 
man,  whose  conversation  was  agreeable,  and  is 
•worthy  of  high  praise,  if  it  be  true  that  he  at- 
tacked the  accusers  of  Socrates,  and  by  his  per- 
severance obtained  the  banishment  of  one,  and 
the  death  of  another. 

ANTIUM,  a  city  of  the  Volsci  on  the  Tuscan 
Sea,  traces  of  which  are  still  visible  in  Capo  d' 
Anzo,  or  Antio.  Camillus  took  it,  and  carrying 
the  beaks  of  their  vessels  to  Rome  employed 
them  in  ornamenting  a  tribunal  in  the  forum, 
thence  called  the  Rostra  (beaks).  The  city  was 
dedicated  to  the  goddess  of  Fortune,  whose 
statue  nodded  answers,  when  consulted  as  an  or- 
acle, being  probably  formed  upon  some  simple 
mechanical  principle. 

ANTOINETTE  (Marie  Antoinette  Josephe 
Jeanne),  of  Lorraine,  arch-duchess  of  Austria, 
the  accomplished,  beautiful,  and  unfortunate 
queen  of  Louis  XVI.  whom  she  married  while 
he  was  dauphin.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Francis  I  and  Maria  Theresa,  and  was  born 
at  Vienna,  in  1755.  Her  accomplishments, 
talents,  grace,  virtue,  and  uncommon  loveli- 


ANT 

ness,  fitted  her  for  the  queen  of  a  gallant  nation, 
and  as  such  she  would  have  been  honored  in 
France,  had  she  lived  before  oppression  had 
roused  the  people  to  madness.  Her  mother,  in 
a  letter  to  her  future  husband,  after  alluding  to 
the  care  with  which  she  had  formed  her  mind, 
says,  "Above  all  things,  I  have  recommended  to 
her  humility  before  God,  because  I  am  convinc- 
ed that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  secure  the  hap- 
piness of  the  subjects  confided  to  us,  without 
love  to  Him,  who  destroys  the  sceptres  and  the 
tlirones  of  kings  according  to  his  will."  The 
marriage  took  place  at  Versailles,  May  16, 1770, 
and  was  celebrated  with  uncommon  splendor, 
but  immediately  after  the  ceremony,  a  thunder- 
storm of  unparalleled  violence  broke  over  the 
palace  of  Versailles,  darkened  the  surrounding 
scenery,  and  struck  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the 
people  for  miles  around.  On  May  30th,  the 
festivities  at  Paris  were  saddened  by  a  most 
terrible  accident ;  a  number  of  citizens  being 
crushed  to  death  in  the  Rue  Royale,  by  some 
mismanagement  on  the  part  of  the  proper  au- 
thorities. 53  persons  were  found  dead,  and  300 
more  were  dangerously  injured. 

The  magnanimity  of  Marie  Antoinette  dis- 
played itself  soon  after  her  elevation  to  the 
throne,  on  the  death  of  Louis  XV.  An  officer  of 
the  gardes  du  corps  (body-guard),  who  had  given 
offence  on  some  former  occasion,  expressed  his 
intention  of  resigning  his  commission,  but  the 
queen  forbade  him.  "  Remain,"  said  she,  '•'  for- 


get the  past.  Far  be  it  from  the  queen  of 
France  to  avenge  the  injuries  of  the  dauphi- 
ness."  She  devoted  herself  to  the  interests  of  her 


people  with  an  assiduity  unparalleled  in  a  sove- 
reign of  her  age,  yet,  becoming  obnoxious  to 
the  court  party,  her  character  was  assailed  in 
every  shape  and  quarter.  She  was  accused  of 
setting  on  foot  conspiracies  which  never  existed, 
and  of  entertaining  views  which  never  entered 
her  mind.  She  was  termed  the  Austrian,  and  it 
was  openly  asserted  as  well  as  privately  insinu- 
ated, that  her  heart  was  estranged  from  the 
country  of  her  husband,  and  her  mind  solely 
occupied  with  the  interests  of  her  native  land. 
In  her  conduct  there  was  matter  for  gentle  re- 
proof, but  none  for  malevolent  accusation.  A 
gayety,  which  sometimes  degenerated  into  le- 
vity, a  passion  for  fashionable  novelties,  and  an 
unwary  contempt  for  court  formalities,  instead 
of  being  regarded  as  the  foibles  and  impru- 
dences of  a  young  and  innocent  mind,  were 
construed  into  evidences  of  the  existence  of 
loose  principles,  unbridled  extravagance,  and 
hatred  for  the  nation.  She  was  likewise  charged 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


ANT  66 

with  pettishness  under  reproof,  and  we  can 
readily  conceive  how  a  female  of  so  high  a  rank, 
conscious  of  the  purity  of  her  intention^,  and 
perpetually  assailed  by  reckless  cavillers,  as- 
sumed in  reply  to  the  unworthy  insinuations  of 
her  enemies,  the  tone  which  her  virtue  and 
her  birth  appeared  to  warrant.  The  affair  of 
the  diamond  necklace  created  an  extraordinary 
sensation.  A  jeweller  at  Paris  demanded  pay- 
ment for  a  necklace  so  costly  that  the  finances 
of  a  queen  would  hardly  warrant  its  purchase. 
The  result  of  an  examination  was  the  proof  of 
the  queen's  integrity.  A  lady  of  the  stature  and 
complexion  of  the  queen  had  succeeded  in  dis- 
guising herself,  and  passing  herself  off  as 
Antoinette,  upon  a  cardinal  in  a  midnight  meet- 
ing in  the  park  of  Versailles.  On  the  6th  of 
October  (1789)  the  mob  broke  into  the  palace 
of  Versailles,  murdered  some  of  the  body-guards, 
and  threatened  the  queen  in  the  most  frightful 
language.  At  midnight  she  received  a  letter 
from  a  friendly  clergyman,  advising  her  to  seek 
safety  in  flight,  as  her  life  would  be  sacrificed 
early  the  next  morning.  She  resolved  to  remain 
and  destroyed  the  warning  letter.  She  heard 
the  footsteps  of  the  ruffian  rabble— she  thought 
her  time  had  come — but  her  life  was  saved. 
The  progress  of  the  ruffians  was  arrested  at 
the  very  door  of  her  bed-chamber,  where  her 
faithful  guardsmen  laid  down  their  lives  to 
secure  for  their  queen  a  retreat  to  the  chamber 
of  the  king.  The  king  and  queen  showed  them- 
selves with  their  children  in  the  balcony.  The 
mass  of  heads  beneath  for  a  moment  ceased  to 
be  agitated — but  it  was  only  fqr  a  moment.  Si- 
lence was  broken  by  a  thousand  tongues  :  "  No 
children — no  children  !  The  queen  !  the  queen 
alone  !"  This  was  a  trying  moment ;  but  Antoi- 
nette had  firmness  for  the  crisis.  Putting  her 
son  and  daughter  into  her  husband's  arms,  she 
advanced  alone  into  the  balcony.  A  spectacle 
like  this  filled  the  fierce  people  with  admiration, 
and  thundering  shouts  of  Vive  la.  reine !  (Long 
live  the  queen  .')  succeeded  to  the  imprecations 
of  the  preceding  moment.  Such  is  the  fickle- 
ness of  a  mob  !  The  march  to  Paris  was  a  suc- 
cession of  terrors.  The  heads  of  two  faithful 
guardsmen,  elevated  on  pikes,  met  the  eyes  of 
the  poor  queen  as  she  looked  -from  her  carriage 
windows. 

The  fate  of  Antoinette  darkened  rapidly.  With 
the  king  she  fled  to  Varennes, — with  him  was 
brought  back  to  Paris.  Her  courage  did  not  fail 
in  the  scene  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  before 
which  body  she  was  present  with  her  husband, 
heard  his  deposition  pronounced,  and  then  went 


ANT 

into  the  Temple,  where  he  was  imprisoned. 
Here,  where  the  light  of  heaven  faintly  fell 
through  grated  windows,  surrounded  by  lier  fa- 
mily, she  appeared  to  feel  entire  resignation  to  the 
will  of  Him,  on  whom  the  happiness  of  the  hum- 
blest individual  depends.  When  she  heard  the 
condemnation  of  the  king  from  the  lips  of  the 
royal  victim,  she  had  the  firmness  to  congratu- 
late him  on  the  speedy  delivery  from  trouble 
which  awaited  him.  The  eternal  separation 
from  her  son  did  not  shake  her  firmness,  and, 
with  a  heart  apparently  unbroken,  she  was  con- 
signed to  the  loathsome  depths  of  a  dungeon, 
August  5th,  1793.  The  accusations  brought 
against  the  unhappy  queen  on  her  trial,  were 
all  unfounded,  and  merely  advanced  because 
her  enemies  had  still  respect  enough  for  justice, 
to  mimic  its  forms  in  their  guilty  court.  She 
was  charged  with  having  squandered  the  public 
money,  and  with  leaguing  in  secret  with  the 
foreign  enemies  of  France.  The  clearness  of 
her  innocence,  the  falsehood  and  frivolity  of 
witnesses,  the  eloquence  of  defenders  were  of 
no  avail — Marie  Antoinette  was  doomed  to  die 
upon  the  scaffold. 

The  expression  of  her  countenance  ns  she 
passed  to  the  place  of  execution  awed  the 
bloodthirsty  populace — but  the  once  matchless 
beauty  of  that  noble  countenance  was  gone 
forever.  One  unacquainted  with  the  ravages 
of  grief,  could  not  believe  that  the  haggard  and 
forsaken  being  whom  they  led  to  sacrifice,  was 
the  same  young  queen  who  a  short  time  before, 
held  in  thrall  the  chivalry  of  France,  by  her 
exquisite  loveliness,  her  winning  grace  and 
sportive  gnyety.  Antoinette  cast  back  a  long 
last  look  at  the  Tuilleries.  A  look  which  told 
of  sorrowful  remembrance,  and  of  agonizing 
emotion — then  with  an  air  of  dignified  resigna- 
tion, she  ascended  the  scaffold.  "  My  God  !" 
cried  she,  as  she  kneeled  on  that  i'atal  plat- 
form. "  enlighten  and  affect  my  executioner  ! 
Adieu,  my  children — my  beloved  ones—  for- 
ever !  I  am  going  to  your  father  !"  This  noble 
woman  perished  In  her  38th  year.  October  16, 
1793. 

ANTONINUS  (Annius  Verus),  best  known 
by  the  name  of  MAKCCS  AUKKLIUS,  born  A.  D. 
1^1 .  assumed  the  imperial  dignity.  A.  D.  KM,  on 
the-  death  of  Antoninus  Pius.  l!e  chose  for  his 
colleague,  Lucius  Verus,  but  the  latter,  dying  a 
few  yer.rs  after.  Ifft  the  government  solely  in 
Ihr  !l;inds  of  Antoninus.  Tn  the  prosecution  of 
the  war  against  the  Qnadi,  his  army  was  on  the 
point  of  perishing  of  thirst,  when  there  fell  an 
abundant  shower  of  rain,  which  was  attributed 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ANT  67 

to  the  prayers  of  the  10th,  (a  Christian)  legion, 
and  they  were  thenceforth  termed  the  thunder- 
ing legion.  Though  justly  celebrated  for  be- 
neficence and  equity,  Antoninus  was  not  free 
from  religious  fanaticism,  and  authorized  a  per- 
secution of  the  Christians  in  Gaul.  His  want 
of  foresight  in  introducing  the  profligate  Coin- 
modus,  his  son,  into  the  government,  was  pro- 
ductive of  most  unhappy  consequences.  After 
his  death,  which  took  place  in  the  59th  year  of 
his  age,  and  19th  of  his  reign,  he  was  deified  by 
the  Romans,  who  appreciated  his  merit. 

ANTONINUS  PIUS,  Titus  Aurelius  Fulvi- 
us,  originally  of  a  Gaulish  family,  was  born  near 
Rome,  A.  D.  86.  He  succeeded  to  the  consu- 
late in  A.  D.  120,  and  was  adopted  by,  and  suc- 
ceeded Adrian  in  138.  He  was  tolerant  to  the 
Christians,  humane,  dignified,  and  just,  and  his 
reign  was  one  of  undisturbed  tranquillity.  He 
was  wont  to  say,  with  Scipio,  (i  I  had  rather 
save  the  life  of  a  single  citizen,  than  destroy  a 
thousand  of  mv  enemies."  He  died  at  the  age 
of  74,  A.  D.  161. 

ANTONY,  Mark,  (Marcus  Antonius),  the 
triumvir,  was  born  86  years  B.  C.  He  attract- 
ed notice  at  an  early  age  by  his  bravery  and 
dissipation.  His  first  exploit  was  the  establish- 
ment of  Ptolemy  Auletes  on  the  throne.  He 
attached  himself  to  the  party  of  Ccesar,  whose 
favor  he  gained  by  the  employment  of  all  the 
arts  of  which  he  was  master,  and  was  appoint- 
ed by  Cassar  his  colleague  in  the  consulship,  B. 
C.  44.  After  the  fall  of  Cfesar,  Antony  obtain- 
ed from  the  senate  a  confirmation  of  the  acts  of 
his  colleague,  and  a  public  funeral,  at  which 
he  delivered  an  harangue  so  eloquent  and  spirit- 
stirring  that  he  roused  the  indignation  of  the 
people,  and  forced  Brutus  and  Cassius  to  fly. 
Octavius.  the  heir  of  Caesar,  was  supported  by 
the  enemies  of  Antony,  who  wished  to  curtail 
the  authority  of  this  ambitious  man,  but  in  the 
course  of  the  civil  war,  Antony,  uniting  with 
Lepidus  and  Octavius,  formed  the  triumvirate 
which,  in  Rome,  speedily  manifested  the  most 
sanguinary  designs.  Each  of  the  triumvirs 
agreed  to  sacrifice  his  friends,  and  their  alli- 
ance was  cemented  by  the  blood  of  Rome's 
bravest  and  best  citizens.  Antony  affixed  the 
head  and  hand  of  Cicero  to  the  rostrum,  which 
he  had  dignified  by  his  eloquence.  Brutus  and 
Cassius  being  defeated,  Antony  went  to  the  East, 
and  surrounded  by  Asiatic  luxuries,  forgot  what- 
ever of  manliness  he  had  once  possessed.  Cap- 
tivated by  Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt,  his  am- 
bition was  lost  in  the  indulgence  of  his  pas- 
sions. Fulvia,  his  wife,  having  taken  up  arms 


APE 


against  Octavius,  the  latter  quarrelled  with  An- 
tony, but  a  reconciliation  was  effected,  and  An- 
tony, on  the  death  of  his  wife,  married  Octavia, 
the  sister  of  his  colleague,  to  strengthen  the 
bonds  which  united  them.  His  renewal  of  the 
infamous  connexion  with  Cleopatra,  however, 
drew  down  upon  him  the  vengeance  of  Octavius, 
and  war  was  declared  against  Egypt  by  the  Ro- 
mans. How  Antony  fought  and  fled  at  Actium 
has  been  described.  (See  Jlctium.)  Finding  him- 
self deserted  on  all  sides,  and  hearing  of  the 
death  of  Cleopatra,  Antony  desired  his  slave 
Eros  to  slay  him.  This  humble  friend,  affect- 
ing to  consent,  requested  his  master  to  turn 
away  his  face,  and  then  falling  on  Antony's 
sword,  died  at  his  feet.  Antony,  touched  at 
this  heroism,  snatched  the  weapon,  and  gave 
himself  a  mortal  wound,  but  had  strength 
enough  left  to  be  carried  into  the  presence 
of  Cleopatra  in  whose  arms  he  died,  B.  C.  30. 

ANTWERP,  in  French.  Anvers,  a  city  of 
the  Netherlands,  strongly  fortified,  containing 
several  beautiful  public  buildings,  and  65,000 
inhabitants.  Its  manufactures  are  important, 
and  recently  its  commerce  has  been  flourishing. 
Before  the  war  between  Spain  and  the  Nether- 
lands, Antwerp  was  a  place  of  more  importance 
than  Amsterdam.  In  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century,  the  Scheldt,  on  which  it  is  situated, 
was  crowded  with  vessels;  but  its  harbor  was 
closed  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia.  This  com- 
pleted the  ruin  which  the  siege,  under  the  prince 
of  Parma,  commenced.  When  Napoleon  declar- 
ed the  Austrian  Netherlands  free,  he  prevented 
the  revival  of  its  commerce  by  making  Antwerp 
a  militarv  depot.  In  1814,  Carnot  gallantly  de- 
fended the  city  against  the  English  and  Saxons 
In  1833,  General  Chasse,  held  out  for  a  long 
time  against  the  French  under  Marechal  Ge- 
rard, but  the  latter  was  victorious. 

ANUB1S,  an  Egyptian  deity,  son  of  Osiris, 
worshipped  at  first  under  the  form  of  a  dog,  and 
afterwards  under  that  of  a  man  with  a  dog's 
head. 

APELLES.  a  painter  of  antiquity,  who  re- 
ceived the  right  of  citizenship  at  Ephesus.  He 
was  contemporary  with  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  the  most  masterly  of  his  performances  was 
a  picture  called  "  Alexander  holding  the  light- 
ning.'" Many  anecdotes  are  related  of  him, 
among  others,  the  following.  He  had  painted 
a  horse,  which  was  severely  criticised  by  a  per- 
son who  examined  it,  and  in  such  a  mannei 
that  the  pride  of  the  artist  was  wounded.  Re- 
solved to  put  his  performance  to  the  test,  he 
had  a  horse  led  into  his  painting-room,  where 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


ARA 


63 


ARA 


the  animal,  on  beholding  the  picture,  neighed, 
and  thus  secured  the  triumph  of  Apelles. 

APIS,  a  bull  worshipped  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  He  dwelt  in  chapels,  and  was  fed 
with  care.  His  birth-day  was  celebrated  with 
singular  ceremonies,  and  his  funeral  conducted 
on  the  most  expensive  scale.  The  color  of  the 
bull  was  required  to  be  black,  he  had  a  triangu- 
lar wliite  spot  on  the  forehead,  a  white  crescent 
jn  his  right  side,  and  a  knot  under  his  tongue. 
He  was  drowned  in  the  Nile  when  he  attained 
the  age  of  25. 

APOLLO,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  twin- 
brother  of  Diana,  born  on  the  island  of  Delos. 
He  was  the  god  of  rnusic,  poetry,  and  prophecy, 
and  considered  by  physicians,  shepherds,  and 
founders  of  cities,  as  their  patron.  A  few 
days  after  his  birth,  he  killed  the  serpent  Py- 
thon with  an  arrow,  and  is  generally  represent- 
ed with  a  bow  and  quiver.  He  fought  bravely 
against  the  Titans,  under  Jupiter.  When  his 
son  JEsculapius  (which  see),  was  killed  by  Jove's 
thunder-bolt,  Apollo  slew  the  Cyclops,  who 
forged  the  thunderer's  weapons.  Having  con- 
quered the  satyr  Marsyas,  in  a  musical  dispute, 
Apollo  flayed  him  alive.  Pan  having  disputed 
the  superiority  of  Apollo  in  music,  a  day  was 
appointed  for  deciding  their  merits,  and  Timolus 
and  Midas  were  judges.  The  latter,  denying 
the  merit  of  Apollo,  was  punished  by  having  a 
pair  of  ass's  ears  affixed  to  his  head.  When 
he  built  the  walls  of  Megara,  he  laid  his  lute 
upon  a  stone  which  ever  afterwards  sent  forth  a 
strain  of  music  upon  being  touched.  The  Ro- 
mans celebrated  games  in  his  honor  which 
were  called  dpottiuaria,  and  consisted  of  bull- 
fights, contests  of  athletce.  and  theatrical  shows. 

APPIUS  CLAUDIUS  CRASSLXUS,  the 
profligate  decemvir,  who  attempted  to  destroy 
the  virtue  of  Virginia.  (Sec  Virginia.)  His  con- 
duct produced  a  revolution,  and  he  killed  him- 
self in  prison,  according  to  Livy.  He  was  at 
the  heiffht  of  his  power  about  40U  B.  C. 

AQUILEIA,  or  AGLAR,  formerly  a  flour- 
ishin[r  place  situated  on  the  Adriatic  Sea.  and 
the  Timavus,  in  Upper  Italy,  now  an  inconsi- 
derable fishing  town  in  Illyna.  It  was  anciently 
called,  from  its  splendor,  the  "  Second  Rome." 
The  Romans  built  it  chiefly  to  oppose  the  incur- 
sions of  the  Barbarians.  It  was  destroyed  by 
Attila  in  452. 

ARABIA  is  a  country  of  great  extent,  and 
of   much   historical   interest.      Its    boundaries 
have  varied  greatly  at  different  times,  but  taken 
in  its  widest  extent,  it  may  be  said  to  ' 
of  the  very  largest  peninsulas  in  the  world.  On 


the  east,  it  is  bounded  by  the  Euphrates,  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  the  bay  of  Ornuis ;  on  the 
west  by  Palestine,  part  of  Syria,  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez,  and  the  Red  Sea ,  on  the  south  by  the 
Straits  of  Babelmandel  and  the  Indian  Ocean  ; 
and  on  the  north,  by  part  of  Syria,  Diarbekir, 
Irak,  and  Khuzestan.  The  greater  portion  of 
this  vast  territory  is  occupied  by  long,  dreary 
deserts  of  sand  ;  while,  in  some  parts,  as  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Arabian  desert,  the  soil  is 
rendered  fertile  by  the  irrigation  of  rivulet?. 
and  various  flowers,  both  indigenous,  and  trans- 
planted from  India,  spring  up,  bud.  and  blo.-- 
som,  filling  the  air  with  their  ravishing  perfume. 
Some  precious  stones  are  found  in  Arabia,  but 
its  principle  riches  are  flocks  and  herds.  Of  the 
natural  history  of  Arabia  we  can  say  but  little. 
Ferocious  animals  pursue  their  prey  in  the  de- 
serts, which  they  render  terrific  by  their  pre- 
sence and  ferocity,  while  the  mountains  produce 
animals  yielding  many  and  great  advantages  to 
commerce.  Of  these  we  may  mention  the  civet- 
cat,  the  bezoar  goat,  the  rnusk-rat,  and  others 
of  domestic  habits  and  importance. 

Concerning  the  old  Arabians  who  are  now 
destroyed,  or  merged  and  lost  in  other  tribes, 
there  is  no  distinct  history  or  memoir  extant. 
Kahtan  or  Joktan.  sou  uf  Kber.  and  Adnan,  the 
direct  descendant  of  Ishmael,  were  the  ances- 
tors of  the  present  races  of  Arabians.  The  pos- 
terity of  Joktan  are  termed  genuine  or  pure 
Arabs,  that  of  Ishmael.  naturalized  Arabs,  or  Mos- 
tarnbi.  More  than  8600  years  ago,  Yarab,  Jok- 
tan's  eldest  son.  is  said  to  have  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  kingdom  of  Yemen,  while  Jorham, 
the  younger,  founded  the  kingdom  of  Hejaz, 
which  his  posterity  possessed  until  the  time  of 
Iwhinaol.  In  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
the  inundation  of  Arem  overwhelmed  with  mis- 
ery the  tribes  settled  in  Yemen,  eight  of  which 
were  forced  to  fly  their  dwellings  "and  migrate 
to  other  lands.  Ishmael,  marrying  the  daughter 
of  Modal),  one  of  the  princes  of  Hejaz,  had  12 
sons.  The  descendants  of  Ishmael.  driving  out 
the  Jorhamites.  took  possession  of  their  country. 
The  government  appears  to  have  been  in  the 
hands  riot  of  one  ruler,  but  of  the  leaders  of  the 
different  tribes.  An  aristocracy  prevailed  -at 
Mecca  until  the  time  of  Mahomet.  Sesostris, 
of  whom  the  Jewish  historian,  Josephus.  speaks 
under  the  name  of  Sesac,  conquered  Arabia. 
Yet  this  conquest  was  but  in  name,  for  the 
A  ralis  were  too  proud  "rid  independent  to  bow 
their  necks  beneath  the  tread  of  the  conqueror, 
and  subsequent  events  show,  that  even  during 
his  reign,  they  made  themselves  formidable  to 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ARA 


69 


the  Egyptians,  and  Sesostris  himself  was  forced 
to  draw  a  line  between  Heliopolis  and  Pelusi- 
um,  to  guard  his  native  subjects  against  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Arabs.  Furthermore  we  have  evi- 
dence, that,  although  he  had  a  powerful  fleet 
upon  the  Red  Sea°  he  did  no  more  thnn  skirt 
the  shores  of  Arabia  Felix,  or  at  most,  take  pos- 
session of  some  of"  its  maritime  provinces.  It 
may  safely  be  asserted  that  the  whole  peninsula 
of  Arabia  never  was,  or,  at  least,  never  was  for 
any  length  of  time,  subjected  to  the  Egyptians. 
The  ilycsos  or  Shepherd  Kings,  who  inva- 
ded Egypt,  and  for  a  long  time  held  undisputed 
sway  in  that  country,  were  Arabians.  Neither 
the  Assyrians,  the"  Medes,  nor  the  Persians, 
ever  obtained  firm  footing  in  Arabia.  The  Per- 
sian monarchs  were  regarded  by  the  Arab 
chiefs  in  the  light  of  friends,  and  received  an- 
nually a  voluntary  present  of  frankincense 
as  a  tribute  of  respect,  but  other  ties  than 
those  of  the  heart  never  bound  the  free  dwel- 
lers of  Arabia  to  the  proud  potentates  of 
Persia.  Cambyses,  when  flushed  with  ambi- 
tious pride,  and  rushing  forward  to  the  conquest 
of  Egypt,  paused  in  his  impetuous  career,  and 
respectfully  asked  of  the  Arabians  permission  to 
pass  through  their  country.  The  Spartans,  war- 
like and  daring  as  they  were,  had  reason  to  re- 
pent of  an  incursion  which  they  made  upon  the 
Arabs.  Alexander  the  Great,  when  inflated 
with  the  success  of  his  arms,  was  surprised  to 
find  that  the  Arabs  so  little  drvaded  his  tremen- 
dous power,  as  to  neglect  sending  ambassadors 
to  him.  This  gave  the  Macedonian  a  high  opin- 
ion of  them  as 

"  Warriors  worthy  of  his  steel ;" 

but  death  put  an  end  to  his  hostile  projects.  His 
successors  attempted  the  conquest  of  Arabia,  but 
were  completely  defeated.  The  Romans  made 
different  incursions  into  A  rabia  with  but  partial 
successes  to  compensate  for  heavy  losses,  until 
GElius  Gallus,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  pene- 
trated into  the  interior  of  the  country,  and  gain- 
ed some  victories,  which  the  deadly  heats  the 
army  encountered  rendered  unavailing.  The 
Arabs  were  not  again  disturbed  by  the  Romans 
until  the  reign  of  Trajan. 

This  emperor,  confident  of  success,  besieged 
the  capital  of  the  Hangarenes,  but  was  forced, 
much  to  his  chagrin,  to  raise  the  siege.  The 
emperor  Severus  met  with  a  similar  disap- 
pointment. The  Saracens  joined  the  Persian; 


against  Julian  the  Apostate.  This  prinrxj  refus- 
ed to  pay  tl 
of  subsidy,  the   barbarians   had   exacted  from 


the  tribute  which,  under  the   name 


ARA 

his  predecessors.  On  their  complaining,  Julir.n 
sternly  replied  :  "  Iron  and  not  gold  is  the  metal 
that  I  deal  in."  This  answer  caused  their  revolt. 
Under  the  reign  of  Theodosius,  the  Arabs  ceas- 
ed to  be  the  stay,  and  becan.e  the  terror  of  the 
empire.  Disunion  had  hen  tofore  weakened 
their  forces,  but  now,  uniting,  they  showed  their 
power  was  indeed  formidable.  If  they  had  no 
knowledge  of  those  military  arts  by  which  alone 
the  strongholds  of  power  are  prostrated,  they  pos- 
sessed that  wild  and  desperate  valor  which  car- 
ried them  triumphantly  through  their  predatory 
expeditions.  Mohammed,  and  after  him,  the  Ca- 
liphs, called  forth  the  energies  of  the  Arabs  and 
the  display  of  every  quality  which  fitted  them 
to  bear  arms,  but  that  of  implicit  obedience. 
The  Arabs  were  too  proud  of  their  hereditary  in- 
dependence to  submit  blindly  to  the  yoke  of  any 
man  or  combination  of  men,  and  they  accord-.^ 
ingly,  for  the  most  part,  acknowledged  only  the 
•  spiritual  authority  of  the  Caliphate.  When  the 
power  of  the  Turks  gained  the  ascendant,  the 
Arabs  shook  themselves  free  from  fetters,  re- 
joicing in  the  chainless  spirit  of  liberty.  It  is 
not  difficult  to  conceive  the  wild  delight  of 
roaming  the  desert  mounted  on  a  ileet  horse, 
and  beholding  all  around  a  plain  which  seems 
interminable,  and  presents  to  the  Arab  horse- 
man the  idea  of  a  solitary  existence  in  a  world 
of  his  own.  A  French  renegado  once  confessed 
that  his  emotions  when  so  situated,  were  almost 
painfully  exalted. 

In  the  16th  century,  during  the  war  between 
the  Turks  and  Portuguese,  Solomon  Pacha 
seized  upon  all  the  towns  on  the  Arabian  Gulf. 
His  successors  also  were  victorious,  and  al- 
most all  Arabia  became  subject  to  the  Otto- 
man empire.  These  events  occurred  between 
the  years  A.  D.  1538  and  1568.  Still  all  the 
sheiks  and  princes  were  not  subdued,  but  many 
of  them,  remaining  independent,  continued,  to 
liarass  the  Turks,  until,  about  the  middle  of 
the  17th  century,  the  latter  were  forced  to  relin- 
quish all  the  conquered  places  on  the  coast  of 
Arabia.  The  independent  spirft  of  the  Arabs  has 
gained  them  great  celebrity. 

Arabia  is  celebrated  as  being  the  scene  of  some 
of  those  wonderful  events  which  are  commemo- 
rated in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  It  was  for  a  long 
time  the  dwelling-place  of  Moses,  who  married 
the  daughter  of  Jethro  and  fed  his  flocks  upon 
Mount  Horeb.  The  children  of  Israel,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Lord,  passed  into  Arabia,  when 
they  went  from  the  grinding  bondage  of  the 
Egyptians.  In  the  desert  of  Sinai,  rises  that 
lofty  mount  which  was  clad  in  thunder  and 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF 


ARA 


HISTORY. 
70 


ARA 


lightning,  when  God  gave  his  commandments 
to  the  people.  Mount  Sinai  commands  a  view 
of  Mount  Horeb,  where  again  the  Lord  ap- 
peared in  the  burning  bush,  to  Moses.  There 
is  still  to  be  seen  that  rock,  which,  when  the 
people  thirsted  for  water,  Moses  smote  ;  where, 
from  twelve  mouths,  the  living  waters  gushed 
profusely.  Again,  when  they  were  in  want  of 
water,  in  the  wilderness  of  Paran,  Moses  smote 
a  rock  twice  before  the  water  flowed.  That  rock 
also  remains  at  the  present  day,  an  impressive 
memorial  of  the  miracle,  exhibiting  the  various 
fissures  whence  the  clear  element  gushed  forth, 
cheering,  by  its  presence,  the  many  hearts  of 
those  who  had  panted  for  the  succour. 

The  Bedouin  Arabs,  although  possessed  of 
not  a  few  good  qualities,  are,  like  other  Arabian 
tribes,  inveterate  robbers.  When  a  Bedouin 
Descries  a  traveller  at  a  distance,  he  puts  his 
horse  to  his  speed,  and  rides  furiously  up,  ex- 
claiming loudly :  "  Undress  thyself,  thy  aunt 
(my  wile)  is  without  a  garment."  There  is  no 
way  to  avoid  death  in  this  case  but  submis- 
sion, as  th.1  possession  of  the  meanest  article  of 
wearing  apparel  is  an  object  important  enough 
to  warrant  the  shcddinc*  of  human  blood,  in  the 
eyes  of  the  Arabs.  There  are  many  singular 
contradictions  in  the  character  of  these  wild 
people.  A  stranger  who  confides  his  safely  to 
their  honor  will  be  treated  with  the  utmost  kind- 
ness, and  share  the  wealth  or  poverty  of  his 
entertainer,  who  bids  him  welcome  to  what  is 
his.  The  patriarchal  form  of  government  has 
ever  subsisted  among  the  Arabs.  The  dignity 
of  Grand  Sheik  (Prince)  is  hereditary  in  cer- 
tain families,  but  the  inferior  Sheiks  choose  a 
successor  out  of  his  family,  on  the  death  of  a 
Grand  Sheik.  Although  Arabia  is  a  rich  coun- 
try, the  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are 
ill-fed  and  clad,  simply  because  they  prefer  a 
wandering  life  of  freedom,  to  one  of  confine- 
ment and  restraint,  even  if  it  bring  the  great- 
eat  luxuries.  These  they  profess  to  despise. 
The  Arabs,  after  fluctuating  between  a  variety 
of  religions,  have  generally  embraced  Moham- 
medanism, of  which  there  are  several  sects.  One 
trait  in  their  character  is  highly  praiseworthy  ; 
their  extreme  kindness  to  the  domestic  animals 
to  which  they  owe  so  much,  sind  which,  in- 
deed, constitute,  as  before  remarked,  their  prin- 
cipal support.  They  free  these  creatures  from 
work  in  their  old  age,  and  permit  them  to  die  a 
natural  death.  The  Arab  horses  are  the  most 
splendid  and  valuable  in  the  world,  and  are 
reared  with  extreme  care  ;  spirited,  docile,  fleet, 
handsome,  and  hardy,  they  always  command 


the  highest  prices.  The  Arabs,  proud  of  the 
antiquity  of  their  own  origin,  are  no  less  care- 
ful of  the  fame  of  their  horses,  of  which  they 
preserve  authenticated  pedigrees.  For  charg- 
ers, the  Arab  horses  are  positively  unrivalled. 
A  wa'r-horse  of  this  country  appears  delighted 
with  the  din  of  battle.  His  spirit  rises  with  the 
ardor  of  the  conflict,  and  he  dashes  into  the 
"  current  of  a  heady  fight,"  reckless  of  the  vol- 
leys of  musketry  and  cannon  pealing  around 
him.  even  when  struck  with  shot, 

"  Staggering,  yet  stemming  all,  his  lord,  unharmed 
lie  bears." 

He  will  watch  his  master  if  he  falls  from  his 
saddle  in  the  fight,  and  not  only  shield  him, 
but  neigh  for  assistance.  The  price  in  Eng. 
for  an  Arabian  horse  is  1000,  '2000,  or  even  3000 
pounds  sterling.  Sometimes  even  the  poorest 
Arabs  will  not  part  with  their  faithful  chargers,1 
even  though  the  most  tempting  offers  be  held 
out.  "  .No,  my  jewel,"  was  the  affectionate  ex- 
clamation addresse'd  to  his  mare  by  that  Arab 
whose  story  is  so  celebrated — who,  ai'ter  he  had 
agreed  to  relinquish  the  beautiful  creature  to 
grace  the  stud  of  the  King  of  France,  at  an 
enormous  price,  could  not  find  it  in  his  henrt  to 
tear  himself  from  his  faithful  servant  :  "  No — 
rny  jewel !  they  shall  never  part  us !  we  have 
lived  and  we  die  together."  Saying  this  with 
tears  in  his  eyes,  he  sprang  upon  her  back,  and 
rushed  back  to  the  desert,  happy  in  having  es- 
caped the  temptation  and  the.  sacrifice,  jf  V 

Arabia  is  divided  into  five  provinces: — Ye- 
men— containing  three  million  inhabitants,  go- 
verned by  an  imam  :  Oman — under  the  imam 
of  Muscat:  Lassa  or  Hassa  :  JSedshed  and  Te- 
inama:  and  Heijaz,  the  Holy  Land  of  the  Mo- 
hammedans. 

ARAM,  Eugene,  whose  erudition  and  fate 
have  rendered  him  remarkable,  was  born  at 
Ranisgill.  a  village  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in 
the  year  1704.  flis  father  was.  by  profession, 
a  gardener,  and  forced  to  contend  with  depres- 
sing poverty.  At  an  early  age.  Eugene  was 
removed,  with  his  mother,  to  Skelton,  and  sub- 
sequently to  Bondgate.  near  Ripjion,  where  his 
father  had  made  a  small  purchase,  lie  was 
here  sent  to  school  and  learned  to  read  the  New 
Testament  in  English;  but  from  that  period, 
with  the  exception  "f  a  month's  tuition  from  a 
clergyman,  Aram  owed  nothing  to  teachers,  all 
his  learning  heiij£  sell-acquired.  Jlis  father 
was  irardcner  to  Sir  Edward  lihickett,  at  Mew- 
by;  and,  when  about,  thirteen  or  fourteen  years 
of  age,  Arum  joined  him.  In  the  house  of  the. 


Lady  of  Rank. 


• 


Arabia— View  of  Palmyra,  or  Tadmor  in  the  Desert. 


Arabia— View  of  Mount  Ararat. 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ARA 


71 


ARA 


baronet,  Eugene  first  displayed  his  love  of  lite- 
rature and  science.  Apart  from  the  bustle  and 
turmoil  of  the  world,  he  passed  his  solitary  hours 
in  incessant  study.  Mathematics  early  engaged 
his  attention,  and  he  became  a  proficient  in  the 
exact  sciences  ;  indeed,  his  fondness  for  mathe- 
matics recommended  him  to  Mr.  Christopher 
Blackett,  of  London,  whom  he  served  for  some 
time  in  the  capacity  of  book-keeper,  commenc- 
ing his  London  life  at  sixteen  years  of  age. 
After  residing  with  Mr.  Blackett  for  a  year  and 
a  half,  he  was  taken  with  the  small-pox,  and 
suffered  greatly  from  the  terrible  disorder. 

He  afterwards  complied  with  the  wishes  of 
his  father,  and  returned  to  Yorkshire,  where  he 
pursued  his  studies  with  increasing  avidity,  but 
with  altered  views,  having  discovered  that  po- 
lite literature  possessed  greater  charms  for  him 
than  mathematics.  He  now  made  himself  ac- 
quainted with  the  works  of  the  most  celebrated 
poets,  and  went  through  a  course  of  historical 
reading.  He  went  to  Netherdale  for  the  pur- 
pose of  engaging  in  teaching,  and  here,  consid- 
ering himself  satisfactorily  settled,  he  married. 
His  marriage  proved  unhappy,  and  to  his  mat- 
rimonial connection  he  afterwards  attributed 
the  evils  which  befel  him,  and  the  crime  which 
he  committed.  Finding  himself  deficient  in 
classical  learning,  he  resolved  to  master  the 
learned  languages  and  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  grammars  with 
great  spirit.  He  soon  acquired  the  elements, 
and  proceeded  to  their  application,  perusing 
with  ease  and  pleasure  the  Latin  classics,  poets, 
and  historians.  He  next  read  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment, and  finished  his  course  with  Hesiod,  Ho- 
mer, Theocritus,  Herodotus,  and  Thucyuicis-.-:, 
with  the  Greek  tragic  poets. 

At  the  seat  of  his  friend,  William  Norton, 
Esq.  of  Knaresborough.be  learned  the  Hebrew 
language. and  read  the  Pentateuch,  in  1734.  In 
1744,  he  was  engaged  in  London, as  usher  in 
the  school  of  a  Mr.  Painblanc,  and  gave  instruc- 
tion in  Latin  and  writing.  Here  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  French  language.  After- 
wards, he  was  employed  as  usher  and  tutor  in 
various  seminaries  in  England,  and  never  suf- 
fered a  single  opportunity  of  making  new  ac- 
quisitions to  escape.  He  was  acquainted  with 
tie  voluminous  and  quaint  details  of  heraldry, 
.  and  with  the  gentle  lore  of  flowers.  He  ac- 
quired the  Chaldee  and  Arabic  languages,  and 
investigated  the  Celtic  dialects.  Having  dis- 
covered an  affinity  between  the  Celtic,  English, 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  tongues,  he  was 
employed  upon  a  comparative  lexicon  of  these 
•  7 


languages,  when  a  frightful  event  arrested  his 
literary  progress.  Aram  was  accused  of  hav- 
ing murdered  Daniel  Clark,  a  shoemaker.  The 
murder  had  been  concealed  for  nearly  fourteen 
years,  when  the  discovery  of  a  skeleton,  at  first 
supposed  to  be  that  of  Clark,  set  on  foot  inves 
'tigations  which  resulted  in  the  arrest  of  Aram. 
At  tire  time  of  his  being  taken  into  custody,  he 
was  usher  of  a  school  at  Lynn,  in  Norfolk. 
The  murder  was  committed  on  the  8th  o'f  De- 
cember, 1744-5.  Its  object  was  a  little  paltry 
gain,  although  the  murderer  assigned  jealousy 
as  the  motive.  Remorse  had  preyed  upon  the 
spirits  of  Aram  from  the  time  of  the  commis- 
sion of  the  deed,  and  he  is  said  to  have  con- 
versed with  the  boys  at  Lynn  on  the  subject  of 
murder,  and  related  to  them  tales  of  murders, 
commencing  with  the  crime  of  Cain. 

Upon  his  trial  at  York  assizes,  on  the  3d  of 
August,  1759,  he  displayed  great  calmness  and 
self-possession.  The  principal  evidence  against 
him  was  his  wife,  from  whom  he  had  been  a  long 
time  separated.  Circumstantial  evidence,  in 
addition  to  that  of  Richard  Houseman,  helped 
to  convict  him.  His  defence  displayed  a  talent 
and  consummate  address  which  was  acknow 
lodged  by  the  judges,1  whose  admission  of  its  in- 
genuity  destroyed  the  hopes  of  Aram.  H<~  -is 
found  guilty.  He  sjaSequently  confessed  his 
crime,  and  ackno\iJjj^Btf  the  justice  of  his  sen- 
tence. While  in  ^VKne  attempted  to  com- 
mit suicidewty  ope^^t^fcs  arm  in  two  places 
with  a  knife  whicr^pe  nad  concealed  for  the 
purpose.  He  almost  succeeded,  and  was  in  a 
state  of  excessive  weakness,  when  conducted 
to  the  scaffold.  Standing  beneath  the  fatal 
tree,  he  was  asked  if  he  had  any  thing  to  say, 
but  he  silently  shook  his  head.  He  was  in- 
stantly executed,  and  his  body  hung  in  chains 
in  Knaresborough  forest. 

ARANJUEZ,  a  village  and  palace  thirty 
miles  from  Madrid  (£pain),  usually  the  eourt 
residence  from  Easter  till  the  close  of  June. 
The  palace  and  grounds  are  superb. 

ARARAT,  a  mountain  in  Armenia,  rising  to 
the  height  of  17,100  feet.  $Here  it  is  supposed 
that  Noah's  ark  settled. 

ARATUS,  the  hero  who  freed  Sicyon  from 
the  tyrant  Nicocles,  in  his  twentieth  year ;  he 
afterwards  became  chiei'  of  Sicyon,  and  gene- 
ral of  the  Achcean  league.  His  life  was  event- 
ful;  andhe*died  21(5  B.  C. 

ARAVCANIANS,  a  South  American  nation 
of  Indians,  resident  in  Chili.  Their  number  is 
about  400,000.  They  have  maintained  their 
independence  through  many  contests  with  the 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ARC 


72 


ARC 


Spaniards.  They  subsist  by  cultivating  the 
land  and  raising  cattle.  A  Toqui  (hereditary 
iu;o,e)  is  at  the  head  of  government,  and  he 
strictly  maintained  the  neutrality  of  his  people 
during  the  South  American  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence. 

ARCADTA,  a  mountain  country  in  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  Peloponnessus.  On  the  north  it 
was  bounded  by  Achaia  and  Sicyon,  on  the 
east  by  Argolis,  on  the  south  by  Messenia,  and 
on  the  west  by  Elis.  Originally  called  Pelasgia, 
from  the  Pelasgi,  its  first  inhabitants,  it  received 
its  name  of  Arcadia,  from  Areas,  grandson  of 
Lycaon.  The  shepherds  inhabiting  the  country 
were  for  a  long  time  rude  and  uncivilized,  but 
when  they  cultivated  the  arts  of  agriculture, 
and  sweetened  their  labors  by  occasional  inter- 
vals of  relaxation,  in  which  they  occupied 
themselves  with  music  and  dancing,  they  be- 
came famous  in  song,  and  Arcadian  felicity  was 
a  phrase  expressive  of  unalloyed  enjoyment. 
But  Arcadia  was  far  from  being  a  paradise,  and 
its  inhabitants  were  not  so  devoted  to  pastoral 
pursuits,  that  they  forgot  the  excitements  of 
war.  On  the  contrary,  when  no  quarrels  of 
their  own  occupied  them,  they  engaged  in  the. 
service  of  other  states.  J 

ARCHANGEL,  a 
inhabitants,  on  the  Wh 
the  mouth  of  the  Dvvi 
from  the  monastery  o^ 
founded  there  in 
trade,  and  its  harbor 
trance  is  obstructed  by  a'sand-bank." 

ARCHIMEDES,  the  most  celebrated  geome- 
trician  of  antiquity,  born  at  Syracuse,  237  B. 
C.  He  was  famed  for  the  mechanical  contri- 
vances which  he  employed  to  defend  his  native 
city,  when  besieged  by  the  Romans,  whose  fleet, 
Lucian  says,  he  set  on  fire  with  burning-glas- 
ses. Metellus,  who  took  the  city,  wi she'd  to 
spare  the  life  of  Archimedes,  but"  he  lost  it  in 
the  following  manner.  When  the  Romans  en- 
tered the  city,  Archimedes  was  found  by  a  sol- 
dier, poring"  over  smne  figures  which  "he  had 
drawn  in  the  sand.  *le  begged  the  Roman  to 
spare  his  circle,  but  the  man  heedless  of  his 
request,  rushed  forward  and  killed  him  with  a 
blow.  He  was  then  seventy-five  years  old.  and 
his  death  took  place  21%  H.  C.  He  is  said  to 
have  declared  that  he  could  move  the  globe,  if 
he  only  had  a  place  to  stand  upon.  • 

ARCHONS.     (See  Athens.)  • 

AREOPAGUS.     (See  Athens.) 

ARGOLIS,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnessus, bounded  on  the  north  by  Achaia  and 


Corinth;  on  the  northeast  by  the  Saronicgulf; 
on  tne  west  by  Arcadia,  and  on  the  south  by 
Laconia.  The  Argohc  gulf  lies  upon  the  south- 
west. Fertile  plains  and  swelling  hills  vary  the 
surface  of  this  region.  It  was  colonised  by 
Egyptians  in  1800,  and  1500  B.  C.  Danaus 
led  the  earliest  colony,  and  Inachus  the  next 
after  him.  Pelops,  who  reigned  over  Argos, 
gave  his  name  to  the  peninsula.  It  was  "the 
kingdom  of  Atrcus  and  Agamemnon,  Adras- 
tus.  Eurystheus,  and  Diomedes.  the  birth-place 
of  Hercules,  and  the  scene  of  his  victory  over 
the  Lernccan  Hydra.  The  fine  arts  and  music 
in  particular,  were  successfully  cultivated  by 
the  Argives.  The  modern  Argos  is  but  a 
shadow  of  the  ancient  city.  A  monitorial 
and  high  school  were  established  here  in  Ic2o. 
Argolis  was  anciently  divided  into  small,  but 
independent  states.  These  were  Argos.  Alyce- 
nce,  Tirynthus,  Troezene  (now  Dumala),  Her- 
mione  (now  Castri),  and  Epidaurus. 

ARGONAUTS.  The  story  of  the  expedi- 
tion of  Jason  and  his  adventurous  companions, 
to  procure  the  golden  fleece  of  Colchis,  is  chief- 
ly fabulous,  and  has  probably  little  connection 
with  any  known  facts.  Jason  was  not  permit- 
ted to  ascend  the  throne  of  his  father  by  Peiias, 
who  filled  it,  except  on  condition  of  bringing 
from  Colchis  the  golden  fleece  of  the  ram,  which 
bore  Phryxus  and  llelle  away  from  their  cruel 
step-mother.  Ino.  Most  of  the  heroes  of  Greece 
embarked  with  Jason  in  the  Argo.  a  splendid 
vessel  built  for  the  adventure,  and  superior  to 
any  which  had  previously  floated  on  the  waves. 
Afler  encountering  many  vicissitudes,  they 
came  to  the  country  of  ^Eetcs.  This  monarch, 
whose  life  depended  on  the  preservation  of  the 
gol<»n  fleece,  without  refusing  to  surrender  it, 
fust  imposed  upon  Jason  three  labors  which  he 
hoped  would  destroy  him.  lie  was  to  yoke  the 
bulls  of  Vulcan  to  a  plough  of  adamant,  and 
turn  up  a  field  consecrated  to  Mars,  which  had 
never  been  opened;  in  the  furrows  thus  form- 
ed, he  was  to  sow  the  serpent's  teeth  of  Cad- 
mus, which  would  instantly  start  forth  as  armed 
men,  whom  he  was  to  slay  ;  and  finally,  to  kill 
the  dragon  that  was  the  watchful  guardian 
of  the  golden  lieoce.  The  magical  arts  of  Me- 
dea, who  had  fallen  in  love  with  the  young 
hero,  assisted  him  to  achieve  these  enterprises 
with  success,  and  finally,  when  the  king  deter- 
mined on  the  murder  of  the  Argonauts, enabled 
him  to  possess  himself  of  the  ileeee,  and  escape 
with  the  enamored  lady,  and  all  his  compan- 
ions. The  king  soon  missing  the  fleece  and 
the  fleet,  pursued  and  came  in  sight  of  them  ; 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


ARI 


73 


ARK 


Medea  then  murdered  her  brother  Absyrtus, 
whose  limbs  she  strewed  in  her  father's  path. 
The  afflicted  old  man,  by  staying  to  collect 
them,  gave  the  fugitives  time  to  escape.  After 
nianj-  adventures,  the  Argo  returned  safely. 
The  time  of  the  undertaking  is  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century  B.  C. 

ARGUS,  the  fabled  son  of  Arestor,  whose 
hundred  eyea  caused  him  to  be  selected  by  Ju- 
no as  the  keeper  of  lo.  Having  been  slain  by 
Mercury,  he  was  changed  into  a  peacock,  and 
his  eyes  were  placed  in  his  tail. 

ARION,  a  musician  and  poet,  born  at  Me- 
thymna,  in  Lesbos,  and  flourished  B.  C.  625. 
His  fabulous  fate  has  been  often  celebrated. 
When  at  sea  with  all  his  treasures,  the  mariners 
sought  his  life  ;  but  he  leaped  overboard,  and  it  is 
related  that  a  dolphin,  charmed  with  his  music, 
carried  him  safe  to  land. 

AR1OSTO,  Ludovico,  the  celebrated  author 
of  the  Orlando  Furioso,  was  born  at  Reggio, 
Sept.  8th,  1474,  and  died  at  Ferrara,  in  1533. 
Having  lost  the  favor  of  Cardinal  Ippolito  d' 
Este,  he  was  received  by  duke  Alfonso,  whose 
rewards,  however,  were  but  trifling.  He  ex- 
perienced many  vicissitudes,  and  at  one  time, 
lived  with  great  splendor.  His  productions 
are  various. 

ARISTIDES,  son  of  Lysimachus,  a  noble 
Athenian,  surnamed,  from  his  high  integrity, 
the  Just.  He  was  instrumental  in  gaining  the 
battle  of  Marathon.  There  were  ten  generals, 
of  whom  he  was  one,  each  having  the  command 
of  the  army  for  one  day.  Thinking  this  arrange- 
ment injurious  to  the  troops,  Aristides  prevailed 
on  the  other  generals  to  give  up  their  days  of 
command  to  Miltiades,  and  this  measure  secured 
the  triumph  of  the  Greeks.  Becoming  obnoxious 
to  the  party  of  Themistocles.  he  was  banished  by 
ostracism.  Each  person  wrote  -the  name  of  the 
man  he  wished  banished,  on  a  shell  (ostrakon); 
these  were  then  counted,  and  the  person  whose 
name  occurred  most  frequently  was  banished 
An  ignorant  fellow,  in  the  public  assembly,  not 
knowing  him,  turned  to  Aristides.  and  asked  him 
to  write  dristidas.  "  What  reason  hive  you  for 
disliking  him  ?  "  asked  Aristides.  "  Oh,"  replied 
the  fellow.  "  I  am  tired  of  hearing  him  called 
the  Just."  When  the  Athenians  were  alarmed  by 
the  approach  of  Xerxes,  they  recalled  Aristides, 
who.  casting  awav  the  remembrance  of  former 
wrongs,  assisted  Themistocles  in  the  public 
cause.  Aristides  also  refused  to  countenance 
the  banishment  of  Themistocles,  when  he 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  his  countrymen. 
Nothing  displays  more  clearly  the  reputation  of 


Aristides,  than  his  being  appointed  to  apportion 
the  contributions  to  be  paid  by  the  several  states 
of  Greece,  towards  the  expenses  of  the  war. 
This  delicate  duty  he  discharged  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  all.  He  died  poor  about  467  B.  C.  His 
countrymen  bestowed  a  magnificent  funeral 
upon  him.  pensioned  his  son,  and  portioned  his 
two  daughters. 

ARISTOGITON,  and  Harmodius,two  of  the 
most  famous  patriots  of  Athens ;  finding  their 
country  oppressed  by  Hipparchus  and  Hippias, 
sons  of  Pisistratus,  they  formed  a  conspiracy 
against  them.  Hipparchus  was  slain  514  B. 
C.,  but  owing  to  the  backwardness  of  the  peo- 
ple, Harmodius  was  killed  by  the  guards,  and 
Aristogiton  seized.  Being  tortured  to  make 
him  disclose  the  names  or  his  accomplices,  he 
named  the  friends  of  the  tyrant,  and  they  were 
put  to  death  in  rapid  succession.  "  Now,"  said 
Aristogiton  to  Hippias.  "  there  only  remains 
yourself  worthy  of  death."  Hippias  was  ex- 
pelled three  years  afterwards,  and  the  Athe- 
nians paid  the  greatest  honors  to  the  memory 
of  the  two  friends.  Praxiteles  executed  their 
statues,  which  were  erected  in  the  forum,  their 
praise  was  sung  in  hymns,  and  it  was  forbidden 
to  five  the  name  of  either  to  a  slave. 

ARISTOMENES,  a  brave  general  of  Mes- 
senia,who  in  vain  endeavored  to  free  his  coun- 
trymen from  the  Lacedemonian  yoke. 

ARISTOTLE,  the  most  famous  philoso- 
pher of  Greece,  founder  of  the  Peripatetic  sect, 
was  born  at  Stagira  334  B.  C.  He  died  322 
B.  C.,  having  taken  poison  to  avoid  the  perse- 
cution of  his  enemies.  He  was  the  preceptor 
of  Alexander,  and  has  left  many  important 
works. 

ARKANSAS,  one  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  State  of  Missouri, 
east  by  the  river  Mississippi,  south  by  Louisiana, 
and  west  by  Texas  and  Missouri  Territory.  It 
is  240  miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and  from 
200  to  250  in  breadth  from  east  to  west,  with  an 
area  of  54,000  square  miles.  The  land  on  the 
Mississippi  river  and  from  40  to  50  miles  back 
from  it,  is  low,  interspersed  with  lakes  and 
swamps,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  annually 
overflowed  by  that  river,  and  its  tributaries. — 
West  of  this  tract,  the  ground  rises,  and  near  the. 
centre  of  the  State,  becomes  hiliy,  and  farther 
west,  mountainous.  Its  rivers  are  the  Arkansas, 
which  traverses  the  whole  State,  the  Mississippi 
which  washes  its  eastern  side,  the  Red  River 
which  furnishes  steamboat  transportation  to  the 
southern  section  of  the  State,  the  St.  Francis,  the 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


ARK 


71 


ARM 


White  river,  and  the  Washita.  The  State  is 
divided  into  34  counties,  but  contains  no  very 
considerable  towns,  the  population  being  distri- 
buted in  scattered  settlements.  Pointe  Chicot, 
or  Villimont,  Napoleon,  at  the  mouths  of  the  Ar- 
kansas, Helena,  and  Greenock,  are  hamlets. 
Little  Rock,  situated  on  the  Arkansas,  in  Uiu 
centre  of  the  State,  is  the  capital.  It  stands  on  a 
high  bluff  of  land  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river, 
an.l  contains  about  1500  inhabitants.  Pine  L>!u!t', 
below,  and  Louisville  above,  are  convenient  land- 
ing places.  B-Ucsviile,  on  White  river,  Fabre 
Bluff,  on  the  Washita,  and  Fulton  on  the  Reel 
river,  will  become  important  places  as  the  country 
is  settled. 

The  Ozark  mountains  run  through  the  State 
from  east  to  south  west.  The  soil  on  the  rivers 
is  fertile,  the  other  parts  generally  are  barren. 
Cotton,  and  Indian  corn  are  the  staple  produc- 
tions Wild  fovvls,  and  animals,  are  abundant. 
A  variety  of  minerals  are  found  in  the  State.  A 
national  road  from  Memphis  to  Little  Rock,  is  in 
progress,  which  will  be  a  great  convenience. 
The  Spaniards  and  French  formed  settlements 
on  the  Arkansas,  more  than  a  hundred  years 
ago.  After  this  tract  was  purchased  by  the 
United  States,  it  constituted  a  part  of  Louisiana, 
and  afterwards  was  attached  to  Missouri  Ter- 
ritory under  its  present  name.  Us  limits  on  the 
west  were  the  Rocky  Mountains,  until  they  were 
curtailed  by  treaties  with  the  Chcrokecs.  In 
1836,  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State. 
The  constitution  provides  that  when  slaves  are 
tried  for  crimes;  they  shall  have  an  impartial  jury, 
and  suffer  the  same  punishment,  if  convicted,  as 
free  whites  would  have  done,  e.nd  no  other.  It 
also  provides  that  no  lotteries  shall  be  established; 
and  the  sale  of  lottery  tickets  in  the  State  is 
prohibited.  Population  in  1840,  97,574. 

ARK  WRIGHT,  Sir  Richard,  at  first  an  hum- 
ble barber,  is  celebrated  !is  the  inventor  of  the 
spinning  jennv.  In  17(17.  he  quitted  his  bar- 
ber's shop,  rind  in  the  village  of  Warrington, 
commenced  with  a  kind  of  perpetual  motion, 
which  attracted  the  notice  of  a  watch-maker 
named  Ka-ii,  who  rrave  him  encouragement,  and 
advised  him  to  direct  his  attention  to  machinery 
for  spinning  wool.  Finding  their  means  inade- 
quate, they  received  assistance  from  Mr.  Ather- 
ton,  of  Liverpool.  Arkwright  completed  a 
machine  which  was  patented  in  I7(>!l,  but  the 
p:\tent  was  set  aside  in  ITS.").  After  meeting  with 
uome  disappointments,  he  successfully  estab- 


lished himself  at  Nottingham,  where  he  was  con- 
nected with  a  Scotchman  by  the  name  of  Dale. 
Being  attacked  by  oilier  manufacturers  of  Eng- 
land, he  used  to  say,  "  that  he  would  put  a 
razor  into  the  hands  of  a  Scotchman  that  should 
shave  them  ali.''  After  separating  from  Dale 
Arkwrighl  carried  on  his  works  alone  with  ex- 
traordiiiary  success.  On  his  death, in  1.7H2,  his 
property  v.'as  found  to  amount  to  £500,000. 
Thus,  by  hi*  extraordinary  inventive  powers, 
did  this  man  rise  from  poverty,  to  affluence  and 
honor.  The  excellence  of  his  invention  is  suf- 
ficiently proved  by  the  fact,  that,  since  his 
time,  no  material  improvement  has  been  made 
in  the  mode  of  spinning  cotton  by  water  ma- 
chinery. 

ARMADA.  (Spanish);  a  fleet  of  ships  of 
war;  but  particularly  applied  to  the  vast  arma- 
ment fitted  out  against  England  in  the  time  of 
Elizabeth  (1588),  by  Philip  II.  It  consisted  of 
150  large  ships,  with  20,000  soldiers,  8,250  sea- 
men, and  2,000  volunteers.  The  number  of 
guns  was  2(150,  some  of  them  of  extraordinary 
calibre.  The  English  navy  at  that  time  con- 
sisted of  but  30  ships  of  war.  It  was  reinforced, 
however,  by  voluntary  exertions.  Providence 
gave  the  first  blow  to  this  mighty  enterprise ; 
the  fleet  was  dispersed  by  tempests,  some  ships 
sunk,  and  others  dashed  against  the  rocks. 
The  size,  too,  of  the  Spanish  vessels,  prevented 
them  from  acting  with  advantag-e  on  the  seas  in 
which  they  were  engaged.  Loru1  Admiral  How- 
ard, ably  seconded  by  the  officers  under  him, 
attacked  and  beat  the  fleet  for  several  days,  and 
very  few  of  the  Spanish  vessels  entered  port 
again.  Sir  Francis  Drake,  Captain  Hawkins, 
and  others,  greatly  distinguished  themselves  at 
this  time.  The  preparations  on  land,  superin- 
tended by  the  queen  herself,  were  fully  commen- 
surate to  those  at  sea. 

ARMENIA,  a  country  of  Asia,  containing 
106,000  square  miles,  lies  south  of  Mount  Cau- 
casus. It  was  anciently  divided  into  Major  and 
Minor,  but  is  now  divided  into  several  provinces. 
The  Kuphratos  and  Tigris,  are  the  principal  riv- 
ers. The  soil  is  better  adapted  for  grazing  than 
agriculture,  although  the  fruits  of  the  south  are 
very  line.  The  inhabitants  are  Armenians,  wan- 
dering Turcomans,  Turks.  Greeks,  and  Jews. 
The  Armenians  are  Christians,  sober  and  tem- 
perate, and  occupied  in  commercial  pursuits. 
The  early  history  of  Armenia  is  not  well  known. 
The  Assyrians.  Medes,  IVisians,  and  Macedo- 
nians, by  turn*  possessed  it.  After  the  death 
of  Alexander,  it  was  united  to  Syria,  of  which 
it  formed  a  part  until  it  revolted  from  Antiochus 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ARN 


75 


ARE 


the  Great,  when  it  was  possessed  by  two  differ- 
ent rulers  and  divided  into  Armenia  Major  and 
Minor.  Tigranes,  king  of  the  former,  in  95  B. 
C.,  reduced  Armenia  Minor,  and  other  provinces, 
and  united  the  two  countries.  Under  him  it 
became  tributary  to  Rome,  in  63  B.  C.,  and 
Trajan  made  it  a  Roman  province  in  100.  After 
Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  vainly  attempted  its  con- 
quest from  the  Romans,  it  was  governed  by 
native  princes,  until  the  Arabians  conquered  it  in 
about  650.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Seljukian 
Turks  about  1046,  after  which  it  suffered  many^ 
changes,  till  it  was  reduced  by  the  prince  of 
Kharasm  in  1201,  who  was  driven  out  of  it  by 
Genghis  Khan  in  1215.  In  1335,  the  Ilkanian 
dynasty  began  here,  and  continued  till  1385, 
when  Armenia  was  conquered  by  Tamerlane, 
from  whom  it  was  soon  after  recovered  by  the 
Ilkanian  princes.  On  the  death  of  Ahrned 
Jalayr,  the  last  of  the  line,  in  1405,  Kara  Yusef, 
the  chief  of  the  Turcomans,  got  possession  of 
it.  This  dynasty  had  the  name  of  the  Black 
Sheep,  and  in  14,38,  it  fell  by  conquest  to  the 
family  of  the  White  Sheep.  In  1500,  it  was 
conquered  by  Ishmael  Sosi,  and  reduced  by 
Sell m  I  in  1514,  since  which  time  the  Turks 
have  had  possession  of  all.  except  the  eastern 
part,  which  belongs  to  Persia,  and  the  northern 
part,  belonging  to  Russia. 

ARM1NIUS,  in  German,  Hermann,  the  de- 
liverer of  Germany  from  the  Roman  yoke,  was 
born  IS  B.  C.  He  was  educated  at  Rome,  and 
honored  by  Augustus  with  the  knighthood,  and 
the  rights  of  citizenship.  But  from  attachment 
to  the' land  of  his  birth,  he  instigated  the  Ger- 
mans to  revolt.  After  various  fortunes,  he  was 
assassinated  in  the  37th  year  of  his  age. 

ARNOLD,  Benedict,  a  distinguished  char- 
acter in  the  American  revolution,  was  a  native 
of  Connecticut,  and  early  engaged  in  the  strug- 
gle between  the  colonies  and  the  mother  coun- 
try, espousing  the  cause  of  the  former,  lie 
distinguished  himself  in  the  early  actions  of 
the  war,  by  a  reckless  bravery  which  gained 
him  general  applause  He  was  at  the  taking 
of  Ticonderoga,  and  his  expedition  to  Canada 
has  been  celebrated  as  a  great  military  enter- 
prise. The  troops  marched  to  Canada  by  the 
way  of  Maine,  encountering  the  severity  of 
mid-winter,  threading  tangled  forests,  and  suf- 
fering every  hardship.  In  1777,  Arnold  dis- 
playe'd  great  gallantry,  and  bore  a  conspicuous 
part  in  those  efforts  which  led  to  the  capitula- 
tion of  Burgoyne.  When  possessed  of  authority 
in  Philadelphia,  in  1778,  a  marked  change  mani- 
fested itself  in  his  conduct.  He  plunged  into 


expensive  pleasures,  soon  became  involved  in 
debt,  and  saw  no  means  of  escaping  from  his 
embarrassments,  but  by  flying  into  the  arms  of 
the  British,  and  earning  their'gold,  by  treason 
to  his  country.  Having  been  reprimanded  by 
Washington  for  misbehaviour,  he  shook  off  all 
allegiance  to  his  struggling  country,  and  solici- 
ted and  obtained  the  command  of  West  Point, 
for  the  basest  of  purposes.  (See  Andre).  After 
joining  the  enemy,  he  published  two  manifes- 
toes, in  which  he  attributed  the  change  in  his 
opinions  to  the  declaration  of  independence, 
and  the  alliance  of  America  with  France,  al- 
though long  after  the  adoption  of  these  meas- 
ures, he  had  fought  beneath  the  Colonial  co 
lors,  had  been  wounded  at  Quebec,  and  was 
pledged  to  support  the  cause  of  his  country.  A 
large  sum  of  money,  and  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  in  the  British  army,  were  the  rewards 
of  his  apostacy.  After  his  treason,  he  made 
war  upon  his  former  friends  more  after  the 
manner  of  a  bandit  chieftain,  than  that  of  a 
high-souled  warrior.  Upon  the  recognition  of 
the  independence  of  the  United  States,  Arnold 
retired  to  England,  where  he  died,  towards  the 
close  of  the  18th  century,  an  object  of  universal 
contempt.  In  the  country  for'  which  he  had 
given  up  his  own,  his  reception  was  any  thing 
but  flattering.  The  British  monarch  did  all  in 
his  power  to  make  him  acceptable — but  failed. 
On  one  occasion,  he  desired  to  make  Arnold 
known  to  the  high-minded  earl  of  Balcarras, 
and  personally  led  them  together.  After  go- 
ing through  the  usual  form  of  introduction, 
Arnold  extended  his  hand  to  the  earl.  "  What, 
sir!"  said  the  latter  to  the  king,  at  the  same 
time  drawing  himself  up  to  his  proudest  height; 
'•  is  this  the  traitor  Arnold  ?"  lie  then  walked 
haughtily  away — 

"  The  hand  of  Douglas  was  his  own." 
Arnold  challenged  the  Earl — they  met,  and 
Arnold,  who  fired  first,  missed  his  antagonist. 
The  proud  nobleman,  instead  of  discharging  his 
pistol,  dashed  it  to  the  ground.  "  Stay,  my 
lord,"  exclaimed  Arnold,  <:you  have  not  had 
your  shot !"  "  No,"  replied  the  earl  indignant- 
ly, "  I  leave  you  to  the  hangman." 

ARRAGON,  the  real  mot,  re  tains  to  the  pre- 
sent day  the  name  of  kingdom.  It  is  bounded 
north  by  the  Pyrenees,  northwest  by  Navarre, 
west  by  Castile,  south  by  Valencia,  and  east  by 
Catalonia.  Population  (in  1800)  685,030.  A 
part  of  the  country  is  mountainous,  stony,  and 
sandy,  but  some  portions  are  fertile  and  pro- 
'ductive.  The  inhabitants  are  hardy,  industrious, 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


ART 

active,  and  patriotic.  The  kingdom  was  founded 
about  1035,  by  Ramiro.  Ferdinand,  the  last  king, 
united  Arragon  and  Castile,  in  1474,  and  thereby 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  present  Spanish  mo- 
narchy. 

ARRIA,  the  heroic  wife  of  Foetus,  the  Ro- 
man consul,  who,  being  sentenced  to  kill  him- 
self, by  Claudius,  hesitated  to  commit  the  fatal 
act.  Arria,  perceiving  his  reluctance,  plunged 
a  dagger  into  her  own  heart,  then,  drawing  it 
forth,  and  presenting  it  to  her  husband,  said, 
"  My  Foetus,  it  is  not  painful !" 

ARTA XERXES  I,  surnamed  Longimanus, 
from  the  length  of  his  arms,  ascended  the  throne 
of  Persia,  B.  C.  465.  During  his  reign  peace 
was  restored  between  Fersia  and  Athens,  after 
a  war  of  fifty-one  years.  He  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  Ahasuerus  of  Scripture. 
He  died,  B.  C.  425. 

ARTAXERXES II,  surnamed  Mnemon,  from 
the  retentiveness  of  his  memory,  began  his  reign 
B.  C.  405.  Cyrus,  his  brother,  assembled  a 
powerful  army  and  marched  to  Babylon  to  op- 
pose him,  but  he  was  met,  defeated,  and  slain, 
by  Artaxerxes.  The  latter  defeated  the  Spar- 
tans and  compelled  them  to  relinquish  their 
possessions  in  Asia.  He  was  killed  by  his  son 
in  301. 

ARTAXERXES  HI  (Ochus),  waded  to  the 
throne  through  the  blood  of  his  kindred.  He 

?uelled  the  various  revolts  raised  against  him. 
n  Egypt  he  was  guilty  of  great  cruelty  and 
extravagance.  He  slew  Apis,  and,  together 
with  some  of  his  soldiers,  fed  upon  its  flesh. 
He  was  poisoned  by  his  general.  Bagons,  who 
threw  his  flesh  to  the  cats,  and  causeo1  sword 
handles  to  be  made  from  his  bones. 

ARTEMISIA  I,  queen  of  Caria,  personally 
assisted  Xerxes  against  the  Greeks.  Her  me- 
mory was  honored  by  a  monument  erected  by 
the  Spartans. 

ARTEMISIA  II,  queen  of  Caria,  wife  of 
Mausolus,  to  whom  she  erected  after  his  death, 
the  celebrated  Mausoleum — a  funeral  monu- 
ment. It  was  an  oblong  square,  411  feet  in 
compass,  130  fret  high,  and  adorned  with  3t> 
columns.  Artemisia  did  not  long  survive  her 
husband,  by  whose  side  she  was  interred,  351 
B.C. 

ARTHUR,  a  prince  of  ancient  Britain,  whose 
story  Hume  thinks  has  some  foundation  in  fact. 
He  was  born  about  501,  and  died  542.  The 
institution  of  an  order  of  chivalry,  called  the 
knights  of  the  round  table,  is  attributed  to  him, 
and~also  the  establishment  of  Christianity  at 
York. 


76  ASI 

ARUSPICES  or  Haruspices,  priests  among 
the  Romans  who  foretold  futuie  events  by  ob- 
serving the  entrails  of  the  animals  sacrificed, 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  victim  behaved. 
They  existed  from  the  time  of  Romulus  to 
that  of  Constantine  (337  A.  D.),  when  all 
soothsaying  was  prohibited  on  pain  of  death. 
Their  number  at  this  time  was  70. 

ASHANTEE,  a  nation  of  negroes,  on  and 
near  the  Gold  Coast  of  Guinea.  They  are  in  the 
vicinity  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  the  British  set- 
tlement at  Sierra  Leone.  Warlike  and  unyield- 
ing they  carried  on  a  bloody  war  with  the  Eng- 
lish in  1824,  in  which  General  McCarthy  lost 
his  life.  The  kingdom  of  the  Ashantecs  has 
been  in  existence  one  hundred  years.  The 
king  has  a  band  of  devoted  attendants .  one  hun- 
dred in  nuinber,  who  are  slain  upon  his  tomb, 
that  he  may  be  properly  accompanied  on  his 
arrival  in  the  infernal  regions.  His  3333  wives 
are  regarded  with  reverence,  and  on  that  mystical 
number  the  safety  of  the  state  depends.  The  em- 
pire of  Ashantee,  consisting  of  several  conquered 
states,  has  a  population  cf  3,000.1)00  souls.  The 
Ashantees  display  some  ingenuity  and  taste  in 
their  architecture,  and  manufacture  cloths  which 
are  skilfully  dved  in  brilliant  colors.  Comassie, 
the  residence  "of  the  king,  has  been  forcibly  de- 
scribed bv  nn  intelligent  traveller.  "  A  pros- 
pect of  tlie  capital,  (if  such  it  may  be  called,) 
at  last  opened  in  front  of  us ;  it  was  a  partial 
glimpse,  at  the  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty 
paces,  of  a  few  mud-built  hovels,  surrounded 
in  part  by  plantations,  and  some  straggling 
walls  of  the  same  material,  covering  a  contract- 
ed space  gained  from  the  surrounding  waste." 

ASIA.  To  Asia  we  may  trace  the  origin  of 
nil  the  arts,  and  from  this  country  sprang  the 
first  human  couple,  designed  for  a  happy  immor- 
tality, which  was  forfeited  by  their  disobedience. 
Thence  originated  the  various  tribes  and  na- 
tions, which  have  since  spread  over  the  whole 
fnce  of  the  srlobe.  and  peopled  it  with  inhabit- 
ants. The  extent  of  this  vast  region  has  been 
estimated  at  16,009,000  square  miles,  and  its 
population  at  400,000,000.  The  principal  parts 
into  which  it  is  divided,  are  Arabia,  Asiatic 
Turkey.  Persia.  India,  Tartary,  Asiatic  Russia, 
China.  Japan,  Barman  Empire,  Siani.  Annam  ; 
the  Sunda  Islands.  .Moluccas.  Philippines,  Mal- 
dives. &c.  In  Arabia  the  earl}'  events  of  Jew- 
ish history  occurred,  and  in  this  country,  in 
particular,  the  Christian  reader  feels  a  peculiar 
interest,  and  a  curiosity  which  is  hot  disap- 
pointed by  the  story  of  the  wild  scenes  which 
have  been,  from  time  to  time,  exhibited  in  this 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ASI 


77 


ASI 


historical  region.  Lying  between  the  Red  Sea 
and  the  Persian  Gulf,  being  about  1400  miles  in 
length,  from  north  to  south,  and  somewhat  less 
in  breadth ;  it  contains  an  extensive  territory 
of  varied  fertility,  now  sterile,  and  now  pro- 
ductive, inhabited  by  a  numerous  population. 
The  capital  of  Arabia  is  Mecca,  whose  wild  and 
circumscribed  valley  is  more  celebrated  than 
many  regions  of  the  most  luxuriant  fertility  : 
it  is  the  birth-place  of  Mohammed.  This  re- 
markable man ,  destined  to  exert  so  great  an  in- 
fluence upon  the  fortunes  of  his  fellow-beings, 
and  the!  condition  of  the  world,  was  born  in 
571 .  It  was  not  until  he  had  attained  the  prime 
of  life  that  he  ventnred  to  reveal  his  divine 
commission,  having,  probably,  desired  to  bring 
his  plans  to  perfection  before  he  attempted  an 
imposture,  on  the  success  of  which  the  fate  of 
millions  depended.  He  pretended  to  have  re- 
ceived a  commission  directly  from  God.  He 
declared  that  he' was  the  prophet  of  God.  and 
acted  under  the  immediate  instructions  of  the 
Almighty.  His  doctrines  were  written  in  a 
book  called  the  Koran,  a  copy  of  which,  splen- 
didly bound,  and  decorated,  he  declared  that  he 
had  received  from  the  angel  Gabriel.  The  suc- 
cess of  his  attempt  was  at  first  doubtful — but 
Mohammed  enlisted  mankind  in  his  cause  by 
every  motive  which  could  mislead  poor  weak 
humanity,  ever  ready  to  be  led  astray.  After 
having  been  compelled  to  seek  safety  in  flight,  he 
obtained  a  small  army  which  gradually  increas- 
ed, and  enabled  him  to  take  the  field,  with  irre- 
sistible force,  against  his  enemies.  To  those  who 
fell  in  battle  he  promised  a  voluptuous  immor- 
tality— a  sensual  paradise,  where  cooling  foun- 
tains tempered  the  warm  air,  and  where  the 
exertions  of  the  faithful  were  rewarded  by  the 
charms  of  the  divine  Houris.  He  inculcated 
the  doctrine  of  an  irresistible  destiny — declar- 
ing that  ages  before  his  birth,  the  time  of  each 
man's  death  was  fixed  ;  and  by  impressing  on 
his  followers  a  belief  in  this  absurd  idea,  he 
enabled  them  to  perform  deeds  of  unequalled 
bravery,  rushing  to  the  charge  with  an  impetu- 
osity almost  supernatural,  and  courting  death 
as  the  passport  to  those  transports  which  were 
to  have  no  transitory  existence,  but  a  blessed 
immortality.  Backed  by  followers  whom  his 
instructions  inspired  with  unequalled  bravery, 
the  daring  impostor  beheld  his  arms  completely 
triumphant.  His  death  took  place  at  the  age 
of  62,  and  his  sceptre  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Abu-bekr,  his  father-in-law.  The  caliphs,  who 
filled  the  throne  after  the  death  of  Abu-bekr, 
being  men  of  consummate  skill,  and  great  tal- 


ents, contributed  to  confirm  the  opinions  origin- 
ated by  Mahomet,  and  to  ensure  the  endurance 
of  his  religion.  The  Arabians  of  the  present  day 
still  profess  Mohammedanism.  In  the  early  ages 
of  this  belief,  they  contributed  to  its  extension, 
making  converts  by  threats  instead  of  argu- 
ments.''They  offered  to  the  wavering,  the  Koran 
or  the  sabre  —  their  religion  or  the  grave.  The 
Saracens,  as  they  were  called,  thus  made  them- 
selves feared,  and  attained  a  wonderful  degree 
of  power,  which  was  destined  to  decline  as  the 
star  of  Turkish  empire  arose  over  the  nations 
of  the  east.  The  Mohammedans  do  not  deny  the 
truth  of  the  sacred  writings,  but  they  pervert 
them  in  an  abominable  manner.  At  Mecca 
they  pretend  to  show  the  very  well,  which  re- 
stored the  child  of  Hagar  in  the  wilderness. 
Mecca  is  thronged  with  the  Mohammedan  pil- 
grims, as  the  Koran  requires  every  Mohamme- 
dan to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  this  city  once  in 
his  life.  Mohammed  was  buried  at  Medina. 

Asiatic  Turkey  is  divided  at  present,  into 
several  parts.  Syria  includes  Palestine,  or  the 
Holy  Land,  a  country  which,  as  being  the  thea- 
tre of  so  many  wonderful  and  appalling  events, 
is  still  visited  with  intense  interest,  and  holds  a 
conspicuous  place  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
In  the  southeast  portion  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  lies 
the  ancient  and  famous  Mesopotamia.  Assyria 
was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  noted  monar- 
chies of  Asia.  The  splendor  of  the  Assyrians 
has  been  celebrated  by  all  historical  writers. 
To  trace  the  fortunes  and  varied  events  of  this 


kingdom  alone,  would  require  a  much  greater 
space  than  we  can  devote  to  the  general  view 
of  Asia.  The  mighty  kingdom  of  Babylon 


gave  lustre  to  Asia  in  its  early  days.  During 
the  reign  of  the  queen  Semiramis  its  fame  was 
at  the  highest.  This  sovereign  possessed  fewer 
feminine  than  masculine  attributes,  and  yet 
shone  no  less  conspicuosly  in  the  court  than  the 
camp.  She  did  much  to  beautify  her  city,  and 
to  extend  the  fame  and  powe'r  of  her  kingdom.  ' 
The  hanging  gardens  of  Babylon,  in  which 
trees  of  great  size  were  supported  on  terraces 
at  ah  elevation  far  above  the  earth,  constituted 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  ancient  world.  Semi- 
ramis  penetrated  far  into  India,  and  was  wound- 
ed in  a  desperate  combat  with  one  of  the  In- 
dian kings.  Bagdad,  the  once  celebrated  seat 
of  the  Saracenic  caliphs,  to  the  splendor  of 
which  Haroun  al  Raschid  greatly  contribut- 
ed has  lost  most  of  its  former  magnificence. 
Here,  when  the  star  of  the  Saracenic  empire 
was  at  its  zenith,  literature  and  the  arts  flour- 
ished under  the  protection  of  the  caliphs.  Poet- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


ASI 


78 


ASI 


ry  and  romance  shed  a  charm  over  every  day 
existence,  and  music,  with  other  arts,  received 
the  most  assiduous  cultivation  and  encourage- 
ment. We  can  but  briefly  allude  to  the  reigns  and 
events  which  have  distinguished  Asiatic  Tur- 
key— the  fate  of  the  celebrated  queen  Zenobia, 
who  was  compelled  to  grace  the  triumph  of  the 
emperor  Aurelian,  after  victory  had  smiled  upon 
the  Roman  banners  as  they  waved  over  the  Asiat- 
ic plains — the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus — 
the  destruction  of  the  sacred  temple,  with  all  its 
magnificence — the  wild  enthusiasm  of  the  cru- 
saders who  made  Jerusalem  the  rallying  point 
for  the  chivalry  of  Europe  in  the  holy  wars — 
the  siege  and  "fall  of  that  Troy,  of  which  now 
not  the  slightest  trace  remains.  Changed,  in- 
deed, is  the  face  of  all  that  was  formerly  glo- 
rious in  these  ancient  countries  !  The  footsteps 
of  Time  are  deep,  and  his  ravages  lastinor.  A 
wretched  village,  inhabited  by  a  handful  of 
Turks,  usurps  the  spot  where  once  rose  in 
splendor,  Ephesus ;  that  Ephesus  which  was 
the  pride  of  Asia  Minor — that  Ephesus  which 
St.  Paul  has  celebrated  by  his  epistle — which 
contained  the  superb  temple  of  Diana,  fired  by 
Erostratus,  that  he  might  immortalize  his  name. 
"  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  !"  was  the 
cry  of  the  proud  inhabitants.  Ages  have  past — 
and  the  idol  and  the  idolaters  have  passed  away. 
Persia  has. ever  been  a  country  of  great  in- 
terest, and  its  early  history  is  crowded  with 
events  of  importance.  Chance  and  change 
were  not  unfelt  by  its  inhabitants  of  former 
days.  The  early  Persians  were  hardy,  tempe- 
rate, and  well  educated.  Education  received 
early  and  strict  attention  among  them,  and  their 
Magi,  or  wise  men,  are  famous  in  the  history  of 
learning.  A  more  detailed  history  of  Persia 
will  be  found  in  another  portion  of  this  volume. 
The  present  condition  of  the  Persians  is  hap- 
pier than  it  has  been  for  a  long  time  past,  for 
until  very  lately,  it  was  a  battle-ground  for  rival 
chieftains  and  contending  factions.  The  khans 
or  chiefs  attained  their  elevation  to  the  throne 
by  a  wanton  expenditure  of  blood  and  life.  At 
a  more  distant  period  (1380),  when  Ispahan' was 
the  capital  of  Persia,  and  famous  for  its  com- 
merce and  splendor,  it  was  taken  by  Tamerlane, 
and  70,000  persons  slain  by  the  cruel  Tartars. 
The  modern  Persians  exhibit  a  very  marked 
difference  from  those  of  the  early  ages,  from 
whom  they  are  descended.  The  latter,  stern, 
temperate,  and  warlike,  disregarded  both  the 
luxuries  and  elegancies  of  life.  Inured  to  toil, 
living  upon  the  plainest  food,  and  taught  to  face 
death  and  danger  without  quailing,  they  be- 


came formidable  to  their  neighbors,  and  acquir 
ed  for  themselves  a  military  reputation,  which 
only  their  subsequent  degeneracy  could  destroy. 
At  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Greece  by 
Xerxes,  the  Persian  monarch  relied  more  upon 
the  immense  numbers  of  his  army  and  their 
splendid  equipments,  than  upon  their  valor. 
The  event  proved  the  superiority  of  the  Greeks, 
sternly  brave,  and  proudly  patriotic.  In  later 
times,  the  Persians  have  shown  themselves  de- 
voted to  luxury,  refinement,  and  the  more  ele- 
gant arts  of  pe'ace.  Gay,  polished,  and  affable, 
they  unite  much  that  is  pleasing,  with  much 
that  is  unprepossessing  in  their  character  and 
manners.  While  distinguished  for  their  volu- 
bility and  wit,  their  habitual  disregard  of  truth, 
and  practice  of  flatten',  detract  much  from  their 
many  amiable  qualities.  Persia  abounds  with 
the  hallowed  remains  of  antiquity.  Among  the 
most  celebrated  ruins  which  occur  are  those  of 
the  ancient  Persepolis,  a  city  formerly  of  im- 
mense extent,  and  conspicuous  in  the  history 
of  Alexander  of  Macedon.  It  was  the  royal 
palace  of  this  city  that  the  Grecian  conqueror, 
inflamed  with  wine,  and  urged  by  the  wild  per- 
suasion of  an  abandoned  woman,  destroyed  by 
fire,  aided  by  his  companion.  She  beheld  the 
flames  rolling  around  the  most  beautiful  edifi- 
ces, consuming  splendid  palaces,  and  hurling 
to  the  ground  lon<r-venerated  columns,  with  the 
rnad  delight  which  the  unprincipled  seem  to 
take  in  the  works  of  destruction. 

The  ancient  Medes,  celebrated  in  sacred  and 
general  history,  have  left  descendants  and  rep- 
resentatives in  the  Afghans,  the  present  inhab- 
itants of  Afghanistan,  a  country  now  occupying 
what  was  formerly  a  part  of  Persia  and  Hin- 
dostan.  The  country  suffered  from  the  rav.ia-es 
of  Genghis  Khan  in  1221 .  This  wild  and  war- 
like prince  took  the  splendid  city  of  Balk,  put- 
ting almost  all  its  inhabitants  to  "the  sword,  and 
committed  other  atrocities  which  the  name  of 
conquest  is  generally  thought  to  sanction. 

India,  although  of  vast  extent  and  impor- 
tance, was  very  little  known  to  the  ancients. 
They  had  some  vague  idea  of  its  extent  aifd 
wealth,  but  possessed  little  knowledge  of  its  in- 
terior. It  appears,  however,  at  various  periods, 
to  have  en gaffed  the  attention  of  great  conquer- 
ors, who  made  attempts  to  subject  it.  But  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  India  resisted  their  in- 
vaders with  £reat  bravery,  and  the  want  of  lo- 
cal knowledge,  sensibly  i'elt.  by  the  Europeans 
and  other  adveirturers.  contributed  to  their  de- 
feat. Whatever  successes  they  obtained  ap- 
peared not  to  result  to  their  advantage.  Alex 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ASI 


79 


ASI 


ander  the  Great  carried  his  victorious  arms  into 
the  interior  of  the  country  ; — Semirainis  push- 
ed her  forces  against  the  Indians,  and  other 
adventurers  attempted  their  subversion.  It  re- 
mained for  modern  times  to  acquire  knowledge 
of  this  vast  country.  India  Within  the  Gan- 
ges is  generally  termed  Hindostan,  and  for  veg- 
etable and  mineral  wealth,  is  unsurpassed  by 
any  country  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  It  is, 
indeed,  a  region  of  romance,  in  which  the 
oriental  tales  of  enchantment  appear  to  be  real- 
ized. The  antiquity  of  the  Hindoos  is  undoubt- 
edly great,  and  their  history  is  authentic  from 
the  time  of  Moses.  No  change  has  taken  place 
in  their  religion,  manners,  or  customs,  for  more 
than  two  thousand  years.  The  same  division 
of  the  peop|e  which  was  known  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  subsists  at  present.  The 
principal  castes  or  classes  into  which  the  peo- 
ple are  divided,  is  four.  The  first  and  most 
important  is  that  of  the  Bramins,  who  are  men 
of  letters,  and  priests,  besides  having  the  care 
of  the  laws.  The  second  caste  'is  composed  of 
soldiers,  or  descendants  of  the  Rajahs,  (princes), 
whence  they  are  termed  Rajah-poots.  The  third 
class,  called  Vaisgas,  includes  merchants,  farm- 
ers, and  shepherds  :  the  fourth,  Sudras,  con- 
sists of  laborers. 

The  rules,  by  which  the  conduct  of  the  Bra- 
mins is,  or  shall  be.  governed,  are  exceedingly 
strict.  They  impose  upon  these  priests  a  total 
abstinence  from  fermented  liquors  and  animal 
food,  and  the  observance  of  the  numerous  sin- 
gular rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Hindoo  reli- 
gion. Yet  these  men,  far  from  being  distin- 
guished for  their  temperance,  piety,  and  learn- 
ing, sometimes  render  themselves  detestable  bv 
voluptuousness,  vice,  irreligion,  and  ignorance. 
The  other  castes,  which  are  beneath  them,  are 
trodden  to  the  dust,  by  these  proud  priests,  and 
suffer  severely  from  their  extortion  and  avarice. 
A  Brainin  was  not  unfrequently  to  be  seen  with 
his  foot  upon  the  neck  of  some  poor  Hindoo, 
prostrated 'be  fore  him  in  blind  adoration.  The 
Sudras  are  delighted  when  they  cancel  a  Bra- 
inin to  dip  his  toe  in  a  cup  of  wafer,  .valuing 
this  '  holy  water'  very  highly,  and  thinking  it 
the  '  sov'reign'st  thing  on  earth  for  an  inward 
bruise.'  The  Rajah-poots  are  noted  for  their 
lion-like  courage,  and  their  indomitable  feroci- 
ty. Those  in  the  British  service,  termed  Sea- 
poys,  are  very  efficient,  as  their  wild  ambition 
and  avarice  fit  them  to  hunt  down  their  breth- 
ren, without  hesitation  or  remorse.  But  the 
most  singularly  instituted  caste  is  the  fourth. 
The  condition  of  the  beasts  of  the  field  appears 


preferable  to  that  of  these  poor  people.  They  are 
literally  the  slaves  of  the  Bramins,  compelled  to 
drag  out  their  lives  in  the  most  fatiguing  ef 
forts  for  the  support  and  aggrandizement  of 
their  tyrants.  Even  the  wretched  relief  which 
the  Hindoo  religion  might  afford  is  denied  to 
them,  and  the  pains  of  eternal  punishment  de- 
nounced to  any  who  would  give  them  religious 
instructi9n.  The  castes  are  separated  effectual- 
ly by  a  prohibition  which  prevents  them  from 
intermarrying. 

The  idolatry  of  the  Hindoos  cannot  be  con- 
templated without  pain.  They  imagine  thai 
they  are  delighting  their  strange  divinities 
when,  carried  away  by  a  torrent  of  fanaticism, 
they  fling  themselves  or  their  children  before 
the  huge  cars  of  their  misshapen  idols,  to  be 
crushed  to  death  as  they  revolve ;  or  when 
writhing,  suspended  upon  iron  hooks,  which 
only  give  them  death  after  prolonging  the  most 
cruel  tortures.  They  believe  that  there  is  one 
God,  endowed  with  supreme  power,  who,  iso- 
lated from  all  sublunary  concerns,  exists  in  a 
state  of  indolent  enjoyment,  having  committed 
the  care  of  the  world  to  three  divinities.  A  life 
of  extraordinary  piety  will  entitle  the  soul  of  a 
devotee  to  an  amalgamation  with  the  spirit  of 
the  supreme  God,  while  the  doctrine  of  the 
transmigration  of  souis  is  held  rait  to  those 
whose  piety  is  less  striking  and  distinguished. 
The  conquest  of  a  large  portion  of  India 
by  the  British  was  not  effected  without  much 
bloodshed,  and  it  is  painful  to  trace  the  details 
of  the  eventful  struggle.  The  British,  urged 
by  a  rapp,.city  unworthy  of  professed  Christians, 
committed  atrocities,  the  bare  recital  of  which 
inspires  the  listener  with  horror.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  native  rajahs,  or  sovereigns,  were  not 
back\vard  in  the  infliction  of  revolting  cruelties 
When  Suraja  Dowla  took  the  fcrt  at  Calcutta, 
in  175*!,  he  confined  the  garrison  which  consist- 
ed of  146  persons  in  a  horrible  dungeon,  aptly 
termed  the  Black  Hole,  in  which  123  perished 
in  one  night  from  suffocation.  Within  less  than 
a  century  the  British  East  India  Company  have 
obtained  possession  of  their  vast  territory,  of 
which  sonie  portions  are  professedly  under  their 
sway,  and  others,  although  nominally  ruled  by 
native  sovereigns,  are  tributary  to  the  Company, 
and  completely  influenced  by  them.  The  gov- 
ernment is  in  the  hands  of  a  governor,  having  a 
royal  commission  and  appointment.  The  seat 
of  government  is  Bombay,  which  contains  a 
population  estimated  at  200,000.  Farther  India, 
or  Chin  India,  is  a  country  of  vast  extent  and 
importance.  It  contains  the  Birman  empire, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ASI 


80 


ASS 


Annam,  Siam,  &c.  In  1826  a  treaty  concluded 
the  war  between  the  Birman  empire  and  the 
East  India  Company,  by  which  the  emperor 
ceded  part  of  the  western  coast  of  .the  country 
to  the  British. 

The  Russians  possess  a  vast  and  important 
territory  in  Asia,  which  is  called  Asiatic  Russia, 
or  Siberia.  In  the  middle  of  the  J5th  century, 
the  Russians  gained  possession  of  a  part  of  this 
extensive  country  of  which,  before  this  time, 
they  had  no  share.  The  complete  subjugation 
of  the  whole  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Peter 
the  Great,  and  the  Czarina  Catherine  II,  the 
Semiramis  of  the  North.  The  mines  and  furs 
of  Siberia  render  it  valuable  to  the  Russians,  but 
it  is  noted  as  the  place  of  banishment  for  those 
who  have  fallen  under  the  displeasure  of  the 
Russian  government.  Many  an  unhappy  exile 
has  here  dragged  out  a  miserable  existence, 
to  which  death  would  have  been  preferable. 
These  wretched  victims  of  state  intrigues  and 
ruthless  despotism,  have  contributed  greatly  to- 
wards the  civilization  and  improvement  of  por- 
tions of  this  country.  The  number  of  exiles  has 
been  augmented  recently  by  the  banishment  to 
this  dreary  region  of  hundreds  of  the  unhappy 
Poles,  whose  greatest  crime  was  a  firm  attach- 
ment to  an'  oppressed  country.  The  exile  of 
great  officers  of  state  has  frequently  been  at- 
tended with  all  the  mystery  which  characteris- 
ed the  seizures  of  the  inquisition.  Often  some 
deserving  man,  unconscious  of  having  commit- 
ted any  crime  worthy  of  so  severe  a  punish- 
ment, finds  himself  suddenly  in  the  hands  of 
the  officers  of  justice.  If  he  asks  the  cause  of 
his  seizure,  he  is  commanded  to  be  silent :  if  lie 
begs  to  take  leave  of  his  family,  his  request  is 
refused.  He  sinks  into  the  stupor  of  despair, 
and  awakens  again  to  a  sense  of  hope  forever 
lost,  as  he  finds  himself  upon  the  fatal  sledge 
which  pursues  its  rapid  path  to  the  hated  place 
of  exile. 

The  empire  of  China  is  extensive  and  of 
great  antiquity.  Its  history,  manners,  and  cus- 
toms, are  singular.  At  a  very  early  period  the 
Chinese  made  discoveries  in  the  arts,  which, 
however,  have  not  gem-rally  attained  that  de- 
gree of  improvement  among  them,  which  we 
might  be  led  to  expect  from  the  antiquity  of 
their  origin.  Their  history  is  interesting  and 
authentic, embracing  a  recorded  period  ot'inanv 
ages.  This  will  be  treated  of  separately  and 
with  some  detail.  On  taking  a  general  survey 
of  Asia,  we  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  sur- 
prise and  admiration  at  the  immensity  of  its  ex- 
tent, the  number  of  its  historical  recollections, 


and  the  vastness  of  its  monumental  remains. 
It  has  been  the  theatre  of  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant events  which  history  records,  the  clime 
of  wonders  and  of  wealth,  and  the  chosen  re- 
gion of  romance.  If  we  search  the  pa  ges  of  his- 
tory for  the  fate  of  proud  monarchies,  and  the 
tale  of  powerful  dynasties,  and  splendid  cities, 
we  shall  find  the  name  of  Asia  constantly  recur- 
ring, and  the  fame  of  Asia  the  theme  of  unfail- 
ing wonder  and  of  praise. 

ASPINWALL,  William,  M.  D..  born  in 
Brookline,  Mass.,  May  23d,  1743.  He  was 
educated  at  Harvard  College,  and  served  as  a 
surgeon  in  the  revolution,  but  fought  in  per- 
son, as  a  volunteer,  in  the  battle  of  Lexington. 
Alter  the  death  of  Dr.  Zabdiel  Boylston,  the 
first  physician  who  inoculated  for  the  small  pox 
in  America,  he  prosecuted  the  system,  and  ac- 
quired great  celebrity  by  his  treatment  of  this 
disorder.  His  practice  was  very  extensive,  and 
during  45  years,  he  frequently  rode  40  miles  a 
day  on  horseback,  and  seldom  retired  to  rest  un- 
til aRer  midnight.  He  died,  April  16th,  1823, 
in  his  80th  year. 

ASRAEL,  the  angel  of  death  in  Mohamme- 
dan mythology. 

ASSASSINS  or  HASSASSINS,  the  follow- 
ers of  an  Arab  chief  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades, 
who  were  devoted  to  his  service,  and  cheerfully 
laid  down  their  lives  at  his  bidding.  "When 
Henry,  Count  of  Champaigne.  was  passintr 
through  the  dominions  of  their  Sheik,  the  "  Old 
Man  of  the  Mountains,"  he  boasted  of  his 
power  at  home.  "  Are  any  of  your  vassals  as 
devoted  as  my  followers  ?"  asked  the  chieftain. 
On  this  he  gave  a  signal  to  ten  young  men.  clad 
in  white,  standing  on  the  top  of  a  tall  tower, 
and  they  instantly  threw  themselves  from  it  and 
were  dashed  to  pieces  ! 

ASSIENTO  is  a  Spanish  word  for  treaty, 
and  signifies  the  permission  granted  by  the 
Spanish,  government  to  a  foreign  nation  to  im- 
port negro  slaves  into  the  Spanish  American 
colonies,  upon  certain  conditions.  By  the  assi- 
nito  of  1713.  a  company  of  English  merchants 
underfoot  to  supply  the  Spanish  colonies  with 
negroes  for  oO  years,  but  quarrels  ensued,  and 
the  treaty  was  "finally  relinquished  before  the 
expiration  of  the  time. 

ASSYRIA,  a  kingdom  of  Asia,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Ashtir,  whose  boundaries  va- 
ried greatly  at  different  times.  It  was  p.m-iontly 
bounded  as  follows  ;  north  by  Mount  Niphates, 
and  Armenia  Major,  east  by  Media,  south  by 
Susiana,  and  west,  by  Mesopotamia.  IS'inus, 
its  celebrated  dPIereign,  subdued  the  Babylo- 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ATH  81 

nians  and  Medes,  and  Semiramis,  his  wife  and 
successor,  increased  the  lame  of  the  kingdom. 
About  900  years  B.  C..  Arbaces,  governor  of 
Media,  conquered  Assyria.  It  v.'as  tlien  divided 
into  the  Median,  Assyrian,  and  Babylonian  king- 
doms. But  Assyria  once  more  gained  the  as- 
cendency over  Media  and  Babylon,  and  Niu- 
eveh  became  its  capital.  After  the  revolt  of 
Media  (700  B.  C.),  Cyaxares,  its  king,  uniting 
with  Nabopalassar,  governor  of  Babylon,  they 
destroyed  Nineveh,  00(5  B.  C.  Assyria  becom- 
ing now  a  Median  province,  Babylon  was  form- 
ed into  a  powerful  kingdom  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, B.  C.  (500.  The  three  kingdoms  were  unit- 
ed by  Cyrus,  the  victorious  monarch  of  Persia, 
:50  B.  C. 

ASTRACIIAN  or  ASTRAKHAN,  a  Rus- 
sian vice-royalty,  divided  into  three  govern- 
ments. It  contains  3. 000.000  inhabitants.  It  is 
bounded  north  by  the  country  of  the  Bulgarians 
and  Bashkeers,  east  by  a  chain  of  mountains 
which  part  it  from  Tartarv,  south  by  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  and  west  by  the  Wol<ra.  separating  it 
from  the  Nogay  Tartars,  and~Don  Cossacks. 
The  land  is  fertile  but  uncultivated  by  the  Tar- 
tars. The  winter  is  brief  but  severe,  the  sum- 
mer long  and  hot.  Astrakhan,  the  capital,  situ- 
ated on  an  island  in  the  VVolga,  34  miles  from 
its  entrance  into  the  Caspian  Sea.  has  50.000 
inhabitants,  and  is  a  place  of  considerable  im- 
portance. 20.000  persons,  engaged  in  the  fishe- 
ries, reside  here  for  a  part  of  the  year. 

ASTUBIA  or  the  ASTURIAS,  a  Spanish 
principality,  bounded  by  Biscay  on  the  east,  on 
the  west  by  Galicia,  on  the  south  by  Castile  and 
Old  Leon,  and  on  the  north  by  the  sea.  It  con- 
tains 365.000  inhabitants.  The  Moors  could 
never  master  this  country.  It  abounds  with 
fruit  and  game.  The  crown  prince  of  Spain 
bears  the  title  of  Prince  of  the  .Isturias,  as 
the  principality  was  formerly  divided  into  two 
parts. 

ATABALIPA,  or  ATAHUALPA,  the  last 
of  the  Incas  of  Pern.  He  commenced  his 
career  in  1529.  Pizarro  and  his  followers  were 
hospitably  entertained  by  him,  in  return  for 
which  kindness  the  Spaniards  held  him  in  cap- 
tivity. They  promised  to  ransom  him  on  the 
payment  of  an  immense  sum  of  money ;  when 
the  loyalty  of  the  people  hid  produced  the 
treasure.  Pizarro  accepted  it.  but  refused  to  re- 
lease his  prisoner,  who  was  burned  at  the  stake, 
1533. 

ATHENS.  This  celebrated  city,  the  capital 
of  Attica,  which  exerted  such  an  influence 
upon  the  character  of  mankind,  and  shot  forth 


ATH 


those  brilliant  fires  of  intellect  which  called  into 
warmth  and  iigiit  the  genius  of  the  world,  was 
founded  by  Cecrops,  1550  years  B.  C.  Origin- 
ally it  was  called,  from  its  founder,  Cecropia, 
but  in  time  his  name  was  only  retained  by  the 
citadel — the  Acropolis,  while  the  Greek  name 
of  Minerva  (Athena),  was  applied  to  the  city. 
The  Turks  call  it  Mhimah  and  Setincs.  The 
position  of  Athens  is  peculiar,  and  the  sur- 
rounding scenery  luxuriant  and  interesting. 
The  blue  Saronic  gulf,  so  often  swept  by  victo- 
rious navies,  the  opposite  shore  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, the  rocky  steep  of  the  Acropolis,  and 
the  beauty  of  the  surrounding  plains,  are  pro- 
minent features  in  a  landscape  which  antiquity 
has  made  interesting,  and  fame  immortal.  Nor 
were  the  natural  beauties  of  the  scene  its  chief 
recommendation.  Art  here  successfully  vied 
with  nature,  and  the  erection  of  the  most  noble 
edifices  bore  witness  to  the  taste,  industry,  skill, 
and  public  spirit  of  the  Athenians.  Cecrops,  the 
founder  of  Athens  was  an  Egyptian,  skilled  in 
the  arts  of  his  countrymen,  and  possessing  more 
than  their  customary  enterprise  ;  he  founded  the 
kinsrdom  of  Athens,  dividing  the  country  into 
twelve  districts,  over  which  he  ruled  for  a  long 
time  with  the  title  of  king.  He  instituted  the 
senate  called  the  Areopagus,  which  met  upon  a 
hill  in  tlie  vicinity  of  the  citadel,  dedicated  to 
M ars.  This  court  aquired  an  active  influence 
in  the  affairs  of  government.  To  it  the  examin- 
ation of  the  laws  and  state  of  public  morals  was 
committed,  while  crimes  against  religion  and  the 
state,  required  its  peculiar  attention.  In  14L'7 
B.  C.,  king  Amphictyon.  one  of  the  successors 
of  Cecrops,  established  the  court  of  the  Am- 
phictyons, an  assembly  which  ultimately  at- 
tained a  hijrh  degree  of  celebrity.  This  assem- 
bly formed  a  point  of  union  for  the  different 
states  of  Greece.  At  first  they  assembled  at 
Delphi,  where  was  the  oracle  of  Apollo,  but 
finally  at  Anthela,  a  village  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  famous  Thermopylae.  Two  members  from 
each  of  the  twelve  Grecian  states,  were  deput- 
ed to  the  court  of  Amphictyons.  They  were 
empowered  to  compose  popular  tumults,  to  re- 
concile contending  cities,  to  take  cognizance  of 
civil  and  criminal  offences,  of  violations  of  na- 
tional law,  and  particularly  of  sacrilege  com- 
mitted in  the  temple  of  Delphi.  If  a  state  re- 
fused to  submit  to  the  decisions  of  the  court, 
the  remaining  states  composing  the  confederacy 
could  take  up  arms,  to  enforce  submission,  and 
had  the  right  of  excluding  the  recusant  party 
from  participating  in  the  deliberations  of  the 
Amphictyons. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ATH 


82 


ATH 


To  both  of  these  monarchs  the  Athenians 
owed  much.  If  Cecrops  softened  the  manners 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Attica,  taught  them  how 
to  clothe  their  lands  with  the  verdure  of  the 
olive  and  the  vine,  and  instructed  them  in  the 
love  of  order,  the  worship  of  the  gods,  the  rites 
of  Hymen,  and  those  of  sepulture.  Ainphic- 
tyon  strengthened  and  secured  the  advantages 
which  his  subjects  had  begun  to  reap".  No 
longer  they  feared  the  incursions  of  predatory 
neighbors,  but  sat  in  the  shade  of  their  vine- 
yards, enjoying  the  happiness  which  security 
and  peace  bestow.  Codrus  was  the  last  king  of 
Athens.  On  his  death,  B.  C.  1068,  the  govern- 
ment assumed  a  republican  form,  after  the  mo- 
narchical had  subsisted  for  487  years  from  the 
time  of  Cecrops.  The  change  however  was 
but  in  name,  for  the  archon  had  nearly  all  the 
power  of  the  king,  whose  place  in  the  state  he 
filled.  The  archons  were  originally  chosen  for 
life.  After  a  lapse  of  little  more  than  three 
centuries,  the  term  of  office  was  curtailed  to 
ten  years,  and  less  than  a  century  afterwards, 
the  number  of  archons  was  increased  to  nine, 
and  they  served  for  a  term  of  one  year  only. 

Originally  all  the  Grecian  states  had  a  regal 
government,  which  was  abolished  in  conse- 
quence of  the  tyranny  of  the  various  princes, 
and  supplanted  by  republican  forms.  Recover- 
ing their  liberty  at  an  early  period,  the  Greeks 
acquired  that  love  of  freedom,  which  characteris- 
ed them  throughout  their  long  career,  and  it  was 
only  wiien  luxury  and  wealth  had  banished  the 
temperate  and  unostentatious  life  of  their  an- 
cestors, that  the  Greeks  found  themselves  una- 
ble to  contend  against  the  encroachments  of  hos- 
tilr;  power,  and  fell  beneath  the  arms  of  more 
enterprising  rivals.  The  rivalry  of  At.h-ns  and 
Spartaproduced,  together  with  much  good,  an  in- 
finity of  evil.  The  Spartans  were  of  a  sterner  cast 
than  the  Athenians,  and  even  more  distinguish- 
ed for  their  love  of  freedom,  and  their  invincible 
courage.  They  despised  those  triumphs  of  the 
arts  which  the  Athenians  made  their  glory,  and 
relied  for  fame  on  the  stern  contempt  of  the  <•!.>- 
gances  and  the  common  comforts  of  life.  What 
their  Lycurgus  was  to  them,  Solon  was  to  the 
Athenians. 

Solon  was  one  o£  those  great  characters,  whom 
their  countrymen  regard  with  veneration  for 
ages,  and  whose  memory  they  recall  even  in  the 
midst  of  oppression,  and  the  darkness  of  dis- 
grace. He  was  one  of  those  rare  spirits,  who:v 
virtues  and  self-possession  are  most  conspicu- 
ous when  most  needed,  and  whose  knowledge, 
like  the  lamp  of  the  glow-worm,  shines  bright- 


ost. when  the  darkness  is  most  heavy.  At  a 
time  (B.  C.  043)  when  the  turbulence  and  am- 
bition of  the  archons  threatened  the  Athenians 
with  a  multitude  of  evils,  all  eyes  were  turned 
upon  Solon,  as  the  pilot  who  alone  could  guide 
the  vessel  of  state  through  the  rocks  and  surges 
that  surrounded  it.  He  was  at  once  created 
archon  extraordinary  with  unlimited  power,  for 
his  high  character  and  calm  demeanor  inspired 
confidence  among  the  people  he  wa,s  destined  to 
assist.  Solon  introduced  a  mild  code  of  laws,  in 
opposition  to  that  of  Draco,  whose  appalling  se- 
verity had  raised  him  many  enemies.  The  gov- 
ernment was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  senate  of 
four  hundred  members  chosen  by  the  people. 
After  an  acquittal  of  their  debts,  the  people  were 
divided  into  four  classes.  The  members  of  the 
three  first  classes  were  eligible  to  office,  while 
those  of  the  fourth,  whose  poverty  wus  thought 
to  incapacitate  them  from  serving,  were  yet  al- 
lowed the  privilege  of  voting  in  the  popular  as- 
semblies. The  power  of  the  commonwealth  was 
vested  in  these  assemblies,  but  there  was  a 
restrictive  influence  in  the  senate.  Solon,  al- 
though mild,  was  just,  and  a  great  lover  of 
truth.  When  Thespis  was  exhibiting  theatrical 
entertainments  on  his  cart  at  Athens,  Solon 
asked  him  if  he  were  not  ashamed  of  giving 
utterance  to  so  many  untruths?  '•  Nay,"  re- 
plied the  actor,  "  they  were  but  in  jest."  il  In 
jest !"  exclaimed  Solon,  indignantly  ;  "  you  lit- 
tle know  the  danger  and  the  guilt  of  jesting 
with  so  sacred  a  thing  as  truth  !"  . 

Whatever  merit  we  may  be  dispose!  to  allow 
the  constitution  of  Solon,  framed  as  it  was  at 
a  very  early  period,  it  was  much  too  artificial 
to  be  permanently  successful.  Solon  lived  to 
see  this.  During  his  retirement  iVo'u  Athens, 
factions  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  people,  and 
Solon,  afler  having  vainlv  endeavored  to  stem 
the  current,  retired  to  thn'isle  of  Cyprus,  where 
he  died,  B.  C.  T/iO.  The  change  of  government 
\\-.\-;  '•fi'rr.ted  by  Pisistratus,  a  popular  but  ambi- 
tious man,  v.'ho  headed  the  poorer  class  of  peo- 
EJe — a  class  who  considered  themselves  pecu- 
arly  oppressed  by  the  constitution  <>f  Solon— 
nnd  gained  possession  of  the  supreme  power. 
The  "phn.-i  of  the  usurper  possessed  a  plausi- 
bilitv  ai:d  brilliancy  which  were  calculated  to 
product  no  insignificant  effect  upon  the  minds 
of  men.  His  ben 'Vulenre  w:ss  undoubted. 
At  his  den'h.  PJajstratus  bequeathed  his  power 
to  his  two  sons,  ffcipparehns  and  Hippias,  who, 
for  a  long  time,  by  a  liberal  patronage  of  the 
arts,  and  of  learned  men,  gave  a  brilliancy  to 
their  administration  which  was  unhappily  not 


P 

• 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ATH 


83 


ATH 


destined  to  endure.  Among  the  most  brilliant 
ornaments  of  the  court  was  Anacreon,  the  ele- 
gant, though  effeminate  poet  of  love  and  wine. 
The  cruelty  of  Hippias  at  length  roused  the 
spirit  of  the  Athenians,  who  broke  forth  into  an 
open  revolt,  in  which  Hipparphus  was  slain, 
and  Hippias  banished.  Hippias  finally  sought 
refuge  at  the  court  of  Darius ;  the  king  of  Per- 
sia endeavored  to  procure  his  recall  from  the 
Athenians,  whose  refusal  was  the  commence- 
ment of  the  war  between  Greece  and  Persia. 

When  the  tyrants  ceased  to  trouble  the  tran- 
quillity of  Athens,  it  became  necessary  to  guard 
against  future  abuses.  Calisthenes  accordingly 
effected  some  changes  in  the  laws  of  Solon,  in- 
creasing the  number  of  the  divisions  of  the 
people  to  10,  and  of  the  members  of  the  senate 
to  500.  The  smiling  appearance  of  the  Athe- 
nian vineyards  and  olive  plantations  gave  strik- 
ing proof  of  the  industry  and  prosperity  of  the 
people.  In  the  midst  of  happiness  and  success, 
the  hostility  of  the  Persians  threatened  them 
with  ruin.  But  the  bravery  of  the  Athenians 
was  not  wasted  in  words,  and  they  joined 
against  the  invaders  with  heart  and  hand. 
When  the  heralds  of  Darius  came  with  the  in- 
solent demand  of  earth  and  water,  they  were 
seized  and  thrown,  the  one  into  a  ditch  and  the 
other  into  a  well,  whence  they  were  contempt- 
uously told  to  satisfy  their  wants.  The  troops 
of  Darius  entered  Attica,  encamping  at  Mara- 
thon, a  small  town  upon  the  sea-coast.  Against 
an  army  of  one  hundred  and  ten  thousand  horse 
and  foot,  the  brave  Militiades  led  forth  a  band 
often  thousand  Athenians,  who  were  victorious 
in  the  most  sacred  of  causes.  Afterwards  when 
Xerxes  poured  his  forces  into  Greece,  the  Athe- 
nians, under  Themistocl'es,  were  triumphant, 
and  the  victory  of  Salamis  bore  witness  to  the 
terrible  energy"  and  roused  sp:«it  of  freemen.  Y<>t 
it  is  painful  to  mark  the  fickleness  and  ingrati- 
tude of  the  Athenians.  One  would  think  that 
while  Marathon  was  remembered}  the  services 
of  Militiades  could  not  be  forgotten.  Yet  so  it 
was — and  the  noble  Athenian,  in  consequence 
of  misfortune,  was  thrown  into  a  prison  where 
he  perished.  Mietides.  whose  virtue  procured 
him  the  surname  of  "  the  just,"  was  banished 
by  ostracism,  without  any  adequate  cause.  The 
practice  of  ostracism  was  so  called,  because  the 
citizens  wrote  upon  a  tile,  or  fhdl  (ostmhoii)  the 
names  of  those  who  were  obnoxious  to  them. 
The  shells  being  counted,  the  person  whose 
name  occurred  most  frequently,  was  banished. 
Themistocles  was  also  persecuted  and  forced  to 
seek  refuge  at  the  Persian  court;  yet,  so  fond 


was  he  of  his  ungrateful  country,  that  rather 
than  serve  against  her,  lie  killed  himself.  It 
was  men  like  these  who  reflected  a  lustre  on 
the  Athenian  name.  When  the  Persians  no 
longer  had  the  audacity  to  threaten  Greece,  but 
had  been  humbled  to  the  dust,  the  glory  of  the 
Athenians  brightened,  day  by  day.  The  peo- 
ple saw  with  delight  the  extension  of  their  pri- 
vileges and  the  respect  with  which  their  claims 
were  received.  All  classes,  feeling  the  benefit 
of  equal  institutions,  labored  in  common  for  .the 
aggrandisement  of  their  country.  Members  of 
all  classes  were  now  made  eligible  to  office,  and 
the  poor  felt  that  they  stood  upon  an  equal  foot- 
ing with  the  rich,  and  might,  by  exertion,  rise 
superior  to  them.  The  period  from  the  Persian 
war,  B.  C.  500,  to  the  time  of  Alexander,  B.  C 
330,  includes  days  of  uncommon  splendor  in  the 
history  of  Athens.  Cimon  and  Pericles  intro- 
duced elegance  into  Athens,  and  the  age  of 
Pericles  is  commonly  quoted  as  the  golden  era 
of  the  country.  The  arts  under  the  liberal 
patronage  of  Pericles,  flourished  to  a  great  de- 
gree, and  under  the  fostering  care  of  those  in 
power,  magnificent  temples  sprang  up  in  every 
direction,  the  marble  breathed,  the  pencil  glow- 
ed, and  the  lips  of  the  orator  and  poet  were 
gifted  with  a  kindling  eloquence.  Yet,  in  the 
midst  of  much  apparent  prosperity,  the  founda- 
tion of  misfortune  was  laid.  The  abundance 
of  wealth  was  not  without  a  deteriorating  influ- 
ence, and  the  Athenians  became  so  enamored 
of  the  elegancies  of  life,  that  they  began  to  pre 
fer  them  to  manliness  and  independence.  Pe- 
ricles was  at  the  zenith  of  his  greatness  B.  C. 
444.  He  engaged  in  the  Peloponnesian  war> 
the  end  of  which  was,  that  tli«  Lacedaemonians, 
ever  more  hardy  if  not  more  brave  than  the  ele- 
gant Athenians,  made  themselves  masters  of 
Athens,  and  granted  peace  to  the  vanquished 
on  the  most  humiliating  conditions.  For  eight 
months  the  Athenians  groaned  under  the  yoke 
of  the  thirty  magistrates,  or  as  they  were  called 
the  Thirty  Tyrants,  whom  the  Lacedaemonians 
imposed  upon  them,  and  kept  under  the  protec- 
tion of  their  garrison.  The  man  who  led  to 
the  overthrow  of  this  oppression,  was  Thrasy- 
bulus.  Again  the  star  of  Athens  rose  to  the 
zenith,  bright  as  if  no  cloud  had  ever  covered 
it  and  hid  its  silvery  brilliancy  beneath  a  veil. 
The  Athenians  joined  the  Thebans  against 
Sparta,  and  were  successful.  They  were  yet 
to  feel,  however,  the  importance  of  a  power 
hitherto  unacknowledged  or  despised.  Philip 
of  Macedon  descendedTrom  the  north.  In  vain 
did  Demosthenes  urge  the  Athenians  to  die  in 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ATH 


84 


ATH 


defence  of  their  liberty.  In  vain  did  this  ex- 
traordinary man  hurl  his  tremendous  anathe- 
mas against  Philip — he  was  doomed  to  see  the 
subjugation  of  his  countrymen.  Demosthenes 
was  one  of  the  most  renowned  of  the  Grecian 
orators,  and  rendered  famous  by  the  persever- 
ance with  which  he  overcame  all  obstacles.  He 
early  had  an  impediment  in  his  speech,  which  he 
overcame  by  speaking  with  pebbles  in  his  mouth. 
The  weakness  of  his  voice  he  conquered  by  de- 
claiming upon  the  sea-shore,  where  the  dashing 
of  the  waters  resembled  the  tumultuous  noises 
of  a  popular  assembly.  Demosthenes  was  a 
warm  patriot,  proud  of  the  independence  of  his 
country,  and  determined  to  use  all  his  powers  in 
support  of  it.  Philip  was  neither  daunted  by 
eloquence,  nor  repulsed  by  bravery.  The  battle 
of  Cherona?a,  B.  C.  33d,  struck  a  death  blow  to 
Grecian  liberty.  From  that  time,  Athens  re- 
mained, with  the  other  states  of  Greece,  depend- 
ant upon  the  Macedonian  power  for  existence. 
She  did  not  sink  without  a  struggle,  but  all  her 
struggles  were  of  no  iivail  against  the  giant 
power  which  had  prostrated  her,  and  lettered 
her  with  bonds  of  adamant. 

When  Athens  was  taken  by  Cassander,  the 
oligarchy  was  restored,  and  Demetrius  Phale- 
reus  enjoyed  the  office  of  Governor  of  the  state 
for  10  years.  Being  obnoxious  to  the  Atheni- 
ans, they  entreated  the  assistance  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes,  who,  having  taken  the  city,  restored 
the  ancient  constitution,  and  received  from  the 
Athenians  all  the  honors  and  marks  of  affection 
which  gratitude  could  devise  or  bestow.  Yet, 
with  their  characteristic  fickleness,  when  he 
had  gone  to  war,  the}'  closed  the  city  against 
his  return.  He  took  the  city,  but  forgave  its 
inhabitants,  contenting  himself  by  leaving  a 
garrison  in  the  havens  of  Munychia  and  the 
Piraeus.  The  Athenians  recovered  their  free- 
dom, but  were  again  subdued  bv  Gomitas. 
They  joined  the  Achaoan  league,  disuniting 
themselves  from  the  Macedonians.  The  Ro- 
mans gladly  availed  themselves  of  the  co-opera- 
tion  of  the  Athenians  against  Philip,  arid  con- 
firmed the  freedom  which  they  were  so  anxious 
to  maintain.  The  Romans,  disposed  to  be  friend- 
ly towards  them,  were  changed  into  enemies  by 
their  espousal  of  the  cause  of  Mithridati-s,  kit";- 
of  Pontus,  who  waired  war  against  Ihe  Italian 
power.  After  having  drawn  down  upon  them- 
selves the  vengeance  of  Rome,  the  Atheni- 
ans trembled  for  the  consequences  of  their  con- 
duct. Sylla  took  their  city,  and  tiie  show  of 
liberty  which  it  afterwards  retained,  was  but  a 
bitter  mockery.  Vespasian  made  Athens  a 


Roman  Province,  and  it  was  included  in  the 
empire  of  the  east,  after  the  division  of  the 
Roman  empire  into  eastern  and  western.  But 
it.  was  destined  to  feel  the  terror  of  that  power, 
beneath  which  the  queen  of  cities  was  pros- 
trated to  the  dust.  Alaric,  the  Goth,  A.  D. 
396,  conquered  and  devastated  the  country. 
From  this  period,  the  liberty  of  Athens  existed 
but  in  the  recollection  of  the  past.  In  420  A. 
D..  paganism  was  abolished  in  Athens,  and 
the  Parthenon  converted  into  a  church  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  In  145G,  the  Caliph  Omar  gained 
possession  of  it.  A  black  eunuch  held  the 
place  which  Pericles  once  adorned,  and  the 
Parthenon,  no  longer  a  Christian  church,  was 
forced  to  answer  as  a  mosque.  In  1(J87,  the 
Venetians  besieged  Athens,  and  some  of  the 
works  of  the  immortal  Phidias,  the  sculptor, 
were  destroyed  by  the  explosion  of  a  magazine, 
fired  by  a  bomb  thrown  into  the  Parthenon  by 
the  besiegers.  On  the  29th  of  September, 
Athens  came  into  the  hands  of  the  Venetians, 
after  its  inhabitants  had  suffered  severely  from 
the  siege,  but  was  again  relinquished  to  the 
Turks  in  1(!K?.  From  the  erection  of  many 
barbaric  structures,  some  of  the  most  valuable 
remains  of  antiquity  have  been  covered  and 
concealed,  to  be  brought  to  light  by  the  re 
searches  of  the  curious  of  later  days.  From  the 
Turks,  the  Greeks  of  Athens  experienced  a 
milder  treatment  than  many  of  their  brethren, 
and  were  permitted  to  retain  many  of  their 
ancient  observances.  In  ]H&>,  the  Acropolis 
sustained  a  long  siege,  which  was  terminated 
by  its  falling  into  "the  hands  of  the  patriots. 
News  of  this  was  heard  with  delight  by  nil  the 
Greeks,  who  loved  their  country^  and  rejoiced 
to  behold, 

"  The  flag  of  freedom  wave  once  more 

Above  thu  lolly  Parthenon." 

The  present  condition  of  Greece  is  too  well 
known  to  require  many  words  upon  the  subject. 
After  a  hard  struggle— a  struggle  which  called 
for  the  exertion  of  great,  fortitude,  and  the  dis- 
play of  uncommon' bra  very — tin1  interference 
of  Christian  pjwers.  coronated  the  Turks  to 
retire  from  their  prey.  The  government  of 
Greece  was  finally  (published  as  a  limited 
monarchy.  Tlu>  modern  Athenians  have  lost 
neilh.T  th.'  intelligence,  nnr  gayety,  which  dis- 
tinguished their  ancestor:;,  but  they  have  less 
love  of  i  loi  v.  and  fewer  peculiarities  of  char- 
acter. The  Athenians  have  few  memorials  of 
the  triumphs  of  their  countrymen  in  the  arts, 
since  the  various  nations  which  have,  at  differ- 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


ATL 


85 


ATL 


ent  times,  possessed  themselves  of  Athens, 
have  not  scrupled  to  tear  from  it  its  most  valu- 
able monuments.  Robberies  have  been  per- 
petrated with  impunity,  although  the  people 
nave  regarded  the  removal  of  almost  every 
ornament,  with  great  indignation.  The  ruins 
of  the  Parthenon  yet  repay  the  curiosity  of 
travellers.  This  was  a  temple  dedicated  to 
Minerva,  and  was  the  pride  of  Athens  in  for- 
mer days.  It  was  217  feet  long.  98  broad,  and 
65  feet  high.  When  the  Persians  entered 
Athens,  they  marked  their  rude  triumph  by  the 
destruction  of  this  temple,  which  Pericles  re- 
built, 444  years  B.  C.  It  contained  the  famous 
statue  of  the  goddess  Minerva,  which  was 
sculptured  by  Phidias;  was  formed  of  ivory 
and  gold,  and  46  feet  high.  This  magnificent 
figure  cost  about  576,004  dollars.  Hence  we 
may  estimate  the  wealth  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 
The  Athenians,  like  the  Romans,  fell,  only 
when  wealth  had  corrupted  them,  and  simple 
and  temperate  manners  had  given  way  at  the 
approach  of  luxury  and  extravagance.  When,  it  is  conceived 
poor  and  proud  of  honest  indigence,  their  pro 


zon,  the  azure  of  the  air,  and  that  of  the  ocean 
appear  blended  •  — 

The  bridal  of  the  sea  and  sky. 

Yet  more  impressive  is  the  aspect  of  the  deep 
sea  in  a  tempest  ;  when  the  elements  are 
awakened  from  their  slumber,  and  abroad  in 
their  terrible  strength,  and  the  wild  winds  of 
heaven  sport  with  gigantic  mountains  of  water, 
heaving  them  to  and  fro,  with  the  ease  of  zeph 
yrs  sporting  with  dew-drops.  The  saltness  of 
the  vast  extent  of  waters  (the  surface  of  the 
whole  ocean  being  computed  to  amount  to 
147,000,000  square  miles,  and  the  quantity  of 
the  whole  being  21,372,626£  cubic  miles,)  pre- 
serves it  perpetually  fresh,  and  contributes  to 
invigorate  the  health  of  all  who  dwell  upon 
its  borders,  or  its  waves. 

The  formation  of  the  bed  of  the  Atlantic, 
from  latitude  200  south,  up  to  the  north  pole, 
has  been  ascribed  to  the  concussion  of  immense 


perty  was  merely  adequate  to  the  supply  of 
their  wants,  they  were  independent;  but  when 
this  happy  simplicity  was  banished,  they  found 
themselves  a  degraded  people,  and  sunk  be- 
neath the  weight  of  their  fetters. 

ATHOS,  a  mountain  of  Macedonia,  now 
Agion  Oros,  or  Monte  Santo,  in  the  Turkish 
province  of  Salonica.  On  its  sides,  are  many 
hermitages,  and  twenty  monasteries,  with  6000 
monks,  chiefly  Russians,  of  the  order  of  St. 
Basil.  Some  of  the  monasteries  are  said  to 
contain  very  ancient  and  valuable  manuscripts. 
Not  long  since.,  a  manuscript  of  the  eighth 
century,  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the 
Georgian  language  by  St.  Euphemius,  was  dis- 
covered here.  The  summit  of  this  mountain 
is  about  6,900  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
At  the  foot  of  it,  Xerxes  caused  a  trench  a  mile 
and  a  half  long,  to  be  cut  and  filled  with  sea- 
water.  This  was  for  the  passage  of  his  fleet, 
and  of  such  width  that  two  ships  could  sail 
abreast. 

ATLANTIC  OCEAN.  There  is  not  in  the 
multitude  of  natural  wonders,  a  more  sublime 
spectacle,  than  that  afforded  by  the  world  of 
waters,  under  whatever  view  it  is  contem- 
plated. Impressive  and  beautiful  it  is,  when 
stretched  out  in  the  tranquil  and  golden  repose 
of  an  unbroken  calm,  reflecting  the^till  splen- 
dor of  the  heavens  by  day,  or  their  diamond 
brilliancy  by  night.  Far  as  the  eye  can  reach, 
there  is  no  ripple  on  the  wave,  and  at  the  hori- 


of water,  produced  by  the  deluge,  when, 
,  the  waters  of  the  great  Southern 
Ocean   below  the   equator,   rushed    upon   the 


northern  hemisphere.  Mr.  Kirwan  says  that 
the  inspection  of  a  map  is  sufficient  to  convince 
any  one,  that  this  vast  space  was  formed  by  the 
force  and  pressure  of  the  waters.  From  Cape 
Frio  to  the  river  of  the  Amazons,  in  South 
America,  there  is  a  vast  protuberance  answer- 
ing to  the  incurvation  of  the  African  shore 
from  the  river  of  Congo  to  Cape  Palmas  ;  while, 
from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  Cape  Palmas, 
there  is  an  immense  protuberance,  correspond- 
ing to  the  incurvation  between  New  York  and 
Cape  St.  Roque.  This  conjecture  is  thought 
probable,  since  the  depression  caused  by  such 
an  immense  body  of  water  could  not  be  other- 
wise than  enormous,  considering  the  shock  and 
weight  of  the  opposing  body. 

Until  the  successful  issue  of  the  voyages  of 
Columbus,  it  was  imagined  that  there  was  one 
unbroken  extent  of  water  between  the  western 
shores  of  Europe  and  Africa,  and  the  East 
Indies;  and  the  great  navigator  himself  ima- 
gined that  he  had  reached  the  Indian,  realms, 
by  a  shorter  route  than  that  pursued  by  the 
Portuguese  The  name  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
is  connected  with  a  tradition,  which  is  lost  in 
the  night  of  antiquity,  and  which,  reaching 
the  Greeks  from  the  Egyptians,  has  beei\ 
commemorated  by  Plato.  It  was  said  that 
there  originally  existed  an  isle  called  Atlantis, 
which  rose  from  the  bosom  of  the  ocean,  and 
surpassed  in  extent  Asia,  and  Libya  together. 
The  circumstance  of  Plato's  testimony  has 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


ATL 


66 


AUG 


caused  a  controversy  among  modern  authors 
respecting  the  situation  and  nature  of  Atlan- 
tis. Of  course,  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
the  situation  of  an  isle  which  existed  before 
the  ages  r*'  history,  but  still  we  cannot  disre- 
gard the  truth  of  the  tale.  What  interest  had 
the  Greeks  in  imagining  a  fable,  which  bore 
no  relation  to  their  history,  and  which  was 
not  calculated  to  affect  their  religious  belief? 
Why  should  the  Greeks  have  adopted  it? 
"The  islanders,"  says  Plato,  "  subdued  Libya, 
Egypt,  and  Europe,  as  far  as  Asia  Minor  ;  at 
last,  .Atlantis  was  swallowed  by  the  waters,  and 
for  a  long  time  afterwards,  the  sea  was  full  of 
earth  and  sand-banks,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  place 
which  the  island  had  occupied."  This  last  pas- 
sage proves  the  existence  of  a  tradition  of  a 
terrible  outbreak  of  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  which  overwhelmed  Atlantis. 

The  equinoctial  current,  in  the  Atlantic,  is 
a  westwardly  motion  of  the  waters  in  the  tropi- 
cal seas.  Between  the  tropics,  and  particularly 
from  the  coast  of  Senegal  to  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
the  general  current  flows  from  east  to  west. 
This  current  was  known  to  the  navigators  of  a 
very  early  age.  The  mean  rapidity  of  the  equi- 
noctial current  is  9  or  10  miles  in  24  hours.  At 
28°  north  latitude,  and  nearly  as  far  south, 
this  western  equinoctial  current  is  felt,  although 
feebly.  The  current  which  rushes  through  the 
Cuba  and  Bahama,  or  Florida  channels,  and 
coasts  the  United  States  and  Nova  Scotia  to 
about  45  degrees  north  latitude,  is  called  the 
Gulf  Stream.  The  whole  course  of  this  ocean 
river,  is  about  15,000  miles  in  extent.  The 
rapidity  of  its  motion  is  variable ;  but  greatest 
in  the  Bahama  channel. 

The  depth  of  the  Atlantic  is  various,  being, 
in  some  parts  unfathomable.  Its  saltness  and 
specific  gravity  diminish  gradually  from  the 
equator  to  the  poles.  Near  the  British  islands, 
the  salt  is  said  to  be  one  thirty-eighth  of  the 
weight  of  the  water.  The  temperature  of  the 
Atlantic  is  influenced,  considerably,  by  the 
masses  of  ice  which  float  from  the  northward 
towards  the  equator,  reaching  frequently  the 
40th  degree  of  latitude.  Dangerous  as  are 
these  icebergs  to  the  mariner,  they  yet  pre- 
sent a  splendid  appearance  as  they  float  onwards 
to  southern  latitudes,  gleaming  in  the  sunbeams, 
which,  while  they  impart  a  dazzling  brilliancy, 
hasten  the  dissolution  of  the  floating  m 
The  continual  melting  of  portions,  gives  a  very 
fanciful  appearance  to  the  icebergs,  which  is 
heightened  by  the  rivulets  pouring  from  point 
to  point,  like  the  streams  trickling  down  a 


cavern  of  stalactites.  Passages  between  North 
America  and  Europe  in  the  month  of  June 
and  July,  are  sometimes  rendered  perilous  by 
the  frequency  of  icebergs  from  the  north- 
ward. 

ATTICA,  a  country  of  ancient  Greece,  is  a 
peninsula,  united  with  Bceotia  towards  the 
north,  and  partially  with  Megaris  on  the  west. 
At  Cape  Sunium,  now  Colonna,  it  projects  far 
into  the  ./Egean  Sea.  The  earliest  inhabitants 
lived  in  a  savage  state,  until  the  arrival  of  Ce- 
crops,  with  an  Egyptian  colony,  B.  C.  1550. 
Athens,  the  capital  of  Attica,  and,  for  a  long 
time  the  most  refined  city  of  the  ancient  world, 
gave  the  name  of  Athenians  to  residents  in  At- 
tica. (See  Athens.)  Attica  was  famous  for  its 
gold  and  silver  mines,  which  constituted  the 
best  part  of  the  public  revenues,  and  were 
worked  by  20,000  men.  The  inhabitants  were 
numbered,  in  the  16th  Olympiad,  at  31,000 
citizens,  and  400,000  slaves,  in  174  villages, 
some  of  which  were  considerable  towns. 

ATTILA,  king  of  the  Huns,  flourished  be- 
tween 434  and  453.  He  rendered  the  Greek 
empire  tributary,  and  invaded  France,  but  was 
defeated  on  the  Maine.  He  threatened  Rome, 
but  was  induced  to  retire.  Attila  was  given  to 
excess,  and  died  453.  His  body  was  put  in 
three  coffins  —  the  outer  of  iron,  the  next  of 
silver,  and  the  inner  one  of  gold.  His  personal 
appearance  has  been  described  by  Jornandes. 
lie  had  a  large  head,  a  flat  nose," broad  shoul- 
ders, and  a  short,  misshapen  body. 

AUGEAS,  in  fable,  a  king  of  Elis,  whose 
stable  contained  3,000  oxen,  and  had  not  been 
cleansed  for  thirty  years.  Hercules  was  re- 
quired to  clean  it,  which  he  did  by  turning  the 
river  Alplieus  into  it. 

A UGEREAU,  Pierre  Francois  Charles,  duke 
of  Castiglione,  marshal  of  France,  was  one  of 
those  men  who  emerged  from  obscurity,  and 
obtained  a  high  rank  among  the  officers  that 
surrounded  Napoleon,  giving  such  unrivalled 
brilliancy  to  his  court  and  camp.  Augereau  was 
the  son  of  a  fruit  merchant,  and  was  born  at 
Paris,  1757  ;  serving,  as  soon  as  lie  was  able,  as 
a  carbineer  in  the  French  army.  Having  sub- 
soquentlv  entered  the  Neapolitan  service,  he 
was  banished  from  Naples,  in  1792.  He  then 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  army  of  Italy,  and 
attracted  the  attention  of  all  by  his  bravery,  and 
military  talent.  In  17!M,  we  hfid  him  a  general 
of  brigade,  and,  in  17:H>,  general  of  division. 
He  distinfbished  himself,  at  the  pass  of  Mille- 
simo,  and^at  Lodi,  and  took  part  in  some  of 
the  most  brilliant  achievements  of  the  French. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AUG 


87 


AUG 


In  the  battle  of  Arcoli,  finding  the  French 
columns  wavering,  Augereau  seized  a  standard, 
rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the  battle,  and  gained 
the  victory.  In  1799,  he  was  chosen  member 
of  the  council  of  five  hundred.  He  was  en- 
trusted by  Bonaparte  with  the  command  of  the 
army  in  Holland,  joined  Moreau,  and  fought 
with  varying  fortune,  until  the  campaign  was 
ended  by  the  battle  of  Hohenlinden.  In  1803, 
he  was  appointed  to  head  the  expedition  against 
Portugal,  which  enterprise  failed.  Returning 
to  Paris,  he  was  named,  in  1804,  marshal  of  the 
empire,  and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honor.  In  1805,  he  was  in  Germany,  contribu- 
ting to  the  successes  of  the  French.  Wounded 
in  the  battle  of  Eylau,  he  was  forced  to  return 
to  France.  In  1811,  he  had  a  command  in 
Spain.  In  181 3,  he  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of 
Leipsic.  After  the  success  of  the  allies,  Louis 
XVIII  named  him  a  peer;  in  consequence  of  his 
speaking  disrespectfully  of  Napoleon  after  his 
fall,  the  latter,  on  his  return  from  Elba,  declared 
him  a  traitor.  Augereau  took  no  active  part  in 
affairs  until  the  return  of  the  king,  when  he 
resumed  his  seat  in  the  chamber  of  peers.  He 
died  of  the  dropsy,  June  llth,  181G. 

AUGSBURG,  35  miles  northwest  of  Munich, 
capital  of  the  Bavarian  circle  of  the  Upper 
Danube.  It  is  a  place  of  some  commercial  im- 
portance, and  has  3-1,000  inhabitants.  It  is 
famous  as  the  place  where  the  Lutherans,  in 
1530,  protested  against  the  persecutions  of 
Charles  V,  and  were  hence  called  Protestants. 

AUGUSTA,  a  pleasant  town  in  Maine,  the 
seat  of  the  state  government.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Kennebeck  river,  56  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Port- 
land. Population,  in  1830,  3,980.—  Augusta 
(Georgia),  a  city  opposite  to,  and  connected 
with.  Hamburg,  S.  C.  It  has  a  flourishing  com- 
merce. Situated  on  an  elevated  plain,  it  has  an 
air  of  great  neatness.  Population,  in  1830, 
C696. 

AUGUSTIN,  or  Austin,  Saint,  has  been 
surnamed  the  "Apostle  of  the  English."  The 
time  at  which  he  flourished,  was  the  reign  of 
Ethelbert,  towards  the  close  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. Pope  Gregory  was  induced  to  send  Au- 
gustin  into  England  with  40  monks,  to  intro- 
duce Christianity  into  the  Saxon  kingdoms. 
Ethelbert  was  then  seated  on  the  throne  of 
Kent,  to  which  he  had  succeeded  on  the  death 
of  his  father  Hermandie,  about  560.  After  a 
short,  determined  struggle,  he  had  rendered  all 
of  the  states,  with  the  sole  exception  of  North- 
umberland, dependant.  Ethelbert  formed  a 
matrimonial  alliance  with  France,  claiming  in 
8* 


marriage  the  hand  of  Bertha,  a  Christian  prin- 
cess, from  her  father,  Caribert,  king  of  Paris. 
The  princess,  distinguished  for  her  piety  and 
virtue,  exacted  a  promise  from  her  husband 
that  she  should  not  be  molested  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  her  religion,  and  that,  on  the  con- 
trary, she  should  be  permitted  to  bring  over 
to  England  with  her  a  French  bishop.  Ethel- 
bert, who  was  tenderly  attached  to  her,  made 
no  objections,  and  the  French  bishop  was  re- 
ceived with  every  mark  of  respect.  The  con- 
duct of  the  queen  was  such  as  to  reflect  honor 
on  herself  and  the  court  of  her  husband,  and 
excited  the  admiration  of  Ethelbert  and  his 
subjects.  The  king  could  not  but  perceive  the 
salutary  influence  of  Christianity,  and  was 
strongly  prepossessed  in  its  favor.  Pope  Greg- 
ory, the  Great,  received  the  intelligence  of  the 
favourable  disposition  of  the  king  with  un- 
feigned gladness,  and  immediately  dispatched 
a  mission  of  forty  monks,  headed  by  the  cele- 
brated Augustin. 

Augustin  found  the  king  ready  to  lend  a 
willing  ear  to  all  his  arguments,  and  displayed, 
in  a  striking  and  happy  light,  the  truth  and 
beauty  of  the  gospel.  The  king  was  not  long 
in  avowing  his  entire  belief  in  the  doctrine 
of  Christianity.  With  his  subjects,  Augustin 
was  no  less  successful ;  they  embraced  the 
true  religion  with  readiness,  and  crowded  to 
baptism.3  It  is  said  that  Augustin  baptized 
no  fewer  than  ten  thousand  in  one  day.  His 
reputation  for  miraculous  power  (for  he  was 
said  to  have  the  ability  of  curing  the  blind  and 
deaf),  had  doubtless  no  little  influence  with  the 
multitude,  but  still  it  was  clear  that  there  was 
a  happy  spirit  abroad.  In  regarding  his  efforts 
for  the  extension  of  gospel  truth,  we  should 
never  overlook  the  circumstance  that  he  per- 
mitted no  force  to  be  used.  There  were  none 
of  those  threats  held  out  to  the  wavering, 
which  have  disgraced  the  Romish  church  in 
many  ages  —  the  fagot  and  the  scourge  were 
never  once  alluded  to  by  Saint  Augustin.  Yet 
with  many  of  his  disinterested  motives,  there 
mingled  some  ambitious  views.  He  desired  to 
be  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  with  su- 

Ereme  authority  over  all  the  churches  in  Eng- 
md.  The  pope  was  by  no  means  disposed  to 
refuse  any  of  his  requests,  considering  that  he 
had  fairly  earned  any  distinction  which  it  was 
in  his  power  to  bestow.  The  archiepiscopal  pall 
was  granted  him  with  permission  to  establish 
12  sees  in  the  province.  The  British  bishops  in 
Wales  refused  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of 
the  church  of  Rome,  under  whose  jurisdiction 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


AUG  88 

they  had  never  placed  themselves.  They  were 
descendants  of  the  British  converts  of  the  second 
century,  and  sternly  resolved  to  maintain  their 
independence.  Augustin  urged — threatened. 
The  bishops  were  neither  pliant  nor  timid,  and 
adhered  to  their  original  determination.  A 
dreadful  tragedy  was  now  acted ;  1200  Welsh 
monks  being  ruthlessly  put  to  the  sword.  Au- 
gustin was  suspected  not  only  of  having  sanc- 
tioned, but  of  having  instigated  the  massa- 
cre. He  had  been  irritated  by  the  refusal  of 
the  Welsh  ecclesiastics  to  unite  with  the  Eng- 
lish church,  and  he  thought  their  contumacy 
deserving  of  the  severest  punishment.  He 
died  in  604  or  614,  and  his  relics  were  deposited 
with  care  in  the  cathedral  of  Canterbury.  The 
good  effects  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  England  were  immediately  perceiveo. 
The  adoption  of  a  pure  religion,  was  immedi- 
ately followed  by  the  spread  of  knowledge  and 
civilization ;  those  laws  which  were  enacted, 
were  generally  observed,  and  a  spirit  of  union 
manifested  itself  throughout  the  kino-dom. 

AUGUSTUS,  Caius  Julius  Csesar  Octavius, 
son  of  Caius  Octavius  and  Accia,  niece  of  Juli- 
us Ceesar.  He  was  born  during  the  consulate 
of  Cicero,  65  years  B.  C.  His  education  was 
carefully  attended  to,  and  he  was  adopted  by 
Julius  Caesar.  He  was  studying  eloquence  at 
Apollonia  in  Epirus,  when  his  uncle  was  assas- 
sinated, and  at  nineteen  years  of  age,  placing 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  veterans,  he  marched 
to  Rome,  which  he  found  distracted  by  the 
republicans  and  the  followers  of  Antony  and 
Lepidus.  Here  he  announced  publicly  his 
adoption,  and  took  his  uncle's  name,  to  which 
he  added  that  of  Octamanus  Antony  treated 
him  with  a  contempt,  which  the  magistrates 
and  leading  men  were  far  from  feeling,  and 
Octavius  joined  the  army  that  was  sent  against 
Antony  after  his  proscription.  Thinking  it 
politic,  however,  to  conciliate  him,  he  joined 
Antony,  and,  with  Lepidus.  formed  the  trium- 
virate which  was  to  last  for  five  years,  each 
enjoying  an  equal  share  of  authority.  Octavius 
sacrificed  Cicero  to  the  malice  of  liis  associates, 
and  Rome  became  the  theatre  of  the  most  san- 
guinary tragedies.  Brutuaand  Cassius  having 
been  defeated,  a  new  partition  of  spoils  took 
place,  Octavius  and  Antony  obtaining  the  Ro- 
man empire,  while  Lepidus  was  forced  to  con- 
tent himself  with  the  African  provinces,  and 
was  finally  deposed.  Octavius  gave  his  sister 
Octavia  in  marriage  to  Antony.  The  conduct 
and  fate  of  Antony  have  been  related.  (See  .'In- 
tony.)  Octavius  was  soon  firmly  established  in 


AUR 


the  empire.  The  senate  gave  him  the  title  of 
Augustus,  and,  finding  his  power  confirmed,  he 
seems  to  have  endeavored  strenuously  to  ren 
der  his  conduct  worthy  of  his  dignity.  He 
made  excellent  regulations  for  the  safe  conduct 
of  the  government. ;  reducing  the  number  of 
senators  from  1000  to  600,  and  raising  the  degree 
of  wealth,  which  was  to  qualify  them  for  a  seat. 
He  set  about  the  reform  of  the  public  manners 
and  morals,  and  carried  his  arms  successfully 
into  Gaul,  Germany,  and  the  east.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  his  reign,  however,  he  met  with 
severe  losses  in  Germany,  when  Arminius  rous- 
ed his  enthralled  countrymen  to  arms.  The 
emperor  displayed  great  sensibility  when  he 
heard  that  three  of  his  legions  under  Varus.  had 
been  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Germans,  A.  D.  9, 
and  often  exclaimed,  in  tones  of  agony,  "O 
Varus,  give  me  back  mv  legions  1" 

He  died  at  Rome,  A.  D.  14.  in  the  76th  year 
of  his  age,  and  14th  of  his  reign.  On  the  np- 
proach  of  death,  he  called  for  a  mirror,  and  ar 
ranged  his  hair.  He  then  asked  those  about 
him,  if  he  had  played  his  part  well?  On  their 
answering  in  the  affirmative,  he  said,  after  the 
manner  of  the  actors,  "  Then  farewell — and 
applaud  !"  He  greatly  improved  the  appear- 
ance of  the  capital,  and  it  was  truly  said,  that 
"  he  had  found  Rome  brick,  and  left  it  marble." 
He  liberally  patronized  men  of  letters,  and 
Jiu^ustan  age  is  a  phrase  applied  to  any  era 
distinguished  for  literature  and  the  arts.  Vir- 
gil and  Horace  were  among  the  brightest  orna- 
ments of  his  reign.  Two  conspiracies  formed 
n^ainst  him  mfscarried,  the  leader  of  one, 
China,  being  generously  pardoned  by  his  mas- 
ter. The  emperor's  private  griefs  were  heavy, 
and  he  suffered  great  misery  from  the  debauch- 
eries of  his  daughter  Julia. 

AURELIAN.  emperor  of  Rome,  distinguish- 
ed for  his  military  talents  and  severity,  was  the 
son  of  a  peasant  of  lllyricum,  and  having  served 
with  distinction  under  Valerian  II,  and  Claudi- 
us II,  was  recommended  as  his  successor  by  the 
latter.  He  was  raised  to  the  throne  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  all.  He  subdued  Zenobia,  queen 
of  Palmyra,  and  erected  a  new  wall  round 
Rome,  but  was  assassinated.  A.  D.  '2?.'. 

AURENG-ZEP.E  (ornament  of  t/if  throne) 
was  born  October  20.  1619.  His  father.  Shah 
Jehan,  succeeded  to  the  throne  when  Aureng- 
zebe  was  in  his  ninth  year.  In  youth,  lie  was 
distinguished  by  his  great  sanctity  of  appear- 
ance, and  he  used  all  the  arts  of  hypocrisy  to 
cloak  his  designs.  He  looked  forward  to  the  pos- 
session of  the  throne  of  Hindostan,  in  the  life- 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AUS 


39 


AUS 


time  of  his  father.  In  1658,  he  seized  Agra,  and 
imprisoned  his  father.  Having  murdered  his  rel- 
atives in  succession,  he  ascended  the  throne  in 
1659,  and  took  the  name  of  Aalem  Guyr.  Not- 
withstanding his  crimes  in  gaining  the  throne, 
he  governed  with  ability  and  success.  He 
greatly  enlarged  his  dominions,  and  became  so 
formidable,  that  all  the  eastern  princes  sent  him 
ambassadors.  He  died  at  the  age  of  89,  bequeath- 
ing his  possessions  to  his  sons.  Wars  broke 
out  immediately  after  his  decease,  and  many  of 
the  conquered  provinces  sought  their  former 
independence. 

AUSTERLITZ,  or  Slawkow,  a  town  of 
Moravia,  in  the  circle  of  Brunn,  is  situated  12 
miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Brunn,  and  112  E.  S.  E.  of 
Prague.  This  town  has  been  rendered  famous 
by  the  battle  fought  in  its  neighborhood,  on  the 
2d  day  of  December,  1805,  in  which  the  troops 
of  France,  under  the  command  of  the  emperor 
Napoleon,  defeated  the  combined  forces  of  Rus- 
sia and  Austria,  headed  by  their  respective 
emperors.  The  combined  troops  amounted  to 
100,000  men,  of  whom  one  fourth  were  Austri- 
ans ;  while  Napoleon  had  but  80,000,  twenty 
battalions  of  which,  with  forty  pieces  of  artil- 
lery, he  kept  back  as  a  reserve.  At  sunrise  the 
battle  began,  and,  shortly  afterwards,  a  most 
furious  cannonade  wrapped  the  combatants  in 
fire  and  smoke.  The  repeated  discharge  of 
two  hundred  pieces  of  cannon  created  an  uproar 
which  appalled  all  but  those  engaged  in  the 
work  of  death.  At  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon, 
the  French  were  victorious,  and  the  Russians 
and  Austrians  retreated.  The  French  found 
themselves  in  possession  of  forty  stands  of  col- 
ors, and  120  pieces  of  cannon,  while  twenty 
generals,  and  upwards  of  30,000  prisoners  were 
taken. 

An  artillery  officer  of  the  Russian  Imperial 
guard,  having  just  lost  his  guns,  met  the 
emperor  Napoleon:  "Sire,"  said  he,  "order 
me  to  be  shot,  for  I  have  lost  my  pieces." 
"  Young  man,"  replied  the  emperor,  "  I  appre- 
ciate your  tears ;  but  you  may  have  been  de- 
feated by  my  army  and  yet  have  indisputable 
claims  to  glory."  The  French  artillery  caused 
a  heavy  loss  to  the  enemy,  and  Napoleon,  in 
noticing  their  exploits,  said  :  "  Your  success 
has  given  me  great  pleasure,  for  I  do  not  forget 
that  in  your  ranks  I  commenced  my  military 
career."  The  soldiers  called  this  battle  the 
day  of  the  three  Emperors,  while  Napoleon 
named  it  the  day  of  Jlusterlitz.  The  commence- 
ment of  the  action  was  striking.  The  emperor, 
surrounded  by  his  marshals,  in  brilliant  uni- 


forms,_  refrained  from  giving  his  orders  until 
the  first  rays  of  the  sun  shot  a  splendor  on 
the  scene,  and  the  horizon  became  illumina- 
ted. He  then  issued  his  orders  distinctly  but 
rapidly,  and  the  marshals  parted  at  full  gallop, 
each  to  his  corps.  The  emperor,  passing  in 
front  of  several  regiments,  thus  addressed  them  : 
"  Soldiers  !  we  must  finish  this  campaign  by  a 
thunder-clap,  which  will  astound  our  enemies 
and  crush  their  pride !"  Thousands  of  hats 
waved  on  bayonets,  and  cries  of  vine  I'cmpe- 
reur !  (long  live  the  emperor!)  were  the  signals 
of  attack.  "Never,"  says  Napoleon,  "was 
field  of  battle  more  dreadful." 

On  the  4th  of  December,  Napoleon  had  an 
interview  with  the  emperor  of  Germany,  in 
which  an  armistice,  and  the  principal  conditions 
of  peace  were  agreed  upon.  Meanwhile,  the 
French  troops  haying  nearly  surrounded  the 
retreating  Russians,  Savary,  Napoleon's  aid-de 
camp,  was  dispatched  to  the  emperor  of  Russia, 
to  inform  him  that  he  could  retire  in  safety  if 
he  adhered  to  the  capitulation,  retreating  by 
stages  regulated  by  the  emperor,  and  would 
evacuate  Germany  and  Poland.  "  On  this  con- 
dition," added  Savary,  "  I  am  commanded  by 
the  emperor  to  repair  to  our  advanced  posts, 
which  have  already  turned  you,  and  give  them 
his  orders  to  protect  your  retreat,  the  ernperor 
wishing  to  respect  the  friend  of  the  first  con- 
sul."— "  What  guarantee  must  I  give  you  ?" — 
"  Sire,  your  word." — "  I  give  it." — Orders  were 
accordingly  given,  and  the  retreat  of  the  Rus- 
sians protected. 

AUSTRALIA  is  the  fifth  division  of  the 
world,  including  New  Holland,  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  New  Guinea,  the  Admiralty  islands,  New 
Britain,  Solomon  isles,  Queen  Charlotte's  isl- 
and, New  Hebrides  or  Terra  del  Santo  Espi- 
ritu,  New  Caledonia,  New  Zealand,  the  Pelew, 
Caroline  or  New  Philippine  islands,  Marian 
or  Ladrone,  Monteverdos,  Mulgrave,  Fisher, 
Friendly,  Bligh's,  Navigators,  bociety,  Mar- 
quesas, Washington,  and  Sandwich  islands. 
These  are  sometimes  divided  into  Australasia 
and  Polynesia.  Magellan  discovered  the  Lad- 
rone  or  Marian  islands,  March  6, 1521,  and  the 
Spanish  navigators  continued  the  discoveries 
which  the  Portuguese  had  commenced.  The 
Dutch  in  the  17th  century,  took  up  the  task, 
but  Cook,  the  English  navigator,  contributed 
the  largest  quota  ot  information  with  regard  to 
Australia.  This  division  of  the  globe  is  inhabit- 
ed by  an  infinity  of  tribes,  of  various  disposi- 
tions and  habits.  In  many  islands  reformation 
of  manners  has  been  effected  through  the  exer- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


AUS 

tions  of  European  and  American  missionaries, 
while  in  others  the  condition  of  the  natives  is 
deplorable.  The  Sandwich  islanders  have  made 
the  greatest  progress. 

AUSTRIA.  The  Austrian  dominions  have 
not  always  been  of  their  present  extent,  which 
is  very  great.  The  empire  of  Austria,  now  con- 
tains, in  addition  to  the  Archdutchy,  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  Austrian  Silesia,  Galicia,  with  the 
Bukowine  ;  Hungary,  including  Transylvania, 
Sclavonia,  and  Austrian  Croatia  ;  Austrian  Ita- 
ly, and  Dahnatia,  with  Cattaro,  Ragusa,  and 
their  islands.  Over  this  extensive  territory  the 
house  of  Austria  now  holds  proud  and  undispu- 
ted sway. 

The  house  of  Austria  was  indebted  for  its 
rise  to  power,  to  the  good  fortune  of  successive 
marriages — the  beauty  of  its  daughters  ;  whence 
it  came  to  be  a  common  saying,  that  "  Venus 
was  more  favorable  to  it  than  Mars."  The 
fortunes  of  the  house  of  Austria  began  first  to 
brighten  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  origina- 
ted with  the  poor  and  undistinguished  counts 
of  Hapsburg,  who  were  possessed  of  a  ciicuin- 
scribed  territory  of  little  value  in  the  canton  of 
Berne,  Switzerland.  The  powerful  house  of 
Zaerlingen  and  Kyburg,  becoming  extinct,  Ro- 
dolph  of  Hapsburg,  lord  of  the  greater  part  of 
Switzerland,  was  summoned  to  assume  the  im- 
perial diadem  and  purple  in  1273.  In  A.  D. 
1298,  the  imperial  throne  was  filled  by  another 
member  of  the  house  of  Austria,  the  emperor 
Albert.  This  monarch  deputed  harsh  and  ty- 
rannical governors  to  rule  the  Swiss,  and,  in 
consequence  of  continued  oppression,  that  brave 
people  revolted  in  1307,  headed  by  the  famous 
Tell.  Frederick,  son  of  Albert,  found  himself 
forced  to  relinquish  the  empire  into  the  hands 
of  Louis  of  Bavaria.  The  crowns  of  Germany, 
Hungary,  and  Bohemia,  were  united  in  the  per- 
son of  Albert  II,  duke  of  Austria,  who  ascended 
the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,  A.  D.  1436. 
Hungary  and  Bohemia  were  his  by  inheritance, 
and  the  empire  by  universal  suffrage. 

The  emperor  Maximilian,  grandfather  of 
Charles  V,  married  the  heiress  of  Burgundy, 
in  consequence  of  which  alliance,  the  Nether- 
lands were  subjected  to  Austiia  in  1477.  In 
1490,  the  marriage  of  his  son  Philip  to  the  heir- 
ess of  Castile  and  Arragon,  led  to  the  junction 
of  the  broad  domains  of  Spain  with  the  already 
ample  territories  of  Austria.  Charles  V,  desir- 
ous of  retiring  from  public  life  and  passing  his 
days  in  gloomy  seclusion,  resigned  the  crown 
in  1556,  and  Philip  II,  his  son,  gained  posses- 
sion of  Spain  and  the  Netherlands.  Ferdinand, 


90 


AUS 


the  brother  of  Charles  V,  received  Austria,  Bo- 
hemia, and  Hungary.  He  also  had  been  cho- 
sen emperor  of  Germany.  The  house  of  Aus- 
tria was  noted  for  its  bigotry  and  cruel  in- 
tolerance. In  1570,  Maximilian  granted  lib- 
erty of  conscience  (a  great  grant  in  a  monarch  !) 
to  the  Protestants  of  Austria,  but  those  in  other 
portions  of  his  dominions,  particularly  in  Bohe- 
mia, were  most  cruelly  persecuted.  In  their 
distress  the  Protestant  German  princes  sought 
the  assistance  of  the  famous  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  king  of  Sweden.  This  famous  warrior, 
the  '  Lion  of  the  North,'  as  he  was  called,  broke 
upon  the  empire  like  a  whirlwind,  and  its  very 
foundations  tottered  beneath  the  shock.  France, 
espousing  the  cause  of  the  Protestants,  hoped 
thus  to  weaken  the  power  of  Austria,  and  the 
country  experienced  no  release  from  the  tumults 
and  horrors  of  war,  until  the  treaty  of  West- 
phalia was  signed  in  l(!4rf. 

The  sword  was  idle  for  a  time,  but  the  war 
with  France  broke  out  afresh  during  the  reign 
of  Leopold  I,  and  was  continued  under  his  sue-, 
cessor.  The  Turks,  emboldened  by  success,  in 
1688,  pushed  their  arms  into  the  heart  of  the 
empire,  and  the  walls  of  Vienna  echoed  back 
the  clangour  of  the  oriental  cymbals.  The  siege 
of  Vienna  by  the  Turks,  is"  a  memorable  and 
impressive  event.  In  the  war  of  the  allies  with 
France.  Joseph  I,  son  of  Leopold,  joined  with 
heart  and  hand,  and  acquired  a  share  of  their 
good  fortune.  His  queen  was  a  daughter  of 
John  Frederick,  duke  of  Hanover.  Charles  VI 
dying  without  issue,  on  the  20th  of  October, 
1740,  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the 
house  of  Austria  was  the  signal  for  the  move- 
ment of  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  He  seized  the 
kingdom  of  Bohemia,  was  elected  emperor  in 
1742.  and  died  in  1745.  Francis  of  Lorraine, 
son  of  Leopold  duke  of  Lorraine,  succeeded  to 
the  Austrian  dominions  in  right  of  bis  queen, 
Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  The 
throne  is  still  occupied  by  his  descendants.  He 
was  elected  emperor  in  1745,  and  the  crown, 
though  nominally  elective,  descended  to  his 
successors  with  the  regularity  of  an  hereditary 
sovereignty. 

The  emperor  Joseph  II,  made  his  reign  con- 
spicuous by  his  designs  for  the  good  of  his 
subjects.  He  aimed  at  the  most  extensive 
and  important  reformations,  but  was  not  uware 
of  the  strength  of  those  prejudices  and  evils, 
which  presented  themselves  in  his  path  at  the 
very  outset,  and  continued  to  obstruct  it  through- 
out the  whole  of  his  career.  Tiie  education  of 
Joseph  had  been  carefully  attended  to,  and  at 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AUS 


91 


AUS 


the  age  of  nineteen,  he  was  married  to  Isabella, 
infanta  of  Parma.  In  1764,  he  was  crowned 
king  of  the  Romans.  The  death  of  his  first  wife 
whom  he  loved  with  a  more  than  usual  fond- 
ness, was  a  severe  blow  to  him,  but  in  1765,  he 
married  the  sister  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  It 
was  in  this  year  that  he  ascended  the  throne, 
without  encountering  the  slightest  opposition. 
Having  always  displayed  a  military  ambition, 
he  was  now  happy  in  re-modelling  his  armies 
and  perfecting  their  discipline,  not  restricting 
his  reformation  to  the  army  but  making  it  felt 
in  all  the  departments  of  government.  After 
having  returned  from  a  tour  through  his 
own  dominions,  and  through  Prussia,  Italy, 
France,  and  Russia,  he  set  apart  one  day  in 
each  week  forbearing  the  complaints  and  peti- 
tions of  all,  even  the  meanest  of  his  subjects. 
"  It  behoves  rne,"  said  he,  "to  do  justice  :  and 
it  is  my  invariable  intention  to  render  it  to  all  the 
world,  without  respect  of  persons."  It  is  a  pity 
that  he  forgot  this  maxim  when  he  accepted  the 
invitation  of  the  royal  anatomists,  and  assisted 
in  the  dismemberment  of  Poland,  in  1771.  Jo- 
seph encouraged  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and 
even  permitted  strictures  to  be  made  on  his  own 
conduct  and  measures,  provided  they  were  not 
couched  in  the  language  of  coarse  pasquinade. 
"  If,"  said  he,  "  they  be  founded  in  justice,  we 
shall  profit  by  them ;  if  not,  we  shall  disregard 
them." 

Many  curious   adventures  are  said  to  have 
occurred  to  the  emperor,  when,  as  was  his  cus- 
tom, he  drove  about  his  one  horse  cabriolet  in 
the  garb  of  a  private  citizen.     One  day,  as  he 
r      was  riding  thus  alone,  he   was  accosted  famil- 
"      iarly  by  a  soldier  who  mistook  him  for  a  man 
of  the  middle  class,  and  asked  the  emperor  to 
give  him  a  ride.     "  Willingly,"  exclaimed  Jo- 
seph, "  jump  in  comrade,  for  I  am  in  something 
of  a  hurry."     The  soldier  sprang  into  the  cab- 
(u   riolet,  and  sovereign  and  subject  sat  side  by 
jb,;.  side  on  the  same  seat.     The  soldier  was  loqua- 
cious.    "  Come,  comrade  !"  said  he,  slapping 
the  emperor  familiarly  on  the  back  ;  "  Are  you 

food  at  guessing?"  "  Perhaps  I  am,"  replied 
oseph;  "try  me."  "Well,  then,  my  boy, 
•  conjure  up  your  wits,  and  guess  what  I  had 
for  breakfast  this  morning."  "  Sour  krout." 
"Come,  none  of  that!  try  again,  comrade." 
"  Perhaps  a  Westphalia  ham,"  said  the  empe- 
ror, willing  to  humour  his  companion.  "  Bet- 
ter than  that !"  exclaimed  the  soldier.  "  Sau- 
sages from  Bologna,  and  Hockheimer  from  the 
Rhine  ?"  "  Better  than  that — d'ye  give  it 
up?"  "I  do."  "Open  your  eyes  and  ears 


then,"  said  the  soldier  bluntly,  "  I  had  a  phea- 
sant, by  Jove  !  shot  in  emperor  Joe's  park,  ha  ' 
ha  !"  When  the  exultation  of  the  soldier  had 
subsided.  Joseph  said  quietly  :  "  I  want  to  try 
your  skill  in  guessing,  comrade.  See  if  you 
can  name  the  rank  I  hold."  "  You're  a — no — 
hang  it !  you're  not  smart  enough  for  a  cornet." 
"  Better  "than  that,"  said  the  emperor.  "  A 
lieutenant?" — "Better  than  that." — "A  cap- 
tain?"— "Better  than  that." — "A  major?" — 
"  Better  than  that." — "  General  ?" — "  Better 
than  that."  The  soldier  was  now  fearfully  agi- 
tated—he had  doffed  his  hat,  and  sat  bare- 
headed— he  could  hardly  articulate.  "  Pardon 
me,  your  excellency, — you  are  Field  Marshal." 
"  Better  than  that,"  replied  Joseph.  "  Lord 
help  me  !"  cried  the  soldier,  "  you're  the  em- 
peror !"  He  threw  himself  out  of  the  cabriolet 
and  kneeled  for  pardon  in  the  mud.  The  cir- 
cumstances were  not  forgotten  by  either,  for 
the  emperor  often  laughed  over  it  heartily,  and 
the  soldier  received  a  mark  of  favor  which  he 
could  not  forget. 

On  another  occasion,  Joseph,  turning  a  corner 
shortly,  ran  the  wheel  of  his  vehicle  against  an 
old  woman's  fruit-stall,  and  upset  it,  scattering 
the  good  things  in  every  direction .  The  rag- 
ged urchins  in  the  immediate  vicinity  fell  upon 
the  tempting  fruit,  and  hastily  gathering  it,  eat 
it,  mud  and  all.  As  soon  as  the  old  woman 
gained  her  feet,  she  gave  utterance  to  a  volley 
of  abuse,  and  the  emperor  was  glad  to  escape 
and  permit  the  predatory  youths  of  the  suburbs 
to  take  their  share  of  the  vituperative  epithets 
of  the  enraged  fruit-seller.  As  soon  as  he  had 
reached  his  palace,  Joseph  despatched  some  of 
his  officers  to  make  reparation  to  the  old  wo- 
man. Surrounded  by  a  group  of  men  in  splen 
did  uniforms,  the  old  lady  was  terrified  when 
they  informed  her  that  the  driver  of  the  cabrio- 
let was  her  emperor.  Indistinct  ideas  of  halters 
and  executioners  were  flitting  across  her  mind, 
when  she  was  awakened  to  the  reality,  by  the 
sight  of  a  purse  full  of  gold  pieces,  which  the 
officers  threw  upon  her  table.  She  opened  her 
lips  to  bless  the  emperor,  but  his  messengers 
had  put  spurs  to  their  horses,  and  were  seen 
galloping  off  in  the  distance.  "  I  think,"  said 
the  emperor.  "  she  has  no  reason  to  complain, 
for  she  has  been  amply  paid,  and  has  had  the 
pleasure  of  abusing  me  unmercifully,  while  I 
heard  her  with  the  patience  of  a  saint."  Va- 
rious events  occurred  to  disturb  the  tranquillity 
of  Joseph  during  his  reign,  and  he  died  on  the 
aOth  of  February,  1790.  His  good  qualities  far 
exceeded  his  defects,  and  the  glorious  actions 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


AUS  S 

lie  performed,  have  given  him  a  high  rank 
among  the  great  and  good  rulers  of  mankind. 
Francis  II  was  crowned  emperor  in  1792.  In 
1795,  when  the  second  division  of  Poland  took 
place,  Austria  received  an  immense  accession 
of  territory.  In  1797,  she  relinquished  to  France 
her  possessions  in  the  Netherlands  as  well  as 
the  dutchies  of  Milan  and  Mantua.  To  com- 
pensate for  this,  the  greater  part  of  the  Vene- 
tian states  were  transferred  to  Austria.  The 
military  power  of  France  was  so  formidable,  that 
even  the  strongest  sovereignties  of  Europe  fear- 
ed they  should  be  unable  to  resist  its  encroach- 
ments. The  French  threatened  to  attain  the  em- 
pire of  the  world  by  rapid  strides.  Involved  in 
the  wars  of  1799  and  1805,  Austria  met  with 
repeated  defeats  and  continued  discomfiture. 
After  she  had  lost  the  great  battles  of  Marengo 
and  Hohenlinden,  Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  her 
Venetian  possessions,  the  Tyrol,  and  other  ter- 
ritories were  wrested  from  her  grasp.  In  18^4, 
Francis  II,  assumed  the  name  of  Francis  I, 
as  hereditary  emperor  of  Austria,  and  subse- 
quently relinquished  all  claims  to  the  empire 
of  Germany.  In  1809,  Austria  took  the  field 
against  Napoleon,  but  having  to  contend,  not 
only  against  the  French,  but  against  Russia, 
and  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  found  her- 
self defeated,  and  when  Bonaparte  entered 
the  capital,  was  compelled  to  relinquish  again 
immense  territories.  After  a  hopeless  inaction 
of  some  years,  the  failure  of  Napoleon's  Rus- 
sian expedition  roused  the  Austrians  to  arms, 
and  the  subsequent  success  of  the  allied  pow- 
ers restored  the  power  and  splendor  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire,  which  gained  the  addition  of  some 
Italian  terr-.tories.  Of  the  subject  kingdoms 
and  states  of  Austria,  a  detailed  account  will 
not  be  looked  for.  Hungary  comes  first  in 
rank.  Thr  Romans  conquered  Dacia  and  ren- 
dered it  trOutary ;  and,  after  them,  the  Huns, 
Avars,  an<»  other  Sclavonic  tribes,  successively 
conquered  it.  Since  1563  it  has  continued  an  ap- 
panage o^  the  house  of  Austria.  Transylvania 
came  ;n*o  possession  of  the  Austrians  in  1U91J. 
Croatia,  anciently  a  part  of  Illyricum,  was  an- 
nexed to  Austria  in  1540.  Sclavonia,  also  an- 
ciently a  part  of  Illyricum,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Austrians  in  1067.  The  crown  of  Bo- 
herma»passed  to  the  house  of  Austria  in  1526. 
The  history  of  Venice  is  highly  interesting, 
and  perhaps  even  a  sketch  of  it  may  not  prove 
otherwise.  The  Veneti  of  the  opposite  shore, 
flying  from  the  barbarians,  founded  Venice  in 
the  fifth  century.  The  first  doge  was  elected 
in  697.  Each  island,  previous  to  that  date, 


AZO 


having  been  governed  by  a  tribune.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  12th  century  the  Venetian  aris- 
tocracy seized  the  reigns  of  government.  In 
12l  1-1,  "the  Venetians,  having  extended  their 
commerce,  and  become  masters  of  many  Gre- 
cian provinces,  were  celebrated  for  their  im- 
mense wealth,  and  allowed  to  be  the  first 
commercial  people  of  the  world.  This  pre- 
eminence was  destroyed  by  the  success  of  the 
Portuguese,  to  whom  the  commerce  of  the 
East  Indies  was  opened,  and  the  power  of  Ve- 
nice declined  with  great  rapidity,  and  there  now 
remains  but  the  tradition  of  what  it  was. 

AVATAR,  in  Hindoo  mythology,  the  in 
carnation  of  the  deity.  The"  Hindoos  believe 
that  numerous  incarnations  have  taken  place  ; 
ten  of  which,  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu,  the 
Supreme  Deity,  are  celebrated  in  sacred  poems. 

AVERNUS,  a  lake  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
anciently  believed  to  be  the  entrance  to  hell. 

AVIGNON,  a  city  of  the  department  of  Vau- 
cluse,  France,  on  the  Rhine,  containing  30,000 
inhabitants,  and  some  silk  manufactories  and 
other  works.  The  country  is  fruitful  and  pleas- 
ant. The  city  and  district  once  belonged  to 
the  Popes,  but  in  1790  was  annexed  to  the 
French  Republic. 

AYESHA,  the  favorite  of  Mohammed.  Af- 
ter his  death,  opposing  the  succession  of  AH, 
she  was  taken  prisoner,  but  dismissed.  She 
died  in  077. 

AZOPH,  or  Azof,  a  town  and  fortress  belong- 
ing to  the  Russians,  on  an  island  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  river  Don  with  the  sea  of  Azof. 
It  contains  about  1000  inhabitants.  The  sea  of 
Azof  is  a  bay  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  sea  is  210 
miles  long. 

AZORES,  or  Western  Islands,  a  group  of 
islands  lying  between  Europe  and  America. 
The  principal  island  is  Terceira.  Present  pop- 
ulation more  than  200,000.  They  were  dis- 
covered by,  and  have  ever  since  belonged  to 
the  Portuguese,  by  whom,  however,  they  are 
not  properly  appreciated.  It  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine the  exact  time  of  their  discovery,  as 
several  dates  are  given,  concerning  which  a 
warm  controversy  has  been  waged.  It  is,  how- 
ever, certain  that  they  were  discovered  prior  to 
1449.  The  name  Azores,  i.  e.  Hawk  Islands, 
was  given  from  the  abundance  of  falcons 
(azrrres)  found  here  by  the  Portuguese.  In  14(itj 
these  islands  were  presented  to  the  dutchess  of 
Burgundy,  by  her  brother,  the  prince  of  Portu 
gaj.  They  were  colonized  afterwards  by  Ger- 
mans andjflerainge,  who  appear,  however,  al- 
ways to  have  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BAB  93 

the  king  of  Portugal.  The  Azores  are  recog- 
nised at  sea  from  a  great  distance,  by  Pico,  a 
tall  mountain,  which,  like  the  Peak  of  Tene- 
riffe,  towers  far  above  the  deep,  and  stands  a 
lasting  landmark  to  mariners.  The  islands  arc 
subject  to  earthquakes  and  volcanic  eruptions, 
and,  in  1574,  St.  George's,  Pico,  Fayal,  and 
Terceira,  although  detached  and  distant  from 
each  other,  were  violently  convulsed.  The 
ocean  overflowed  from  the  shock,  which  pro- 
duced eighteen  little  islands.  A  similar  con- 
vulsion of  nature  occurred  in  July,  1638, and 
after  a  commotion  of  six  weeks,  an  island  of 
nearly  six  miles  in  circumference,  arose  near 
St.  Michaels,  but  was  subsequently  absorbed. 
In  1720,  the  most  horrible  and  tumultuous 
scenes  occurred, and,  amidst  an  almost  unequal- 
led combination  of  horrors — causing  the  death 
of  many  persons  from  fright — an  island  nearly 
as  large  as  that  of  1633,  emerged  from  its  sub- 
marine birth-place.  The  islands  are  supposed 
to  rest  on  volcanic  foundations,  which  extend  to 
the  western  shores  of  Portugal,  though  the  com- 
munication may  be  in  many  parts  obstructed. 

B. 

BAAL,  Bel ;  a  Babylonian  or  Phrenician  god, 
concerning  whom  there  is  sucli  a  variety  of 
opinions,  that  there  is  no  small  difficulty  in  de- 
termining his  character.  Some  consider  him  as 
a  mortal,  the  founder  of  Babylon,  and  deified  for 
his  exertions  in  the  establishment  of  that  mon- 
archy. Besides  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians, 
the  Persians,  Tyrians,  and  others,  worshipped 
him 

BABER,  or  Babour.  sultan  ;  he  was  a  de- 
scendant of  Tamerlane,  sovereign  of  Cabul,  and 
founder  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  in  Hindostan, 
in  15-25.  -lie  took  Behar,  and  died  in  1530. 

BABYLONIA,  now  Irak  Arabi,  an  Asiatic 
empire  of  antiquitv,  bounded  north  by  Media, 
.Armenia,  and  Mesopotamia;  east  by  Susiaim; 
south  by  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  Chaldea,  and 
"Vrest  by  Arabia  Deserta.  The  Euphrates  or 
Frat,  and  Tio-ris.  two  great  rivers,  irrigate  this 
fertile  and  level  region.  The  old  capital,  Bab- 
ylon, was  of  prodigious  extent.  The  walls, 
350  feet  high,  and  87'feet  thick,  were  cemented 
with  bitumen,  and  were  more  than  60  miles  in 
circuit.  They  had  an  hundred  brazen  gates,  and 
two  hundred'and  fifty  towers.  Its  ruins,  which 
are  cumbrous  and  tasteless,  exist  in  the  pacha- 
lie  of  Bagdad,  near  Hella,  a  village  on  the  east- 
ern bank" of  the  Euphrates,  with  6  or  7000  in- 
habitants. The  haiiging  gardens  of  Babylon 
were  famous  in  ancient  times.  The  Babylo- 


BAC 


nians  formed  a  distinct  nation,  and  had  attained 
a  high  degree  of  refinement  as  early  as  2000  B.  C. 
Nimrod  was  the  founder  of  the  empire,  accord- 
ing to  the  Mosaic  record.  Belus,  Nirius,  and 
Semiramis  were  famous  conquerors,  and  the 
latter  caused  the  capital  to  be  embellished  and 
improved.  The  learning  of  the  Babylonians 
was  celebrated  at  an  early  age.  Under  Nabo- 
n:das,  the  empire  lost  much  of  its  strength  and 
splendor,  and  Cyrus  destroyed  its  capital,  and 
annexed  it  to  Persia,  in  536.  In  A.  D.  640  it 
was  conquered  by  the  followers  of  Mohammed, 
who  built  Bagdad  on  the  Tigris,  and  made  it 
the  capital.  Holagou,  a  prince  of  the  Tar- 
tars, expelled  the  caliphs  in  1256,  and  in  1534 
Bagdad  was  taken  by  the  Turks.  Shah  Abbas 
won  it  from  them,  but  in  1631),  the  whole  of  Bab- 
ylon fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  who  yet 
possess  it. 

BACCHUS,  the  heathen  God  of  wine,  son 
of  Jupiter  and  Semele.  His  festivals  in  Greece 
and  Rome  were  celebrated  by  both  sexes,  and 
disgraced  by  intoxication  and  excesses  of  va- 
rious kinds. 

BACHAUMONT,  Frangois  le  Coigneux  de, 
born  at  Paris,  1624,  died  in  the  same  city,  1702. 
He  was  counsellor  of  Parliament,  arid  opposed 
to  the  court  party  in  the  disturbances  of  1648. 
He  said  that  the  members  of  the  parliament  put 
him  in  mind  of  the  little  boys  that  played  with 
slings  in  the  street,  who  dispersed  on  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  police  officer,  but  collected  as 
soon  as  he  was  out  of  sight.  Pleased  with  this 
comparison,  the  enemies  of  Mazarin  adopted 
hat-bands  in  the  form  of  a  sling  (fronde), 
and  hence  were  denominated  Frondcurs.  Ba- 
chaumont  was  distinguished  for  his  talent  for 
writing  epigrams  and  lively  songs,  many  of 
which  are  extant. 

BACON,  Francis,  baron  of  Verularn,  a  dis 
tinguished  philosopher,  born  at  London,  1561, 
ana  died  in  1626.  He  was  entered  in  the 
university  of  Cambridge,  in  his  13th  year,  and 
distinguished  himself  for  his  early  proficiency 
in  the  sciences  At  16  lie  wrote  against  the 
Aristotelian  philosophy,  and  at  19  his  work 
Of  the  State  of  Europe,  attracted  general  at- 
tention from  the  clearness  of  perception  and 
maturity  of  judgment  which  it  displayed.  At 
the  age  of  28  his  legal  reputation  was  such 
that  he  was  appointed  counsel  extraordmary  to 
the  queen  —  a  post  of  more  honor  than  profit. 
The  Earl  of  Essex  befriended  Bacon,  and  pre- 
sented him  with  an  estate  in  land,  but  the  lat- 
ter abandoned  his  benefactor  when  he  had  fallen 
into  disgrace.  In  parliament,  towards  the  close 
of  Elizabeth's  reign,  he  forsook  the  independent 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


BAG 


94 


BAD 


course  which  he  had  previously  pursued,  and  be- 
came a  follower  of  the  court.  He  stood  nigh  in 
the  good  graces  of  James1  I, and  was  knighted  by 
him  in  1003.  His  marriage  was  fortunate,  and  he 
at  length  saw  himself  free  from  those  pecuniary 
embarrassments  by  which  he  had  been  so  long 
shackled. 

In  1G17  he  was  made  lord  keeper  of  the  Seals ; 
in  lG19,lord  high  chancellor  of  England,  and  ba- 
ron Verulam,  and  not  long  afterwards,  viscount 
of  St.  Albans.  -He  had  not  now  the  plea  of  neces- 
sity for  making  offices  and  privileges  venal,  but 
he  was  charged  with  receiving  money  for  them. 
Rather  than  submit  toa  trial  which  would  stamp 
his  name  with  indelible  disgrace,  he  confessed 
his  cruilt,  supplicated  the  lenity  of  his  peers, 
and  oegged  to  be  dismissed  with  the  luss  of  his 
office.  His  sentence  was  severe  but  just.  He 
was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  £40,000,  to  be 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  as  long  as  the  king 
should  choose,  declared  incapable  of  office,  for- 
bidden to  take  his  seat  in  parliament,  or  to  show 
himself  within  the  verge  of  the  court.  He  was 
soon  released  from  the  Tower,  but  did  not  long 
survive  his  fall.  His  errors  sprang  more  from 
weakness,  than  from  avarice  or  want  of  princi- 
ple, for  he  displayed  through  life  a  strong  sym- 
pathy for  virtue,  if  he  did  not  have  firmness 
enough  to  be  faithful  to  her  cause.  He  exam- 
ined the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences,  and  en- 
deavored to  free  them  from  the  academical  sub- 
tilties  which  had  impeded  their  progress.  '•  My 
name  and  memory,"  he  says  in  his  will,  "  I  be- 
queath to  foreign  nations,  and  to  my  own  coun- 
trymen, after  some  time  be  passed  over." 

BACON,  Nathaniel,  an  Englishman  of  good 
understanding  and  education,  who  came  to  Vir- 
ginia in  1G75,  and  excited  a  rebellion  against 
the  royal  government,  which  cost  the  colony 
£100,000. 

BACON,  Roger,  an  English  monk,  born  at 
Ilchester  in  1214,  and  gifted  with  great  talents. 
He  made  many  discoveries  in  the  sciences, 
which  caused  him  to  be  regarded  as  a  sorcerer 
by  the  common  people,  whose  prejudices  were 
espoused  by  the  clergy,  against  whom  Bacon 
had  openly  spoken.  He  was  imprisoned  in  con- 
sequence of  their  denunciations,  and,  at  one 
ti^iif.  kept  in  confinement  for  ton  years.  He  died 
in  1  \iLi2.  He  was  probably  the  inventor  of  the 
telescope,  and  had  an  idea  of  gunpowder,  for  he 
distinctly  says  in  one  of  his  works  that  thunder 
and  lightning  could  be  imitated  by  means  of  char- 
coal, sulphur,  and  saltpetre.  He  was  well  vers- 
ed in  the  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Latin  languages, 
the  last  of  which  he  wrote  with  facility  and 
elegance,  and,  although  not  free  from  many  of 


the  prejudices  of  his  age,  was  altogether  a  very 
extraordinary  man.  Many  of  the  old  Englisn 
ballads  and  romances  contain  accounts  of  the 
wonderful  exploits  of  Friar  Bacon,  who  is  gifted 
with  magical  arts  of  the  most  tremendous  na- 
ture. The  "  Famous  Historic  of  Fryei  Bacon," 
towards  the  conclusion,  informs  us  that  Friar 
Bacon  broke  his  magic  glass,  burned  his  books 
of  tjie  '  Black  Art/  devoted  himself  to  theologi- 
cal studies,  and  lived  in  a  cell  wliich  he  had 
excavated  in  a  church  wall.  "  Thus  lived  he 
two  yeeres  space  in  that  cell,  never  coming  forth : 
his  meat  and  drink  he  received  in  at  a  window, 
and  at  that  window  he  did  discourse  with  those 
that  came  to  him  ;  his  grave  he  digged  with  his 
own  nayles,  and  was  laid  there  when  he  died." 
'•  He  lived  most  part  of  his  lite  a  magician,  and 
died  a  true  Penitent  Sinner,  and  an  Ancho- 
rite." 

BACTRIANA,or  Bactria,  now  Khorassan. 
before  the  time  of  Cyrus  was  a  powerful  king 
dom,  and  gave  to  the  Persians  their  mythology 
and  architecture.  It  lay  between  tiie  Oxus, 
Scythia,  Mount  Paropamisus.  and  Margiana; 
but  little  is  now  known  concerning  this  region 
After  the  destruction  of  the  Persian  monarchy, 
it  was  held  by  tho  Parthians  and  Scythians,  cuttii 
they  were  expelled  by  the  Huns. 

BADAJOZ,  or  Badaiox,  the  Pax  Augusta  of 
the  Romans,  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Guadi- 
ana,  and  contains  14, 000  Inhabitants.  It  is  the 
capital  of  Eslremadura,  a  Spanish  province,  and 
is  8'2  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Seville.  It  is  celebrat- 
ed for  the  defeat  of  the  Spaniards  in  J109,  by 
Joseph,  king  of  Morocco  ;  and  for  its  capture  by 
the  British,  after  a  bloody  conflict,  on  the  Cth  of 
April.  1612. 

BADEN,  a  grand-duchy,  of  Germany,  con- 
taining 1,150,000  inhabitants,  on  an  area  of  5.800 
square  miles.     Baden  was  erected  into  arrraml- 
duchy ,  with  large  accessions  of  territory,  in  . 
and  now  forms  one  of  the  states  of  the  Germa-      , 
nic  confederation. 

BAD  [A.  Domingo,' a  Spaniard,  and  political 
agent  of  (iodoy  and  Napoleon,  who  from  ij^^^l 
to  1808,  travelled   in  the  Mohammedan 
tries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean.     He  pro-   j 
fessed  Mohammedanism,  and  assumed  the  nameJH 
of  Mi.  Reij  el  rfLassi,  under  which  his  travels  were 
published.     Burckhardt,  the  oriental   traveller, 
rives  the  following  account  of  him  :  '•  1  le  c.-.iled 
himself  .Hi  Bey,  and  pretended  to  have  bf'en  born 
of  Tunisian  parents,  in  Spain,  and   t<i  have  re- 
ceived his  education  in  thai  country.     Spanish 
appears  to  have  been  his  native  language,  besides 
which  he  spoke  French,  a  little  Italian,  and  the 
Mograbeyan  dialect  of  Arabic,  but  badlv.     He 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BAG  £ 

came  to  Aleppo  by  the  way  of  Cairo,  Jaffa,  and 
Damascus,  with  the  strongest  letters  of  recom- 
mendation from  the  Spanish  government  to  all 
its  agents,  and  an  open  credit  upon  them.  He 
seemed  to  be  a  particular  friend  of  the  Prince  of 
Peace,  for  whom  he  was  collecting  antiques ; 
and  from  the  manner  in  which  it  was  known 
that  he  was  afterwards  received  by  the  Spanish 
ambassador,  he  must  have  been  a  man  of  dis- 
tinction. The  description  of  his  figure,  and 
what  is  related  of  his  travels,  called  to  my  recol- 
lection the  Spaniard  Badia,  and  his  miniature 
in  your  library.  He  was  a  man  of  middling 
size,  long,  thin  head,  black  eyes,  large  nose, 
long  black  beard,  and  feet  that  indicated  his 
having  formerly  worn  tight  shoes.  He  professed 
to  have  travelled  in  Barbary,  to  have  crossed  the 
Lybian  desert  between  Barbary  and  Egypt, 
and,  from  Cairo,  to  have  gone  to  Mecca  and 
back.  He  travelled  with  Eastern  magnificence , 
but  here  (Aleppo)  he  was  rather  shy  of  showing 
himself  out  of  doors  :  he  never  walked  out  but 
on  Friday,  to  the  noon  prayers,  in  the  great 
mosque.  One  of  the  before-mentioned  dervi- 
shes told  me  that  there  had  been  a  great  deal 
of  talk  about  this  Ali  Bey,  at  Damascus,  and 
Hamar :  they  suspected  him  of  being  a  Chris- 
tian; but  his  great  liberality,  and  the  pressing 
letters  which  he  brought  to  all  people  of  conse- 
quence, stopped  all  further  inquiry.  He  was 
busily  employed  in  arranging  and  putting  in 
order  his  journal  during  the  two  months  of  his 
stay  at  Aleppo."  Badia  died  in  his  native 
country. 

BAER.T.  John ;  also  Earth ;  born  at  Dunkirk, 
1651.  He  was  the  son  of  a  poor  fisherman,  but 
his  bravery  and  talents  raised  him  to  the  rank 
of  commodore  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  whose 
navvhe  greatly  improved.  The  Dutch,  English, 
and"  Spanish,  called  him  the  French  devil.  '-I 
have  made  you  a  commodore,"  was  the  king's 
annunciation  of  his  promotion  to  Jean  Baert, 

j_,,at  Versailles.  "  Your  majesty  hag  done  well." 
replied  the  sturdy  seaman.  The  courtiers  tlt- 

SSfefrpd.  "  It  is  the  reply,"  said  Louis,  "  of  a  man 
who  knows  hia  own  worth."  /  He  received  a 
patent  of  nobility  for  one  of  his  naval  exploits, 
and  died  in  1702. 

BAGDAD  ;  the  capital  of  a  Turkish  pacha- 
lie  of  the  same  name,  in  the  southern  part  of 
Mesopotamia,  now  Irak-Arabi — contains  about 
100,000  inhabitants.  It  lies  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Tigris,  over  which  a  bridge  is  thrown.  The 
city  is  surrounded  by  a  brick  wall ;  the  houses 
are  of  brick,  and  but  one  story  high,  and  the 
unpaved  streets  so  narrow,  as  to  admit  of  two 
9 


5  BAH 

horsemen  abreast  with  difficulty.  The  palace 
of  the  pacha  forms  a  contrast  to  the  other 
buildings  of  the  city,  being  spacious  and  splen- 
did. European  manufactures,  as  well  as  the 
productions  of  India,  Arabia,  and  Persia,  rind  a 
sale  here,  and  the  thronged  bazaars  present  a 
brilliant  and  animated  appearance.  Bagdad  has 
a  cannon  foundery.  From  Bagdad,  East  Indian 
goods  are  supplied  to  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and 
part  of  Europe.  The  population  consists  of 
Turks,  Persians,  Armenians,  and  a  small  num- 
ber of  Christians  and  Jews.  The  ancient  city, 
founded  in  072,  by  the  Caliph  Abu  Giafar  Alrnan- 
zor,  once  the  residence  of  the  Caliphs,  and  con- 
taining 2,000.01)0  inhabitants,  is  now  in  ruins. 
The  prosperity  of  this  city  completed  the  ruin 
of  the  neighboring  city  of  Babylon.  It  was 
twice  taken  by  the  Turks  and  Tartars,  and  near- 
ly destroyed.  In  1638,  it  was  taken  by  Amu- 
rath  IV,  after  a  memorable  siege,  and  the  great- 
er part  of  the  inhabitants  were  butchered  in  cold 
blood.  In  the  18th  century,  Nadir  Shah  was 
defeated  in  an  attempt  to  take  it. 

BAHAMAS,  or  Lucaya  Islands,  000  in  num- 
ber, are  near  the  coast  of  North  America,  in  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  Ion.  70°  to  80°  W. ;  lat.  21  °  to 
28°  N.  They  contain  a  population  of  16,500, 
including 9,270  slaves,  and  2.990  free  blacks.  The 
soil  of  the  islands  is  rich,  but  thin,  and  soon  ex- 
hausted. Cotton  is  the  chief  production.  The 
residents  are  principally  loyalists,  who  emigra- 
ted from  Carolina  and  Georgia,  when  the  royal 
cause  was  lost  in  America.  The  wreckers,  a 
lame  portion  of  the  population,  are  hardy  mari- 
ners, employed  in  assisting  shipwrecked  vessels. 
They  display  admirable  skill  and  courage  in  the 
working  of  their  small  flat-bottomed  sloops,  in 
which  they  frequent  the  most  dangerous  places, 
receiving  salvage  on  all  rescued  property.  They 
are  licensed  by  the  governor.  These  islands 
were  discovered  by  Columbus,  Oct.  12,  1492, 
(Juanahnm  being  the  first  land  he  saw.  In 
1007,  Charles  II  of  England  granted  the  Ba- 
hamas to  the  Duke  of  Albermarle  and  others. 
The  first  settlement  was  made  on  New  Provi- 
dence, one  of  the  largest  of  the  group.  The 
settlers  suffered  severely  from  the  ravages  of 
pirates,  and  the  inroads  of  the  Spaniards.  Black 
Beard,  the  noted  leader  of  the  Buccaneers,  was 
killed  off  here  in  1718.  The  town  of  Nassau 
on  New  Providence  was  fortified  in  1740.  Nas- 
sau was  fttken  by  the  Americans  during  the  rev- 
olution, but  was  abandoned,  and  afterwards  by 
the  Spaniards,  but  regained  by  the  English.  Ba- 
Jiama,  the  chief  island  of  the  group,  is  63  miles 
long.  * 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


BAL 


96 


BAL 


BAHAR,  a  province  of  British  India ;  pop- 
ulation, 5,800,000.  It  is  bounded  north  by 
Nepal  and  Morung,  east  by  Bengal,  south  by 
Orissa,  and  west  by  Oude  and  Allahabad.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile.  It  was  anciently  a  kingdom 
of  Ilindostan,  but  became  part  of  the  British 
empire  in  17(55. 

BAI^E,  a  town  of  Campania,  a  favorite  resort  of 
the  ancient  Romans,  many  of  whom  had  coun- 
try-seats here.  Its  sheltered  bay,  breezy  hills, 
and  baths  gave  it  a  high  reputation,  but  the  dis- 
soluteness practised  nere  by  visiters,  was  so 
notorious  and  infamous,  that  Cicero,  in  his 
defence  of  M.  Coelius,  thought  it  necessary  to 
apologise  for  defending  a  young  man  who  had 
lived  at  BaJre. 

BAJAZET  I,  sultan  of  the  Turks,  son  of 
Amurath,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1380.  By 
strangling  his  brother  and  rival,  Jacob,  he  es- 
tablished a  precedent,  which  has  since  been  fre- 
quently followed  by  the  Turkish  court.  The 
rapidity  of  his  conquests  gained  him  the  name 
of  I/dcrim,  Lightning.  He  carried  his  con- 
quering arms  far  into  Europe  and  Asia,  and  on 
the  28th  Sept.,  1395,  defeated  the  Christian 
army  of  Hungarians,  Poles  and  French,  who 
were  headed  by  Sigismund,  king  of  Hunga- 
ry. In  1402,  he  was  defeated  near  Ancyra.  in 
Galatia,  by  Tamerlane,  and  was  himself  taken 
prisoner,  and  treated  with  great  courtesy  by  the 
conqueror.  The  story  of  his  being  confined  and 
carried  about  in  an  iron  cage,  is  unworthy  of  be- 
lief. He  died  in  the  camp  of  Tamerlane  in  1403. 
BAJAZET  II,  son  of  Mohammed  II.  sul- 
tan of  the  Turks,  succeeded  his  lather  in  Mel. 
He  extended  his  empire,  gained  some  Grecian 
towns  from  the  Venetians,  and  by  ravaging 
Christian  states,  sought  to  avenge  the  expulsion 
of  the  Moors  by  the  Spaniards.  He  finally  re- 
signed his  throne  to  his  rebellious  son  Selim.by 
whose  order,  it  is  supposed,  he  was  murdered  in 
1512. 

BALBEC,  or  Baalbec  ;  anciently  Hr.Uopolis, 
or  the  city  of  the  sun,  is  in  the  pachalic  of  Aero, 
Syria,  40  miles  from  Damascus.  It  issmall  and 
ill-built,  with  5000  inhabitants,  nmong  whom 
some  Jews  and  Christians  are  to  be  met  with. 
The  city  is  governed  by  an  aga.  who  enjoys  the 
title  of  emir.  Heliopolis  was  a  Roman  military 
station  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  Its  splendid 
temple  of  the  sun,  of  the  54  columns  of  which 
there  are  but  six  standing,  was  built  either  by 
Antoninus  Pius,  or  Septimius  Severus.  The  pil- 
lars remaining,  including  pedestal  and  capital, 
are  74  feet  high,  and  22  in  circumference.  Im- 
mense atones  were  employed  in  the  construc- 


tion of  the  temple.  During  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tine,  the  temple  was  changed  into  a  Christian 
church.  It  fell  into  decay  when  the  Arabians 
held  the  city.  Balbec  was  taken  by  a  general 
of  Omar,  and,  in  1401,  by  Tamerlane.  An 
earthquake  nearly  destroyed  it,  1759. 

BALBOA,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  was  born  in 
1475.  He  was  one  of  the  numerous  adventur- 
ers, who  sought  to  retrieve  their  fortunes  by 
following  up  in  the  New  World,  the  discoveries 
which  Columbus  had  commenced.  He  formed 
a  colony  on  the  isthmus  of  Darien.  An  Indian, 
\vlio  was  the-  scornful  witness  of  a  dispute 
between  two  of  Balboa's  companions  about 
some  gold,  agreed  to  show  him  a  counlrv  where 
the  precious  metals  might  be  obtained  in  abund- 
ance. He  led  Balboa  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific, 
and  pointed  the  path  to  Peru.  Considering  his 
force  of  !50  men  too  feeble  to  attempt  the  con- 
quest, Balboa  took  possession  of  the  vast  ocean 
that  rolled  before  him  in  the  name  of  the  king 
of  Spain,  and  after  an  absence  of  four  months, 
led  back  his  followers  to  the  colony,  enriched 
with  gold  and  pearls.  Here  he  was" required  to 
obey  a  new  governor,  IVdrarias,  who  held  a 
royal  commission.  He  was  appointed,  the  en- 
sum  £  year,  viceroy  cf  the  South  Sea,  but  seized 
by  Pedrarias,  on  pretext  of  neglect  of  duty, 
tried,  condernjjrd,  and  beheaded  in  1510,  at  the 

M8  Of  42. 

BALDWIN  III, king  of  Jerusalem  from  1143 
to  1)62,  was  one  of  the  bravest  and  most  hon- 
orable of  the  crusaders.  The  Christians  pos- 
sessed territories  of  vast  extent,  but  the  vassals 
of  Baldwin  were  divided  b\*  dissensions  among 
themselves;  this  was  also'the  case  with  their 
adversaries,  although  the  latter  warn-d  with 
more  success.  The  reign  of  Baldwin  was  un- 
hnppv.  and  convinced  the  Christians  of  the  ( 
impossibility  of  establishing  Christian  chivalry 
in  the  east.'  When  Noureddin.  his  valiant  and 

rroud  opponent,  was  counselled  to  fall  upon  the 
Christians  during  the  funeral  of  their  leader,  he 
answered  :  "  No"!  Let  us  respect  their  grief, 
for  thev  have  lost  a  king  whose  like  is  rarely 
to  be  met  with." 

BALIOL,  John,  king  of  Scotland,  a  claimant    1 
for  the  crown  on  the  death  of  queen  Margaret.     \ 
Edward  III.  being  made  arbiter,  awarded  it  to 
Baliol  against  Piobert  Bruce.     Baliol  took  up 
arms  in  consequence  of  the  interference  of  the 
English    kinir  in  his  government,  but  was  de- 
feated at.  the  battle  of  Dunbar.  and  consigned 
to  the  tower,  whence  he  was  liberated  by  the 
intercession  c,f  the  pope.     He  died  on  his  estate 
in  France,  1314. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


BAN 


9? 


BAK 


BALK,  or  Balkan,  anciently  Hesmus,  a  chain 
of  rugged  mountains,  extending  from  the  Black 
Sea,  in  European  Turkey,  to  the  Adriatic. 
The  summit  of  Scardus,  the  highest  peak,  is 
10,000  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

BALLSTON  SPA,  a  village  of  New  York, 
noted  for  its  mineral  springs,  7  miles  S.  W.  of 
Saratoga. 

BALTIC  SEA,  a  large  gulf  connected  with 
the  North  Sea,  and  washing  the  shores  of  Den- 
mark, Germany  and  Prussia,  Courland,  Livo- 
nia, and  other  parts  of  Russia.  The  Sound, 
the  Great  and  the  Little  Belt,  are  the  names  of 
the  three  passages  leading  from  the  Cattegat 
into  the  Baltic,  at  each  of  which  a  toll  is  paid 
to  Denmark,  which,  as  6000  ships  annually 
enter  the  Baltic  Sea,  is  no  inconsiderable  source 
of  revenue. 

BALTIMORE,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in 
Baltimore  county,  Maryland,  is  situated  on 
the  noith  side  of  the  Patapsco,  14  miles  from 
its  entrance  into  Chesapeake  bay.  The  popu- 
lation, in  1840,  was  102,313.  It  is  the  third 
city  in  the  'United  States,  and  the  centre  of 
most  of  the  trade  of  Maryland,  and  a  portion 
of  that  of  the  Western  States  and  Pennsylva- 
nia. It  is  built  around  a  basin  which  affords 
a  safe  harbor,  the  narrow  entrance  of  which, 
being  guarded  by  fort  M'Henry,  secures  the 
city  "against  a  naval  enemy.  Several  of  the 
public  buildings  are  elegant,  and  imposing  in 
appearance.  The  Washington  monument  is  a 
chaste  and  conspicuous  structure  of  stone.  St. 
Mary's  college  is  a  Catholic  institution  of  great 
repute.  The  medical  college  received,  with  its 
charter,  in  1812,  the  title  oT  university.  Dur- 
ing the  last  war,  the  city  of  Baltimore  was 
attacked  by  the  British,  and  on  the  13th  of 
September,  the  battle  at  North  Point  was  fought. 
On  the  next  day,  fort  M'Henry  was  bombarded, 
the  enemy  beaten  off,  and  general  Ross,  the 
English  commander,  slain.  The  bravery  man- 
ifested in  defence  of  Baltimore,  will  prevent  the 
event  from  falling  into  oblivion,  but,  to  comme- 
morate it.  an  elegant  marble  monument,  35  feet 
high,  called  the  Battle  Monument,  has  been 
erected. 

BANGOR,  a  city,  the  capital  of  Penobscot 
county,  Maine,  situated  at  the  head  of  tide- 
water on  the  Penobscot  river.  Population,  in 
1840,  8,627.  It  is  a  flourishing  and  pleasant 
town,  and  contains  a  theological  seminary,  and 
some  public  buildings. 

BANK,  of  England,  was  established  in  1691, 
and  is  of  historical  importance,  as  the  machine 
by  which  the  British  funding  system  has  been 


carried  on,  and  those  immense  sums  raised, 
during  the  late  wars,  to  subsidize  all  Europe. 
The  Bank  of  Venice  was  established  in  1171, 
for  the  purpose  of  rendering  assistance  to  the 
crusades. 

BANNOCKBURN,  a  village  in  Stirling- 
shire, Scotland,  celebrated  by  the  Scots,  for  the 
signal  defeat  of  the  English  army,  in  1314,  by 
Robert  Bruce.  The  army  of  Edward  II,  was 
superior  in  every  thing  but  valor,  and  the 
"battle  decided  the  independence  of  Scotland. 
James  III,  in  1488,  lost  his  life  in  a  battle 
fought  here  against  his  subjects. 

BANQUO,  or  Bancho,  thane  of  Lochaber, 
from  whom  the  royal  house  of  Stuart  was 
descended.  In  the  reign  of  Donald  VII,  he 
gained  some  military  reputation,  but  he  tar- 
nished his  fame  by  joining  Macbeth,  by  whom 
he  was  murdered  about  1046. 

BAOUR  LORMIAN,  Louis  Pierre  Marie 
Francois,  born  at  Toulouse,  in  1771,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  academy.  His  translation 
ofTasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered,  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  his  poetical  fame.  In  1814,  in  con- 
junction with  Etienne,he  wrote  a  drama  called 
the  Oriflamme,  to  inspire  the  French  with  enthu- 
siasm. In  1824,  he  published  a  translation  of 
Dante's  Divina  Commedia.  In  the  early  part 
of  his  career,  attention  was  excited  by  his  quar- 
rels with  the  poet  Lebrun,  the  warfare  produc- 
ing the  exchange  of  several  epigrams.  One  of 
Baour's,  was  the  following: 

Lebrun,  'tis  said,  subsists  on  fame— 
And  hence  the  spareness  of  his  frame. 
The  leply -was  equally  witty  and  severe. 
That  folly  fattens  one  is  sure, 
And  hence  thy  embonpoint,  Baour. 
BARATARIA,  a  bay  and  island   of  Louis- 
iana, on  the  north  side  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  bay  is  18  miles  in  length.     The  island  was 
fortified   by  the  famous  pirate  Lafitte,  whose 
resort  it  was  in  1811. 

BARBADOES,  one  of  the  Caribbean  isl- 
ands. It  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese, 
bat  beloncrs  to  the  English,  who  settled  it  in 
1605.  Longitude  59°  Slf  W.  lat.  13°  1CK  N.  It 
is  21  miles' long,  and  14  broad,  containing  an 
area  of  106,500  acres.  Population,  102,000,  in- 
cluding 14,960  whites,  5,150  free  colored  per- 
sons and»81,900  slaves.  The  island  contains 
4  towns,  viz.  Bridgetown,  the  capital,  Speight's 
T  ,  Austin's  T.,  and  Jamestown.  The  cli- 
mate is  hot,  but  the  air  uncommonly  salubri- 
ous ;  though  hurricanes  are  unhappily  not  un- 
frequent.  The  soil  is  various  and  fertile,  and 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


BAR 


98 


BAR 


Jie  genlly  undulating  country  is  studded  with 
planters'  houses,  which,  amidst  the  picturesque 
productions  of  the  soil,  add  to  the  beauty  of 
the  landscape.  Annual  value  of  the  exports  is 
£400,000;  of  imports  £500,000.  The  free 
people  of  color  are  happy,  and  many  of  them 
prosperous.  They  entertain  high-flown  notions 
of  their  valor,  which,  however,  cannot  be  de- 
nied, since  no  trial  of  it  has  taken  place.  "  A 
man  may  have  a  deal  of  courage  in  him  without 
knowing  it,"  but  the  Barbadians  appear  to  feel 
the  extent  of  theirs,  and  to  lament  it.  That 
the  "  Badians  are  almost  too  brave,"  is  said  to  be 
no  uncommon  declaration  among  these  spirited 
islanders. 

BARBAROSSA.  This  name  was  borne  by 
two  brothers,  noted  pirates,  Horuc,  and  Hay- 
raddin.  (See  Algiers.) 

BARBARY  STATES,  are  Tripoli,  Tunis, 
Algiers,  Fez,  and  Morocco,  and  lie  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa,  extending  westerly 
from  Egypt  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  A  chain 
of  snow-capped  mountains,  the  Atlas  range, 
intersects  them  almost  from  east  to  west,  be- 
tween which  and  the  sea  lies  a  fertile  tract  of 
land.  The  tract  south  of  the  mountains  ex- 
tending to  the  great  desert,  is  sandy  and  unpro- 
ductive of  any  fruit  but  dates.  "The  climate 
is  salubrious,  the  sea  air  tempering  the  heat, 
which  is,  however,  of  a  degree  to  j>ermit  the 
growth  of  vegetation  in  April  and  May.  Bar- 
ley, wheat,  ngs,  grapes,  olives,  oranges,  pom- 
egranates, melons,  Cyprus,  cedar,  and  almond 
trees,  spring  from  the  luxuriant  soil.  The 
sugar-cane,  palm-tree,  and  lotus  are  abundant; 
and,  in  the  early  part  of  the  spring,  the  country 
is  bright  and  fragrant  with  roses,  from  which 
the  purest  ottar  is  obtained.  The  domestic 
animals  are  of  the  most  valuable  kind,  and  wild 
ones  are  found  in  abundance.  Among  the 
minerals  of  the  mountains,  are  silver,  copper, 
iron,  lead,  and  antimony.  Salt  is  abundant. 
The  commerce  between  these  and  the  European 
states  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean,  is 
by  no  means  inconsiderable.  Jn  antiquitv,  the 
countries  now  composing  the  Barbary  States, 
were  distinguished  for  the  activity  of  the  in- 
habitants in  commercial  pursuits.  The  Car- 
thaginians were  the  most  wealthy  and  en- 
terprising of  the  possessors  of  these  places, 
but  the  Romans,  Vandals,  and  Arabians,  did 
not  permit  commerce  to  be  prostrated.  Now, 
a  country  capable  of  sixty  millions  of  inhabi- 
tants, contains  barely  ten  millions  and  a  half. 
The  patriotism  of  the  Carthaginians  induced 
them  to  labor  for  the  promotion  of  the  best 


interests  of  their  country,  but  their  power  could 
not  stand  against  that  of  a  nation  of  victorious 
and  hardy  warriors.  The  Romans  endeavored 
to  make  the  most  of  their  conquered  provinces, 
and  the  vast  influx  of  wealth,  which  conquest 
poured  in  upon  them,  subdued  that  stern  spirit 
of  temperance  which  had  carried  their  banners 
in  triumph  through  the  troubled  tide  of  war. 
Then  came  the  Vandals  and  Arabians,  who 
endeavored  to  render  the  possessions  they 
wrested  from  the  Romans  as  available  as  possi- 
ble. 

The  present  population  of  the  Barbary  States, 
is  composed  of  Moors,  Jews,  who  carry  on  the 
greater  part  of  the  business  done  here,  Turks, 
and  Bedouin  Arabs.  The  last,  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Saracenic  conquerors  of  the  country, 
have  a  fine,  manly  appearance.  Their  habits 
are  migratory,  and  they  dwell  in  tents,  10  or 
100  families  gathering  together,  each  family 
being  under  the  government  of  a  sheik.  They 
are  generally  at  war  with  the  Berbers,  the 
descendants  of  the  original  inhabitants  of  the 
country,  who  are  represented  as  predatory, 
treacherous,  and  cruel.  On  these,  and  on  the 
collectors  of  tribute,  the  Arabs  wage  war,  and, 
when  their  hands  are  not  full  of  personal  quar- 
rels, enter  the  service  of  any  chieftain  who  may 
require  them.  The  Moors  are  Moslems,  indo- 
lent, unsociable,  luxurious,  superstitious,  and 
uncultivated.  They  treat  the  Jews,  whom  they 
despise  and  hate,  with  great  harshness.  In 
addition  to  the  races  above  enumerated,  there 
are  manv  negroes  in  Barbary. 

BARCA,  a  desert,  with  a  few  fertile  spots, 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  between  Tri- 
poli and  Egypt ;  containing  300,000  inhabi- 
tants. It  is  subject  to  .Tripoli. 

BARCELONA,  capital  of  Catalonia,  and 
one  of  the  largest  cities  in  Spain,  contains 
120.000  inhabitants.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of 
a  crescent,  arid  stands  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  long.  2°  W  E. ;  and  lal.  41° 
2?'  N.  Linens  and  laces,  guns,  pistols,  and 
swords  are  among,  its  manufactured  articles. 
The  harbor  is  commodious,  but  rather  difficult 
of  access.  Wine  and  brandy  are  exported  in 
large  quantities.  The  amount  of  imports  and 
exports  is  probably  7.000,000  dollars.  Its  cit- 
adel, built  in  1714,  liM  B  secret  connection 
with  the  fort  of  San  Carlos ;  and  it  may  be 
considered  as  a  strongly-fortified  place.  Until 
the  twelfth  century,  Barcelona  was  under  the 
government  of  its  own  counts,  and  afterwards 
united  with  the  kingdom  of  Arragon,  but  with- 
drew and  united  to  the  French  crown  in  1(540. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BAR 


99 


BAR 


fn  1652.  it  again  submitted  to  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment, but  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1697. 
Its  restoration  was  made  at  the  peace  of  Rys- 
wick.  It  is  famous  for  the  resolute,  but  una- 
vailing defence  it  made  against  the  troops  of 
Philip  V,  under  the  command  of  the  duke  of 
Berwick,  in  1714,  when  the  sufferings  of  the 
inhabitants  were  unparalleled.  In  1809,  it  was 
taken  by  the  French,  and  remained  in  their 
power  until  1814.  In  1821,  the  yellow  fever 
committed  great  ravages  in  it.  The  candor  of 
a  Barcelona  galley-slave,  is  always  brought  to 
remembrance  on  seeing  the  name  of  this  city. 
The  duke  of  Ossuna,  as  he  passed  by  Barcelo- 
na, having  obtained  leave  from  the  king  of 
Spain  to  release  some  slaves,  went  on  board  the 
galley,  and,  passing  through  the  benches  of 
slaves  at  the  oar,  asked  several  of  them  what 
their  offences  were.  Every  one  excused  him- 
self; one  saying  he  was  put  there  out  of  malice  ; 
another  by  the  bribery  of  the  judge  ;  but  all  of 
them  unjustly.  Among  the  rest  was  a  little 
sturdy  fellow  ;  and  the  duke  asked  him  what  he 
was  there  for?  "  Sir,"  said-lie,  "  I  cannot  deny 
that  I  am  justly  sent  here ;  for  I  wanted  money, 
and  so  I  took  a  purse  from  the  high-way,  to 
keep  me  from  starving."  Upon  this,  the  duke 
struck  him  gently  with  a  little  stick  he  had  in 
his  hand,  saying,  "  You  rogue,  what  do  you  do 
among  so  many  honest  men  ?  Get  you  gone 
out  of  their  company." 

BARDS.  The  Bards,  among  Celtic  nations, 
in  battle,  raised  the  war-cry  of  their  people,  and 
in  peace,  sang  the  exploits  of  their  warriors. 
They  appear  to  have  acted,  as  the  heralds, 
legislators,  and  priests  of  the  free  Celtic  tribes 
of  Europe,  until  the  gradual  progress  of  south- 
ern despotism  and  civilization,  drove  them 
into  the  strongholds  of  the  Welsh,  Irish,  and 
Scotch  mountains,  which  echoed  to  the  w.'d 
notes  of  their  harps,  and  the  patriotic  songs  of 
the  inspired  poets.  The;r  music  and  poetry 
kept  alive  the  spark  of  national  patriotism  and 
enthusiasm,  and  inspired  a  stern  resistance  to 
the  attacks  of  despotism.  Hence  Edward  I, 
of  England,  caused  the  Welsh  bards  to  be  slain, 
as  the  instigators  of  sedition.  The  poems  of 
Ossian,  a  Highland  bard,  have  been  preserved, 
and  translated  by  Macpherson,  who  was  sus- 
pected of  being  their  author,  but  an  investiga- 
tion of  the  subject  by  a  literary  committee,  has 
clearly  proved  their  authenticity.  Of  these 
poems,  Bonaparte  was  passionately  fond,  and 
the  influence  they  exerted  upon  his  style,  may 
be  traced  in  many  of  his  declamatory  harangues. 

3ARFLEUR,  a  sea-port  in  France,  12  miles 


east  of  Cherburg,  which,  in  1340,  was  taken 
and  pillaged  by  Edward  III,  of  England,  who 
ruined  its  importance  as  a  sea-port,  by  destroy- 
ing its  harbor.  Here  William  the  conqueror 
embarked  for  England. 

BARLOW,  Joel,  an  American  poet  and 
diplomatist,  was  born  at  Reading,  Connecticut, 
about  1755.  He  was  educated  at  Dartmouth 
and  Yale  colleges,  where  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  poetical  talent.  In  the  college 
vacations,  he  served  as  a  volunteer,  and  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  White  Plains.  His  first 
publication  was  a  collection  of  minor  pieces 
called  American  Poems.  After  leaving  college, 
he  was  licensed  to  preach  as  a  Congregational 
minister,  and  became  a  chaplain  in  the  Ameri- 
can army.  His  patriotic  lays  are  said  to  have 
exerted  a  happy  influence  upon  his  country- 
men. His  Vision  of  Columbus,  which  was 
afteiwards  expanded  into  the  Columbiad,  met 
with  a  flattering  reception,  both  in  America 
and  England.  The  first  edition  was  printed  in 
1787.  His  version  of  the  Psalms  was  highly 
successful.  To  further  the  sale  of  his  poeoi, 
and  the  psalms,  he  became  a  bookseller,  at 
Hartford,  but  quitted  the  business  as  soon  as  he 
had  effected  his  object.  In  Europe,'  whither 
he  went  to  effect  the  sale  of  some  land  in  Ohio, 
he  made  himself  conspicuous  by  the  publica- 
tion of  some  prose  and  poetical  works  of  a 
political  nature.  He  also  found  time  to  write 
a  mock  heroic  poem,  in  three  cantos,  called 
Hasty  Pudding,  and  this  was  doubtless  the  hap- 
piest of  his  efforts.  ,The  commercial  specula- 
tions in  which  he  .engaged,  proved  highly  suc- 
cessful. In  1795,  he  was  appointed  American 
consul  at  Algiers,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  the  dey,and  procured  the  liberation  of  all 
the  American  citizens,  who  were  held  as  slaves 
within  that  territory.  By  the  conclusion  of 
a  similar  treaty  at  Tripoli,  he  was  enabled  to 
redeem  and  send  home  all  the  American  pris- 
oners found  there.  In  1797,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  where,  by  commercial  speculations,  he 
amassed  a  very  considerable  fortune.  In  Paris, 
he  lived  in  sumptuous  style,  and  lost  no  oppor- 
tunity of  serving  his  countrymen.  When  the 
rupture  between  America/  and  France  took 
place,  on  account  of  the  maritime  spoliations 
of  the  latter,  he  endeavored  to  adjust  the  differ- 
ences between  them.  After  an  absence  of 
nearly  W  years,  he  returned  to  his  country 
early  in  the  year  1805.  In  1808,  appeared  his 
Columbiad,  a  splendid  volume,  ornamented  with 
engravings,  executed  by  London  artists.  It 
was  so  expensive  a  work,  that  but  few  copies 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


BAR 


100 


BAR 


were  sold.  In  1811 ,  Barlow  was  appointed  min- 
ister plenipotentiary  to  the  French  government. 
In  1812,  while  repairing  to  Wilna,  in  order  to 
have  a  conference  with  the  emperor  Napoleon, 
he  died  of  an  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  Oct. 
2,  at  Zarnawica,  an  obscure  Polish  village. 

BARNEY,  Joshua,  whose  name  stands  high 
in  the  list  of  our  naval  heroes,  was  born  at 
Baltimore,  Maryland,  July  6th,  1759.  He  was 
put  into  a  retail  shop  at  an  early  age,  but  man- 
ifesting a  dislike  for  that  employment,  went  to 
sea.  At  16  years  of  age,  the  illness  of  the 
captain  and  discharge  of  the  mate  of  a  vessel, 
on  board  of  which  he  was,  put  him  in  command 
of  her, — a  station  which  he  retained  for  eight 
months.  At  the  commencement  of  the  revo- 
lutionary war,  he  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
colonies,  and  was  made  master's-mate  on  board 
the  Hornet  sloop-of-war,  Capt.  William  Stone. 
In  1775,  the  Hornet  was  concerned  with  Hop- 
kins's  fleet,  in  the  capture  of  New  Providence, 
one  of  the  Bahama  Islands.  In  1776,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  conduct  in  the  engagement 
between  the  American  schooner  Wasp  and  the 
English  brig  Tender,  which  was  captured  un- 
der the  guns  of  two  hostile  vessels,  he  was 
presented  with  a  lieutenant's  commission,  being 
then  not  17  years  of  a<je.  Soon  afterwards,  he 
became  lieutenant  of  the  Sachem,  and  assisted 
in  the  capture  of  an  English  brig,  after  a  severe 
engagement.  Being  "placed  on  board  of  a 
captured  vessel  as  prize -master,  Barney  was 
taken,  on  his  return  from  the  West  Indies,  by 
the  Perseus  of  20  guns,  but  prisoners  were  ex- 
changed in  Charleston,  S.  C.  In  1777,  Barney 
was  on  board  the  Andrew  Doria,  and  assisted 
in  the  defence  of  the  Delaware.  Having  been 
ordered  to  Baltimore,  to  join  the  Virginia  frigate, 
Capt.  Nicholson,  his  vessel  was  run  ashore  by 
the  pilot,  and  taken  by  the  British.  Barney  was 
exchanged  in  1778,  but  while  commanding  a 
small  schooner,  was  again  taken,  in  Chesapeake 
bay.  In  November,  1778,  he  sailed  with  Capt. 
Robinson  in  <i  ship  from  Alexandria,  with  a 
letter  of  marque.  They  arrived  at  Bordeaux, 
after  a  warm  action  with  the  Rosebud,  shipped 
18  guns  and  70  men,  and  took  on  board  a  cargo 
of  brandy.  On  their  return,  they  captured  a 
valuable  prize.  Barney  reached  Philadelphia 
in  October.  177(J.  In  the  following  year,  he 
married  Miss  Bedford,  and,  a  month  after- 
wards, was  robbed  of  his  whole  fortune,  on 
tlie  road  to  Baltimore.  Saying  nothing  of  his 
misfortune,  he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  and 
served  on  board  the  U.  S.  ship  Saratoga,  1(5 
guns,  Capt.  Young.  He  was  taken  prisoner 


and  sent  to   England,  escaped,  was  retaken, 
again  escaped,  and  reached  Philadelphia,  March. 

Soon  after,  he  received  from  the  state  of 
Pennsylvania  the  command  of  the  Hyder  Aly, 
a  ship  of  16  guns.  With  a  loss  of  4  killed  and 
11  wounded,  the  Hyder  Aly  captured  the  ship 
General  Monk,  20  guns,  after  an  action  of  2d 
minutes.  On  board  the  captured  vessel  were  30 
killed  and  53  wounded,  15  out  of  16  officers 
being  either  killed  or  wounded.  For  this  ex- 
ploit he  was  presented  with  a  sword  by  the  legis- 
lature of  Pennsylvania.  The  General  Monk 
having  been  purchased  by  the  United  States, 
Barney  was  put  in  command  of  her,  and  sailed 
for  France  with  sealed  despatches  for  Doctor 
Franklin,  in  November.  17cXJ.  He  returned  to 
America,  after  having  been  favorably  received 
at  the  French  court,  with  a  large  loan  from  the 
French  King,  a  passport  from  the  King  of  Eng- 
land, and  assurances  that  the  preliminaries  of 
peace  were  signed.  Barney  then  served  in  the 
French  navy  1'rom  17H5  till  1800,  when,  resign- 
ing the  command  of  a  French  squadron,  ho 
returned  to  America.  In  1S12,  on  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  between  England  and  the  United 
States,  he  commanded  the  flotilla  designed  for 
the  defence  of  the  Chesapeake.  He  set  out  for 
Bladensburg,  with  a  small  force  of  marines  and 
five  pieces  of  artillery,  in  July,  but  found  the 
Americans  in  full  retreat.  Notwithstanding  he 
made  a  most  gallant  opposition  to  the  enemy, 
lie  was  wounded  in  the  thigh  and  taken  pris- 
oner. He  received  a  sword  from  the  corpora- 
tion of  Washington,  and  a  vote  of  thanks  from 
the  legislature  of  Georgia  for  his  gallant  con- 
duct. In  May  he  was  entrusted  with  a  mission 
to  Europe,  and  returned  to  Baltimore  in  Octo- 
ber Commodore  Barney  died  at  Pittsburg.  in 
'  ^18,  while  on  his  way  to  Kentucky,  whither 
he  had  resolved  to  emigrate.  His  personal  ap- 
pearance was  prepossessing,  and  his  talents  as 
a  naval  commander  great. 

BARRY,  John,  another  distinguished  naval 
officer  in  the  service  of  the  United  States, 
was  born  in  the  county  of  Wexford.  Ireland,  in 
174").  His  father  was  a  respectable  farmer,  and 
made  no  opposition  to  his  son's  wish  to  lead 
a  seafaring  life.  Previous  to  his  coming  to 
America,  Barry  acquired  a  good  practical  edu- 
cation, and  was  between  14  and  15  years  of  age, 
when  he  reached  the  country  of  his  adoption. 
The  experience  which  he  had  gained  in  the 
merchant  service,  and  the  naval  skill  which  he 
displayed,  procured  for  him  a  commission  in  the 
continental  navy,  on  the  breaking  out  of  hos- 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BAR 


101 


BAS 


tilities  with  Great  Britain.  He  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  brig  Lexington,  10  guns,  in 
February,  1776.  After  cruising  witli  success 
he  was  transferred  in  the  same  year,  to  the  frig- 
ate Effingham,  at  Philadelphia,  but  the  ice  in 
the  Delaware  preventing  immediate  operations, 
Barry  served  on  shore  as  Aid-de-Camp  to  Gen- 
eral Cadwalader,  and  was  present  at  the  oc- 
currences near  Trenton.  When  the  American 
vessels  were  lying  near  Whitehill,  he  conceiv- 
ed the  daring  plan  of  descending  the  river  in 
boats  and  capturing  the  supplies  sent  to  the  en- 
emy. He  succeeded  in  taking  not  only  a' valu- 
able stock  of  provisions,  but  military  stores,  for 
which  exploit  he  received  the  thanks  of  Wash- 
ington. After  the  loss  of  his  frigate,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  Raleigh  of  32  guns, 
but  ran  her  on  shore  on  being  chased  by  a 
large  squadron.  In  February,  1781,  he  was  in 
command  of  the  Alliance,  a  frigate  of  36  guns, 
and  sailed  from  Boston  for  L'Orient  with  Col- 
onel Laurens  and  suite,  on  an  embassy  of  im- 
portance' to  the  court  of  Paris.  After  having 
taken  several  prizes,  he  was  severely  wounded 
in  the  action  with  the  Atalanta  ship  of  war, 
and  her  consort  the  brig  Trepasa,  which  were 
taken  after  an  engagement  of  several  hours. 
Throughout  the  war,  Commodore  Barry  behav- 
ed with  gallantry,  and  on  the  termination  of 
hostilities  was  appointed  to  superintend  the 
building  of  the  frigate  United  States,  which  he 
was  to  command.  In  the  short  naval  war  with 
France.  Barry  was  of  great  service  to  this  coun- 
try, and  remained  in  command  of  the  United 
States  till  she  was  laid  up  in  ordinary.  He 
died  Sept.  13,  1803.  with  the  reputation  of  a 
virtuous,  brave,  and  talented  man. 

BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY,  (St.)  a  feast  of 
the  church,  celebrated  August  24th.  The  horrid 
massacre  of  Bartholomew's  day  was  perpetrat- 
ed on  the  Huguenots,  or  Protestants  of  Paris, 
by  the  Catholic  faction,  during  the  reign  of 
Charles  IX.  in  1572.  The  massacre  extended 
throughout  the  kingdom,  and  the  victims  were 
not  fewer  than  30,000.  At  Rome  the  news  was 
received  with  every  demonstration  of  joy,  sa- 
lutes of  cannon  were  fired,  a  procession  went 
by  order  of  the  Pope  to  the  church  of  St.  Louis, 
and  the  Te  Deum  was  chanted. 

B  ARTLETT,  Josiah,  M.  D.  Governor  of  New 
Hampshire,  was  born  in  Amesbury,  Mass,  in 
1729.  He  commenced  the  study  of  medicine  at 
the  age  of  16,  and  at  the  age  of  21,  the  practice 
of  it,  in  which  he  was  highly  successful.  In 
1754,  he  was  a  representative  of  the  town  of 
Kingston  in  the  provincial  legislature,  where 


he  took  the  side  of  the  minority,  firmly  oppos- 
ing all  violations  of  right.  In  1775  he  was  de- 
prived by  the  Governor  of  his  commission  in 
the  army,  and  of  that  of  justice  of  peace.  From 
the  provincial  congress,  however,  he  received  a 
regiment,  and,  as  a  delegate  to  the  continental 
congress,  was  the  second  signer  of  the  declara- 
tion°of  independence.  In  1780  he  was  appoint- 
ed judge  of  the  superior  court  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  chief  justice  in  1790.  In  the  same 
year  he  became  president  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  its  governor  in  1793.  He  retired  from  office 
in  1794,  and  died  in  1795. 

BARTON,  Elizabeth,  a  country-girl  of  Ad- 
dington,  in  Kent,  commonly  called  the  Holy 
Maid- of  Kent.  She  was  an  impostor,  who  ap- 
peared in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,  with  pre- 
tensions to  miraculous  powers  ;  she  was  execut- 
ed at  Tyburn,  April  30,  1534,  after  a  full  con- 
fession of  her  imposture.  It  was  at  the  time 
that  the  king  was  about  to  be  divorced  from  his 
first  wife,  and  the  English  Church  separated 
from  Rome,  and  this  girl  was  employed  by 

Eriests  to  warn  Henry  of  the  vengeance  of 
eaven  if  he  persisted. 

BARTRAM,  William,  an  American  natural- 
ist, born  at  the  botanic  garden,  Kingsessing, 
Penn.,  1730.  He  accompanied  his  father  on  an 
expedition  to  explore  the  natural  productions  of 
East  Florida,  and  in  1773  commenced  an  exam- 
ination of  the  natural  productions  of  the  Flor- 
idas,  and  the  western  parts  of  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  at  the  request  of  Dr.  Fothergill  of 
London.  This  employment  lasted  nearly  five 
years.  In  1790  he  published  an  account  of  his 
travels  and  discoveries  in  1  vol.  8vo.  In  1782 
he  was  elected  professor  of  botany  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1786,  member 
of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.  He  be- 
longed to  many  other  learned  societies  in  Eu- 
rope and  America.  He  assisted  Wilson  in  the 
commencement  of  his  American  Ornithology. 
On  the  22d  of  July.  1823,  being  then  in  his  85th 
year,  a  few  minutes  after  writing  an  article  on 
the  natural  history  of  a  flower,  Tie  ruptured  a 
blood-vessel  and  died. 

BASHKIRS,  or  BASHKEERS,  a  tribe  of 
Turkish  origin,  whose  country  is  part  of  the 
ancient  Bulgaria.  In  1770  they  consisted  of 
27,000  families.  They  are  Mohammedans,  but 
little  civilized,  and  live  by  hunting,  raising 
cattle,  and  keeping  bees.  They  intoxicate 
themselves  on  a  beverage  made  from  ferment- 
ed mare's  and  camel's  milk. 

BASIL,  St.,  an  Eastern  patriarch,  called  the 
Great,  and  made  bishop  of  Csesarea,  in  Cappa- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


BAS 


102 


BAS 


docia,  in  370.  Here  he  died  in  379.  The  rules 
for  the  regulation  of  the  monastic  life,  which  he 
prepared,  are  still  followed  by  all  the  orders  in 
Christendom. 

BASLE,  BALE,  or  BASIL,  a  city  of  Swit- 
zerland, capital  of  a  canton  of  the  same  name. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  greater  and  lesser  towns 
have,  from  time  immemorial,  been  on  bad  terms 
with  each  other,  and  their  animosity  is  not  yet 
extinct.  The  university  founded  here  in  1459 
has  an  excellent  library.  The  clocks  of  Basle  in 
former  times  were  an  hour  in  advance  of  those 
of  other  places.  The  administration  cf  the  city 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  councils,  the  smaller  of 
which,  consisting  of  60  members,  is  chosen 
from  the  large  council  of  §80  members.  The 
principal  trade  of  Basle  is  in  silk  ribbons.  The 
treaty  of  peace  concluded  here  August  28th, 
1795,  between  the  French  and  Spanish,  procur- 
ed for  Don  Emanuel  Gcdoy,  the  Spanish  prime 
minister,  the  title  of  Prince  of  Pence.  The  chief 
object  of  the  ecclesiastical  council  of  Basle, 
which  was  convened  by  Pope  .Martin  V.;:mi 
Eugenius  IV,  commencing  its  sittings.  Dec.  14, 
1431,  was  the  conversion  of  the  papal  monar- 
chy into  a  hierarchical  aristocracy. 

BASSOMPIERRE,  Francois  de,  Marshal  of 
France,  who  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Henry  IV 
and  Louis  XIII,  and  was  one  of  the  most  a*i:iia- 
ble  and  accomplished  men  of  their  courts.  He 
was  born  in  1579  and  died  in  1646.  He  served 
in  a  military  and  civil  capacity.  Having  be- 
come enamored  of  the  charms  of  the  daughter 
of  the  Constable  de  Montmorency,  he  relin- 
quished his  hopes  when  he  discovered  that  he 
was  the  rival  of  Henry  IV. 

BA.<>(  )KA,  or  BASRAH,  a  city  of  Irak,  sit- 
uated half  way  between  the  junction  of  the  Ti- 
gris with  the  Euphrates  and  the  Persian  Gulf, 
210  miles  S.  W.  of  Ispahan.  Its  commerce  is 
extensive.  It  was  built  by  the  Caliph  Omar, 
and  has  lw?cn  alternately  occupied  by  Turks 
and  Persians. 

BASTILE,  anciently  a  castle  in  Paris,  where 
prisoners  wen-  confined  by  the  authority  of 
Lettres  de  Cachets,  that  is,  letters  of  arrest, 
written  in  the  king's  name,  with  blanks  for  the 
names  of  individuals,  which  were  to  be  filled  up 
by  the  ministers  who  possessed  these  letters. 
Heads  of  families  among  the  nobility,  who 
wished  to  confine  any  unworthy  member  of  the 
family,  claimed  the  privilege  of  confinement  by 
a  lettre  de  cachet,  and  this  privilege  was  next 
claimed  by  the  ministers  of  government,  to  be 
used  for  the  punisluncnt  of  lefractory  servants 
and  others.  It  will  easily  be  conjectured  that 


it  was  not  long  before  unprincipled  ministers 
abused  this  right  by  imprisoning  worthy  per- 
sons, who,  in  the  actual  discharge  of  their  du- 
ties, had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  men  of 
power  by  thwarting  their  interests.  In  fact  the 
use  of  the  lettres  de  cachet  was  the  main-stay  of 
despotism,  and  used  not  merely  by  the  throne, 
but  by  many  of  its  satellites.  Men  were  im- 
prisoned for  offences  too  trifling  to  be  register- 
ed, and  remained  30  or  40  )~ears  in  the  Bastile, 
or  even  till  death,  without  any  examination  be- 
ing instituted  into  the  charges  on  which  they 
were  imprisoned.  (See  Iron  Mask).  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  French  Revolution,  the  at- 
tention of  the  people  was  called  to  this  enor- 
mity. In  July,  1789,  they  assembled  in  force 
and  attacked  the  Bastile.  which  surrendered 
after  a  few  hours.  The  Governor  was  murdered. 
The  prisoners  were  feasted  in  Paris,  and  the 
building  was  finally  completely  demolished. 
Its  building  was  commenced  in  13G9  by  Charles 
V.  and  fimshod  in  13ti3  by  his  successor.  M. 
Mercier  has  given  an  interesting  account  of  a 
prisoner  who  was  confined  for  some  expressions 
of  disrespect  towards  Louis  XV.  He  was  set 
at  liberty  by  the  ministers  of  Louis  XVI.  He 
had  been  in  confinment  for  47  years,  and  had 
borne  up  against  the  horrors  of  his  prison- 
house  with  a  manly  spirit.  His  thin,  white, 
and  scattered  hairs,  had  acquired  an  almost 
iron  rigidity,  and  his  body  was  firm  and  com- 
pact as  the  stone  which  environed  him.  The 
day  of  his  liberation,  his  door  was  flung  wide 
open,  and  a  strange  voice  announced  to  him 
his  freedom.  Hardly  comprehending  the  mean- 
ing of  the  words,  he  rose  and  tottered  through 
the  courts  and  halls  of  the  prison ,  which  ap- 
peared to  him  interminable.  His  eves  by  de- 
grees became  accustomed  to  the  light  of  day, 
but  the  motion  of  the  carriage  which  was  "to 
convey  him  to  his  former  abode  appeared  unen- 
durable. At  length,  supported  by  a  friendly 
arm,  he  reached  the  street  in  which  lie  had 
once  resided,  but  on  the  spot  formerly  occupied 
by  his  house,  stood  a  public  building,  and  no- 
thing remained  in  that  quarter  that  he  re- 
cognized. None  of  the  living  beings  of  the  vast 
city  knew  him  ;  his  liberty  was  a  worthless  gift, 
and  In-  wept  for  the  solitude  of  hie  dungeon. 

Accident  brought  in  his  way  an  old  domestic,  a 
superannuated  porter,  who  had  barely  strength 
suliicient  to  discharge  the  duties  of  his  office, 
lie  did  not  recognize  his  master,  but  told  him 
1h.it  hit!  wife  had  died  of  grift'  thirty  years  be- 
'••iis  children  iiatl  gone  abroad,  and  that 
not  one  of  his  relations  remained.  Overcome 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BAT 


103 


BAV 


by  this  intelligence,  the  captive  supplicated  the 
minister  to  take  him  back  to  the  dungeon  from 
which  he  had  be«n  liberated,  and  the  man  of  of- 
fice was  moved  to  tears  by  his  misery.  The  old 
porter  became  his  companion,  as  he  was  the 
only  person  who  could  converse  to  him  of  the 
friends  he  had  lost,  but  so  wretched  was  the  iso- 
lated condition  of  the  victim  of  the  Hostile,  that 
he  died  not  long  after  his  liberation. 

BAT  AVI  A,  a  city  and  seaport  of  the  island 
of  Java,  on  the  north  coast  of  which  it  is  situ- 
ated, near  the  western  end.  It  is  the  capital  of 
all  the  Dutch  East  Indies  :  Ion.  106°  54 '  E. ; 
lat.  6°  12'  S.  Pop.  in  1824.  when  it  was  con- 
siderably reduced,  53,861 .  The  inhabitants  are 
Chinese,  Balinese,  natives  of  Celebes,  Javanese, 
Malavs,  Europeans,  and  slaves.  The  Dutch 
founded  the  city  in  1619,  and  after  being  taken 


by  the  British  in  1811.  it  was  again  restored  to 
the  Dutch  in  1816.  The  bay  would  be  good  if 
it  were  easily  accessible.  The  town  is  built  on 


a  low  marshy  foundation,  at  the  junction  of 
small  rivers,  and  some  of  the  canals  in  the 
streets  contain  stagnant  water.  Hence  origin- 
ates the  intermittent  fever,  which  is  so  fre- 
quently fatal  to  strangers.  Batavia  has  an  im- 
mense trade,  and  its  architectural  beauty  pro- 
cured it  the  name  of  Queen  of  the  East,  but  recent 
alterations  have  much  defaced  it.  The  quarter 
of  the  native  population  is  exceedingly  mean, 
while  the  European  houses  are  neat  rather  than 
elegant.  The  stadt-house,  and  places  of  public 
worship  are  not  particularly  distinguished  by 
grandeur  or  beauty. 

BAT  AVIANS,  a  German  tribe,  the  aborig- 
inal inhabitants  of  Holland,  particularly  of  the 
island  in  the  Rhine  called  Batavia.  which  was 
conquered  by  the  Salian  Franks  towards  the 
end  of  the  third  century.  The  Batavian  repub- 
lic was  formed  in  1798,  bv  a  change  in  the  con- 
stitution of  the  United  Provinces,  effected  by 
the  French.  It  continued  in  existence  till  Louis 
Bonaparte  ascended  the  throne  of  Holland, 
1806. 

BATH.  This  city  of  England  was  anciently- 
called  by  the  Romans  Aquae,  Soils,  Fontes  Calidi, 
Thermo;,  Bodonia,  and  Bathonia.  The  Britons 
gave  it  the  name  of  Caer  Badun,  or  Bladon ; 
the  Saxons.  Hat  Bathun,  and  Jlchamannum.  It 
is  in  Somersetshire,  107  miles  W.  of  London, 
and  is  situated  on  the  river  Avon,  in  a  narrow 
valley.  Its  hilly  environs  are  pleasant,  and  it 
opens  on  the  north-west  into  beautiful  and  wide 
meadow-lands.  The  population,  in  1831,  was 
50,800.  Its  baths  were  highly  esteemed  by  the 
Romans,  and  are  so  at  the  present  day.  The 


splendid  cathedral,  which  is  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture, is  the  finest  specimen  of  the  sort  in  Eng- 
land. The  places  for  public  worship  are  uuiner- 
ous,  and  few  cities  are  more  prolific  in  sources 
of  amusement. 

BATH,  a  post-town  and  port  of  entry  in 
Lincoln  county,  Maine.  It  is  situated  on  the 
W.  side  of  the  Kennebeck,  12  miles  from  the 
sea,  has  great  commercial  advantages  and  is 
engaged  in  ship-building.  The  population,  in 
1840,  was  5,141. 

BATH,  KNIGHTS  OF  THE,  an  English 
militaiy  order,  the  origin  of  which  is  uncertain. 
By  the  statutes  prepared  when  it  was  revived 
by  Georare  I,  in  1725,  the  number  of  knights 
was  fixedl  at  38 — viz.  the  sovereign  and  37 
knights-companions. 

BAUTZEN,  or  BUDESSIN,  capital  of  Up- 
per Lusatia,  situated  on  a  height  washed  by  the 
Sproe.  It  contains  11.500  inhabitants.  The 
Catholics  and  Lutherans  worship  together  in 
the  large  cathedral,  the  former  possessing  the 
altar  and  the  latter  the  nave.  On  the  20th  and 
21st  of  May,  1813,  Napoleon  here  defeated  the 
army  of  Prussians  and  Russians,  whose  master- 
ly retreat  left  him  little  advantage.  In  the  eve- 
ning of  the  21st  the  field  of  battle  presented  a 
grand  but  terrible  spectacle,  more  than  16,000 
men  being  stretched  in  their  last  sleep,  and  the 
scene  illuminated  by  the  red  glare  of  30  burning 
villages. 

BAVARIA,  a  kingdom  of  Germany ,  a  waste 
in  the  time  of  Csesar,  and  a  Roman  province 
(Vindelicia  and  Noricum)  under  Augustus.  At 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  a  confederacy  was 
formed  by  several  Gorman  tribes,  under  the 
name  of  Boiaorians,  Ratisbon  being  their  chief 
seat.  Their  country  was  called  Noricura,  and 
was  never  subject  to  the  Ostrogoths.  They  be_- 
caine  subject  however  to  the  Franks,  when  the 
latter  gained  possession  of  Rhsetia.  Otho  the 
Great,  who,  after  the  death  of  Charlemagne, 
anjl  the  occurrence  of  convulsions  incidental  to 
the  division  of  the  empire,  gained  possession  of 
Bavaria,  died  in  1183.  Louis  I.  !m  successor, 
enlarged  his  territories,  and  added  the  Palatin- 
ate of  the  Rhine.  Bavaria  was  divided  into 
Upper  and  Lower,  in  1255  ;  Maximilian  I.  a  dis- 
tinguished leader  of  the  league  against  the  Pro- 
testants, gained  the  upper  palatinate  in  1623. 
He  died  in  1651.  After  the  battle  of  Blenheim, 
the  emperor  treated  Bavaria  as  a  conquered 
country.  Charles  VII,  elected  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many in  1742,  received  homage  as  King  of  Ba- 
varia, but  in  1743  the  states  of  Bavaria  were 
constrained  to  swear  homage  to  Mariu  Theresa. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


BAV  104  BAY 

In  the  war  of  1743,  Charles'  fortunes  sank  rapid-  but  a  few  fragments  of  her  fine  army  survived' 
ly,  and  he  was  forced  to  abandon  Bavaria.  His  the  expedition  to  Moscow.  In  Ibl3  the  king 
son  and  successor,  Maximilian  Joseph  III  as-  of  Bavaria  abandoned  the  confederation  of  the 
sumed.  like  his  father,  the  title  of  archduke  of  Rhine  and  turned  his  arms  against  Napoleon. 
Austria,  but  making  peace  with  Austria,  in  The  kingdom  of  Bavaria  is  at  present  one  of 
1745,  received  from  Francis  all  the  Bavarian  the  principal  of  the  secondary  continental  pow- 
territories  which  had  been  conquered  by  that  ers.  Bavaria,  exclusively  of  the  part  west  of 
power.  Maximilian  Joseph  devoted  himself  to  the  Rhine,  is  bounded  north  by  Hesse-Darm- 
the  promotion  of  the  interests  of  his  people,  and  stadt.  Hesse-Cassel,  the  Saxon  principalities 
favored  their  industry  by  every  means  in  his  of  Meiningen,  Hildburghausen.  and  Cpburg. 
power  ;  the  foundation  of  the  Academy  of  Sci-  Reuss.  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  ;  east  and 
ences  at  Munich  proves  his  liberality,  and  the  south  by  Austria,  and  west  by  Wurtemberg,  Ba- 
extension  of  his  views.  den,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt.  The  kingdom  con- 
By  the  treaties  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach,  tains  4,238,000  inhabitants.  The  people  are  in- 
and  the  terms  of  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  the  dustrious  and  education  has  made  much  pro- 
right  of  succession  reverted  to  the  palatinate,  gress.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  branch  of  indus- 
on  the  extinction  of  the  Wittelsbach  Bavarian  try.  The  government  is  administered  to  general 
line  in  the  person  of  Maximilian  Joseph,  who  satisfaction. 

died  30th  of  December,  1777,  but  the  claims  of  BAYARD,  Pierre  du  Terrail,  Chevalier  de, 
Austria  to  Lower  Bavaria  were  enforced  by  called  Le  Chcralicr  sans  pcuret  sans  reprochc,  (the 
arms,  and  Charles  Theodore,  in  1778,  was  per-  knight  without  fear  and  without  reproach).  He 
suaded  formally  to  renounce  the  Bavarian  sue-  was  born  in  castle  Bayard,  near  Grenoble,  147(i, 
cession.  The  Duke  of  Deux-Ponts,  however,  of  one  of  the  most  ancient  families  in  Dau- 
the  presumptive  heir,  relying  on  the  encour-  phiny.  Educated  under  the  eye  of  his  uncle,  the 
agement  afforded  by  Frederick  II,  refused  to  ac-  bishop  of  Grenoble,  he  early  displayed  those 
knowledge  the  surrender  of  the  succession.  This  traits  for  which  he  was  afterwards  so  much  be 
was  the  cause  of  the  Bavarian  war  of  succes-  loved  and  celebrated.  Modest, pious,  affectiori- 
sion  which  was  terminated  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  ate,  tender,  brave,  and  honorable,  all  who  be- 
sig^ied  May  13th,  1779,  in  consequence  of  war  held  him  augured  well  of  his  future  career, 
being  declared  against  Austria  by  Russia,  when  Charles  VIII,  who  saw  him  at  Lyons,  manag- 
Bavaria  was  secured  to  the  elector  palatine  of  ing  a  stately  steed  with  ease  and  grace,  begged 
Bavaria.  The  Austrians  yet  coveted  the  coun-  him  of  the  duke  of  Savoy,  whose  page  he  then 
try,  and,  in  1784,  Joseph  II  proposed  to  ex-  was,  and  committed  him  to  the  care  of  Paul  cf 
change  the  Austrian  Netherlands  for  Bavaria,  Luxemburg,  count  de  Ligny.  He  won  his  ear- 
with  the  sum  of  3,000,000  florins  for  the  Elector  liest  laurels  in  tournaments,  but  he  was  destined 
and  the  Duke  of  Deux-Ponts,  and  the  title  of  to  shine  upon  redder  fields  of  glorj',  and  at  the 
king  of  Burgundy.  This,  however,  was  formal-  age  of  18  accompanied  Charles  Vlli  to  Italy, and 
ly  refused  by  the  duke  of  Deux-Ponts.  who  de-  took  a  standard  in  the  battle  of  Verona.  When, 
clared  he  would  never  barter  away  the  inher-  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XII.  he  was  taken  pris- 
itance  of  his  ancestors.  Charles  Theodore  re-  oner  by  following  some  flying  adversaries  into 
vived  the  order  of  Jesuits,  and  restrained  the  Milan,  Ludovico  Sforza  generously  returned 
freedom  of  the  press,  and  on  the  breaking  him  his  horse  and  arms,  and  dismissed  him 
out  of  the  French  revolution,  the  elector  se,nt  without  ransom.  His  exploit  at  the  bridge  over 
troops  to  aid  the  empire.  In  It'M  Bavaria  be-  the  Garigliano  was  worthy  of  a  Roman  in 
came  the  theatre  of  war.  Maximilian  Joseph,  Rome's  lest  days,  for  like  Horatius  Codes  he 
duke  of  Deux-Ponts,  now  came  into  possession  gallantly  defended 'the  bridge  against  the  victori- 
of  Bavaria.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  of  ous  Spaniards,  until  the  French  army  were  eafe. 
180.r>,  the  elector  joined  the  French  with  30,000  On  account  ofcthis  action,  he  had  for  his  coat  of 
troops,  and  at  the  peace  of  Presburg  received  a  arms  a  porcupine,  with  the  following  motto: 
vast  addition  of  territory,  and  the  title  of  king.  Vires  agminis  itnns  liabet. — alone  In-  lias  an 
A  matrimonial  alliance  connected  the  inter-  army's  strength.  When  Julius  11  declared  him- 
ests  of  Bavaria  still  more  closely  with  those  of  Bolf  against  France.  Bayard  hastened  to  the  as- 
France.  The  king  of  Bavaria  took  part  against  Distance  of  the  duke  of  Ferrani.  1  )ef>-at.ed  in  his 
the  Prussians  and  Austrians,  in  180(i  and  1809.  attempt  to  take  the  Pope  pris'<;>  r.  he  yet  stem- 
In  the  war  of  1812  between  France  and  Russia,  ly  refused  to  listen  to  an  oflvr  to  betray  him. 
Bavaria  brought  30,000  men  into  the  field,  and  He  was  wounded  in  the  assault  on  Brescia,  and 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BAY 


105 


BE  A 


carried  into  the  house  of  a  nobleman,  who  had 
fled  leaving  his  wife  and  two  daughters  expos- 
ed to  the  brutal  insults  of  a  licentious  soldiery. 
Bayard  protected  them  faithfully,  refusing  their 
offers  of  reward,  and  returning,  as  soon  as  he 
was  cured,  to  the  French  camp,  whose  stay  and 
hope.  Gaston  de  Foix,  had  been  killed  in  conse- 
quence of  neglecting  the  advice  of  Bayard.  The 
latter  received  a  second  wound  in  the  retreat 
from  Pavia,  which  it  was  thought  would  prove 
mortal.  On  learning  this,  the  gallant  Chevalier 
said,  in  the  true  spirit  of  a  warrior,  "  1  grieve 
not  to  die.  but  to  die  in  my  bed  like  a  woman/' 
The  military  misfortunes  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  reign  of  Louis  XII  did  not  cast  a  shadow 
on  the  glory  of  Bayard,  but  his  personal  bra- 
very was  conspicuous  even  in  reverse.  He  was 
ever  the  foremost  in  the  charge,  and  the  last  in 
the  retreat.  Francis  I  had  no  sooner  ascended 
the  throne,  than  he  gave  proof  of  the  confi- 
dence he  reposed  in  Bayard,  by  sending  him 
into  Dauphiny  to  open  a  passao-e  for  his  army 
over  the  Alps,  and  through  Piedmont.  Bay- 
ard captured  Prosper  Colonna,  who  lay  in  wait 
for  him,  hoping  to  surprise  him.  Elated  with 
this  success,  in  the  battle  of  Marignano  to  which 
it  was  a  prelude,  he  performed  prodigies  of  val- 
or by  the  side  of  the  king,  who  emulated  the 
bravery  of  the  gallant  chevalier.  After  this 
day  of  glory  Francis  received  knighthood  from 
the  sword  of  Bayard.  Bayard  defended  the 
town  of  Meziere,  when  Charles  V  invaded 
Champagne,  with  such  spirit  and  resolution, 
that  at  Paris  he  was  called  the  Sartor  of  his 
Country.  He  received  from  the  hands  of  the 
kkig  the  order  of  St.  Michael,  and  a  company 
of  100  men  to  command  in  his  own  name, 
an  honor  never  before  conferred  but  on  princes 
of  the  blood.  Bayard  reduced  to  obedience  the 
revolted  Genoa,  but  the  fortunes  of  the  French 
changed,  and  they  were  obliged  to  retreat. 
Bonnivet,  the  commander,  his  rear-guard  beat- 
en, and  himself  severely  wounded,  committed 
the  care  of  the  army  to  the  gallant  Bayard. 
Compelled  to  pass  Sesia  in  the  presence  of  a 
superior  force,  Bayard,  the  last  man  in  the  re- 
treat, was  combating  the  Spaniards,  when  a 
stone  from  a  blunderbuss  shattered  his  back- 
bone, and  he  exclaimed,  "  Jesus  Christ,  my 
God,  I  am  a  dead  man  !"  He  was  removed  at 
his  request  under  the  shadow  of  a  tree  ;  <;  from 
this  spot,"  said  he, ;'  I  can  behold  the  enemy." 
He  confessed  his  sins  to  his  squire,  and,  in 
default  of  a  crucifix,  kissed  the  hilt  of  his 
sword.  Bidding  a  farewell  to  his  friends,  his 
king,  and  his  country,  he  died,  surrounded  by 


admiring  and  weeping  friends  and  enemies, 
April  30th,  1524.  His  enemies,  who  retained 
possession  of  the  body,  embalmed  it,  and  re- 
stored it  to  his  countrymen,  by  whom  it  was 
consigned  to  a  tomb  in  a  church  of  the  Minor- 
ites, near  Grenoble.  A  simple  bust,  and  a  Latin 
inscription,  mark  the  place  of  his  repose. 

BAYARD.  James  A.,  an  eminent  American 
lawyer  and  politician,  born  at  Philadelphia-,  in 
1767.  He  was  educated  at  Princeton  College. 
As  a  representative  in  Congress,  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  patriotism  and  ability  in 
debate.  He  was  sent  to  Europe  as  one  of  the 
commissioners  to  treat  for  peace  in  1813,  but 
after  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  the  state  of  his  health 
induced  him  to  return  home  with  all  possible 
speed.  He  accordingly  embarked  at  Havre,  in 
May,  IslS,  arrived  in  the  United  States,  and 
died  in  the  bosom  of  his  family. 

BAYLE.  Pierre,  a  French  writer,  born  at 
Carlat,  in  Languedoc,  in  1047.  He  died  in 
1706,  at  the  age  of  59.  His  Historical  and  Crit- 
ical Dictionary  (Dictionnaire  historiqiie  ct  cri- 
tique), is  his  most  important  work.  This  was 
originally  published  in  2  vols.  fol.,  and  displays 
the  logic  and  learning  fbr  which  the  author 
is  so  celebrated.  Fie  modestly  called  it,  "  an 
ill-digested  compilation  of  passages  tacked  to- 
gether by  the  ends.''  Voltaire  calls  him  "  the 
first  of  logicians  and  sceptics,"  but  adds,  that  his 
warmest  apologists  cannot  deny,  that  there  is  not 
a  page  in  his  controversial  writings,  which  does 
not  lead  the  reader  to  doubt,  and  often  to  scep- 
ticism. He  himself  says.  '•  my  talent  consists 
in  raising  doubts ;  but  they  are  only  doubts." 

BAYONNE,  a  large  city  about  two  miles 
from  the  bay  of  Biscay,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
IS'ive  and  Ardour.  It  is  in  the  French  depart- 
ment of  the  Lower  Pyrenees,  and  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  a  district  of  Gascony.  Population, 
14.600.  Bayonne  has  considerable  commerce 
with  Spain,  and  is  much  engaged  in  the  cod  and 
whale  fishery.  Its  hams,  wines,  and  chocolate, 
are  famous.  Here  in  1605,  ^Napoleon  met  the 
king  of  Spain,  Charles  IV,  and  the  prince  of 
the  Asturias,  when  the  two  last  were  induced 
to  sign  an  agreement,  bv  which  they  and  the 
king's  children  renounced  their  rights  in  the 
European  and  Indian  territories  of  Spain,  in 
favor  of  Bonaparte. 

BEATON,Daviil,  archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's, 
and  cardinal,  born  in  1494.  On  the  corona- 
tion of  the  young  queen  Mary,  he  renewed  his 
c:'ie!  persecutions  of  the  heretics,  and,  among 
others,  brought  George  Wishart,  the  famous 
Protestant  preacher,  to  the  stake .  Seated  at  his 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


BEA 


106 


BED 


window,  he  beheld  with  fiendish  joy  the  cruel 
sufferings  of  this  estimable  man.  He  was  openly 
licentious,  and,  although  endowed  with  some 
good  qualities,  was  disgraced  by  flagrant  vices. 
He  was  murdered  in  his  chamber,  May  29, 1546. 
BEATTIE,  James,  a  miscellaneous  wri- 
ter, and  pleasing  poet,  born  at  Lawrence- 
kirk,  in  Kincardine  county,  in  J735,  died  in 
August,  1803.  The  poem  by  which  he  w.'ill  be 
remembered  as  a  follower  of  the  Muses,  is  the 
Minstrel,  the  first  book  of  which  was  published 
in  1770.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  Evidences  of 
Christianity,  and  some  controversial  works,  in 
which,  however,  he  did  not  shine  so  much  as  iu 
his  poems. 

BEAUFORT,  a  pleasant  sea-port,  and  post- 
town  of  South  Carolina,  in  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  situated  on  Port  Royal  island,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Coosawhatchie,  sixty  miles  N. 
E.  of  Savannah;  population  about  1000.  It 
contains  3  churches,  and  a  respectable  seminary. 

BEAUFORT,  Henry,  cardinal,  brother  of 
Henry  IV  king  of  England,  bishop  of  Lincoln, 
afterwards  of  Winchester,  and  chancellor  of  the 
kingdom.  In  1431,  he  crowned  Henry  VI,  in 
the  great  church  of  Paris.  He  is  strongly  sus- 
pected of  having  directed  the  assassination  of 
Humphrey  duke  of  Gloucester.  He  died  in 
1447. 

BEAUMARCHAIS,  Pierre  Augustin  Caron 
de ;  artist,  politician,  projector,  painter,  mer- 
chant, and  dramatist.  He  was  son  of  a  watch- 
maker, and  born  at  Paris,  in  1732.  He  was 
teacher  of  the  harp  to  the  daughters  of  Louis 
XV,  and  by  a  wealthy  marriage,  laid  the  foun- 
dation cf  his  immense  fortune.  His  Eugene, 
Mere  Coupalile,  Mariage  dc  Figaro,  and  Bur- 
bier  de  Seville,  keep  possession  of  the  stage  in 
several  languages.  His  Memoirs  exhibit  Beau- 
marchais  in  hid  true  character.  He  increased 
his  fortune  by  his  contract  to  supply  the  United 
States  with  military  stores,  during  the  revolu- 
tionary war.  He  died  in  17iJ(J. 

BEAUMONT,  Francis,  and  FLETCHER, 
John,  two  English  dramatic  writers  of  great 
power,  who  united  their  interests  and  wrote 
conjointly.  Beaumont,  born  in  1535,  died  in 
XJIG;  Fletcher,  born  in  1576,  died  in  1625,  of 
ihe  plague,  in  London.  They  used  to  frequent 
ale-houses,  as  Shakspeare  is  said  to  have  done, 
lor  the  sake  of  studying  human  nature,  and 
were  once  arrested  in  a  very  dramatic  manner. 
They  were  disputing  in  an  ale-hoase  about  the 
fate  of  a  king  in  one  of  rheir  plays,  one  insist- 
ing upon  his  assassinati'.-Ti.  the  other  on  his 
n.  fiome  of  thcij  uninitiated  audi- 


tors procured  their  arrest,  imagining  that  a 
conspiracy  against  the  reigning  sovereign  was 
on  foot. 

BECKET,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  Roman 
Catholic  prelate,  was  born  in  London,  in  llli) 
He  was  the  son  of  a  merchant  by  the  name  of 
Gilbert,  who,  while  a  prisoner  in  the  East,  is 
said  to  have  engaged  the  affections  of  a  Sara- 
cen lady  ;  she  followed  the  merchant  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  married  her.  Becket's  advance- 
ment was  rapid — he  was  a  favorite  with  Henry 
II,  who  made  him  tutor  to  his  son  in  1158,  and 
heaped  spiritual  and  temporal  honors  upon  him. 
He  rivalled  royalty  in  the  splendor  of  his  liv- 
ing. On  his  election  to  the  see  of  Canterbury, 
in  1162.  he  resigned  the  office  of  chancellor,  and 
assuming  all  the  arrogance  of  sovereign  pontiff, 
lent  himself  to  oppose  the  reformation  intended 
by  the  king  among  the  clergy.  Their  enormi- 
ties had  disgusted  the  whole  kingdom  ;  and  the 
archbishop  screened  the  most  abandoned,  under 
the  pretext  that  they  were  not  amenable  to  the 
civil  power.  After  a  series  of  hostilities  between 
the  king  and  himself,  many  references  to  the 
pope,  excommunications  and  anathemas,  recon- 
ciliations and  fresli  quarrels,  on  the  archbish- 
op's refusal  to  withdraw  his  excommunication 
of  some  bishops,  which  was  felt  to  lie  very  hard 
upon  them,  the  king,  in  a  fit  of  passion,  re- 
proached his  courtiers  for  permitting  him  to  be 
BO  long  and  so  ignobly  tormented.  On  this, 
four  knights  went  down  to  Canterbury,  and 
killed  Becket  before  the  altar  as  he  was  at  the 
vesper-service.  December  29th,  1170.  The  per- 
petrators of  this  deed  were  finally  admitted  to 
penance,  but  the  king  was  compelled  to  expiate 
his  guilt  at  the  tomb  of  the  archbishop,  who 
was  canonized  two  years  after  his  death.  He 
became  a  popular  saint,  and  miracles  were 
abundant  at  his  tomb,  which  was  much  visited 
by  pilgrims  till  the  reformation. 

BEDE,  or  Beda,  commonly  called  the  Vener- 
able Bede,  an  English  ecclesiastic  of  the  8th 
century,  was  bornln  the  neighborhood  of  Wear- 
mouth,  in  the  year  672,  or  673,  and  pursued  his 
studies  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Peter,  Wear- 
mouth.  He  died  in  May,  A.  D.  735.  His  En- 
glish Ecclesiastical  History,  his  greatest  and 
most  popular  work,  was  translated  by  Alfred 
the  Great  of  England.  He  was  modest  and 
moderate,  and,  although  a  monk,  wished  to  have 
the  number  of  monasteries  lessened.  Bede  led 
a  life  of  pious  and  studious  retirement,  and  on 
the  day  of  his  death,  he  was  dictating  a  transla- 
tion of  the  gospel  of  St.  John,  to  his  amanuensis. 
'•  Master,"  said  the  young  man,  as  he  raised  his 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BEL 


107 


BEL 


eyes,  "  there  is  but  one  more  sentence  want- 
ing." Bede  bade  him  write  rapidly,  and  when 
the  scribe  said,  "  it  is  done,"  replied,  "  It  is  in- 
deed done,"  and  expired  a  few  minutes  after- 
wards in  the  act  of  prayer. 

BEDFORD,  John,  duke  of,  the  third  son  of 
Henry  IV  of  England.  In  1422,  he  commanded 
the  English  army  in  France,  and  the  same  year 
was  named  regent  of  that  kingdom  for  Henry 
VI,  whom  he  caused  to  be  crowned  at  Paris. 
He  defeated  the  French  fleet  near  Southampton, 
entered  Paris,  b^eat  the  duke  of  Alencon,  and 
made  himself  master  of  France.  The  greatest 
stain  upon  his  character,  is  his  cruelty  to  the 
Maid  of  Orleans,  whom  he  caused  to  be  burnt  in 
the  market-place  of  Rouen.  He  died  at  Rouen, 
in  1435. 

BEEJAPOOR,  (the  city  of  victory)  a  large 
province  of  Deccan,  between  15  and  18  degrees 
of  north  latitude.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  it  is 
well  watered.  Four  fifths  of  the  country  be- 
long to  the  Mahrattas.  Population  7,000,000. 

BEERING,  Vitus,  a  captain  in  the  Russian 
navy,  who  in  the  year  1 728,  explored  the  coasts 
of  Kamtschatka,  and  proved  that  Asia  was  dis- 
joined from  America.  He  died  on  a  desolate 
island,  during  a  voyage  of  discovery,  December 
8,  1741.  The  stra'it  between  Asia  and  Amer- 
ica, has  received  the  name  of  Beering's  straits 
from  him.  The  uninhabited  island  on  which 
he  died,  is  called  Beering's  Island. 

BEGUINES,  females  who  bound  themselves 
to  obey  the  rules  of  an  ecclesiastical  order, 
forming  societies  for  purposes  of  devotion  and 
charity,  living  together  in  beguinages,  without 
taking  the  monastic  vows.  They  originated  in 
Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  towards  the  end 
of  the  llth  century.  They  flourished  most  in 
the  12th  century,  and  some  of  their  societies 
still  exist  in  the  Netherlands. 

BEIRA,  a  well-watered  and  fertile  province 
of  Portugal,  bounded  on  the  north  chiefly  by 
the  river  Douro,  on  the  east  by  Spain,  on  the 
south  by  the  Tagus.  and  the  Portuguese  Estre- 
madura,  and  by  the  Atlantic  on  the  west.  Pop- 
ulation 900.000. 

BELEM  (properly  Bethlehem),  a  quarter  of 
Lisbon,  formerly  a  market-town,  commanding 
a  fine  view  of  the  harbor  and  sea.  It  was  long 
the  residence  of  the  royal  family.  The  torrede 
Belem,  a  tall  tower,  rises  out  of  the  river  Tago ; 
and  no  ships  are  permitted  to  pass  by  it  unvisi- 
ted. 

BELGIANS,  were  a  collection  of  German 
and  Celtic  tribes.  They  inhabited  the  country 
extending  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  to  the  Rhine, 
10 


and  from  the  Marne  and  Seine,  to  the  southern 
mouth  of  the  Rhine,  which  is  united  with  the 
Meuse.  Caesar  has  borne  witness  to  the  bravery 
of  the  Belgians,  particularly  of  those  who  resided 
on  the  northern  frontiers  of  Germany,  declaring 
that  they  were  the  most  valiant  of  the  Gauls. 

BELGIUM  ;  the  name  of  that  part  of  the 
Netherlands  which  formerly  belonged  to  Aus- 
tria, and  recently  made  a  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands.  It  is  now  an  independent 
kingdom,  the  revolution  of  the  Parisians  in 
1830,  having  inspired  the  Belgians  with  a  similar 
spirit.  The  present  monarch  is  Leopold  I. 

BELGRADE,  an  important  commercial  city 
of  Servia,  with  30,000  inhabitants,  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Save  with  the  Danube. 
It  is  well  fortified,  commanding  the  Danube, 
and  is  at  present  occupied  by  a  Turkish  garri- 
son. It  has  been  an  object,  for  the  attain- 
ment of  which  the  hostile  nations  have  strug- 
gled during  the  various  wars  between  Austria 
and  Turkey.  At  different  times,  it  has  been 
possessed  by  Greeks,  Hungarians,  Bulgarians, 
Bosnians,  Servians,  and  Austrians.  The  siege 
of  Belgrade  by  the  Turks,  in  1442  and  1456,  are 
noted  events  in  military  annals.  In  1809,  it 
was  taken  by  the  revolutionary  Servians,  and 
it  is  the  largest  and  most  important  city  of  the 
Servian  state. 

BELGRANO,  Manuel,  a  native  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  who  took  an  active  part  in  the  events 
which  secured  the  independence  of  South 
America.  He  died,  deeply  deplored,  in  1820. 

BELISARIUS,  general  of  the  armies  of  the 
emperor  Justinian.  He  defeated  a  superior 
force  of  Persians,  in  the  year  530,  and  in  the 
the  year  after  he  took  Carthage,  and  made 
prisoner  Gelimer,  king  of  the  Vandals.  Beli- 
sarius  entered  Constantinople  in  triumph.  He 
was  next  sent  against  the  Goths  in  Italy, 
and  arriving  on  the  coasts  of  Sicily,  took  Cata- 
nia, Syracuse,  Palermo,  and  other  places.  He 
then  proceeded  to  Naples,  which  he  took,  and 
marched  to  Rome.  After  this  he  conquered 
Vitiges,  king  of  the  Goths,  sent  him  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  refused  the  crown  which  was 
offered  him.  For  his  exploits  he  was  regarded 
as  the  saviour  of  the  empire,  and  medals  are 
extant  with  this  inscription,  Belisarius  Gloria. 
Romanorum,  (Belisarius,  the  glory  of  the  Ro- 
mans). Having  fallen  under  suspicion  of  Jus- 
tinian, he  was  deprived  of  his  property  and 
honors,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  he 
was  subsequently  restored  to  them.  Marmon- 
tel,  in  his  romance  (Belisarius),  adopts  a  story 
which  is  related  by  no  cotemporary  historian 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


BEL 


108 


BEM 


that  he  was  deprived  of  his  eyes  by  his  cruel 
master,  and  forced  to  beg  his  bread  in  the  streets 
of  Constantinople.  Others  say  that  he  was  im- 
prisoned in  a  tower,  whence  he  used  to  let 
down  a  bag  by  a  rope,  addressing,  the  passen- 
gers in  the  following  words  : — Date  Bclisario 
obolum,  quern  virtus  evexit,  invidia  deprcssit. 
(Give  an  obolus  to  Belisarius,  whorn  virtue  ex- 
alted, but  envy  crushed.)  '  He  died  in  5(5,1. 

BELKNAP,  Jeremy,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  June  1744,  educated  at  Harvard 
college,  and  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  in 
Dover,  New  Hampshire,  1767.  For  some  years 
previous  to  his  death,  which  took  place  in  17D8, 
he  officiated  in  a  church  in  Boston.  He  was  an 
easy  and  correct  writer,  and  hie  reputation  rests 
on  his  History  of  New  Hampshire,  and  two  vol- 
umes of  his  unfinished  American  Biography. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Historical  Society. 

BELLE-ISLE,  or  Belle-Tsle-en  Mer,  ancient- 
ly Vindilis,  an  island  in  the  bay  of  Biscay,  about 
nine  miles  long,  115  miles  from  the  western 
coast  of  France.  The  soil  is  various.  It  con- 
tains three  towns,  and  several  small  villages. 
Palais  is  the  capital.  It  is  famous  for  a  sea- 
fight  fought  in  1751),  between  the  English  un- 
der Hawke,  and  the  French  under  Connans,  in 
which  the  former  gained  a  decisive  victory. 
The  island  was  afterwards  taken,  but  restored 
at  the  peace  of  1763. 

BELLE-ISLE,  an  island  N.  E.  of  the  gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  with  two  small  harbors.  It  is 
21  miles  in  circuit. 

BELLE-ISLE,  marshal,  a  celebrated  general 
in  the  war  to  maintain  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
who  rendered  himself  famous  by  a  fine  retreat 
from  Prague. 

BELLONA,  the  goddess  of  war.  She  was 
also  called  Duellonia,  and  was  the  sister  of 
Mars,  whose  chariot  she  drove  through  bat- 
tles with  a  bloody  scourge,  her  hair  han«ring  in 
wild  disorder.  AtComana  she  had  300  priests. 
The  priests  used  their  own  blood  in  their  sacri- 
'.is  fierce  deity. 

BELL-ROCK,  or  Inch  Cape,  a  dangerous 
rock  of  Scotland,  nearly  opposite  ihe  river  Tay, 
the  light-house  upon  which,  finished  in  ]81 1,  is 
of  admirable  construction.  In  former  ages,  the 
monks  of  Aberbrothock,  suspended  a  bell  upon 
this  rock,  which,  bi-inir  i\u\<jr  by  the  waves, 
warned  mariners  of  the  dan" 

BELUJISTAN,  Beluchislan,  or  Beloochis- 
tan  ;  a  country  of  Asia,  formerly  belonging  to 
Persia,  on  the  northwest  of  the  peninsula  of 
Hindustan;  now  forming  an  independent  state. 


It  contains  five  divisions:  1.  Jhalawan  and 
Sarawan,  with  the  district  of  Kelat;  2.  Macran 
and  Lus ;  3.  Kohistan ;  4.  the  Desert ;  and 
5.  Cutch  Gundava,  and  the  district  of  Herrend 
Dajel.  It  is  a  rough  region,  and  some  of  the 
mountains  are  of  great  height.  The  heat  of 
summer  is  intense,  and  water  scarce.  The 
desert  is  SCO  miles  long,  and  200  broad.  Among 
the  minerals  of  this  country,  are  gold,  silver, 
lead,  iron,  copper,  tin,  alum,  saltpetre,  sulphur, 
rock  salt,  &c.  Cotton,  indigo,  grain,  assafoe- 
tida,  and  madder,  are  productions  of  the  soil. 
The  natives  are  divided  into  three  tribes — the 
Beluches,  the  Dehwars,  and  Brahuis.  They 
are  Mohammedans,  warlike,  half-civilized,  and 
pastoral  in  their  habits. 

BELZONI,  Giambattista,  or  John  Baptist, 
was  born  at  Padua,  and  educated  at  Rome,  be- 
ing destined  for  a  .monastic  life.  Having  a 
taste,  however,  for  an  active  life,  he  served  in 
the  French  armies,  and  went  to  England  in 
1803.  Here  his  finances  were  probably  at 
a  low  ebb,  for  he  was  engaged  to  exhibit  pos- 
tures at  Astley's  amphitheatre.  London,  at  a 
salary  of  £2  per  week.  From  London  he 
afterwards  went,  with  his  wife,  to  Egypt, 
passing  through  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Malta. 
Here,  from  1615  to  181!'.  he  lived  as  a  dancer 
until  he  had  attracted  the  notice  of  the  pacha, 
who  employed  him.  He  succeeded  in  opening 
the  pyramid  of  Cheops,  which  had  defied  the  in 
genuity  and  efforts  of  the  French,  that  of  Ce 
phrcnes,  and  several  catacombs  near  Thebes, 
one  of  which  is  believed  to  have  been  the  bu 
rial  place  of  Psammis,  who  died  400,  B.  C.  He 
exhibited  great  accuracy  and  skill  in  the  draw 
ings  which  he  took.  In  1816,  he  accomplished 
an  undertaking  of  great  difficulty — the  removal 
of  the  bust  of  Jupiter  Memnou,  and  a  sarcopha- 
gus (if  alabaster,  from  Thebes  to  Alexandria. 
whence  they  were  shipped  for  England.  On 
the  1st  of  August,  1817.  lie  opened  the  temple 
of  Ipsambul,  near  the  second  cataract  of  the 
Nile,  discovering  a  subterranean  chapel  in  its 
ruins.  He  discovered  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Berenice,  four  days  journey  from  the  spot 
where  Cailliaud  asserted  that  he  had  found  it. 
Belzoni  died  on  his  way  to  Benin"  whence  he  in- 
tended to  passtoTimbuctoo,  December  i!.  182:5. 
In  person  he  w,:s  !;:'.!  ;nid  well-proportioned, 
and  his  gigantic  stature  piotected  him  from  at- 
tack, ev.  ri'wheri  alone  imiidst  ferocious  barba- 
rians. His  wife,  who  accompanied  him  to 
Egypt,  displayed  great  intrepidity  amidst  the 
dangers  which  they  encountered. 

BK.M15O,   Pietro  ;  one  of  the  most  famous 
Italian  scholars  of  the  IGth  century. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


BEN 


109 


BEN 


BENARES,  a  town  and  district  of  Allaha- 
bad, in  Bengal,  with  a  population  exceeding 
3,000,000.  In  181.%  the  gross  revenue  was 
.£570,338.  Mr.  Hastings  expelled  the  rajah 
Chet  Singh,  in  1781.  The  town  of  Bctuires 
rises,  like  an  amphitheatre  on  the  high  bank  of 
the  Ganges,  on  its  northern  side.  It  contains 
more  than  600,000  inhabitants,  and  the  dense 
population  at  the  great  Hindoo  festivals,  pre- 
sents an  extraordinary  scene.  The  natives  call 
Benares  Casi,  or  Cashi,  the  splendid,  and.  as  it 
contains  8000  Bramins,  it  is  regarded  with  pe- 
culiar reverence.  A  college  for  the  instruction 
of  Hindoos,  in  their  own  literature  was  estab- 
lished here  by  the  British  government,  in  1801. 
Benares  is  the  grand  mart  for  diamonds  and 
other  gems,  which  are  brought  principally  from 
the  Bundelcund.  With  the  exception  of  the 
government  officers,  there  are  few  English  resi- 
dents here.  In  1775,  Casi  was  ceded  to  the 
East  India  Company,  by  the  nabob  of  Oude. 
The  Sanscrit  name  for  Benares,  is  Vara  Nashi, 
from  two  streams,  Vara  and  Nashi.  A  Hindoo 
imagines  that  if  he  dies  in  Benares,  his  eternal 
felicity  is  certain. 

BENAVIDES,  an  outlaw  and  pirate,  whose 
singular  perseverance  and  ferocity  rendered  him 
for  many  years  the  terror  of  the  southern  parts 
of  Chili.  Under  pretext  of  establishing  a  navy, 
he  seized  upon  English  and  American  vessels, 
that  stopped  for  refreshment  near  the  town  of 
Arauco,  the  centre  of  his  operations.  In  1821, 
the  Chilians  fitted  out  an  expedition,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  breaking  up  his  strong  hold,  and  cap- 
turing him.  He  was  condemned  and  executed, 
February  23, 1822. 

In  the  early  part  of  his  career,  he  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  Chilians,  but  soon  deserted 
them,  and  having  been  taken  prisoner  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Maypu,  1818,  he  was  sentenced  to  be  shot, 
and  actually  sustained  the  fire  of  a  file  of  soldiery . 
He  was  covered  with  wounds  and  believed  to  be 
dead,  but  had  his  senses  left  when  he  was  drag- 
ged to  the  field  where  the  bodies  of  criminals 
were  exposed.  Here  a  man  who  had  owed  him 
a  grudge,  smote  the  supposed  corpse  with  a 
sword,  and  such  were  the  powers  of  endurance 
possessed  by  Benavides,  that  he  did  not  flinch 
in  the  least,  or  give  the  slightest  sign  of  vitality, 
or  of  the  agony  he  suffered.  As  soon  as  it  was 
dark,  he  crawled  away  to  the  house  of  a  friend, 
and  had  his  wounds  dressed.  His  bravery  and 
fortitude  would  have  honored  a  better  cause. 

BENBOW,  John,  an  English  admiral,  born 
in  1650.  His  gallantry  in  repelling  the  attack 
of  a  corsair,  wuen  in  the  merchant  service,  pro- 


cured him  the  command  of  a  ship  of  war,  from 
James  II.  Being  sent  by  king  William,  to  the 
West  Indies,  he  'relieved  the  colonies,  and  in  a 
subsequent  engagement  with  the  enemy's  fleet, 
a  chain-shot  carried  oft'  one  of  his  legs.  He 
was  carried  below,  but.  as  soon  as  his  wound  was 
dressed,  brought  on  deck  again,  and  persisted 
in  continuing  the  action.  He  was  abandoned 
at  this  moment,  through  the  cowardice  of  seve- 
ral captains  under  his  comiriand,  who  signed  a 
paper  expressing  their  opinion  that  nothing 
more  co.uld  be  done,  and  the  whole  fleet  of  the 
enemy  was  suffered  to  escape.  The  officers 
we're  tried,  and  two  of  them  sentenced  to  be 
sjjlot.  Benbow  died  of  his  wounds  and  chagrin, 
Nov.  4,  1702. 

BENDER,  in  the  Moldau  language,  Tigino, 
chief  city  of  a  district  in  the  Russian  province  of 
Bessarabia,  situated  on  the  Dniester.  It  contains 
10,000  inhabitants,  who  are  engaged  in  com- 
merce. The  city  is  well  fortified,  but  the  streets 
are  narrow  and  dark.  Here  Charles  XII  resided 
after  the  battle  of  Pultowa.  In  1771 ,  the  Russians 
took  the  place  by  storm,  and  butchered  the  inhabi- 
tants and  troops,  to  the  number  of  30,000.  It  was 
subsequently  restored  to  Turkey,  but  again  ta- 
ken by  the  Russians,  and  again  restored.  Since 
the  peace  of  Bucharest,  in  1812,  it  has  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the"  Russians. 

BENEDICT,  the  name  of  several  Popes. 
Of  these,  Benedict  XIV  (Prosper  Lambertini), 
was  the  most  noted.  When,  on  the  death  of 
Clement  XII,  in  1740,  the  conclave  was  di- 
vided, and  the  cardinals,  could  not  agree,  Lam- 
bertini said,  in  his  good-natured  way.  "  if  you 
want  a  saint,  take  Gotti;  if  a  politician,  Aldobran- 
di ;  if  a  good  old  man,  take  me."  The  humo- 
rous manner  in  which  this  quaint  speech  was 
delivered,  operated  like  magic,  and  Lambertini 
became  sovereign  pontiff.  lie  reformed  abuses, 
introduced  good  regulations,  cultivated  letters, 
encouraged  men  of  learning,  and  was  a  patron 
of  the  fine  arts.  He  died  May  3, 1758. 

BENEDICT,  St.,  founded  the  first  religious 
order  of  the  west.  He  was  born  at  Norcia.  480. 
The  monastery  on  Monte  Cassino  was  founded 
by  him.  Besides  performing  religious  duties,  the 
monks  of  his  order  gave  instruction  to  youth,  in 
reading,  writing,  cyphering,  relio-ion,  and  manual 
labors,  including  all  the  mechanic  arts.  Bene- 
dict caused  the  aged  monks  to  copy  manuscripts, 
and  thus  many  literary  works  of  great  import- 
ance were  preserved  from  ruin.  From  the  (ith 
to  the  10th  century,  almost  all  the  monks  in  the 
west  were  Benedictines.  The  rules  of  the  or- 


pro-   der  were  severe.     At  an  early  period  the  dress 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


BEN 


110 


BEN 


of  the  brethren  of  the  different  monasteries  va- 
ried, but  after  the  6th  century,  when  union  was 
enjoined,  the  monks  of  this  order  all  wore  black. 
The  Cluniacs  were  a  branch  of  the  Benedic- 
tines, proceeding  from  the  convent  of  Clugny 
in  Burgundy,  founded  in  910.  Their  regula- 
tions were  at  first  strict,  but  in  the  12th  century, 
when  the  order  had  2000  monasteries,  they  de- 
clined from  the  excess  of  their  luxury.  In  Italy 
find  Sicily  they  still  exist,  and  in  Spain,  are 
among  the  wealthiest  orders.  In  Sicily,  their 
discipline  is  lax,  the  monks  being  generally  the 
younger  sons  of  distinguished  families. 

BENEVENTO,  a  dukedom  in  the  Neapoli- 
tan province  of  Principato  Oltra,  including  a  city 
and  eight  villages,  belonging  to  the  papal  see. 
Napoleon  presented  it,  in  1806,  to  his  minister 
Talleyrand,  who  thence  received  the  title  of 
prince  of  Benevento.  It  was  restored  to  the  pope 
in  1815.  In  1820,  the  inhabitants  rebelled. 
The  city  of  Benevento,  situated  on  a  hill  be- 
tween the  Sabato  and  Galore,  has  13,000  inhab- 
itants. In  remote  antiquity  this  region  belonged 
to  the  Samnites,  and  came,  of  course,  into  the 
hands  of  their  conquerors,  the  Romans.  In  114, 
Trajan  built  in  the  city  a  magnificent  triumphal 
arch,  which  now  forms  the  golden  gate  of  the 
city.  Benevento  was  made  a  dukedom  by  the 
Lombards,  in  571.  It  afterwards  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Saracens  and  Normans,  the  latter 
of  whom  spared  the  city,  because  it  had  been 
presented  to  pope  Leo  IV  by  Henry  III. 

BENEZET,  Anthony,  a  philanthropist,  was 
born  at  St.  CJuentin,  in  France,  January,  1713. 
His  parents  were  opulent,  and  his  descent  noble. 
The  confiscation  of'his  father's  estates,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  having  joined  the  Protestants, 
in  1715,  drove  the  family  to  England,  where 
Anthony  was  educated.  Of  his  early  life  little 
is  known,  but  he  was  14  years  of  age  when  he 
joined  the  Society  of  Friends'.  In  1  /  31  he  came 
to  Philadelphia  in  company  with  his  parents. 
His  first  employment  was  that  of  instructor  in 
a  school  at  Germantown,  in  which  capacity  he 
was  induced  to  prepare  and  publish  some  ele- 
mentary school  books.  About  1750.  being  struck 
with  the  enormities  of  the  slave-trade,  he  de- 
termined to  employ  all  his  energies  in  bettering 
the  condition  of  the  blacks.  He  established  an 
evening  school  for  them  in  Philadelphia,  and 
taught  them  gratuitously.  On  the  subject  of 
Negro  slavery  he  published  numerous  ?horl 
essays  in  almanacs  and  newspnprrs.  which  he 
circulated  with  unwearied  assiduity.  He  print- 
ed and  distributed  at  his  own  expense,  many 
valuable  tracts,  among  which  we  may  name  Ins 


"  Historical  Account  of  Guinea,  its  Situation, 
Produce,  and  the  general  Disposition  of  its  In- 
habitants ;  with  an  Inquiry  into  the  Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  Slave-trade,  its  Nature  and  Ca- 
lamitous Effects."  The^irculation  of  these  was 
not  confined  to  America,  but  in  Europe  procur- 
ed Benezet  the  notice  and  correspondence  of 
many  eminent  men.  He  undoubtedly  gave  the 
first  impulse  to  the  measures  which  resulted  in 
the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  in  tlie  United 
States.  His  philanthropy  was  unbounded,  the 
whole  human  race  being  regarded  as  his  breth- 
ren. The  wrongs  inflicted  on  the  aborigines 
of  North  America,  excited  his  strong  sympathy 
about  the  year  1763,  and  his  efforts  in  their  be- 
half excited  the  warmest  admiration  in  all  high- 
minded  observers  of  his  course.  In  1750  he 
wrote  and  published  a  short  account  of  the  Re- 
ligious Society  of  Friends,  commonly  called 
Quakers  ;  and  in  1782,  "A  Dissertation  on 
the  Plainness  and  Innocent  Simplicity  of  the 
Christian  Religion."  He  also  published  and 
circulated  several  tracts  against  the  use  of 
ardent  spirits.  In  the  spring  of  1764.  he  was 
taken  ill,  and  after  his  case  was  pronounced 
hopeless,  conversed  intelligently  with  hundreds 
who  came  to  see  him.  He  died"  on  the  fifth  day 
of  May,  at  Philadelphia,  extensively  known  and 
beloved.  His  personal  appearance  was  prepos- 
sessing, although  he  was  not  handsome.  Hia 
naturally  strong  understanding  was  improved 
by  extensive  reading.  His  private  habits  en- 
deared him  to  his  friends,  and  his  small  estate 
was  devoted  to  the  furtherance  of  his  benevo- 
lent purposes. 

BENGAL,  an  extensive  and  rich  province 
of  Hindostan.  situated  between  the  21st  nnd 
27th  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  Sfith  and 
92d  degrees  of  east  longitude.  Its  length  is  400 
miles,  its  breadth  300.  Its  northern  and  east- 
ern extremities,  are  guarded  by  lofty  and  rough 
mountains,  and  the  sole  harbor  on  its  dangerous 
and  inhospitable  southern  coast,  is  beset  by 
avast  number  of  shoals.  So  fertile  is  this  conn- 
trv  that  the  crops  of  one  year  are  amply  suffi- 
cient to  supply  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants  for 
two.  Justly  has  it  been  termed  the  richest  jew- 
el in  the  British  crown,  since  the  revenue  ac- 
cruing to  the  government  from  the  rent  of  lands, 
and  the  monopolies  of  salt  and  opium,  amounted, 
in  a  single  year,  to  £2,790.000.  Rico,  cotton, 
silk,  indigo,  sugar,  sr.ltpt'tro.  ivory,  and  tobac- 
co, are  among  its  exports.  The  elephants  of 
Bengal  are  in  high  repute,  a  good  ono  eonmiand- 
i  H./  .£1 000.  The  largest  portion  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Hindoos,  many  of  whom  are  extremely  in- 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BEN 


111 


BEN 


digent.  The  climate  of  Bengal  is  injurious  to 
Europeans.  The  seasons  are  three,  the  hot, rainy, 
and  cool.  The  early  history  of  Bengal  is  ex- 
tremely uncertain.  In  A.  D.  1203,  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  Afghan  Mohammedans,  and 
remained  in  the  power  of  the  emperor  of  Delhi, 
until  Faker  Addeen.  confidential  servant  of 
the  emperor,  murdered  his  master,  and  took  the 
title  of  Sultan  Sekunder,  in  1340.  In  1538  it 
was  reconquered  by  Shere  Shah,  and  afterwards 
was  attached  to  the  Mogul  empire  till  1757, 
when,  by  conquest  and  treaty,  it  was  occupied 
by  the  English,  and  now  constitutes  the  nu- 
cleus of  their  Indian  empire.  The  cities  of 
Gour,  Tonda,  Rajemahil.  Dacca,  and  Moorshe- 
dabad.  have  by  turns  been  the  capital,  but  Cal- 
cutta lias  now  become  the  seat  of  government. 

BENIN,  the  name  of  a  kingdom  of  Africa, 
extending  from  the  eastern  limit  of  the  Slave 
Coast,  to  the  Formosa,  a  distance  of  180  miles. 
The  interior  of  the  country  is  but  little  known. 
The  government  is  despotic.  The  inhabitants 
are  mild  and  friendly.  The  women  perform 
almost  all  kinds  of  labor.  Benin,  the  cap- 
ital, is  situated  on  the  Formosa,  and  is  a  place 
of  considerable  extent,  carrying  on  a  brisk  trade. 
The  houses,  which  are  large,  have  a  picturesque 
appearance  from  the  reeds  and  leaves  with  which 
they  are  covered." 

BENJOWSKY,  Maurice  Augustus,  count 
of,  was  born  in  1741,  at  Werbowa,  in  Hungary. 
His  father  was  a  general,  and  he  himself  enter- 
ed the  Austrian  service,  and  served  as  a  lieu- 
tenant in  the  seven  years'  war  till  1758.  Having 
joined  the  Polish  confederation  against  Russia, 
and  served  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  commander 
of  cavalry,  and  quarter-master  general,  he  was 
taken  by  the  Russians  in  176;>.  and  sent  to 
Kamtschatka.  On  his  voyage  thither,  he  saved 
the  vessel. during  a  storm,  and  thus,  on  his  arri- 
val, secured  a  favorable  reception  from  the  gov- 
ernor, NilofF.  whose  family  he  instructed  in  the 
French  and  German  languages.  In  May.  1771, 
he  left  Karntschatka.  accompanied  by  Aphanasia, 
the  governor's  daughter,  and  ninety-six  other 
persons,  sailing  for  Formosa,  whence  he  departed 
for  Macao.  Here  he  lost  many  of  his  compan- 
ions, and  the  fa.ithful  and  unfortunate  Aphana- 
sia. Arrived  in  France,  he  was  commissioned 
to  found  a  colony  in  Madagascar,  where  he  ar- 
rived in  June,  1774.  He  was  not  long  in  gain- 
ing the  good  will  of  the  natives,  who  appointed 
him  their  ampansacabe,  or  king ;  while  the 
women  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  his 
wife.  He  went  to  Europe  to  seek  a  powerful 
ally,  but  was  forced  by  the  persecution  of  the 
10* 


French  ministry,  to  enter  the  Austrian  service. 
In  the  battle  of  Habelschwerdt,  1778,  he  com- 
manded against  the  Prussians.  In  1784,  receiv- 
ing assistance  from  private  persons  in  London 
and  America,  and  leaving  his  wife  in  the  latter 
country,  he  set  out  for  Madagascar,  and  arrived 
in  1785.  Here  he  commenced  hostilities  against 
the  French,  and  the  authorities  of  the  Isle  of 
France  sent  a  force  against  him  ;  in  contending 
against  which  he  was  wounded  mortally,  May 
23,  1786.  The  fate  of  Benjowsky's  only  son 
was  singular — he  is  said  to  have  been  devoured 
by  the  rats  of  Madagascar. 

BENNINGTON,  a  post-town  in  a  county  of 
the  same  name,  Vermont,  is  37  miles. N.  E.  of 
Albany.  It  is  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  and 
of  some  manufacturing  importance.  Popula- 
tion (1840).  2,671.  Here  two  celebrated  battles 
were  fought,  Aug.  10, 1777,  in  which  1(300  Ame- 
rican militia-men,  under  general  Stark,  defeated 
the  British  troops. 

BENTHAM,  Jeremy,  an  English  lawyer, 
whose  political  and  philosophical  writings  have 
acquired  a  great  deal  of  celebrity,  particularly 
in  France  -,  born  in  1749,  died  in  1832. 

BENTLE  Y,  Richard,  a  celebrated  English  di- 
vine and  classical  scholar,  was  born  in  1002.  His 
father  was  a  blacksmith,  and  he  received  his  ear- 
liest instruction  from  his  mother,  a  woman  of 
much  talent.  He  entered  St.  John's  college, 
Cambridge ,  at  the  age  of  14.  Having  preached 
with  success,  he  was  appointed  keeper  of 
the  royal  library,  at  St.  James's,  in  1G93.  He 
was  victorious  in  a  controversy  with  the  Hon. 
Charles  Boyle,  afterwards  the  earl  of  Orrery, 
relating  to  the  genuineness,  of  the-  Epistles  of 
Phalaris.  Bentley  was  opposed  by.  the  whole 
host  of  wits,  Pope,  Swift,  Garth,  Atterbury, 
Conyers  Middleton,  &c.,  but  he  satisfactorily 
proved  that  the  Epistles  were  not  the  production 
of  the  tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  who  lived  more 
than  five  centuries  B.  C. ;  but  of  some  late  so- 
phist, who  borrowed  the  name  of  Phalaris.  The 
tyrant  Phalaris  had  a  hollow  brazen  bull,in  which, 
when  hot,  he  used  to  place  those  who  were  un- 
fortunate enough  to  displease  him,  and  whose 
cries  were  thus  made  to  resemble  the  roarings 
of  the  animal.  Conyers  Middleton,  whose  enmi- 
ty to  Bentley  arose  from  the  epithet  of  fiddling 
Conyers,  applied  to  him  while  an  university  stu- 
dent, was  suspected  of  being  the  author  of  a  pun- 
ning caricature  representing  Bentley  on'  the 
point  of  being  thrust  into  the  brazen  bull  of  Pha- 
laris, and  exclaiming,  "  I  had  ratiier  be  roasted 
than  Boyled."  Bentley  was  presented  by  the 
crown  to  the  mastership  of  Trinity  college,  Cam 


CYCLOPEDIA   OP  HISTORY. 


BER 


112 


BER 


bridge,  worth  nearly  £1000  a  year ;  and.  in  1701, 
he  was  called  to  the  arch-dcaconry  of  Ely. 
Among  the  accusations  brought  against  him,  as 
head  of  the  college,  he  was  accused  of  embez- 
zling monev,  a  charge  which  occasioned  a  law- 
suit that  was  terminated  in  the  doctor's  favor  near 
twenty  years  afterwards.  He  was  appointed 
Regius  professor  of  divinity,  in  ]71G.  In  1720, 
he  published  his  edition  of  Terence  and  Phos- 
drus,  his  notes  to  which  brought  on  a  dispute 
with  bishop  Hare,  on  the  metres  of  Terence, 
when  Srir  Isaac  Newton  observed  that,  '•  two 
dignified  clergymen,  instead  of  minding  their 
duty,  had  fallen  out  about  a  play-book."  Bent- 
ley's  edition  of  Paradise  Lost,  with  conjectural 
emendations,  liis  last  work,  was  considered  a 
failure.  He  died,  July  14, 1742,  with  the  repu- 
tation of  a  distinguished  scholar  and  critic. 

BERANGER,  Pierre  Jean  de.  a  lyric  poet, 
of  the  class  which  the  French  call  clianson- 
irier — song- writer.  ,  He  was  born  Aug.  19. 1780. 
His  grandfather,  a  poor  tailor,  intended  that  he 
should  learn  the  printing  business,  but  he  was 
patronized  by  Lucien  Bonaparte,  and  proved 
highly  successful  as  a  follower  of  the  muses. 
A  temporary  imprisonment  served  but  to  in- 
crease his  reputation.  In  his  least  ambitious 
compositions  there  are  startling  flashes  of  the 
highest  kind  of  poetry,  which  appear  more  bril- 
liant, from  the  suddenness  of  their  appearance. 
"  Bgranger,"  said  Benjamin  Constant,  "  writes 
sublime  odes  when  he  imagines  he  is  only  com- 
posing simple  songs."  December  11, 1828,  he 
was  sentenced  by  the  court  of  correctional  po- 
lice, to  pay  a  sum  equivalent  to  about  1800  dol- 
lars, and  to  suffer  nine  months'  imprisonment,  for 
satirising  the  king  and  the  church  in  his  poems. 

BERCHTOLD,  Leopold,  count,  born  in  1758. 
He  was  a  distinguished  philanthropist,  and  spent 
thirteen  years  in  travelling  through  Europe,  and 
four  in  Asia  and  Africa,  to  relieve  the  distresses 
of  humanity.  The  result  of  his  benevolent  in- 
quiries has  been  given  to  the  public  in  different 
works.  He  died  July  20,  1809.  on  his  estate  at 
Buchlan.  in  Moravia,  where  he  had  fitted  up  an 
hospital  for  sick  and  wounded  Austrian  soldiers. 

BERESFORD,  William.  barcn,duke  of  El- 
vas,and  Marquis  of  Campo  Mayor, a  distinguish- 
ed British  general.  In  1810  he  defeated  "Soult 
at  Albufera.  In  1812,  having  a  command  under 
Wellington,  he  shared  in  the  dangers  and  glory 
of  the  battles  of  Vittoria.  Bayonne,  and  Tou- 
louse. May  13,  1814,  he  entered  Bordeaux  with 
the  duke  of  Angoulemc.  Having  returned  from 
Brazil,  whither  he  was  sent  in  1815,  he  was  en- 
Uufited  with  an  important  mission  to  Rio  Ja- 


neiro.' Being  in  Portugal,  in  1817.  he  incurred 
the  hatred  of  the  Portuguese  military,  on  ac- 
count of  his  rigor  in  punishing  a  conspiracy 
against  the  British  army  and  the  regency.  In 
1820  he  was  dismissed  by  Hie  Cortes.  He  went 
to  Brazil,  and  to  England,  and  afterwards  again 
appeared  in  Lisbon,  in  182G,  \\here  he  was  em- 
ployed to  quell  a  rebellion. 

BEREZINA,  a  river  in  the  Russian  province 
of  Minsk,  famous  for  the  passage  of  the  French 
army  under  Napoleon ,  Nov.  26  and  27,  It  1 2.  The 
ice  with  which  the  morasses  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  were  covered,  was  not  strong  enough  to 
bear.  The  Russian  army  were  threatening  the 
fugitives,  whose  discipline  was  lost,  and  who, 
despairing  of  escaping  by  means  of  the  two 
crowded  bridges,  trusted  themselves  to  floating 
masses  of  ice,  and  were  lost.  7500  men  and 
five  generals,  according  to  the  Russian  account ; 
were  taken. 

BERG,  a  duchy  of  Germany,  containing 
.GCO  inhabitants,  formerly  belonging  to  the 
elector  cf  Bavaria,  but  given  to  the  king  of 
Prussia,  by  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815. 

BERGHEM,  Nicholas,  a  famous  painter  born 
at  Harlem,  in  1684,  died  in  KK'.  His  land- 
scapes and  representations  of  anhnnls,  are  much 
valued.  His  name  originated  in  the  following 
manner.  Once,  when  pursued*  by  his  father,  he 
fled  for  safety  to  the  workshop"  of  Van  Goyen, 
who  shouted"  to  his  pupils.  '•  lit  .••_'.'•  hi  in'''  (hide 
him) ;  and  this  expression  was  adopted  as  his 
name. 

BERKELEY,  doctor  George,  bishop  of 
Cloyne  in  Ireland,  famous  for  his  ideal  theory. 
He  maintains  that  there  is  nothing  material, 
and  that  objects  which  are  called  sensible  mate- 
rial objects,  are  not  external  but  only  impres- 
sions made  upon  the  mind  by  an  act"  of  God, 
acrordinjf  to  cfrt-in  Imry  <  •.  -,.  '  ieb  are 

invariable.     Lor.. 

"When  Bishop  Bob-Icy  sai.i  tilt-re  «:is  no  matter, 
And  pro\cd  it,  'twas  no  matter  what  he  Miid." 

He  was  bcrn  at  Kilcrin.  Ireland.  IC84.  and  died 
in  17."):',.  In  furtherance  of  his  project  lor  con- 
verting the  American  savages  to  Christianity, 
l;y  the  establishment  of  a  college  in  the  Bermu- 
da Islands,  he  considerably  impaired  his  large 
fortune.  ;>nd  spent  seven  years  in  his  efforts  "to 
that  end.  He  remained  some  time  in  Rhode 
Island.  Berkeley  was  acquainted  with  almost 
every  branch  of  knowledge.  His  character  was 
.much  respected,  and  Pope  who  was  much  attach- 
ed to  him,  says  that  he  had  "  every  virtue  under 
Heaven."  His  Treatise  on  the  Principles  of 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BER 


113 


BER 


Human  Knowledge  is  the  most  celebrated  of  his 
philosophical  works. 

BERLICHINGEN,  Gotz,  or  Godfrey  von, 
with  the  iron  hand,  a  brave  and  honorable  Ger- 
man knight  of  the  middle  ages,  who  headed  the 
rebellious  peasants  (in  the  Peasant  War),  against 
their  oppressors.  Before  this  time,  having  lost 
his  right  hand,  he  had  substituted  one  made  of 
iron.  He  died  July  23,  15(52.  His  autobiogra- 
phy has  been  published  at  Nuremberg. 

BERLIN,  this  line  city  and  royal  residence, 
the  capital  of  the  Prussian  dominions,  is  situa- 
ted in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  on  the 
Spree,  127  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  ft 
is  12  miles  in  circuit,  including  5  towns,  and  5 
suburbs.  In  1832,  it  contained  253,00  J  inhab- 
itants, among  whom  were  5,030  Jews,  4,000 
Catholics,  and  more  than  15,000  Calvinists. 
Berlin  Proper,  was  built  in  ]  163,  by  the  mar- 
grave Albert  the  Bear.  Koln  or  Cologne,  on  the 
Spree,  was  so  called  from  the  Kollnen  (piles),  on 
which  the  Vandals  had  built  their  huts.  Frled- 
richsircrder  was  founded  by  the  elector  Fred- 
eric William  the  Great.  .Yeupr  Dorotheenstadt 
was  built  by  the  same  elector  and  named  in 
honor  of  his  wife.  Friedriclisstailt,  founded,  in 
1633,  by  the  elector  Frederic  III,  is  the  most 
extensive  division  of  this  vast  city.  The  num- 
ber of  its  public  establishments  of  various  kinds, 
makes  Berlin  very  interesting.  The  Univer- 
sity of  Berlin,  founded  in  1809,  when  Prussia 
was  groaning  beneath  the  yoke  of  the  French, 
is  at  present  one  of  the  first  literary  institutions 
of  the  European  continent.  Berlin  has  22 
squares  and  market-places,  15  gates  (that  of 
Brandenburg,  modelled  on  the  Propylffium  at 
Athens,  but  larger,  being  the  most  beautiful).  27 
parish  churches,  37  bridges,  &c.  In  1817,  the 

Eublic  buildings  were  174  in  number ;  the  inanu- 
ictories  61.  In  the  great  hospital  of  La  Chtiri.ti, 
there  were,  in  13I6~  5114  patients.  The  royal 
hospital  admits  upwards  of  1000  inmates.  On 
the  top  of  the  Mountain  of  the  Cross,  before  the 
Halle  gate,  a  monument  of  iron  was  erected  in 
1820,  in  commemoration  of  the  wars  against 
France.  Berlin  has  100  public,  and  50  private 
elementary  schools.  In  Id31,  there  were  1937 
students  in  the  university  of  Berlin. 

BERMUDAS  or  Sowers'  Islands,  a  clus- 
ter of  about  400  small  islands  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  for  the  most  part  barren  and  insignifi- 
cant. They  were  discovered  by  Juan  Bermudas, 
a  Spaniard,  in  1522.  In  1609,  Sir  George 
Somers,  an  Englishman,  who  was  wrecked 
here,  founded  the  first  settlement.  Many  are 
so  unimportant  as  to  have  no  name,  but  the 


principal  islanrls  are  St.  George,  containing 
Georgetown,  St.  David,  Cooper,  Ireland.  Som- 
erset, L->ng  Island,  Bird  Island,  and  None- 
such. The  air  is  healthy  and  invigorating  to 
invalids,  the  winter  being  hardly  apparent. 
The  islands,  however,  are  subject  to  frequent 
storms.  The  soil  is  generally  rich  and  fertile, 
yielding  two  harvests  of  corn  annually.  Ship- 
building  is  the  principal  occupation  of  the  isl- 
anders. The  whole  shore  is  surrounded  by 
rocks,  dry  at  low  water,  but  covered  at  high 
tide.  The  Bermudas  extend  about  45  miles 
from  north  to  south.  They  are  230  leagues  S. 
K.  of  Cape  Fear,  in  North  Carolina.  Popula- 
tion, 3.:>00  whites,  and  4, GOO  slaves. 

BERN,  the  largest  canton  of  Switzerland, 
contains  350,000  inhabitants,  with  a  capital  of 
the  same  name.  The  town  was  founded  in  the 
12th  century,  by  Cuno  von  Bubenberg.  A  great 
increase  of  population  was  manifest  in  the  13th 
century,  ft  was,  in  1218,  declared  a  free  city 
of  the  empire  by  Frederic  II,  and  the  charter, 
confirming  its  privileges,  is  still  preserved.  In 
1291,  the  citizens  of  Bern,  under  Ulrich  von 
Bubenberg,  made  war  against  their  own  nobil- 
ity. The  nobles  of  Austria,  finding  that  the 
city  formed  an  asylum  for  those  who  were  suf 
fering  from  their  oppression,  entered  into  a 
league  to  destroy  it.  but  their  splendid  and 
powerful  army  was  defeated  by  the  citizens, 
under  the  conduct  of  the  gallant  Rodolph  von 
Erlaeh,  June  21,  1339.  In  1353.  Born  entered 
into  the  Helvetic  league.  In  1405,  part  of  the 
town  was  destroyed  by  fire,  but  afterwards  re- 
built. In  152-\ "the  inhabitants  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  reformation,  and,  in  the  war  with 
Savoy,  conquered  the  Pays  de  Vaud.  The  pros- 
perity of  Bern  was  proverbial,  but,  on  March  5, 
1798,  30,000  French  troops  defeated  the  army  of 
•the  Bernese  and  their  confedei-ales,and  the  gates 
of  Bern,  for  the  first  time,  opened  to  an  enemy. 
It  was  then  shorn  oi'  half  its  possessions.  At 
present,  the  sovereign  power  is  vested  in  the 
hands  of  a  bailiff,  and  the  greater  and  lessercoun 
cils  of  the  city  and  republic  of  Bern,  which  con- 
sist of  200  members,  chosen  from  the  city, 
and  99  from  the  towns  and  country.  The 
northern  part  of  this  canton  is  hilly  ;  the  plains 
and  valleys  are  beautiful,  and  the  whole  is  in  a 
high  state  of  cultivation.  The  canton  furnishes 
5,824  men  to  the  army  of  the  Swiss  confederacy. 
The  city  has  17,620  inhabitants,  and  the  eleva- 
tion on  which  it  stands,  is  washed  by  the  Aar. 
Some  of  its  public  buildings  are  very  elegant. 
Its  university,  economical,  and  historicalsoci- 
eties  are  important,  and  the  public  library  con- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


BER 


114 


BER 


tains  a  valuable  collection  of  books,  both  prin- 
ted and  in  manuscript.  Trade  and  commerce 
are  flourishing.  Among  the  manufactures, 
are  woollen  cloths,  printed  linen,  silk-stuffs, 
&c. 

BERNARD,  of  Clairvaux;  an  influential 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Fontaines,  in  Burgundy, 
1091.  He  was  of  noble  family,  and  became  a 
monk  in  1113,  and  in  1115,  the  first  abbot  of 
Clairvaux.  He  was  austere,  eloquent,  and  bold, 
and  had  the  reputation  of  being  a  prophet.  He 
was  called  a  honeyed  teacher.  Bernard  was  the 
principal  promoter  of  the  crusade  of  114(5.  Lu- 
ther says  of  him,  "  if  there  ever  has  been  a 
pious  monk  who  feared  God,  it  was  St.  Bernard  ; 
whom  I  hold  in  much  higher  esteem,  than  I  do 
all  other  monks  and  priests  throughout  the 
globe."  Bernard  died  in  1153,  and  was  canon- 
ized in  1174. 

BERNARD,  Great  St.;  a  mountain,  11,000 
feet  high,  between  the  Valais  and  the  valley  of 
Aosta.  The  two  hospitia  on  the  Great  and 
Little  St.  Bernard,  were  built  by  Bernard  de 
Menthon,  a  Savoyard  nobleman,  in  9(i2.  They 
are  under  the  care  of  the  canons  of  the  Augus- 
tine order, who  are  indefatigable  in  the  discharge 
of  their  duties.  Upwards  of  9000  persons  annu- 
ally pass  over  the  mountain,  all  of  whom  re- 
ceive refreshments  in  the  hospitia.  The  monks 
are  assisted  in  their  search  for  travellers,  by 
their  great  dogs,  whose  lives  are  shortened  by 
their  painful  labors.  .Owing  to  the  severity  of 
the  weather,  the  dead  bodies  in  the  vault  decay 
so  slowly,  that  their  features'  are  frequently  re- 
cognized by  friends,  after  the  lapse  of  years. 
In  the  church  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard,  is  the 
monument  of  General  Desaix,  who  fell  at 
Marengo.  He  was  embalmed  by  order  of  the 
first  consul.  The  sculptor  has  represented  this 
warrior  wounded,  and  sinking  from  his  horse 
into  the  arms  of  his  aid.  On  the  stairs  of  the 
convent  stands  the  statue  of  Desaix  in  marble. 

BERNINI,  Giovanni  Lorenzo,  born  at  Na- 
ples, in  1598.  He  has  been  called  the  Michael 
Angelo  of  modern  times,  on  account  of  his  suc- 
cess as  a  painter,  statuary,  and  'architect.  He 
was  patronized  by  several  popes,  and,  although 
he  went  to  Paris  on  the  invitation  of  Louis 
XIV,  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  died,  exhausted 
by  his  labors,  November  28,  HiSO,  at  the  age  of 
r-2.  He  left  a  fortune  of  about  3,300,000  francs 
to  his  children.  So  early  did  his  talents  shine 
forth,  that  at  the  age  of  *  years,  he  executed  the 
head  of  a  child  in  marble,  which  was  thought 
a  fine  production.  He  was  not  18  years  old 
when  he  completed  his  Jlpollo  and  Daphne,  a 


work  which  he  examined  at  the  close  of  life,  and 
declared  that  he  had  made  little  progress  since 
that  time.  So  true  it  is  that  genuine  enthu- 
siasm often  supplies  the  place  of  experience. 
Among  his  numerous  works,  are  the  palace 
Barberini ;  the  belfry  of  St.  Peter,  arid  the  mon- 
ument of  Urban  Vllfv  The  tomb  of  Alexander 
VII,  one  of  his  most  masterly  works,  he  execu- 
ted in  his  70th  year. 

BERR1,  or  Berry,  Charles  Ferdinand,  duke 
of,  second  son  of  the  count  d'Artois,  late 
Charles  X,  of  France,  born  at  Versailles.  Jan. 
24th,  1778.  He  fled  from  the  revolutionary 
tempest,  but  was  actively  engaged  in  the  scenes 
at  Paris,  in  1814,  on  the  return  of  the  Bourbons, 
and  vainly  endeavored  to  secure  the  fidelity  of 
the  troops  in  and  about  Paris,  when  Napoleon 
returned  from  Elba.  He  was  assassinated  in 
1620,  by  Louvel,  who  had  long  sought  to  extir- 
pate the  house  of  Bourbon,  and  met  his  death 
with  great  firmness.  The  opera  house,  near 
which  the  crime  was  committed,  was  pulled 
down,  and  a  column  erected  on  the  spot. 

BERSERKER. in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
a  descendant  of  the  fight-handed  S'tarkadeV, 
and  the  beautiful  Alfhilde.  Disdaining  the 
protection  of  mail  in  battle,  he  obtained  his 
name,  which  signifies,  the  armorless.  In  battle, 
his  rage  was  ungovernable.  He  married  the 
daughter  of  king  Swafurlam,  whom  lie  had 
slain,  and  had  12  sons  who  equalled  him  in 
fierceness. 

BERTH1ER,  Alexander,  prince  of  Neuf- 
chatel  and  Wagrarn.  marshal,  vice-constable 
of  France,  &c..  born  at  Paris.  1753.  At  an 
early  age,  he  served  under  La  Fayette,  in 
America.  He  was  a  great  favorite  of  Napo- 
leon, under  whom  he  acted  as  chief  of  his 
staff,  assisting  in  those  great  victories  which 
made  Fiance  master  of  Italy,  Germany,  and 
Prussia.  On  the. return  of  "the  Bourbons,  he 
retired  to  Germany,  where  he  put  an  end  to 
his  existence,  by"  throwing  himself  from  a 
window. 

BERTRAND,  Henri  Gratien,  count,  gene- 
ral of  division,  aid-de-camp  of  Napoleon,  grand 
marshal  of  the  palace,  &c.  He  early  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  engineer  corps,  and  in 
1804,  gave  Napoleon  evidence  of  his  ability. 
From  that  time  he  served  near  the  person  of 
Napoleon,  particularly  at  Austerlitz,*-here  he 
was  the  emperor's  aid-de-camp.  He  and  his 
family  shared  the  last  res 
after  his  full. 

BERWICK,  James  Fitz-James,  duke  of; 
was  born  in  1(>70.  He  distinguished  himself 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BEZ 


115 


BIR 


as  a  general  in  the  Bourbon  cause  in  Spain, 
where  he  won  the  battle  of  Almansa,  and  cap- 
tured Barcelona,  after  a  resistance,  by  the  citi- 
zens, of  fifteen  months. 

BESSARABIA,  a  Russian  province,  situated 
on  the  Black  Sea,  between  the  northern  arm 
of  the  Danube,  the  Pruth,  and  the  Dniester, 
fertile  and  extensive.  It  contains  800,000  in- 
habitants. 

BETHANIA,  or  Bethany,  a  village  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Olivet,  about  2  miles  east  of  Je- 
rusalem, where  Lazarus  was  raised  from  the 
dead,  and  where  the  ascension  of  Jesus  Christ 
took  place.  The  house  and  grave  of  Lazarus, 
as  well  as  the  dwelling  of  Mary  Magdalene, 
are  pointed  out  to  travellers. 

BETHESDA,  a  pool  in  Judea,  in  the  vicinity 
of  which  the  sick  lay,  waiting  to  be  cured  on 
the  moving  of  the  waters.  The  Jews  had  an 
idea  that  an  angel  descended  at  times  into  it, 
and  stirred  up  the  waves,  after  which  the  first 
who  entered  was  cured.  The  name  signifies 
house  of  mercy.  There  were  porticoes  or  halls 
on  its  borders.  The  pool  appears  to  have  been 
composed  of  red-colored  mineral  water,  which 
received  its  healing  properties  from  the  red 
earth  at  the  bottom. 

BETHLEHEM,  a  village  of  Palestine,  a  part 
of  Syria,  in  the  pachalic  of  Damascus,  five 
miles  from  Jerusalem,  where  our  Savior  was 
born.  Here  also, David  first  saw  light.  It  is 
at  the  foot  of  a  hill  covered  with  olive  trees  and 
vines.  The  church  of  the  empress  Helena,  a, 
splendid  edifice,  is  built  over  the  spot  where 
Christ  is  said  to  have  been  born.  The  manger 
is  shown  under  the  choir  of  a  convent  church. 

BEZA,  or  de  Beze,  Theodore,  after  Calvin, 
the  most  distinguished  among  the  Calvinistic 
preachers  of  the  IGth  century,  born  1519.  At 
the  age  of  20,  he  published  his  Latin  poems, 
collected  under  the  title  of  Juvenilia,  a  work 
of  which  he  was  afterwards  ashamed.  At  an 
early  age  he  was  dissipated,  but  reformed  by 
marriage,  and  a  dangerous  illness.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  service  of  the  reformed 
church,  and,  in  15G4,  became  Calvin's  succes- 
sor. Vain  were  the  efforts  of  his  adversaries 
to  gain  an  advantage  over  him.  His  truth  and 
wit  were  a  splendid  defence,  and  at  the  age  of 
78  years,  his  intellectual  faculties  appeared  as 
clear  as  ever.  The  pope  made  him  brilliant 
offers,  but  he  nobly  rejected  them.  He  died  Oct. 
13, 1G05,  of  old  age.  He  was  the  author  of  many 
works,  among  which  his  History  of  Calvinism 
in  France,  from  1521  to  15G3,  is  still  read  with 
satisfaction. 


BID  ASSOA ,  a  boundary  river  between  Spain 
and  France,  containing  the  isle  of  Pheasants, 
where  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees  was  concluded 
in  1G59. 

BIEVRE,  Marquis  de,  marshal,  bom  in  1747, 
died  in  1789.  He  served  in  the  life-guard  of 
the  king  of  France,  and  was  much  celebrated 
for  his  wit,  which  he  displayed  in  ready  re- 
partees and  puns.  When  presented  to  Louis 
XV,  the  following  dialogue  took  place.  Louis. 
Give  me  a  specimen  of  your  wit.  B.  Give  me 
a  subject,  sire.  Louis.  Take  me.  B.  Sire,  the 
king  is  no  subject. 

B1LLINGTON,  Elizabeth,  Mrs.  a  celebrated 
English  singer,  born  in  1770,  died  in  1817.  She 
appeared  in  public  at  the  age  of  14,  and  was 
received  with  great  applause. 

BINGEN ;  a  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  opposite  Rudesheim ;  population  3,300. 
In  its  vicinitv  is  the  famous  Mouse  Tower, 
connected  with  which  is  the  following  tale. 
In  a  time  of  great  famine,  bishop  Hatto  played 
the  usurer,  to  the  distress  and  ruin  of  many 
poor  people.  For  this  he  is  said  to  have  met 
a  most  dreadful  punishment.  Thousands  on 
thousands  of  mice  pouring  into  his  dwelling^ 
compelled  him  to  seek  refuge  in  his  tower  on 
the.  Rhine.  But  here  he  enjoyed  but  a  brief 
interval  of  rest.  The  army  of  mice  swam  the 
river,  scaled  the  rocky  precipice,  and  leaped 
into  the  tower,  at  every  cranny,  grate,  and 
loop-hole.  The  bishop  attempted  to  pray,  but 
his  utterance  failed — he  listened  to  the  noise  of 
the  mice  as  they  swiftly  approached  his  turret- 
chamber.  At  length  they  gained  an  entrance, 
and  devoured  the  prelate,  tearing  the  flesh  from 
his  bones,  and  leaving  him  a  mere  skeleton. 

BIRCH,  Thomas,  a  historian  and  biographer 
of  the  18th  century,  born  in  London,  in  1705. 
His  father,  a  quaker,  designed  his  son  for  hia 
own  profession,  that  of  a  coffee-mill  maker. 
Young  Birch,  however,  preferring  a  literary 
life,  adopted  it,  took  orders  in  1730,  and  ob- 
tained a  living  in  Essex,  in  1732.  He  was 
assisted  by  some  coadjutors  in  preparing  the 
General  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary, 
completed  in  10  vols.  folio,  in  1741.  His  life 
was  laborious,  and  in  the  course  of  it,  he  pub- 
lished many  historical  and  biographical  works. 
He  was  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  horse,  in  1765. 

BIR  EN,  Ernst  John  von.  duke  of  Courland, 
born  1G87,  died  1772.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  son  of  Buhren,  a  peasant  of  Courland.  He 
gained  the  favor  of  Anna,  duchess  of  Courland, 
aftq^wards  empress  of  Russia,  by  his  beauty 
and  accomplishments,  and  when  his 


CYCLOPEDIA   OP   HISTORY. 


BIR 


116 


BLA 


was  raised  to  the  throne,  was  not  forgotten  by 
her.  While  in  power,  he  w^  s  fierce,  resentful, 
and  ambitious,  and  caused  the  death  of  11,000 
persons.  After  the  death  of  Anna,  a  conspi- 
racy was  formed  against  him,  and  he  was  ban- 
ished to  Siberia.  But  he  was  recalled  on  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great,  to  the  throne.  After  another  exile,  of  22 
years,  he  was  again  recalled  by  Peter  III,  and, 
during  the  reigri  of  Catherine  II,  continued  to 
enjoy  the  royal  favor  until  his  death. 

BIRMAN  EMPIRE.  The  Birman  Empire 
is  a  powerful  state  of  Further  India,  having  an 
area  of  200,000  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  about  4,000,000.  It  contains  many 
conquered  provinces,  and  includes  the  king- 
doms of  Ava,  Pegu,  part  of  Laos,  and  some 
other  adjacent  states  in  the  north.  On  the 
north  it  is  bounded  by  Thibet,  Assam,  and 
China ;  on  the  west  a  chain  of  lofty  moun- 
tains separates  it  from  the  British  possessions. 
The  Birmans  of  Ava,  made  themselves  inde- 
pendent of  Pegu,  in  the  16th  century,  but  were 
reconquered  in  the  18th.  The  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence, however,  was  abroad,  and  Alompra, 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Birmans,  kindled 
anew  the  flame  of  revolt  in  1753,  and  conquered 
the  city  of  Ava.  Various  fortunes  followed, 
till  Alompra  finally  made  himself  master  of 
the  city  of  Pegu.  This  monarch,  whose  abili-. 
ties  were  all  devoted  to  the  good  of -his  subjects, 
died  in  1760,  at  the  age  of  50  years,  leaving  his 
throne  to  his  son  Namdogee,  who  inherited  his 
father's  spirit  and  talent,  and  died  in  17(14. 
Shambuan,  the  regent,  usurped  the  throne  in 
1771,  and  was  victorious  in  a  war  with  China, 
during  which  Siam,  which  he  had  previously 
conquered,  regained  its  independence.  In  177u, 
this  prince  left  his  empire,  greatly  extended,  to 
his  son  Chengenza,  who,  in  consequence  of 
excessive  debauchery,  was  dethroned  and  put  to 
death  in  1782.  Shembuan  Menderagan,  the  4th 
son  of  Alompra,  was  placed  by  the  revolution  on 
the  throne.  In  1783,  he  subdued  Arracan.  A 
war  with  Siam,  in  which  he  next  engaged,  re- 
sulted, in  1793,  in  the  submission  of  that  king- 
dom upon  certain  terms.  The  refusal  on  the 
East  India  Company  to  deliver  up  some  Bir- 
man refugees,  who  were  robbers,  brought  on  a 
war  with  Shembuan,  which  was  soon  amicablv 
concluded.  Shembuan's  grandson  ascended 
the  throne  in  18Hi.  In  1820,  a  war  which  had 
broken  out  between  the  Binnese  and  English, 
ended  in  a  treaty,  by  which  the  king  of  the 
white  elephant  and  the  golden  feet  (titled  of 
the  monarch  of  Birmah),  ceded  to  the  British 


East  India  Company  large  tracts  on  the  west 
ern  coast  of  his  empire,  including  Arracan, 
Merguy,  Tavay,  and  Yea.  Assam  became 
independent,  and  Rangoon  was  declared  a  free 
port.  The  latter  has  a  population  of  30,000. 
The  Birmans  are  gay,  irritable,  active,  and 
fond  of  show.  No  man  is  permitted  to  have 
more  than  one  wife,  and  capital  punishment  is 
extended  to  confirmed  opium  eaters,  and  drunk- 
ards in  general.  The  bodies  of  the  dead  are 
burned.  The  commerce  of  the  Birmese  is  ex- 
tensive, and  the  merchants  make  use  of  bars 
of  silver  and  lead  in  the  place  of  coin.  The 
people  are  fond  of  amusements,  particularly 
dramatic  spectacles.  Education  is  not  wholly 
neglected  among  them,  every  one  learning 
arithmetic,  reading,  and  writing.  The  clergy 
are  literarv  men,  famous  for  temperance,  and 
the  renunciation  of  all  indulgences.  The  civil 
and  criminal  code  is  very  judicious.  The 
standing  army  is  small.  The  empire  is  divided 
into  7  provinces. 

BIRMINGHAM,  a  great  manufacturing 
town  of  Warwickshire.  England,  on  the  river 
Rea,  109  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  London.  Popula- 
tion in  1831.  146,986.  The  upper  part  of  the 
town  is  well  built,  and  pleasant,  while  the  lower 
is  crowded  with  workshops,  warehouses,  and 
old  buildings. 

BIRON,  Charles  de  Gontaut,  duke  of;  an 
intriguing  nobleman  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV, 
of  France,  tried  on  a  charo-e"of  treason,  and 
beheaded  July  31  st,  l(>i  ','. 

BITHYNIA.  an  ancient  country  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, also  called  Bcbrycia.  It  lay  on  the  Pontus 
Euxinus,  the  Thracinn  Bosphorus,  and  the  Pro- 
pontis.  and  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  Phry- 
gia.  Af'te  the  death  of  Prusias  I,  it  was  in- 
vaded by  Croesus,  subjugated  by  the  Persians, 
and  conquered  by  Alexander  "the  Groat,  334 
years  B.  C.  It  afforded  for  some  time  an  asylum 
to  Hannibal,  who  was  at  last  delivered  up.  Ni- 
comedesjthe  last  king,  bequeathed  the  kingdom 
to  the  Romans,  B.  C.  75.  In  1298,  the  Otto- 
man Turks  founded  an  empire  here;  previous 
to  which,  the  Seljuks  had  conquered  it  in  the 
llth  century. 

BLACKLOCK,  Thomas,  a  poet  and  clergy- 
man, born  at  Annan,  in  Dumfries  county,  in 
J721.  Although  deprived  of  sight,  he  became 
famous  for  his  acquirements,  and  took  a  high 
station  among  the  literati  of  Scotland.  He  died 
July  17iU,  at  the  age  of  70. 

BLACK8TONE.  Sir  William,  knight,  and 
L.  L.  1)..  an  English  lawyer  of  great  celebrity, 
and  a  writer  on  the  British  constitutionj  was 


HISTORICAL     AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BLA 


117 


BLA 


born  in  London,  in  1723.  He  was  the  son  of 
Mr.  Charles  Blackstone,  a  silk-mercer,  but 
being  left  an  orphan,  was  brought  up  and 
educated  by  Mr.  Thomas  Bigg",  his  uncle,  a 
surgeon,  lie  left  Pembroke  college,  Oxford, 
with  a  high  reputation,  and,  in  1740,  after  faith- 
ful preparatory  study,  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  conunenced  practice.  His  progress  was 
slow,  owing  to  his  deficiency  in  elocution;  and 
he  accordingly  determined  to  forsake  the  prac- 
tice of  the  law,  and  retire  to  his  fellowship  at 
Oxford.  His  lectures,  in  which  he  called 
attention  to  the  want  of  provision  for  instruc- 
tion in  the  laws  and  constitution  of  the  coun- 
try, were  delivered  with  effect,  and  continued 
for  a  series  of  years.  In  1759.,  when  several  of 
his  legal  works  had  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  public,  he  resumed  the  practice  of  the  law, 
and  found  that  honors  and  emoluments  poured 
in  upon  him.  In  176!.  he  v.'as  chosen  member 
of  parliament  from  Hindon,  made  king's  coun- 
sel, and  solicitor-genera!  to  the  queen  ;  about 
this  time,  also,  he  married.  In  1785,  the  first 
volume  of  his  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  ot' 
England  appeared,  and  v.'as  pronounced  supe- 
rior to  any  work  upon  the  same  subject  which 
had  before  been  published.  In  1770  he  was  made 
one  of  the  justices  of  common  pleas,  and  he  died 
in  his  57th  year,  1730.  In  private  life  this  dis- 
tinguished lawyer  was  affable  and  benevolent, 
greatly  devoted  to  business,  in  which  he  dis- 
played activity  and  intelligence. 

BLAIR.  Hugh,  an  eloquent  divine  and  suc- 
cessful author,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1718, 
and  made  preacher  of  the  high  church  in  that 
city  in  1758.  Having  acquired  a  high  reputa- 
tion by  his  lectures  on  composition,  he  was 
made  professor  of  rhetoric  and  belles-letters  in 
17(52.  In  private  life,  he  was  a  kind  father, 
friend*  and  husband,  and,  living  temperately, 
enjoyed  happiness  till  his  death  which  took 
place  in  1800. 

BLAIR.  Robert,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  author 
of  "  The  Grace."  Born  at  Edinburgh  in  1699; 
he  died  in  174(5. 

BLAKE,  Robert,  an  English  admiral  in  the 
time  of  the  Commonwealth,  born  at  Bridgewa- 
ter  in  1599,  died  in  1657.  He  defended  Taun- 
ton  against  Goring,  blocked  up  Prince  Rupert 
in  Kinsale  harbor,  pursued  him  to  Lisbon,  en- 
gaged him  at  Malaoa.  and  destroyed  nearly  his 
whole  fleet.  He  afterwards  reduced  the  Scilly 
isles  and  Guernsey,  defeated  Van  Tromp  in 
two  engagements,  demolished  the  castle  of  Tu- 
nis, and  burned  the  Spanish  fleet  in  the  harbor 
of  Santa  Cruz.  The  terror  of  his  name  was  so 


great,  that  it  was  used  by  the  Dutch  and  Span- 
iards to  quell  their  children. 

BLAKE  LEY,  Johnston,  born  in  Ireland  in 
17S1 ,  was  a  distinguished  naval  officer  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States.  His  father  came 
to  America,  and  settled  in  Wilmington,  North 
Carolina.  Blakeley  entered  the  university  of 
North  Carolina,  but,  the  death  of  his  father  hav- 
ing deprived  him  of  support,  was  forced  to 
leave  it  before  he  had  completed  his  course.  In 
1800  he  received  a  midshipman's  warrant,  and 
in  Idl3  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Wasp.  In  an  action  with  His  Britannic  Ma- 
jesty's ship  Reindeer,  he  took  her  in  1!)  minutes, 
but  was  forced  to  abandon  her,  as  she  was  so 
completely  cut  up.  The  loss  of  the  Americans 
in  killed  and  wounded  was  21 ;  that  of  the  enemy, 
67.  After  an  engagement  with  the  brig  Avon, 
which  was  forced  to  strike,  although  three  other 
English  vessels  were  in  sight,  the  Wasp  was 
spoken  by  a  vessel  off  the  Western  Isles/sLnce 
which  time  she  has  not  been  iieard  of.  Blake- 
ley  left  an  only  daughter,  who  was  educated  by 
the  state  of  North  Carolina. 

BLAXCHARD,  Francois,  one  of  the  earliest 
aeronauts,  born  at  Andelys,  France,  in  1738. 
He  showed  an  early  fondness  for  mechanics, 
and  in  his  16th  year,  invented  a  self-moving 
carriage,  which  carried  him  18  miles.  In  his 
19th  year  he  invented  a  hydraulic  machine,  and 
soon  Jifterwards,  a  sort  of  flying-ship.  When 
the  Montgolfiers  made  their  discoveries,  Blan- 
chatd  oagerly  made  use  of  them.  In  1785  he 
crossed  the  channel  from  Dover  to  Calais,  with 
doctor  Jeffries,  a  gentleman  of  Boston  in  the 
United  States.  At  one  time  the  balloon  sank 
so  rapidly,  that  although  the  Aeronauts  had 
lightened  the  car  by  tlirowing  over  all  superflu- 
ous articles,  even  their  clothes,  they  were  in 
danger  of  losing  their  lives.  However,  the 
voyage  was  finally  accomplished  in  safety,  and 
Blanch.ird  was  presented  by  the  king  of  France 
with  12,000  francs,  and  a  pension  of  1200.  In  the 
same  year  he  made  use  of  a  parachute  in  Lon- 
don. His  4C'th  ascent  was  made  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  1706.  In  1798,  he  went  up  from 
Rouen  in  a  large  balloon  with  16  persons.  He 
died  in  1809,  after  having  made  more  than  66 
aeronautic  voyages.  JIadame  Blanchard,  after 
his  death,  continued  to  make  voyages  in 
the  air.  In  June,  1819,  she  ascended  from 
Paris,  and  was  thought  to  be  in  safety,  when 
her  balloon  took  fire  from  some  fireworks 
which  she  carried  with  her ;  she  fell  from  an 
immense  height,  and  was  dashtd  to  pieces  in 
the  Rue  de  Provence. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


BLO 


118 


BOE 


BLENHEIM  or  Blindheim,  a  village  in  the 
circle  of  Upper  Danube,  in  Bavaria,  on  the 
Danube.  It  is  celebrated  for  the  important 
victory  obtained  there  by  the  allies  under  the 
duke  of  Marlborough  and  prince  Eugene,  over 
the  French,  commanded  by  marshals  Tallard 
and  Marsin,  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria. 

In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  Louis 
XIV,  with  the  elector  of  Bavaria  for  his  only 
ally,  was  forced  to  contend  against  the  strength 
of  Holland,  England,  Austria,  Savoy,  Portugal, 
and  the  German  empire.  At  the  battle  of  Blen- 
heim,-which  was  fought  August  13,  1704,  the 
allied  forces  amounted  to  about  52,000,  and 
the  French  to  56,000,  with  great  advantage  of 
situation ;  the  latter,  however,  were  completely 
beaten,  and  11,000  corpses  left  upon  the  field  of 
battle.  Among  other  ensigns  of  victory  were 
100  pieces  of  cannon,  24  mortars,  129  colors,  171 
standards,  17  pair  of  kettle-drums,  3GOO  tents, 
34  coaches,  300  mules  laden  with  the  rich  equi- 
page and  plate,  the  military  chest,  the  dispensa- 
tory, &c. ;  25  brass  pontoons,  and  a  number  of 
carriages  laden  with  provisions  and  ammuni- 
tion. 

BLONDEL,  the  servant,  friend,  and  musical 
instructor  of  the  lion-hearted  Richard  I,  of 
England.  Richard  having  been  confined  in.the 
castle  of  Lowenstein,  by  the  duke  of  Austria, 
Blondel  wandered  through  Palestine  and  Ger- 
many in  search  of  his  royal  master.  He  finally 
discovered  the  place  of  his  confinement,  by 
placing  himself  beneath  the  grated  window  of 
his  tower,  and  singing  one  of  the  lays  which  he 
had  formerly  taught  the  king.  He  had  complet- 
ed the  first  stanza,  when,  to  his  great  delight,  be 
heard  the  voice  of  Richard,  replying  in  the  same 
strain.  He  delivered  the  king  from  bondage, 
and  received  the  title  of  ihe  faithful  Blondel. 

BLOOD,  Thomas,  commonly  called  colonel 
Blood,  a  disbanded  officer  of  Oliver  Cromwell ; 
notorious  for  his  attempt  to  steal  the  crown  and 
regalia  from  the  tower.  He  was  almost  success- 
ful. Charles  II  pardoned  him.  and  even  bestow- 
ed an  estate  of  £500  per  annum  on  him,  while 
poor  Edwards,  keeper  of  the  regalia,  who  was 
severely  wounded  in  defending  them,  was  pass- 
ed by  unnoticed. 

BLOOMFIELD,  Robert,  an  English  poet, 
born  at  Honington,  in  1766.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  tailor,  and,  in  1781,  he  was  sent  to  London, 
with  his  brother,  to  learn  the  shoe-making  trade  ; 
he  visited  various  places  of  public  'worship,  the 
theatre,  and  a  debating  society,  and  found  his 
faculties  developed  in  a  striking  manner.  His 
brother,  hearing  him  one  day  repeat  a  song 


which  he  had  composed,  induced  him  to  cfTer  it 
to  the  editor  of  the  London  Magazine,  by  whom 
it  was  accepted  and  published.  His  poem  of 
the  "  Farmer's  Boy,"  composed  during  a  brief 
residence  in  the  country,  was  published  by  Ca- 
pel  Lofil.  to  whom  it  was  first  shown.  The  ver- 
sification in  this,  as  well  as  in  the  ether  poems 
of  Bloomfield,  is  easy  and  correct.  He  was 
made,  by  the  duke  of  Grafton,  under-sealer  for 
the  Seal  Office,  but  ill-health  compelled  him  to 
relinquish  this  situation.  He  afterwards  work- 
ed at  his  trade,  and  engaged  in  the  book-trade, 
but  became  bankrupt,  lie  died  in  Aiif.  1623. 

BLUCHER,  Marshal,  a  celebrated  Prussian 
general,  who  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars 
with  France,  particularly  in  1813,  1814,  and 
1815,  and  who  by  his  timely  arrival  on  the  field 
of  Waterloo,  with  a  large  body  of  cavalry, 
decided  the  victory.  The  Russians',  in  allu- 
sion to  his  promptitude  in  attack,  called  him  gen- 
eral Forward,  a  name  which  is  always  applied 
to  him  by  his  admirers.  He  died  Sept.  12, 1819. 

BOADICEA,  or  Bonduca,  a  British  heroine, 
queen  of  the  Iceni.  Her  husband,  for  the  secu- 
rity of  his  family,  had  uuide  the  Roman  emperor 
co-heir  with  his  daughters.  But  the  Roman  of- 
ficers took  possession  of  her  palace,  exposed  the 
princesses  to  the  brutality  of  the  soldiers,  and 
scourged  the  queen  in  public.  Boadicea,  urged 
to  revenge  by  this  usage,  assembled  her  country- 
men, and,  in  a  masculine  harangue,  roused  them 
to  madness,  by  describing  her  own,  her  daugh- 
ters' and  her  country's  injuries,  stormed  London, 
and  put  to  the  sword  70.000  strangers.  Sueto- 
nius Paulinus  defeated  the  Britons,  and  Boa- 
dicea poisoned  herself  in  despair.  A.  I).  (50. 

BOCCACCIO,  Giovanni,  a  famous  Italian 
author,  born  at  Paris,  1313.  His  Decameron 
fixed  his  reputation,  and  the  name  of  Boccaccio, 
according  to  Mazzuchelli,  is  equivalent  to  a 
thousand  encomiums.  The  death  of  his  friend 
and  instructor,  Petriirch,  was  a  severe  shock  to 
him,  and  he  died  not  more  than  a  year  after,  at 
Certaldc-,  Dec.  21,1375. 

BOCHICA,  founder  of  the  Indian  empire  of 
Cundinamarca.  the  Manco  Capacofthe  Muisca 
Indians.  He  introduced  the  worship  of  the  sun. 
and  persuaded  the  inhabitants  of  the  Valley  of 
Bogota  to  cultivate  the  soil. 

BODLEY,  Sir  Thomas  ;  founder  of  the  Bod- 
leian library  at  Oxford,  born  at  Exeter  in  1544, 
died  in  I(il2.  at  London. 

BOE11HAVE,  Hermann,  one  of  the  most 
fiimous  physicians  of  the  ]<-'th  century,  born  at 
Woorhout,  near  Leyden,  Dec.  ](>(!«,  died  in 
1738.  People  came  to  him  from  all  parts  of 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BOH 


119 


BOH 


Europe  tor   advice,   and  a   Chinese  mandarin  between  the  Danube  and  the  Moldau.   The  Bo- 

wrote  to  him  with  the  address,  '•  to  Boerhave,  hemians  are  highly  patriotic  and  public  spirited. 

the  celebrated  physician  of  Europe."     His  pro-  In  1HI&J  they  had  &ti>6  public  establishments  for 

perty  amounted,  at  his  death,  to  '2,000,000  florins,  instruction.     The  kingdom  derives  its    name 

BOETHIUS,  Anicius  Manlius  Torquatus  Se-  from  the  Boii,  a  Celtic  nation,  who  settled  there 

verinus,  a  man  whose  services,  rewards,  vir-  about  600  B.  C.     About  the  middle  of  the  4th 

tues,  and  unhappy  end  have  made  him  famous,  century  it  was  inhabited  by  Germans,  who  were 

was  born  at  Rome  or  Milan,  about  470,  A.  D.  governed  by  their  own  dukes.     Charlemagne 

Having  received  an  admirable  education  and  im-  made  Bohemia  tributary,  but  it  did  not  long  re- 

proved himself  by  travel,  he'  was  taken  into  favor  main  so.     The  first  king  received  his  title  from 

by  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  and  ra-  the  emperor  Henry  IV,  and  in  1310  the  house  of 

pidly  raised  to  the  iiighest  offices  of  the  empire.  Luxemburg  succeeded  to  the  throne.     In  1526, 

His  strict  justice  and  uncompromising  integrity  Bohemia  reverted  to  the   house  of  Austria,  by 

having  acquired  for  him  the  hatred  of  the  rapa-  whom  it  hivs  been  ever  since  held.     Bohemia 

cious  and  unprincipled  Goths,  the  king  became  produced  the  first  reformers,  among  whom  were 

prejudiced  against  him,  and  had  him  arrested,  im-  John  Huss,  and  Jerome  of  Prague. 
" 


BOHEMIA,  dynasties  of. 


prisoned,  and  executed,  A.  D.  526  or  527.     Hi 

most  celebrated  work  on  the  Consolations  of  Phi-  DUKES.                              A.D. 

losophy,  consisting  of  prose  and  verse,  was  com-     Czechus  or  Zecko  (a  Sclavonian  conqueror), 550 

posed  by  him  in  prison.     Alfred  the   Great,  of     Cracus  1 565 

England,  translated  it  for  the  benefit  of  his  peo- 
ple. 

BOGOTA,  at  the  time  the    Spaniards  con- 


Cracus  II 

Libussa  (princess), 

Premislaus  (her  husband,  a  peasant),. 

Nezamistus 

Wnislaus 


.!,7li 


quered  South  America,  was  one  of  the  most 

civilized  states  of  the  country,  and  inhabited  by    ^'ezcekz,^islaus '.'.".'."757 

the  Muisca  Indians.     The  valley   of  Bogota,  Hostwit  or  MiiclVost '."........................... ..809 

famous  for  its  fertility,  was  filled-with  Indians,     Borziwoi  1 890 

who   rivalled    in    civilization    the    inhabitants    ^tugmir 901 

of  Cuzco.     They  traced  their  prosperity  to  the     ^ra'fisfauSsY .V.V.V.V.V.V.V.V.'.'. '.'.*.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.920 

instructions  of  Bochica.     Gonzalo  Ximenes  di  Wenceslatu  V.'.V.'.'.V.".V.V.'.V.'.".V.'.'.V.'..'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'926 

Quesada  effected  their  conquest.  Boleslaus  1 938 

BOGOTA,  or  Santa  Fc  de  Bogota;  a  city  of     B°les|aus  «• -^ 

South  America,  formerly  capital  of  the   vice-    j^r^|fr"* '.'.'.'.'.'.'.  !".!.'io02 

royalty  of  New  Grenada,  but  now  capital  of  the  udalric.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'."".".'.'.'.'."..'.'.'.V.V.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".V.V.'.'.'ini2 

republic  of  that  name.     Long.  74 3  15'  W. ;  lat.     liretislaus  1 1037 

4°  36' N.     The  population  has  been  variously     iMjitigneus  11. 1055 

estimated  from  30  to  60,000.     It  lies  on  an  ele-    ,^™^  :f'S      'inco 

vated  plain  to  the  east  of  the  Andes,  and  con 


tains,  besides  a  superb  cathedral,  many  fine 
buildings.  The  lands  in  the  environs  of  Bo- 
gota yield  two  harvests  annually. 

BOHEMIA,  Boeheirn,  Bojenheim,  a  kingdom 


Bretislaus  If 1093 

U'ladislatis  1 1100 

liomvvoi  II 1101 

8uatopluc 1107 

liorzi  vvoi  II  (restored), : .  .1109 

.       .  „  Wladislaus  II 1124 

of  Europe,  bounded  on  the,nortiiby  Lusatia  and     Sobieslaus  1 1125 

Misnia,  on  the  east  by  Moravia  and  Silesia,  on    ^{"^|f""8,F \{% 

the  south  by  Austria  and  Bavaria^  and  on  the  fteteriek  .'l!73 
west  by  Bavaria.  It  contains  above  3,860,000  Conrad  'll'.'.'.".'.'.'.!'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.!!'.!'.!'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.!".'.'.'.'.'.1190 
inhabitants,  of  whom  a  large  portion  are  Jews.  VVence-slaus  II 1191 

Bohemia  is  surrounded  by  mountains  and  eo-  vviacUslau?  1  v"* 1196 

vered  with  forests.   All  kinds  of  grain  and  fruits 

are  exported.     The  mines  yield  silver,  copper,  K 

tin,  garnets,  and  other   precious   stones,   iron,  vvSnceSimt  ILH*     1230 

arsenic,  alum,  antimony,  sulphur,  &,c.     Manu-  Premislnus  Ottocar  II '.'.'.'. !!l253 

factories  are  established  in  various  parts  of  the  Interregnum 1273 

country.     Bohemia  contains  16  circles,  besides  Wenceslaus  IV 1284 

the  city  of  Prague,  governed  by  officers  who  are  He^'ry^Carinthia '.".'.'.'.'.. !.'.'.'...'.'.'..... V.!!!!!!!.1306 

appointed  yearly.    In  1826  a  rail-road  was  laid  John'of  Luxemburg........ ......................  1310 

11 


; 

CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


BOL  120  BOL 

Charles  IV,  Emperor  of  Germany  ............  A.  D.  1346     witty,  and  in  her  last  moments,  self-possessed. 

Wenceslaus  VI  ..................................  1378    «  Sne  sent  her  last  message  to  the  king,"  says 

A&fAu,Vrii:::::::::::::::::r/::::::::::::itS  Hume  «  and  acknowledged  the  obligations 

Wladishius  V  ....................................  1446    which  she  owed  him  in  uniformly  continuin 


George  Podiehrad  ...................  ............  1458  her    advancement.      From    a    private    gentle- 

\\lailislaus  VI  ..................................  14/1  woman,  you  have  made  me,  first,  a  marcliion- 

Louis  .  .  .1516  ,    ?  •* 

1-Vrdinand'l  of  AustVia,  emperor  ..........  ........  1526  ess   then  a  queen  ;  and,  as  you  can  raise  me  no 


higher  in  tins  world,  you  are  now  sending  me 

BOILEAU,    Despreaux   Nicholas,  bom    at  to  be  a  saint  in  heayen." 

Crosne,  near  Paris,in  163G.    After  having  studi-  BOLlNGBROKE.  Henry  St.  John,  viscount, 

cd  at  the  colleges  of  Harcourt  and  Beauvais.he  born  at  Battersea,  in  11)72,  of  an  ancient  and 

entered  upon  the  career  of  law  which  lie  soon  distinguished  family.     His  brilliant  talents,  ele- 

relinquished  for  the  more  congenial  pursuit  of  gant  manners,  and  personal  attractions,  secured 

belles-lettres.      His  satire,  Les  Jidimx  a  Paris,  him  a  warm  welcome  in  society  ;    but,  uuhap- 

first  displayed  his  talents.     He  published  many  pily,  until  his  £id  year  his  career  was  stained 

works,  his  Art  Pottique,  being  the  most  popular,  with  those  vices  which  spring  from  the  impetu- 

He  was  opposed  by  many  writers,  to  coulbund  ous  temper   of  youth.      His  marriage  with  a 

whom    he-  wrote   his    unrivalled   mock-heroic  beautiful  heiress  did  not  produce  the  happiness 

poem,  the   Lutrin.     He  died  of  the  dropsy  in  which  his  parents  had  locked  for.  and  the  young 

171  1.  couple  separated  forever  after  a  short  connexion. 

BOIS-LE-DUC,  the   French   name   for   the  The  moment  he  obtained  a  seat  in  the  house  of 

Dutch  Hcrtogenlosh,  a  fortified  city  of  the  Ne-  commons  he  distinguished  himself  by  industry, 

therlands.  with  17,300  inhabitants,  at  the   con-  activity,  eloquence,  and  strong  judgment,     in 

tiuence  of  the  Dommel   and  the  Aa.      It  has  1704  he  was  made  secretary  at  war,  but  when 

many  manufactories,  a  lyceum.and  15  churches,  the  whigs  came  into  place,  lie  sent  in  his  resig- 

It  was  founded  in  1164.     In  the  religious  wars  nation.     The  whig  party  being  prostrated,  Bo- 

of  the   loth  century  it   suffered   much.      The  lingbroke    received  the  department  of  foreign 

Dutch  gained  possession  of  it  in  1G29.     Near  affairs,   and  concluded  the  peace  of  Utrecht. 

Bois-le-Duc,  in  17D-J,  the  British  army  was  de-  During  the  height  of  party  ce-ntontu  n  between 

feated  by  the  French.    In  the  same  year  it  sur-  the  whigs  and  tories.  immediately  alter  the  con- 

rendered  to  Pichegru,  and  was  taken  by  Bulow,  elusion  of  peace,  a  quarrel  occurred  between 

the  Prussian  General,  in  January,  1814.  Bolingbrcke  and  the  Eail  <;f  Oxlcrd,  then  lord 

BOJACA,  BATTLE  OF,  was  fought  near  high   treasurer,   and    Queen    Anne,    provoked 

the  bridge  of  Bojaca,  a  South  American  town  with  the  latter,  dismissed  him,  four  days  before 

not  far  from  the  city  of  Tunja.    The  Spaniards  her  death,  and  made  Bo  lingbroke  prim"   minis- 

under  Barreyro  were  defeated  by  the    united  ter.     The  scene  was   speedily  reversed  by  the 

forces  of  Venezuela  and  New  Granada,  com-  death  of  Anne.  —  George  1  ascended  the  throne, 

manded  by  Bolivar.      It  took   place  Aug.  7th,  the  whigs  triumphed,  and  Bolingbroke.  learn- 

1819,  and  decided  the   independence  of  New  ing  that  his  enemies  intended  to  brhig  liirn  to 

Granada.  the  scaffold,  fled  to  France.     Bolingbroke  went 

BOLEYN.  or  BOLEN,  Anne,  second  wife  to  Lorraine,  and  was  made   Secretary  of  State 

of  Henry  VIII  of  England.     She  was  probably  by  the  Pretender  (James    III),  who."  however, 

born  about  1500.     She  was  the  daughter  of  Si'r  becoming  displeased  with  him,  deprived  him  of 

Thomas  Boleyn.    Her  early  years  were  spent  in  his  dignity  and  conferred  it  tu  the  duke  of  Or- 

attendance  on  the  wife  of  Louis  XII  of  France,  mond. 

on  whose  death  she  became   maid  of  honor  to  He  returned  to    England    in    1723.  opposed 

queen  Catherine.     Henry,  having  procured   a  the  ministry  for  eight  years,  and  again  went  to 

divorce   from   his  wife,  married  her  privately,  France.     In  France,  in  17<i5,  he   published  his 

and  when  she  became   a  mot  In  r  publicly  ac-  Letters  upon  History,  which,  however  admira- 

knowledged  her  as  queen.     Her  child  was  the  l;k>.  were  blamed   for  attacking   revealed  reli- 

famous  Eliznbeth.      The  tyrant  conceiving   a  gion.      In    171:8.  he    return,  d   t..>    hi.s  country, 

passion  for  Jane  Seymour,  caused  Anne  to  be  where  he  died  of  a  lingering  and  painful  dis- 

tried  for  high  treason  and  intidehtv.     She  suf-  ease  in  1751.  in  his  dOtli  year". 

fered  on  the  scaffold.  May  1'Jth.  1386,   Henry  BOLIVAR,  Simon,  the  most  prominent  actor 

considering  it  an  act  of  great  clemency  to  save  in  the  events  which  produced  the  independence 

her  from  the  stake.    She  was  beautiful,  gay,  and  of  a  large  portion  of  South  America.     He  was 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


BOL 


121 


BOL 


born  in  the  city  of  Caraccas,  July  24th,  1763,  of 
a  distinguishes  and  noble  Venezuelan  family. 
After  acquiring  the  elements  of  a  liberal  educa- 
tion in  South  America,  he  visited  Spain,  and 
spent  some  time  in  travelling  in  Europe,  chief- 
ly in  the  south  of  France.  Returning  for  a 
while  to  Madrid,  he  married,  and  carried  his 
wife  to  his  native  land,  where  he  thought  to 
enjoy  in  peace  the  comforts  of  domestic  life. 
The  death  of  his  wife  put  an  end  to  his  blissful 
visions,  and  he  again  went  to  Europe,  partly  to 
dissipate  his  grief.  On  his  return,  he  travelled 
through  the  United  States,  where  his  love  of 
libertv  settled  into  an  indelible  passion,  and  we 
find  him  actively  engaged  in  promoting  the 
early  movement  in  Caraccas  (April,  1810)  and 
receiving  a  colonel's  commission  from  the  su- 
preme junta  then  established.  He  sided  with 
the  patriots  of  Venezuela,  and,  after  the  declar- 
ation of  independence,  July  5,  1811,  served 
under  General  Miranda,  against  a  party  in  Va- 
lencia, who  declared  against  the  principles  and 
measures  of  the  revolutionists. 

After  some  ill  success  in  Venezuela,  which 
is  attributable  to  treachery  rather  than  want  of 
talent  on  his  part.  Bolivar  obtained  a  passport 
and  escaped  to  Curacoa.  He  could  not,  however, 
content  himself  with*  being  a  calm,  cold,  and  in- 
vulnerable spectator  of  events  in  which  the 
lives  and  fortunes  of  his  countrymen  were  risk- 
ed, and  accordingly  he  came  to  Carthagena  in 
1812,  and  entered  'into  the  service  of  the  pat- 
riots of  New  Grenada.  His  expedition  against 
TenerifFe,  on  the  river  Magdalena,  was  suc- 
cessful, he  drove  the  Spaniards  before  him  in 
his  triumphant  advance,  and  entered  the  city 
of  Ocana  in  triumph,  thus  inspiring  general 
confidence  in  the  patriot  cause,  and  attracting 
the  attention  of  all  to  it  and  to  himself.  He 
next  expelled  the  Spanish  forces  from  Cucu- 
ta,  and  conceived  the  plan  of  freeing  Vene- 
zuela from  the  Spaniards,  a  task  which  he  ac- 
complished by  the  4th  of  August,  1313.  At  the 
assembly  of  Caraccas.  Jan.  2,  1814,  the  power, 
which  was  vested  in  the  hands  ef  Bolivar  as 
commander  of  the  liberating  army,  was  confirm- 
ed. If  we  carefully  trace  the  military  career  of 
Bolivar,  we  shall  find  him  alternately  meeting 
with  success,  and  struggling  with  reverse  ;  dis- 
playing, both  in  triumph  and  defeat,  the  noble 
daring  of  a  gallant  warrior,  the  rare  talents  of 
a  military  chieftain,  and  the  unyielding  perse- 
verance of  a  true  patriot.  At  length  he  nad  the 
satisfaction  of  beholding  the  arms  of  the  patri- 
ots triumphant  in  every  quarter,  their  banners 
moving  onward  in  pride  and  splendor,  and  the 


phalanx  of  opposition  becoming  daily  more  and 
more  feeble. 

In  May,  1826,  Bolivar  presented  to  the  cou- 
gress  of  Upper  Peru,  which  had  formed  the 
independent  state  of  Bolivia,  the  constitution 
which,  at  their  request,  he  had  prepared.  Mean- 
while a  rebellion  had  broken  out  in  Venezuela, 
headed  by  Paez.  who  considered  himself  aggriev- 
ed, and  the  fair  fruits  of  liberty,  won  with  many 
a  day  of  bloody  toil,  appeared  in  danger  of 
being  lost.  It  was  Bolivar  alone  who  could  and 
did  quell  this  insurrection.  The  Bolivian  code, 
which,  among  its  prominent  features,  provided 
that  the  executive  authority  should  be  vested  in 
the  hands  of  the  president  for  life,  was  adopted 
as  the  constitution  of  Bolivia,  Dec.  9,  1826.  and 
Bolivar,  then  absent,  was  declared  its  presi- 
dent. If  the  provisions  of  the  Bolivian  code 
had  alarmed  the  friends  of  liberty,  what  was 
their  terror  when  they  beheld  Bolivar,  whom 
they  suspected  of  ambitious  designs,  placed 
for  "life  at  the  head  of  the  government.  The 
Colombian  auxiliary  army,  then  in  Peru,  rapid- 
ly revolutionized  the  government,  and  induced 
the  Peruvians  to  renounce  the  Bolivian  code. 
Strenuous  opposition  to  Bolivar  was  made  in 
Colombia  by  the  republicans  who  imagined  that 
he  was  ready  to  emulate  the  career  of  Napoleon, 
although  he  had  repeatedly  expressed  a  wish  to 
retire  from  the  presidency..  However,  in  1828, 
a  decree,  dated  Bogota,  Ausr.  '27.  gave  him  the 
supreme  power  in  Colombia.  The  authority 
reposed  in  him  gave  the  republicans  no  little 
alarm,  but  Bolivar  did  not  live  long  to  exercise 
it.  Looking  back  upon  his  career,  we  can  now 
dispassionately  estimate  his  character,  and,  if 
there  appear  occasionally  a  desire  to  exalt  him- 
self above  his  fellows,  we  must  grant  him  that 
rare  union  of  civil  and  military  abilities,  that 
courage  in  adversity  and  moderation  in  pros- 
peritv.  which  was  alone  capable  of  achieving 
the  regeneration  of  his  country. 

BOLIVIA,  a  country  of  South  America, 
bounded  northwest  by  Peru,  east  by  Brazil, 
south  by  Buenos  Ayres  or  the  United  Prov- 
inces of  South  America,  and  west  by  the  Pa- 
cific ocean  and  Peru.  It  is  mountainous,  and 
contains  rich  silver  mines,  t'huquisaca,  or  La 
Plata,  is  the  capital.  The  population  is  about 
1,200,000.  The  battle  f.f  Ayacucho,  fought 
Dec.  (Jth.  1824,  in  which  the  Viceroy  La  Serna 
was  defeated  by  General  Antonio  Jose  de  Sucre, 
achieved  the  independence  of  Bolivia.  The 
powers  of  government  are  distributed  into  four 
sections— the  electoral,  legislative,  executive, 
and  judicial. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


RON 


122 


BON 


BOLOGNA  is  one  of  the  largest,  oldest,  and 
richest  cities  in  Italy.  It  was  anciently  called 
Bononia,  Felsinia.  and  is  surnarned  la  Grassa  (the 
fat).  It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines 
between  the  Reno  and  Savena,  containing  about 
71,300  inhabitants  and  many  manufactories.  It 
is  the  capital  of  a  delegation  of  the  same  name, 
and  the  secular  concerns  are  administered  by 
a  cardinal  legate,  while  the  spiritual  are  in  the 
care  of  an  archbishop.  A  gonfaloniere  chosen 
every  two  months,  with  a  council  of  fifty  sen- 
ators and  eight  citizens,  forming  a  republican 
government,  manages  the  city  affairs.  The  in- 
habitants of  Bologna  submitted  to  the  Pope  in 
1538,  being  worn  and  harassed  by  the  incessant 
contentions  of  the  nobility.  A  Bolognese  am- 
bassador resides  at  Rome,  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  the  sovereign  pontiif  from  pass- 
ing beyond  the  limits  which  the  constitution 
permits.  The  Pope  canjmpose  no  tax  on  the 
inhabitants  of  Bologna,  and  is  only  entitled  to 
the  excise  on  wine.  At  the  same  time  the  Bo- 
lognese elect  a  judge  to  the  high  court  of  ap- 
peals at  Rome.  On  the  whole,  the  city  can 
boast  with  truth  of  the  proud  word  Libertas, 
which  encircles  her  armorial  bearings.  The 
renowned  university  of  Bologna,  winch  once 
contained  10,000  students,  has  at  present  but 
300.  Among  the  buildings  which  ornament 
the  chief  place  of  the  city  is  the  senate  hall, 
which  contains  a  number  of  works  of  art,  and 
200  folio  volumes  in  manuscript  written  by 
Ulysses  Aldovrandus,  as  materials  for  future 
works.  Its  market  is  famous  for  the  sculpture 
of  its  fountain,  and  the  flavor  of  its  sausages, 
presenting  equal  attractions  to  the  artist  and 
the  epicure.  Besides  the  cathedral  of  St.  Pe- 
tronio,  there  are  73  other  churches. 

BOMBAY,  a  presidency,  island,  and  city  in 
British  India  on  the  western  coast  of  Hindos- 
tan.  The  population  of  the  city  is  101 ,550.  The 
city  is  surrounded  with  fortifications,  and  stands 
upon  a  narrow  neck  of  land,  a  mile  in  length. 
The  trade  of  this  plaoe  is  very  considerable. 
The  American  Board  of  Commissioners  Cor  For- 
eign Missions,  had,  in  1828,  four  missionaries 
and  a  printing  press  here,  with  JG  schools  for 
boys,  and  10  for  girls,  containing  in  all  2G2G 
pupils.  Bombay  was  obtained  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1530,  and  ceded  to  the  English  in 
JGG1,  under  whom  it  has  become  a  strong  and 
flourishing  place. 

BONAPARTE.    (See  Napoleon.) 

BONIFACE,  the  name  of  several  popes. 
Boniface  I  succeeded  Zozimus  in  418,  and  was 
maintained  in  the  pontifical  chair  by  the  emperor 


Honorius  against  his  rival  Eulalius.  He  died  in 
422.  Boniface  II  succeeded  Felix  IV  in  530. 
He  was  born  at  Rome,  but  his  father  was  a 
Goth.  He  compelled  the  bishops  in  a  council  to 
allow  him  to  nominate  his  successor,  and  ac- 
cordingly he  selected  Vigil ;  but  a  second  council 
disavowed  the  proceedings  of  Ihe  first.  Boni- 
face VI  came  to  the  chair  896,  and  died  of  the 
gout  a  fortnight  after.  Boniface  VII  assumed 
the  chair  alter  having  murdered  Benedict  VI 
and  John  XIV.  He  was  acknowledged  sove- 
reign poritifi'  in  984,  and  died  a  few  months 
after.  Boniface  VIII,  after  the  resignation  of 
Celestine,  was  elected  1294.  He  commenced 
his  pontificate  by  imprisoning  his  predecessor, 
and  laying  Denmark  under  an  interdict.  He 
also  excommunicated  the  Colonnas  as  heretics, 
and  preached  a  Crusade  against  them.  He  ex- 
cited the  princes  of  Germany  to  revolt  against 
Albert,  and  laid  France  under  an  interdict. 
Philip  appealed  to  a  general  council,  and  sent 
his  army  into  Italy,  and  took  the  Pope  prisoner. 
He  died  at  Rome  a  few  months  afterwards. 

BONIFACE,  St.,  first  spread  Christianity 
and  civilization  among  the  Germans.  His  ori- 
ginal name  was  Winifred,  and  he  was  born  in 
England  in  G80.  In  732  he  was  made  arch- 
bishop and  primate  of  all  Germany.  He  was 
lulled  by  barbarians  at  Dockum,in  West  Fries- 
land,  in  75"),  in  his  75th  year. 

BONN,  the  capital  of  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment of  Cologne,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
The  university ,  in  1829,  contained  1000  students. 

BONNER,  Edmund,  an  English  prelate,  who 
received  several  clerical  preferments  from  Car- 
dinal Wolsey.  Henry  VIII  made  him  one  of 
his  chaplains,  and  sent  him  to  Rome  to  obtain 
from  the  Pope  a  divorce  from  queen  Catharine. 
There  he  was  so  insolent  that  the  pontiff 
threatened  to  throw  him  into  a  cauldron  of  boil- 
ing lead,  and  thus  compelled  him  to  quit  Rome. 
He  persecuted  the  Protestants  with  great  cru- 
elty, and  Elizabeth  imprisoned  him  in  the  3Iar- 
shalsea.  where  he  died  in  15G9. 

BONNEVAL,  Claude  Alexander,  count  de, 
known  also  by  the  name  of  Jlckmct  Pasha,  was 
born  in  ]G72.  He  was  descended  from  an  illus- 
trious fo-mily  in  France,  and  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Marsha]  de  Biron.  He  was  disgraced, 
however,  by  his  incessant  pursuit  of  sensual 
pleasure.  He  quitted  the  French  army  to  servo 
under  Prince  Eugene ;  but,  having  quarrelled 
with  that  general,  he  entered  the  service  of 
the  Turks,  among  whom  he  obtained  a  military 
command,  with  a  high  salary,  and  the  rank  of 
pacha  with  three  tails.  He  won  a  great  victory 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BOO 


123 


BOR 


over  the  imperial  army  on  the  banks  of  the 
Danube.  He  died  in  1747. 

BONPL  A  ND.  Aima,  a  French  naturalist,  who 
accompanied  Humboldtto  America  in  1799,  and 
discovered  GOOO  new  species  of  plants.  He,  re- 
turned to  France,  and  thence  went  again  to 
South  America  in  1618.  In  1820,  he  founded 
a  colony  of  Indians,  at  Santa  Anna,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Parana,  and  succeeded  in  planting 
the  Paraguay  tea,  which  drew  upon  him  the 
notice  of  doctor  Francia,  dictator  of  Paraguay, 
200  of  whose  soldiers  surprised  and  seized  the 
naturalist.  He  was  held  captive,  and  made  to 
serve  as  physician  to  the  garrison  of  a  fort;  but 
was  released  in  1831. 

BOONE,  Daniel,  a  native  of  Virginia,  was 
one  of  the  first  to  penetrate  the  savage  wilds  of 
Kentucky,  on  an  expedition  to  explore  which, 
lie  departed  with  five  companions,  May  1 , 17t)9. 
Bonne,  with  John  Stewart,  was  captured  by  the 
Indians,  not  long  after  their  arrival  in  Kentucky, 
but  soon  managed  to  escape.  Their  compan- 
ions had  returned  home,  whither  they  would 
have  followed  them,  but  for  the  timely  arrival 
of  Squire  Boone,  Daniel's  brother,  with  refresh- 
ments. Stewart  being  soon  after  slain,  the  two 
Boones  remained,  the  only  white  men  in  the 
wilderness.  In  177;?.  Boone  with  his  own,  and 
five  other  families,  and  a  body  of  40  men,  took 
up  the  march  of  emigration  from  Virginia  to 
Kentucky  ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  hostility 
of  the  Indians,  they  returned  to  the  settlements 
on  Clinch  River.  In  1775  Boone  built  a  fort  at 
Silt  Spring,  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Ken- 
tucky, on  the  site  of  Boonesborough.  After 
sustaining  several  sieges,  he  was  taken  by  the 
savyges,  Feb.  7,  177?,  while  hunting  with  some 
of  his  men.  The  Indians  soon  learned  to  re- 
spect and  value  Boone,  who  was  adopted  by  one 
of  the  chiefs  of  Chiliicothe,  but  the  thoughts 
of  his  wife  and  children  induced  our  adven- 
turer to  attempt  an  escape.  After  travelling  for 
four  days,  taking  but  one  meal,  he  arrived  at 
Boonesborough,  which  was  160  miles  distant 
from  the  place  of  his  captivity.  On  the  8th  of 
August  an  attack  on  the  fort  was  commenced 
by  a  body  of  Indians  and  Canadian  French, 
which  continued  till  the  20th,  when  the  siege 
was  abandoned.  This  was  the  last  attempt 
made  upon  Boonesborough. 

From  1782  till  1798,  Boone  lived  alternately 
in  Kentucky  and  Virginia.  In  1798,  having 
obtained  from  the  Spanish  government  a  grant 
of  land  in  Upper  Louisiana,  he  removed  thither 
with  his  children  and  friends,  who  were  also 
presented  with  land.  He  settled  on  the  Mis- 
11* 


souri,  beyond  the  limits  of  other  settlements, 
and  employed  himself  in  the  wild  life  of  the 
forest,  hunting  and  trapping,  until  Sept.  1822, 
when  he  expired,  in  his  e5th  year.  He  had  for 
a  long  time  been  sensible  of  the  approach  of 
death,  and  had  a  coffin  made  cut  of  a  favorite 
cherry-tree,  which  he  brought  to  a  high  de- 
gree of  polish  by  continual  rubbing. 

BORA,  Catherine  von,  a  nun,  who  married 
Luther  about  1524,  when  he  had  laid  aside  the 
cowl,  and  she  the  veil. 

BORDENTOWN,  a  pleasant  town  of  New 
Jersey,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Delaware,  2C 
miles  IN.  E.  of  Philadelphia,  the  residence  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  Count  de  Survilliers. 

BORGHESE,  princess,  originally  Marie  Pau- 
line Bonaparte,  the  favorite  sister  of  Napoleon, 
botn  at  Ajacio,  Oct.  20,  1782.  After  becom- 
ing the  widow  of  General  Leclerc.  she  married 
prince  Camillo  Borghese,  with  whom  she  did 
not  live  on  good  terms.  She  died  1825.  Her 
whole  property  amounted  to  2,000,000  francs. 
She  was  uncommonly  beautiful,  and  Canova  re- 
presented her  as  the  goddess  of  beauty,  a  Venus 
which  almost  rivalled  the  antique. 

BORGIA,  Ceesar,  son  of  pope  Alexander  VI, 
an  infamous  character.  On  his  father's  acces- 
sion to  the  papacy  in  14C2,  he  was  invested  with 
the  purple.  Being  jealous  of  his  brother  Fran- 
cis, he  contiived  to  have  him  drowned.  Hav- 
ing renounced  the  cardinalship.  he  was  made 
duke  of  Romagna  in  1501 ,  and  leagued  with 
Louis  XII  of  France.  On  the  death  of  his 
father,  he  was  sent  prisoner  to  Spain,  but  made 
his  escape,  and  died  fighting  under  the  walk 
of  Biano,  in  1507. 

BORNEO,  next  to  New  Holland,  the  largest 
island  in  the  world,  is  about  800  miles  long,  and 
700  broad.  The  population  has  been  estimated  at 
from  3  to  5  millions.  Lcn.  109=  to  119°  E. ;  lat. 
73  N.  to  4C  20'  S.  The  insalubrity  of  the  cli- 
mate has  restrained  Europeans  from  exploring 
it,  and  consequently  not  much  information  has 
been  collected  with  regard  to  it.  The  chain 
of  mountains  coutains  numerous  crystals,  and 
is  thence  called  Crystal  Mountain.  Earthquakes 
and  volcanoes  are  frequent  in  the  island.  The 
mountain  breezes  and  the  rains  moderate  the 
heat,  which  is  by  no  means  excessive.  Gold,  di- 
amonds, pearl,  iron,  copper,  tin,  and  other  min- 
erals are  found  here.  The  fruits  are  fine  and 
abundant.  The  inhabitants  are  Malays,  Javan- 
ese, Bujis  cr  natives  of  Celebes,  and"  descend- 
ants of  Arabs,  governed  by  despotic  chiefs 
called  Sultans.  They  are  said  to  be  intelligent, 
but  treacherous.  The  Dutch  have  succeeded 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


BOS 


124 


BOS 


in  forming  permanent  establishments  on  the 
island,  and  derive  their  chief  profit  from  pep- 
per and  diamonds.  The  town  of  Borneo,  on 
the  northwest  part  of  the  island,  10  miles  from 
the  sea,  contains  3000  houses,  and  is  the  resi- 
dence of  a  Sultun,  formerly  the  sovereign  of 
the  entire  island. 

BORNOU,  a  kingdom  of  Central  Africa, 
hounded  JN.  by  Kanem  and  the  desert,  east  by 
lake  Tchad,  south  by  Mandara,  and  west  by 
Soudan.  The  seasons  are  divided  into  dry  and 
rainy.  The  heat  is  occasionally  excessive.  The 
country  contains  13  large  and  well-built  towns. 
The  Shouaas  are  Arabians,  arrogant,  and  de- 
ceitful ;  the  Bornou  people  have  negro  features, 
and  are  timorous  and  addicted  to  pilfering.  The 
government  is  in  the  hands  of  the  powerful 
sheikh  of  the  Koran.  The  domestic  and  wild 
animals  are  numerous.  The  minerals  are  un- 
important. Strips  of  cotton  pass  current  in  the 
country  instead  of  coin. 

BORROMEI  ISLANDS  (Isoh  dd  Canigti 
or  Rabbit  Isles)  are  four  small  islands  in  Lake 
M aggiore  in  Upper  Italy.  The  lake  is  30  miles 
long,  and  7  or  y  broad.  The  islands  are  loaded 
with  artificial  ornaments,  and  luxurious  groves. 
In  1(>71  Viteliano  Borromeo  caused  garden-soil 
to  be  spread  over  the  naked  rocks,  and  terraces 
to  be  walled  up.  Isola  Bella  is  near  the  shore, 
and  contains  a  splendid  palace,  the  occasional 
dwellincr-place  of  Count  Borromei. 

BOSCAWEN,  Edward,  a  British  admiral. 
Hi>  particularly  distinguished  himself,  at  the 
taking  of  Porto  Bello,  and  the  siege  of  Car- 
thagena.  He  also  signalized  himself  under 
Anson,  off  Cape  Finisterre ;  and  at  the  taking 
of  Madras,  Cape  Breton,  and  Louisburg.  He 
died  in  1701,  having  received  in  succession  all 
the  honors  of  his  profession. 

BOSNIA,  a  Turkish  province,  with  the  title 
of  kingdom,  which  is  bounded  north  by  Scl:ivo- 
nia,  east  by  Servia,  south  by  Dahnatia  and  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  and  west  by  Croatia.  It  contains 
a5,000  inhabitants,  t\_v.o  thirds  Christians,  and 
one  third  Turks,  besides  Jews  and  Gipsies. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  the  cattle  fine,  and  the  iron 
of  the  mountains  extensively  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  guns  and  sword  blades.  In  the  12th 
and  13lh  centuries,  Bosnia  belonged  to  Hungary. 
In  ]:«!),  Stephen,  king  of  Servia,  took  it.  "it 
gained  its  independence,  but  in  140J,  became 
tributary  to  the  Turks,  and  in  14fi:5.  was  con- 
quered by  Mohammed  V,  who  caused  its  last 
king,  Stephen  I,  to  be  flayed  alive.  It  has  since 
remained  part  of  the  Turkish  dominions. 

BOSPHORUS,  an  ancient  kingdom,  called 


from  the  straits  on  both  sides  of  which  it  was 
situated. 

BOSSUET,  Jacques  Benigne,  bishop  of 
Meaux,  born  at  Dijon,  1627,  became  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  ecclesiastics  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. He  was  pious,  severe  in  doctrine  and 
practice,  eloquent,  and  learned.  He  died  in 
1704. 

BOSTON,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts,  and 
largest  city  of  the  New-England  States.  It  is 
situated  at  the  bottom  of  Massachusetts  bay,  at 
the  mouth  of  Charles  river;  Ion.  71°  4'  W.  ; 
lat.  42*  22'  N.  Population  (in  1840)  03,383. 
Its  extent,  inclusive  of  the  peninsula  of  South 
Boston,  is  nearly  three  square  miles.  The 
harbor  is  capacious  and  gemmed  with  many 
islands,  some  of  which  are  fortified.  The  bridg- 
es, with  a  sinjjle  exception,  are  of  wood  ;  the 
dam  leading  from  the  western  part -of  the  city 
to  Roxbury.  being  of  stone  and  earth.  Two 
of  the  bridges  are  free,  and  the  rest  are  sup- 
ported by  tolls.  The  streets  are  quite  narrow 
and  irregular,  although  improvements  are  rapid- 
ly making  in  their  condition  wherever  prac- 
ticable. Many  of  the  houses  jive  built  of  brick, 
some  wholly  of  hammered  gn-.mte,  and  some  of 
both  these  materials.  Few  recent  buildings  are 
of  wood.  The  state-house,  on  a  hill  which  com- 
mands a  view  of  the  city  and  its  environs,  is  a 
large  building  of  brick ,  and  contains  a  fine  mar- 
ble statue  of  Washington,  executed  by  Chantry. 
Other  public  buildings  are  the  county  Court- 
House  built  of  stone,  Faneuil  Hall,  called  "the 
Cradle  of  Liberty,''  from  the  public  meetings 
held  there  previous  to  the  revolution  ;  the  Mas- 
sachusetts General  Hospitnl,  the  Faneuil  Hail 
Market,  various  churches  and  school-houses,  a 
house  <  f  industry,  a  house  of  correction,  a 
county  jail,  and  throe  theatres.  Tremont  Ho- 
tel is  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  architec- 
ture in  the  city. 

The  city  is  divided  into  twelve  wards;  the 
municipal  government  is  vested  in  a  jnayor, 
eight  aldermen,  and  a  common  council  of  for- 
ty-eight members.  Measures  of  a  legislative 
character  are  adopted  by  a  concurrent  act  of 
the  board  of  nldermen  and  common  council, 
whiK>  the  executive  functions  are  exercised 
by  the  mayor  and  aldermen.  These  oiliceis 
are  chosen  annually  by  the  citizens  voting  in 
their  wards.  The'  city  charter  is  of  recent 
origin,  bearing  the  date  of  1821.  There  is  a  po- 
lice court  of  three  justices,  before  whom  minor 
offences  are  tried,  while  a  single  judge  holds 
the  municipal  court,  which  has  jurisdiction  over 
all  criminal  cases,  tried  by  jury,  which  are  not 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BOS 


125 


BOS 


capital.  The  annual  expenses  amount  to  about 
300,000  dollars.  The  public  schools  are  under 
the  care  of  a  school  committee,  consisting  of 
the  mayor  and  aldermen  and  twelve  members, 
annually  chosen  by  the  citizens.  The  library 
of  the  Boston  AthensEum  contains  about  30,000 
volumes.  Boston  contains  numerous  literary, 
scientific,  vand  charitable  societies.  It  is  the 
second  commercial  city  of  the  United  States. 
The  goods  imported  annually  amount  to  about 
$  13,000,0^)0,  and  the  exports  to  about  $9,000,- 
000.  The  common  is  the  principal  public 
square.  It  is  surrounded  by  the  mall,  !i  hand- 
some gravelled  walk,  fenced  in,  and  shaded  with 
fine  elm  trees,  and  contains  about  fifty  acres. 
The  periodicals  of  Boston  have  attained  a  high 
reputation,  and  are  worthy  of  the  literary  char- 
acter of  the  city.  The  North  American  Re- 
view, a  quarterly  publication,  is  distinguished 
for  the  candor  and  talent  of  its  criticisms,  and 
the  ability  with  which  it  defends  our  institu- 
tions and  country,  against  the  assaults  which 
are  occasionally  made  by  prejudiced  foreigners. 
Boston  was  ibunded  in  1630.  William  Black- 
stone  was  the  first  settler.  It  was  called  by  the 
Indians  Shawmut,  and  by  the  early  colonists 
Tri-mountain,  from  its  three  prominent  hills. 
The  first  church  was  built  in  1(533.  The  Mid- 
dlesex canal,  leading  from  Charles  river  to  the 
Merrimack,  and  thus  forming  a  navigable  chan- 
nel to  Concord  in  New  Hampshire,  was,  until 
recently,  the  only  means  of  transportation  to 
and  from  the  interior,  with  the  exception  of  the 
common  roads.  There  have  now  been  com- 
menced and  partly  finished,  a  rail-road  from 
Boston  to  Lowell,  one  to  Worcester,  and  one  to 
Providence,  in  the  state  of  Rhode  Island.  From 
the  year  1783,  the  population  has  doubled  once 
in  about  23  years.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II, 
the  charter  of  Massachusetts  was  declared  for- 
feited by  a  decree  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  and 
Sir  Edmund  Andros  was  appointed  the  first 
royal  governor.  In  April,  IGrii),  the  Bostonians 
seized  upon  the  governor  a:ul  imprisoned  him, 
having  first  taken  possession  of  the  fort,  and 
castle  in  the  harbour.  In  a  little  more  than  a 
month  afterwards,  the  ne\vs  of  the  revolution  in 
England,  was  welcomed  in  Boston  with  general 
exultation.  In  1765,  when  the  obnoxious  stamp 
act  passed,  the  person  appointed  to  distribute  the 
stamps,  was  compelled  to  decline  the  office,  and 
the  house  of  the  lieutenant-governor  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  mob.  On  the  breaking  out  of  these 
tumults,  which  appeared  to  threaten  the  down- 
fal  of  authority,  Boston  was  forced  to  receive 
a  large  military  and  naval  force,  which  it  was 


thought  would  quell  the  spirit  of  insubordina- 
tion. 

The  citizens  regarded  the  soldiers  with  little 
favor,  and  they  only  wanted  a  pretext  to  show 
their  hostility  openly.  March  5th,  1770,  a  ser- 
geant's guard  in  King  (now  State)  street,  being 
pressed  upon  and  pelted  by  the  mob,  fired  and 
killed  five  men.  After  the  tax  had  been  im- 
posed on  tea,  the  Americans  resolved,  if  pos- 
sible, to  prevent  the  landing  and  sale  of  it. 
When  three  of  the  tea  ships  arrived,  December 
1C,  1773,  a  party  of  men  disguised  as  Indians, 
went  on  board  and  threw  all  the  tea  overboard. 
In  the  following  spring,  the  port  of  Boston  was 
closed  by  act  of  Parliament,  and  the  impor- 
tation and  exportation  of  goods  prohibited.  The 
general  court  held  its  sittings  in  Salem,  and 
more  troops  together  with  a  military  governor, 
were  sent  to  Boston.  In  1775,  after  the  battles 
of  Lexington  and  Bunker  Hill,  British  troops, 
to  the  number  of  10,01)0  men,  were  besieged  in 
Boston,  until  the  March  following.  During 
this  siege  the  inhabitants  suffered  greatly,  for 
many  who  wished  to  leave  the  town  were  not 
permitted  to  do  so,  but  forced  to  stay  against 
their  will,  and  treated  as  tories  by  the  Ameri- 
can army  on  their  entrance.  The  British  offi- 
cers amused  themselves  by  acting  plays  in 
Faneuil  Hall,  the  "  cradle  of  liberty,"  being 
fitted  up  tastefully  on  the  occasion.  General 
Burgoyne  wrote  a  farce  called  the  Boston  Block- 
ade, in  which  the  yankets  were  severely  satiri- 
zed, and  a  happy  triumph  of  the  royal  arms 
predicted.  The  sarcasms  on  the  weakness  of 
the  Americans  with  which  this  piece  was  inter- 
spersed, received  a  curious  commentary  in  the 
frequent  explosions  of  the  shells  which  were 
thrown  into  the  town  by  the  besiegers.  A  can- 
non ball  entered  the  tower  of  Brattle  street 
church,  where  it  is  still  preserved.  Boston  was 
distinguished  for  its  early  adherence  to  the 
cause  of  liberty,  and  was  the  birth-place  of  sev- 
eral of  the  most  talented  and  uncompromising 
enr-mies  of  despotism. 

BOS  WELL,  James,  the  friend  and  biogra- 
pher of  Johnson,  was  a  native  of  Scotland,  and 
studied  at  the  universities  of  Glasgow  and 
Utrecht.  He  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  in  1740, 
and  died  in  1705.  He  was  acquainted  with 
many  eminent  literary  men,  and  his  introduc- 
tion to  Johnson  lie  calls  the  moist  important 
event  of  his  life.  His  life  of  Johnson  is  accu- 
rate and  minute,  abounding  with  literary  anec- 
dote and  personal  detail.  It  was  first  published 
in  1790,  and  has  since  been  repeatedly  re-print- 
ed. The  late  edition,  edited  by  Croker,  is  the 
most  valuable. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


BOU 


126 


BOU 


BOSWORTH,   a  small   town  of  Leicester  BOUILLF,,  Francois  Claude   Amour,  Mar- 

county,    England,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  is  quis  de,  a  French  loyalist  general,  who,  among 

Boswoilh  field,  memorable  for  the  battle  fought  other  services,  suppressed  a  dangerous  insur- 

here  in  1458,  between  Richard  III  and  the  earl  rection  at  Metz,  and  assisted  Louis  XVI  in  his 

of  Richmond,  afterwards  Henry  VII,  in  which  attempt  to  escape  from  France.     For  his  avowal 

the  latter  was  victories,  and  Richard,  after  hav-  of  this  transaction,  a  price   was  set  upon   his 

ing  performed  prodigies  of  valour,  and  cloven  head,  whereupon  he  took  a  commission  in  the 

from  helm  to  heel  two  of  Richmond's  standard-  Swedish  service.     He  died  in  1800. 

bearers,  thus  disproving  the  tale  of  his  withered  BOURBON,  the  royal  house  of  the  kings  of 

arm.   was  finally  slain.     The   brows  of  Rich-  France,  who  obtained  the  throne  in  the  j  crson 

mond  were  encircled  on  the  field  of  battle  with  of  Henry  IV.  in  15DO.     The  kings  of  this  house 

the  diadem  which  was  stricken  from  the  casque  were  Henry'  IV,  Louis  X11I,  XIV,  XV,  XVI, 

of  Richard.     This  battle  ended  the  bloody  con-  XVII.  XVl'lI,  and  Charles  X.     The  Bourbon 

tentions  of  the   rival  roses,  the  red  and  white  family  obtained  the   kingdom   of  Spain,  in  Ihu 

person  of  Philip  V  (of  Anjf  u),  and  maintained 


badges  of  York  and  Lancaster. 
BOTHNIA,  East  and  West, 


t,  provinces  be-  themselves  in  possession  after  a  long  nnd  bloody 

longing,  the  former  to  Russia,  and  the  latter  to  war,  called  the  war  for  the  Spanis-h  successicn. 

Sweden.      East   Bothnia   contains  70,000  in-  BOURBON,  Charles,  duke  of,  or  Constablo 

habitants,  and  previous  to  180!),  belonged  to  of  Bourbon,  son  of  Gilbert,  ccunt  of  Mrntpem 

Sweden.     West   Bothnia   contt\ins   56,000  in-  sier,  and   Clara  of^  Gonzaga,  born  in  1 16!).     A) 

habitants,  is  tolerably  fertile,  but  subject  tosud-  the  age  of  twenty-six,  he  received  the  sword  or' 

den  frosts.  Constable  from    Francis    I,   and   distinguished 

BOTH  WELL,  James  Hepburn,  earl  of,  re-  himself  at  Marignano,  but  soon  nfter  iell  infij 

markable  in   the  history' of  Scotland,  for   his  disgrace.  On  this,  he  associated  with  Charles  V, 

connexion  with  queen  Mawyand  his  supposed  and  the  king  of  England,  against  his  sovereign* 

share,  at  least,  in  the  muffler  of  Henry  Darn-  The  plot  being  discovered,  he  fled   into  Italyj 

ley,   her   husband.      When    that    unfortunate  nnd  was  beyond  the  territories  of  France,  when 

prince  was  blown  up  in  the    house  where  he  Francissent  to  demand  the  swoid  which  he  wor>; 

slept,  suspicion  fell  strongly  on  Bothwell  and  as  constable,  and  the  badge  of  his  order.     Iv 

the    queen.     Bothwell  was  tried,  but  nothing  the  words  of  his  reply,  we  may  trace  the  deej 

could  be  fixed  on  him,  and  he  was  acquitted,  onguish  of  his  heart— "  The  king  deprived  me 

After  this  he  seized  Mary  near  Edinburgh,  and  of  my  sword  at  Valenciennes  when  he  gave  the 

carried  her  prisoner  to  Dunbar  castle,  where  command   of  the  vanguard  to  d'Alcnccn  :  th; 

they   were   married.     During  these  iniquitous  badjre  of  my  OH.'CI   I  Iell  under  my  pillow   at 

proceedings,  Bothwell  procured  a  divorce  from  Chahtelles."     He  became  Commander-in-chief 

his  wife.     Mary  soon  after  created  him  earl  of  of  the  imperial  troops  in  Italy,  but  was  killed  i!\ 

Orkney.     But  a  confederacy  among  the  lords  the  successful  assault  on  Rome,  May  2d,  *" 


being  formed  against  him,  he  retired  to  the  Ork-  He  fell,  it  is  said,  by  a  shot  fired  by  Benvenuto 
neys,  and  from  thence  to  Denmark,  where  he  Cellini.  He  died  excommunicated,  in  the  38th 
died  in  1577,  confessing-  it  is  said  his  own  guilt,  year  of  his  age. 


and  the  queen's  innocence  of  Darnley's  murder.  BOURBON,  isle  of,  an  island  in  the  Indian 
BOUDINOT,  Elias.  was  born  at  Philadel-  ocean,  about  400  miles  east  of  Madagascar.  It 
phia,  May  2A,  1740.  He  became  eminent  at  contains  17,000  whites,  6,000  free  negroes,  and 
the  bar,  was  chosen  member  of  Congress  in  (JO ,000  slaves.  It  is  productive,  but  sutlers  from 
1777,  and  its  president  in  1782.  Eor  six  years  the  want  of  good  harbours.  Its  origin  is  sup- 
he  was  in  the  house  of  representatives,  and  for  posed  to  be  volcanic.  -Lf,  I'iton  tie  J\'ci<rf}  or  the 
a  few  years  director  of  the  U.  S.  mint.  He  Snowy  Spike,  is  a  mountain  which  rises  to  the 
made  munificent  donations  to  the  American  height  of  about  10,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
Bible  Society,  of  which  he  became  president,  the  sea.  The  isle  of  Bourbon,  which  is  48 
He  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-two,  in  i~-l  miles  long,  and  36  broad,  was  discovered  by 
BOUFFLERS,  Marshal  de,  was  born  in  1614,  Mascarenhas,  a  Portuguese,  in  154"),  and  called 
and  died  in  1711.  His  defence  of  Namur,  in  afler  his  name;  but  the  French,  who  gained 
ll><)5,  cost  the  allies  20,000  men.  Louis  XIV  possession  of  it  in  164!».  gave  it  .its  present name, 
sent  him  an  order  commanding  him  to  surren^  Afler  remaining  for  a  time  in  the  hands  of  the 
der,  but  he  concealed  it  till  he  had  no  longer  English,  it  was  restored  to  the  French  in  1815. 
the  means  of  defence.  BOURBONNAIS,  a  former  province  of 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BOY 


127 


BOY 


France,  lying  between  the  Nivernais,  Berry, 
and  Burgundy,  forming  the  present  department 
of  Allier. 

BOURDEAUX,  the  chief  city  in  the  French 
department  of  the  Gironde,  lying  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Garonne,  and  containing  100.000 
inhabitants.  It  is  a  city  of  great  antiquity,  and 
distinguished  for  its  gloomy  splendor.  It  has 
nineteen  gates,  and  some  magnificent  cathe- 
drals. It  annually  exports  100.000  hogsheads 
of  wine,  and  20,000  of  French  brandy.  With 
the  exception  of  Nantes,  it  has  the  greatest 
share  in  the  American  and  French  trade  of  any 
other  city.  Its  academy  of  sciences  has  a  lib- 
rary of  55,000  volumes.  The  Romans  called 
this  place  Burdigaia.  In  the  5th  century  it 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Goths,  and  pillaged  and 
burned  bv  the  Normans.  When  Louis  VII  mar- 
ried Eleanora,  daughter  of  the  last  duke  of  Gui- 
enne,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  When 
the  princess  was  repudiated,  it  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  duke  of  Normandy,  afterwards  king 
of  England,  her  second  husband.  It  was  restor- 
ed to  France  under  Charles  VII,  in  1451.  Dur- 
ing the  revolution  it  was  devastated  by  the  ter- 
rorists, as  being  the  seat  of  the  Girondists.  Bo- 
naparte's continental  system  bore  heavily  upon 
the  trade  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bourdeaux,  and 
accordingly  they  willingly  declared  themselves 
in  favor  of  the  Bourbons,  March  l'2th.  1814. 

BOVVDOIN,  Jarnes,  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, was  born  at  Boston,  in  17<J7,  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  1745.  elected  member  of  the  gen- 
eral court  in  1753,  and  a  member  of  the  coun- 
cil in  175G.  In  1773,  he  was  chosen  president 
of  the  convention  which  framed  the  Massachu- 
setts constitution.  In  1785,  being  chosen  gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts,  he  quelled  an  insurrec- 
tion without  a  blow.  He  died  at  Boston,  in 
17iX).  Such  was  his  reputation  for  learning, 
that  he  was  honored  with  the  degree  of  L.  L. 
D.  by  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  admitted* 
member  of  the  royal  societies  of  Dublin,  Lon- 
don, and  other  places. 

BOYER.  Jean  Pierre,  a  mulatto,  president 
of  the  island  of  Hayti,  was  born  in  Port  au 
Prince,  about  1780."  After  the  death  of  Le- 
clerc,  he  joined  the  party  of  Petion,  and  was 
finally  named  by  him  his  successor  in  the  presi- 
dency. When  the  revolution  broke  out  in  1820, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  island,  he  was  invi- 
ted to  command  the  insurgents,  and  upon  the 
union  of  the  northern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
island  on  the  death  of  Christophe.  and  the  rev- 
olution in  the  eastern  part,  he  became  master  of 
the  whole  island. 


BOYLE.  Robert,  a  celebrated  natural  philos- 
opher,  born  at  Lismore,  in  Ireland,  1627,  was 
seventh  son  of  Richard,  the  great  earl  of  Cork. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  a  learned 
society,  formed  in  1645,  under  the  name  of  the 
Philosophical  College,  and  'afterwards  continued 
under  the  name  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  made 
numerous  chemical  experiments,  which  led  to 
some  important  results.  But  it  is  chiefly  as  a 
pious  and  benevolent  man  that  he  is  interesting 
to  us.  Having  conceived  doubts  of  the  authen- 
ticity of  revealed  religion,  he  devoted  himself 
to  a  severe  couise  of  study,  until  he  was  fully 
convinced  of  its  truth.  He  instituted  public 
lectures  for  the  defence  of  Christianity,  sup- 
ported the  cause  of  the  mission  in  India,  and, 
at  hib  own  expense,  piinted  Irish  and  Gaelic 
translations  of  the  Bible.  He  died  in  London, 
in  1691. 

BOYNE.  battle  of  the,  was  fought  on  the  1st 
of  July.  IG'JO,  between  William  III,  at  the  head 
of  a  Protestant  army,  and  James  II  at  the  head 
of  a  Catholic  and  French  force.  The  latter 
were  totally  defeated  ;  marshal  Schomberg  was 
killed.  After  this  battle  Jarnes  re-embarked 
for  France,  and  William  completed  the  reduc- 
tion of  Ireland,  by  the  capture  of  Limerick,  after 
a  protracted  siege.  The  impetuous  imbecility 
of  the  unfortunate  bigot  James  II,  served  only 
to  hasten  the  rain,  which  public  opinion  had  so 
deservedly  prepared  for  hirnseif  and  his  family 
It  was  the  Irish,  who.  during  the  dark  fortunes 
of  this  last  of  the  Stuarts,  clung  to  him,  when  all 
else  deserted  him.  They  manned  his  navy, 
recruited  his  army,  replenished  his  coffers,  and 
took  their  stand  around  his  person  on  their  na- 
tive soil ;  and  when  they  saw  him  the  first  to 
fly,  they  still  erected  his  torn  standard,  and 
rallied  in  his  cause,  paying  the  penalty  of 
their  generous  but  misapplied  devotion  to  a 
bigot  and  a  tyrant,  by  utter  ruin,  and  eternal 
exile. 

When  James,  after  his  flight  from  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne,  arrived  in  Dublin,  he  had  the  in- 
gratitude and  ungraciousness  to  reflect  upon 
the  cowardice  of  the  Irish.  He  reached  the 
castie  late  at  niirht,  and  \vas  met  at  its  gates  by 
the  lady  lieutenant,  the  beautiful  duchess  of 
Tirconnel,  "  La  Belle  Jennings,"  of  Gram- 
inont's  Memoirs.  In  return  for  the  sympathiz- 
ing respects  which  marked  her  reception,  the 
king  is  said  to  have  sarcastically  complimented 
her  upon  the  "  alertness  of  her  husband's  coun- 
trymen." The  high-spirited  beauty  replied, 
"  In  that,  however,  your  majesty  has  had  the 
advantage  of  them  all."  The  king,  in  fact,  was 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


BRA 


128 


BRA 


among  the  first  to  arrive  in  the  capital  with  the 
news  of  Ills  own  defeat. 

BRABANT,  provinces  of;  North  Brabant, 
in  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  contains  852, 
000  inhabitants,  and  South  Brabant,  in  Delirium, 
500,000.  Brabant  formed  a  duchy  in  the  ?th 
century  For  some  ages  it  belonged  to  the 
Frankish  monarchy,  and  then  was  a  German 
fief.  In  1005,  the  last  duke  dying,  the  duchy  de- 
volved on  his  brother-in-law,  Lambert  I, count  of 
Louvain.  From  him  it  came  to  Philip  II,  duke 
of  Burgundy,  and  afterwards  to  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  In  the  ]?th  century,  the  republic  of 
Holland  took  possession  of  the  northern  part 
which  was  thence  called  Dutch  Brabant.  The 
other  part,  belonging  to  Austria,  was  seized 
upon  by  France  in  1740.  The  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  restored  it,  but,  after  falling  again  into 
the  hands  of  the  French,  it  v;as  ceded  to  France 
by  the  treaties  of  Campo  Formio  and  Lune- 
ville,  in  1791  and  1801. 

BRADDOCK,  Edward,  major-general  and 
commander  in  the  British  army,  who,  in  1755 
marched  against  Fort  du  Quesne  on  the  Ohio, 
fell  into  an  Indian  ambuscade,  was  defeated  and 
slain.  Washington,  who  had  cautioned  him  in 
vain,  conducted  the  retreat  in  a  masterly  man- 
ner. 

BRAGANZA,  a  town  of  Portugal,  made  a 
duchy  in  1442.  It  gives  its  name  to  the  royal 
house  of  Portugal,  of  whom  the  first  was  Juhn 
IV,  who  conspired,  as  duke  of  Bragauza,  with 
the  Portuguese  people  in  rendering  them  inde- 
pendent (if  Spain,  in  1040. 

BRA  MA,  the  first  person  in  the  Trinity, 
or  Trimurti,  of  the  Hindoos.  Brama  is  the  cre- 
ator, Vishnu,  the  jjreserrcr,  or  redeemer,  and 
Siva,the  destroyer.  In  the  figures  of  this  divin- 
ity, he  is  represented  with  four  heads  and  four 
arms.  He  is  gifted  with  great  power,  but  is 
himself  cteated  by  the  Eternal  One.  Some 
believe  that  he  dies  annually,  and  rises  again. 
He  is  considered  as  the  lawgiver  and  teacher 
oflndia. 

BRANDENBURGH,  mark,  or  rnarquisate 
of,  one  of  the  most  extensive  districts  of  Upper 
Saxony.  The  sandy  soil  is  best  adapted  to 
grain.  It  is  rich  in  many  natural  productions. 
It  includes  Berlin  (the  capital),  Potsdam,  and 
Frankfort,  containing  15. HM)  square  miles.  I  .- 
.r>:V),ltj()  inhabitants,  and  150  towns.  The 
Suevi,  first, and  then  the  Sclavonians  inhabited 
it.  The  latter  were  barbarians,  but,  in  tiie 
10th  century. were  conquered  by  Henry  I,  and 
converted  to  Christianity.  The  margraves  of 
Brandenburgh  raised  themselves  to  be  dukes  of 


Prussia.  The  mark  passed  through  varion? 
hands,  till  in  the  fifteenth  century  it  came  into 
those  of  the  ancestors  of  the  present  royal  fam- 
ily of  Prussia.  The  elector,  Frederick  Wil- 
liam, enlarged  it  by  the  annexation  of  several 
towns  and  districts.  The  old  Mark,  having 
been  ceded  to  Napoleon,  in  1807,  formed  a 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  \Vestphalia,  until  1814, 
when  it  was  restored  to  Prussia.  Potsdam, 
the  capital  of  the  province,  contains  30,000  in- 
habitants. 

BRANDY  WINE,  a  small  river,  taking  its 
rise  in  Pennsylvania,  which,  after  a  course  of 
forty-five  miles,  flowing  through  the  state  of 
Delaware,  joins  the  Christiana,  two  miles  be- 
low Wilmington.  The  Brandy  wine  mills  are 
noted.  But  the  river  is  known  in  history, 
for  a  battle  fought  in  its  vicinity,  September 
11,  1777,  between  the  British  and  Americans, 
in  which  the  latter  sustained  a  defeat  with  a 
loss  of  900  in  killed  and  wounded. 

BRATTLEBOROUGH,  a  flourishing  post- 
town  in  Windham  county,  Vermont,  on  the 
Connecticut,  41  miles  north  of  Northampton. 
Population,  in  1840.  2,624.  It  contains  two 
parishes,  each  having  a  pleasant  village.  Them 
are  here  an  academy,  a  large  printing  establish- 
ment, various  manufactories,  and  a  flourishing 
trade.  Here  the  Americans  established  fort 
Dummer,  in  1724.  which  was  the  first  settle 
merit  made  by  them  in  Vermont. 

BRAZIL,  an  extensive  and  ricli  country  of 
South  America,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Ven- 
ezuela. Guiana,  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  east 
and  southeast  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  west 
by  Buenos  Ayres,  or  the  United  Provinces  of 
La  Plata,  Bol'ivia,  and  Pern.  Its  extent,  from 
north  to  south,  is  about.  2,300  miles,  and  from 
east  to  west,  nearly  2.000  miles.  With  a  terri- 
tory somewhat  larger  than  the  whole  of  the 
United  States,  possessing  extraordinary  wealth 
and  fertility,  it  is  inhabited  by  but  five  millions 
of  people,  exclusive  of  the  Indians,  concerning 
wh  )in  little  information  has  been  acquired. 
The  different  provinces  are  thus  named  :  J'er- 
namlwco,  Bahia,  Minus  Gcrai-s.  Rio  Janeiro, 
Ft.  Paul,  Rio  Grande.  Maranham,  Para.  Matto 
Grosso,  and  Govns. 

Such  was  the'di vision  of  Brazil  in  ]?1 7  and 
l-lv.  but.  in  ]*•-!(',,  it  was  divided  into  eighteen 
different  'provinces.  Brazil  contains  sonic  of 
the  largest  rivers  in  the  world  ;  the  Awn/on, To- 
Mul  San  Francisco  being  the  most  promi- 
nent. There  is  much  variety  of  climate,  but 
generally  it  is  healthy;  and  the  salubrity  of 
the  vast  elevated  plains  is  unequalled  by  that 

• 
I 


= 


HISTORICAL     AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BRA 


129 


BRE 


of  any  other  region  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 
The  richness  of  its  wood  and  water,  the  profu- 
sion of  its  diamonds  and  gold,  and  its  general 
healthiness,  make  it  the  El  Dorado  of  the  ima- 
gination. In  the  beds  of  the  rivers  are  found  to- 
pazes, chrysoberyls,  other  precious  stones,  and 
gold.  The  trees  are  of  every  description, 
adapted  to  cabinet-work,  ship-building,  and 
dyeing  ;  while  coffee,  oranges,  sugar,  tobacco, 
indigo,  and  rice,  are  raised  in  abundance. 

Brazil  was  discovered,  April  24,  1500,  by 
Pedro  Alvarez  de  Cabral,  who  at  first  named  it 
Santa  Cruz  (the  Holy  Cross),  but  king  Eman- 
uel,  the  Portuguese"  sovereign,  called  it  Bra- 
zil, from  the  quantity  of  red  wood  which  it 
produced.  The  Portuguese  at  first  undervalued 
this  country,  and  sent  thither  only  criminals, 
and  the  refuse  of  their  population,  but  the  Jews, 
who  had  been  banished  to  Brazil  in  1543,  hav- 
ing successfully  introduced  the  culture  of  the 
sugar-cane,  Thomas  de  Souza  was  sent  over  by 
the  court  of  Lisbon,  and  began  to  find  some 
good  points  about  the  country,  although  it  had 
n  >i  yielded  the  desired  gold.  After  temporary 
misfortunes,  the  colonists  prospered,  but  the 
Portuguese  had  to  conten-1  against  nations 
(France,  Spain,  and  the  United  Provinces;, 
whose  jealousy  was  aroused  by  the  accounts 
they  heard  of  the  richness  and  fertility  of  the 
Portuguese  possessions.  The  Dutch  met  with 
great  success  in  Brazil,  but  became  the*friends 
of  the  Portuguese,  when  the  latter  shook  off  the 
Spanish  yoke  and  gained  their  independence. 
They  still  retiined  the  seven  provinces  they 
had  conquered,  and  hence  arose  the  division  of 
the  country  into  the  Brazils ;  but  a  pecuniary 
compensation  induced  them  to  resign  their 
claims  to  the  Portuguese.  The  diamond  mines 
were  n-ot  discovered  till  1732.  The  prosperity 
of  Brazil  has  not  been  what  it  might  he  made 
under  an  enlightened  government.  The  con- 
flicting interests  of  various  bodies  of  its  inhabi- 
tants ;  the  unequal  pressure  of  state  burthens, 
and  other  causes,  have  tended  to  weaken  and 
distract  it.  In  180(5.  the  court  of  Portugal  re- 
moved here,  but  in  1821,  the  king  returned  to 
Lisbon.  Don  Pedro,  son  of  the  king  of  Por- 
tugal, then  governed  Brazil  under  the  title  of 
emperor.  But  having  abdicated  in  favor  of  his 
infant  son,  Pedro  II,  he  is  now  in  Europe,  and 
the  Brazilian  government  is  conducted,  during 
the  minority  of  the  prince,  by  a  council  of 
regency.  The  army  of  Brazil  was  composed, 
in  1824,  of  30,000  regular  troops,  and  50,000 
militia,  in  addition  to  a  regiment  of  negroes. 
The  navy,  two  years  later,  consisted  of  9(5  ships. 


The  revenue  has  been  recently  estimated  at 
116,000,000.  A  large  part  of  the  population — 
'1,000,000 — are.  negro  slaves,  and  many  slaves 
are  yet  constantly  imported  into  this  country. 
The  most  cultivated  part  of  the  population  are 
the  merchants  of  the  maritime  ports,  the  Euro- 
peans and  Creoles,  forming  the  true  aristocracy 
of  the  country.  The  inhabitants  arc  Roman 
Catholics,  with  the  exception  of  the  independ- 
ent native  tribes,  in  the  vast  regions  of  the 
interior. 

BREDA,  a  fortress  in  Dutch  Brabant,  for- 
merly of  immense  importance.  It  has  sus- 
tuine'd  several  memorable  sieges.  In  1590,  it 
was  taken  bv  Maurice,  prince  of  Orange,  and 
retaken  by  the  Spaniards,  under  Spinola,  in 
1625,  after  a  siege  of  10  months.  The  French, 
during  the  revolution,  gained  possession  of  it, 
but  it  was  abandoned  by  them  in  1813. 

BREMEN,  a  free  city  on  the  Weser,  conspic- 
uous in  the  Hanseatic  league.  The  inhabitants 
embraced  Calvinism  in  Io(j2.  It  is  pleasant  and 
prosperous,  with  a  population  of  38,000. 

BRENNER,  a  high  mountain  of  the  Tyrol, 
over  which  runs  the  road  to  Italy.  In  1809, 
the  Tyrolese  gallantly  defended  their  rough 
precipices  against  the  French,  and  severely 
harassed  their  march. 

BRENNUrf.  Several  chieftains  of  ancient 
Gaul  bore  this  name,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
a  title  of  dignity  and  honor.  One,  having 
ravaged  Lombardy  and  Tuscany,  marched  to 
Ronie,  which  he  surrendered  to  plunder.  The 
garrison  held  out  in  the  citadel,  which  would 
have  been  taken  at  midnight  by  the  foe,  but  for 
the  noise  made  by  the  sacred  geese  of  Juno,  that 
were  watchful  even  while  the  dogs  slept.  Bren- 
nus  was  then  offered  a  thousand  pounds  weight 
oi\"ld  to  spare  the  capital,  and  quit  the  territo- 
ries of  the  republic.  He  threw  into  the  scale 
which  held  the  weights,  his  sword  and  helmet, 
haughtily  exclaiming,"  Wo  to  the  vanquished." 
The  treaty  was  ended  by  the  timely  arrival  of 
the  exiled  Camillus,  who  refused  the  payment 
of  even  a  pound  of  gold  as  ransom.  "  Rome." 
said  he  proudly,  "  is  to  liberate  herself  with 
iron  and  not  wi'th  gold."  He  gave  battle  to  the 
Gauls,  and  routed  them,  about  390  B.  C. 

BRESCIA,  a  city  of  Lombardy,  containing 
31.000  inhabitants.  Its  manufactures  are,  and 
have  long  been  extensive,  and  its  soil  is  remark- 
able for  fertility.  From  the  hands  of  the  Vene- 
tians, it  fell  into  those  of  the  French,  and  finally 
the  Austrians.  Under  the  sway  of  the  Venetian 
republic,  the  inhabitants  were  un/uly,  although 
particularly  favored  by  government.  In  1796, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


BRI 


130 


BRI 


as  Bonaparte  was  quitting  Brescia,  the  muni- 
cipal officers,  who  accompanied  him  to  the  gate 
of  the  city,  said  that  the  Brescians  loved  liberty 
more  than  the  rest  of  the  Italians.  "  Yes," 
said  the  general,  sarcastically,  "  they  love  to 
talk  of  it  to  their  women." 

BRESLAU,  capital  of  Silesia,  is  situated  on 
the  Ohlaw;  population,  83,8GO.  More  than 
four  thousand  Jews  reside  here.  The  architec- 
tural beauty  of  the  city  has  been  celebrated. 
It  contains  20  catholic  churches,  and  84  literary 
institutions.  Its  commerce  is  considerable. 
Here  the  Prussians  were  defeated  by  the  Aus- 
trians  in  1757. 

BREST,  anciently  Brivates  Portits,  and  Gc- 
sobrivatc,  a  French  seaport  in  the  department 
of  Finisterre,  with  a  fine  harbor  constructed 
by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  in  1631.  It  is  well  for- 
tified, and  its  dock-yards  and  magazines  com- 
mand admiration.  It  contains  25.8G5  inhabi- 
tants. It  was  attacked  in  ](J94  by  a  British 
fleet  and  army,  which  were  repulsed  with  a 
loss  of  1300  men  and  their  comtnander. 

BRIAREUS,  a  fabled  giant,  son  of  Uranus 
and  Terra,  with  100  arms  and  50  heads. 

BRIENNE,  a  town  in  the  department  of 
the  Aubc,  at  the  academy  of  which  Napoleon' 
learned  the  first  principles  of  the  military  art. 
Here  it  was  that  his  power  was  maintained  the 
longest,  and  only  fell  with  a  convulsive  struggle. 

BRIGALIER,  Abb6,  lived  during  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIII.  The  superstitions  of  his  time 
are  displayed  by  some  passages  in  his  lite.  He 
was  almoner  to  Mademoiselle  de  Montauban, 
and  spent  30,000  crowns  to  become  an  adept  in 
the  magic  art.  without  accomplishing  his  end. 
Being  with  the  court  at  Compiegne,  a  lady 
who  had  purchased  a  piece  of  red  silk.  instead 
of  green,  begged  the  Abbe  to  change  it.  to  the 
color  she  wished.  Rather  than  lose  his  repu- 
tation as  a  magician,  Brigaiier  bought  a  piece 
of  green  silk  and  gave  it  to  the  lady,  who  vv;»s 
astonished  at  his  success,  and  forthwith  circu- 
lated the  tale.  By  various  tricks  of  legerde- 
main, he  maintained  his  credit  as  a  sorcerer,  so 
that  the  archbishop  of  Paris  gravely  commanded 
him  to  desist  from  his  unhallowed  occupations. 

BRISSOT  DK  WARVILLE,  Jen n  Pierre,  a 
prominent  character  in  the  history  of  the  French 
revolution,  whose  writings  (.ended  greatly  to 
bring  monarchical  power  into  disrepute.  lie 
V.MS  the  son  of  a  pastry-cook,  and  was  born  in 
1754.  At  the  age  of  30,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the 
Bastile,  for  a  work  which  treated  of  prohibited 
subjects.  After  numerous  changes  of  action  and 
residence,  which  the  nature  ot  his  works,  and 


the  fluctuating  state  of  his  popularity  rendered 
necessary,  having  been  engaged  some  time  in 
England,  some  time  with  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
and  some  tuna  in  America,  he  was  at  last  guil- 
lotined with  ms  friends,  by  the  faction  of  Rob- 
espierre, in  171'3. 

BRISTOL,  an  important  commercial  city  of 
England,  on  the  river  Avion,  witli  (in  1831) 
103,889  inhabitants.  Its  distance  west  from 
London  is  117  miles.  It  is  of  great  antiquity, 
and  was  called  by  the  ancient  Britons  Caer 
Briio.  The  cathedral  is  part  of  a  monastery, 
founded  by  {Stephen,  in  1146. 

BRISTOL,  R.  I.,  is  a.  pleasant  and  flourishing 
sea-port  town,  capital  of  a  county  of  the  same 
name,  15  miles  south  of  Providence.  It  is  a 
place  of  considerable  trade,  with  a  population, 
in  1830,  of  3,054.  It  contains  an  academy, 
public  library,  and  4  houses  of  public  worship. 
The  Indians  called  it  Pucunuckct  and  Suiram. 

BRITAIN  (so  called  because  the  inhabitants 
adorned  their  bodies  with  brit,  paint),  was  little 
known  until  the  invasion  of  Julius  Ciesar,  who 
conducted  his  army  into  this  country,  on  the  pre- 
text of  punishing  the  Britons  for  the  aid  which 
they  had  given  to  the  (iauls,  in  55  B.  C.  The 
inhabitants  wen-  l.hcu  ferocious  and  warlike, 
clad  in  skins,  and  armed  with  clubs,  and  even 
the  iron-breasted  Roman  legions  quailed  at 
first  before  the  horrid  front  whirh  the  infu- 
riated .natives  presented  to  their  invaders. 
The  Romans  kept  possession  of  Britain  500 
years,  during  which  many  improvements  were 
introduced,  and  the  manners  of  the  people  be- 
came assimilated  to  those  of  their  conquerors. 
This,  however,  was  not  effected  without  much 
bloodshed.  The  Romans  having,  in  the  fifth 
century,  quilted  Britain,  to  defend  their  other 
territories,  invaded  by  the  Goths  and  Vandals, 
the  Britons  were  attacked  by  the  Scots,  and 
sought  the  assistance  of  the  Saxons  and  An- 
gles. These  defeated  the  Scots,  but  made 
themselves  inaslers  also  of  the  kingdom,  and 
gave  it  the  name  of  Anglia,  or  England.  Eng- 
land was  divided,  bv  the  Saxons,  into  seven  dis- 
tinct kingdoms,  erJled  the  Saxon  Heptarchy, 
some  of  vfhich  were  established  in  the  fifth,  and 
others  in  I  he  sixth  century  ;  most  of  them  con- 
tinued till  8(10.  v.lien  Egbert  reigned  alone. 

The  states  generally  acknowledged  the  supe- 
riority of  one  monarch,  railed  the  king  of  Brit- 
ain. "The  ki: 

n   -I.'M,  ;md  ended   in  827. 
:  Surrey  :  be- 
gan 4!il ,  ended  about  (iOl).      West  Suronij  con- 
tained Cornwall, Devonshire,  L)or.setshirc,Wilt- 


Briton  Romanized. 


Early  Britoi 


Dn 


Richard  III.     I     A  Soldier  of     I     Lady  and  Gentleman     I     Lady  and  Gentleman  in  dress 
I     Henry  VIII.    |     in  time  of  Henry  VI.     |          of  Glueen  Mary's  Reign. 


Sea  Captain  in  time  I   Lady  during  the  I       A  Cavalier.       I  Charles  I.  and  his  Glueen. 

of  Charles  I.  Commonwealth. 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BRI 


131 


BRI 


shire,  Hampshire,  and  Berkshire :  began  519, 
ended  1060.  East  Saxony  contained  Essex, 
Middlesex,  and  part  of  Hertfordshire:  began 
527,  ended  747.  Jforthumberlandcontaincd  Lan- 
cashire, Yorkshire,  Durham,  Cumberland, 
Northumberland,  and  part  of  Scotland,  as  far  as 
Edinburgh  Frith  :  began  547,  ended  about  729. 
East  dnglia,  contained  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and 
Cambridgeshire  :  began  575,  ended  973.  Mercia, 
or,  the  Middle  kingdom,  contained  Gloucester- 
shire. Herefordshire,Worcestershire,  Warwick- 
shire, Leicestershire,  Rutlandshire,  Northamp- 
tonshire, Lincolnshire,  Huntingdonshire,  Bed- 
fordshire, Buckinghamshire,  Oxfordshire,  Staf- 
fordshire, Shropshire,  Nottinghamshire,  Ches- 
hire, and  part  of  Hertfordshire  :  began  582, 
ended  827.  These  several  kingdoms,  at  the 
dates  specified,  were  merged  in  those  of  their 
more  powerful  neighbors. 

England,  from  653,  suffered  many  invasions 
from  the  Danes,  who  several  times  made  them- 
selves masters  of  it.  Tiiey  were  finally  expell- 
ed (1041),  and  the  Saxon  government  restored 
in  the  person  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  Dur- 
ing this  time  flourished  Canute,  Harold,  and 
Hardicanute.  In  1066,  the  Normans,  under 
William  the  Conqueror,  obtained  possession  of 
the  kingdom,  having  defeated  the  English  under 
Harold,  in  the  battle  of  Hastings.  By  this  cir- 
cumstance, the  whole  moral  and  political  con- 
stitution of  England  underwent  an  important 
change.  The  Norman  principle  of  lordship  and 
vassalage  was  introduced  and  enforced,  and  it 
was  not  until  after  some  generations,  that  the 
barons  themselves,  feeling  the  chain  of  passive 
submission  too  galling,  gave  the  first  impulse  to 
that  spirit,  which  burst  the  fetters  of  feudal- 
ism. To  the  time  of  king  John,  the  history  of 
England  is  little  else  than  an  account  of  the 
acts  of  the  kings  done  with  a  direct  view  to 
acquire  and  sustain  this  unnatural  authority. 
The  first  William  did  almost  nothing  else. 
His  brother  perished  while  hunting  in  the  New 
Forest,  which  his  father  had  depopulated  for 
that  amusement.  Henry  relaxed  a  little,  as 
well  as  Stephen,  to  support  his  usurpation. 
Henry  II  employed  his  power  advantageously 
in  his  conquest  of  Ireland.  King  John,  after 
many  feeble  attempts  at  continued  despotism, 
was  compelled,  by  the  exasperated  barons,  to 
sign  what  was  afterwards  called  the  Magna 
Charta  (Great  Charter)  ;  which  renounced  some 
of  the  most  odious  prerogatives  of  royalty,  and 
extended  a  moderate  share  of  liberty  to  the 
barons  of  the  realm.  John,  however,  involved 
the  nation,  with  himself,  in  odious  submissions 
12 


to  the  pope,  the  influence  of  which  it  cost 
England  and  her  succeeding  kings  many  strug- 
gles to  counteract.  Civil  liberty  increased  un- 
der his  successor,  a  weak  and  contemptible 
prince,  and  the  first  traces  of  a  house  of  com- 
mons may  he  perceived  in  this  reign. 

By  the  military  ardor  of  Robert,  duke  of 
Normandy,  the  crown  had  been  given  up  to  the 
second  brother,  in  consideration  of  money  ad- 
vanced on  his  expedition  to  Palestine.  On 
Robert's  attempt  to  recover  it  in  the  succeeding 
reign,  he  was  taken  and  confined  for  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  Cardiff  Castle.  With 
this  exception,  the  history  of  England  presents 
little  of  importance  in  connection  with  its  for- 
eign policy,  till  Henry  11  provoked  a  war  with 
Scotland,  in  which  their  king,  William,  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  only  re-obtained  his  crown 
by  doing  homage  for  it  as  a  vassal.  This 
reign  was  also  distinguished  by  two  great  acqui- 
sitions of  territory  ;  Ireland  by  arbitrary  con- 
quest, and  Guienne  and  Poitou  by  marriage. 
During  this  period,  however,  the  power  of  the 
church  of  Rome  had  so  increased  as  to  over- 
shadow the  crown  ;  Thomas  a  Becket,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  evincing  its  arrogance 
and  determination  to  dictate  in  matters  tem- 
poral as  well  as  spiritual.  Some  of  the  finest 
counties  in  the  north  of  England,  were  actu- 
ally held  bv  the  Scotch,  by  the  empty  cere- 
mony of  vassalage.  By  the  treachery  of  John, 
Normandy  was  Tost  to  the  English  crown,  the 
pope  was  constituted  the  virtual  lord  of  his 
dominions,  and  Lewis,  prince  of  France,  was 
actually  encouraged  to  assume  the  title. 

The  reign  of  Henry  III  was  occupied  in  the 
monarch's  disputes  with  his  barons,  and  extor- 
tions from  the  Jews.  The  dependency  of  Scot- 
land was  confirmed  by  the  violent  imposition 
of  Baliol  upon  the  throne,  his  subsequent  con- 
finement, and  the  decided  overthrow  of  the 
Scotch  forces  that  opposed  the  English.  All, 
however,  was  recovered  by  the  gallantry  of 
Robert  Bruce.  Edward  III,  by  his  successes 
at  Cressy  and  Poictiers,  and  that  at  Durham, 
obtained  for  England  much  glory  at  much 
expense,  and  two  royal  captives,  but  little  solid 
advantage,  while  the  campaign  in  Spain  occa- 
sioned the  death  of  the  Black  Prince,  and  ulti- 
mately that  of  his  father  in  1 377.  In  this  reign, 
and  m  one  private  individual,  we  find  the 
fiist  dawn  of  the  reformation.  Wickliff,  under 
the  protection  of  John  of  Gaunt,  the  king's 
brother,  began  those  denunciations  of  the  papal 
abuses,  which,  in  the  end,  overthrew  that  cor- 
rupt and  foreign  dominion  in  England.  It  was 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


BRI 


132 


BRI 


during  the  absence  of  Richard  II.  in  quelling 
a  disturbance  in  Ireland,  that  the  people,  vexed 
with  continual  exaction,  and  offended  at  the 
injustice  of  the  king  to  his  cousin,  the  duke  of 
Lancaster,  invited  the  latter  from  banishment, 
to  control  the  operations  of  the  king  and  his 
advisers.  He  landed,  usurped  the  crown,  mur- 
dered the  king,  quelled  the  insurrections  conse- 
quent, and  captured  the  heir  to  the  Scottish 
throne. 

The  feats  of  his  successor,  Henry  V,  in  gain- 
ing the  crown  of  France,  and  the  reverses  of 
his  son,  who  lost  it.  form  the  principal  features 
of  their  respective  reigns  ;  except  that  to  the 
latter  are  to  be  added  the  civil  contentions  with 
the  deposed  line  for  the  possession  of  the  throne, 
their  success,  and  the  old  kind's  murder.  Rich- 
ard III,  who  followed  Edward  IV  and  Edward 
V  of  the  house  of  York,  was  himself  succeeded 
by  Henry  VII.  of  the  other  line,  who,  by  marry- 
ing the  daughter  of  Edward  IV,  united  the  two 
houses.  Henry  VIII,  though  perhaps  the  great- 
est tyrant  that  ever  filled  the  English  throne, 
made  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  country, 
in  its  total  emancipation  from  papal  authority. 
The  power,  however, of  which  he  had  deprived 
the  pope,  he  seized  for  himself,  and  was,  at 
least,  as  vigorous  in  its  exercise.  The  next 
reign  ratified  and  enlarged  his  acts  in  favor  of 
the  protestant  religion  ;  and,  although  the  bigot 
Mary  for  a  time  rebound  the  chains,  and  rekin- 
dled the  fires  of  persecution,  the  reformation 
was  too  firmly  established  to  be  overthrown. 
and  her  successor,  Elizabeth,  settled  it  upon 
a  foundation,  which  will  endure  as  long  as  the 
conviction  of  its  necessity  exists. 

During  all  this  time,  from  the  death  of  Ed- 
ward III,  the  foreign  relations  of  England, 
though  continually  fluctuating,  were  never  con- 
siderably changed.  Henry  VIII,  in  league  with 
the  pope  and  the  emperor,  made  some  con- 
quests in  France,  and  his  generals  defeated  and 
slew  James  IV,  of  Scotland,  at  Flodden-field  ; 
and,  in  his  successor's  reign,  an  expedition  into 
that  country  was  executed  at  the  desire  of  the 
late  king,  on  a  fruitless  expedition  to  induce 
the  Scots  to  marry  the  princess  Mary  to  Ed- 
ward V.  In  the  reign  of  Mary,  Calais  was  lost 
by  treachery.  Elizabeth  intrigued  with  Scot- 
land, but  fought  with  Spain.  Her  defence  of 
her  kingdom  against  the  celebrated  Armada,  in 
1588,  would  of  itself,  stamp  her  reign  with 
glory.  The  attack  on  Cadiz  by  the  earl  of 
Essex,  was  eminently  successful,  and  the  other 
enterprises  of  her  admirals  were  very  conside- 
rable. She  also  supported  the  protestants  of 


Germany  against  Austria,  and  the  Dutch  against 
the  Spaniards. 

On  Elizabeth's  death,  the  English  and  Scottish 
crowns  became  united  in  the  person  of  James  I,  a 
vain  and  pedantic  prince.  The  imprudence  of 
his  son  and  successor,  Charles  I,  brought  him  to 
the  scaffold  hi  104^,  and  a  republican  form  of 
government  was  established  under  the  protector, 
Oliver  Cromwell.  During  this  period,  however, 
England  maintained  a  high  rank  in  the  scale  of 
nations,  and  Cromwell  showed  himself  as  well 
qualified  to  govern  aa  to  gain.  The  usurpation 
was  perhaps  a  harsh  medicine  to  the  constitu- 
tion, but  its  operation  was  short,  and  its  effects 
even  salutary.  Charles  II  \vrrs  restored  in  KK.iO. 
The  people  of  England  by  this  time  understood 
the  rights  of  the  subject,  as  well  as  the  duties 
of  the  monarch,  and  when  James  II  attempted 
to  rule  absolutely,  and  to  overthrow  the  religion 
of  the  country,  a  bloodless  revolution  forced 
him  to  abdicate  the  throne,  and  set  upon  it  his 
son-in-law,  William,  an  avowed  Protestant. 
The  liberties  of  the  people  took  deeper  root  by 
his  confirmation  of  their  bill  of  rights.  In  thi'-t 
reign  an  expedition,  headed  by  the  king,  was 
sent  out  to  reduce  Ireland,  and  a  war  waged 
with  France,  not  generally  successful,  but  in 
whicli  there  appeared  some  brilliant  sparks  of 
enterprise,  and  one  or  two  fair  incidents  of  good 
fortune.  It  was  in  the  reign  of  his  successor, 
Anne,  that  the  age  of  English  chivalry  seem- 
ed to  revive,  and  the  military  mania  of  the  two 
rival  nations  to  be  renewed.  The  valor  and  skill 
of  JMarlborough  triumphed  over  the  most  splen- 
did arrays  of  military  might  under  Louis  XIV. 
(iVrmany  was  saved.  Gibraltar  taken,  and  Dun- 
kirk ceded,  in  a  course  of  victories  as  brilliant 
as  any  which  the  pen  of  the  historian  records. 
It  was  also  in  this  memorable  reign  that  the 
union  of  Scotland  with  England  took  plure. 

The  succession  of  the  house  of  Hanover  now 
took  place.  The  short  reign  of  George  I  was 
principally  noted  for  its  domestic  and  foreign 
inquietude.  The  rein'n  of  George  II  \vas  dis- 
tinguished by  the  battle  of  Dettingen,  fought  by 
the  king  in  person  ;  the  defeat  of  the  pretender : 
the  military  contests  with  France;  the  naval 
triumphs  over  that  kingdom  and  Sp;:in:  the  cap- 
ture of  Goree  in  Africa,  and  the  conquest  of 
French  America.  The  most  inuv>rtant  feature 
of  the  reiirn  of  George  III.  was  the  loss  of 
America,  produced  by  t.'ie  odious  tyranny  of 
England.  *Ai  le  of  eight  years,  in 

which  she  saw  her  vast  armies  and  fleets  de- 
feated l,y  the  bravery  of  a  nation  of  patriots, 
Great  Britain  was  compelled  to  relinquish  her 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


BRI 


133 


BRI 


wledge  th 

The  peace  of  Europe,  which  had  been  settled  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  was  now  broken  by  the  diffe- 
rent powers  siding- with  the  combatants,  and  thus 
England  was  at  once  involved  in  war  with 
France,  Spain,  and  Holland,  while  the  dissen- 
sions of  party  at  home  increased  to  an  alarming 
height.  The  war  was,  however,  concluded  by  a 
treaty  with  those  powers  in  1783.  The  war 
of  the  French  re  volution  forms  actually  a  sec- 
ond period  of  this  reigu.  The  first  direct  in- 
terference on  the  part  of  the  British,  was  in  two 
unsuccessful  expeditions  under  the  duke  of  York 
and  Sir  S.  Hood,  and  in  the  capture  of  some 
French  West  India  islands,  and  of  Pondicherry 
in  India.  In  the  latter  country  very  great  ad- 
vantages were  acquired  over  the  natives  ;  Tip- 
poo  Sultan  was  entirely  defeated  and  killed,  and 
Seringapatam  captured. 

France,  having  disposed  of  her  continental 
enemies,  began  to  act  on  the  offensive,  and  un- 
dertook an  invasion  of  Ireland,  seven  ships 
of  the  line  having,  with  that  intent,  anchored  in 
Bantry  Bay.  The  war  in  the  mean  time  had  di- 
vidpd  the  sentiments  of  the  people,  and  strong 
dissatisfaction  was  manifested  by  the  revolution" 
ary  party.  The  ministers  were  firm  in  their 
measures,  and  the  king's  life  was  put  in  danger 
on  his  going  to  parliament.  Two  attempts  at 
negotiation  failed,  and  the  internal  difficulties 
were  increased  by  the  stoppage  of  the  bank,  the 
mutiny  of  the  fleet,  and  the  menace  of  rebellion 
in  Ireland.  The  first  evil  was  palliated,  but  the 
two  last  were  not  suppressed  without  much 
bloodshed.  The  intentions  of  the  Frencli  were, 
however,  defeated ;  1800  men  who  had  landed 
in  Ireland,  surrendered,  and  the  English  fleet  re- 
covered its  reputation  by  a  victory  over  the  Span- 
iards, and  by  the  celebrated  battle  of  the  Nile,  in 
1796.  These  events  having  raised  the  spirits  of 
the  continental  powers,  Austria,  Prussia,  and 
Turkey  joined  England  against  France,  while 
Ireland  was  pacified  by  a  show  of  much  promise 
which  was  to  be  effected  by  an  union.  The 
allies  were  defeated  at  Marengo,  with  great 
slaughter,  and  the  English,  at  the  request  of  the 
grand  Signior,  agreed  to  evacuate  Egypt,  and 
made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  upon  the  Boulogne 
flotilla.  Such  was  the  state  of  things,  when,  in 
1801.  both  countries  found  it  convenient  to  con- 
clude peace. 

The  war  recommenced  in  1803,  by  the  loss  on 
the  English  side  of  Hanover,  and  the  sei- 
zure of  the  British  in  France,  which  was  re- 
taliated by  the  seizure  of  French  vessels  and 
seamen.  To  oppose  the  increasing  power  of 


the  new  French  emperor,  Mr.  Pitt  was  chosen 
minister.  In  the  mean  time  the  most  advanta- 
geous treaties  had  been  concluded  with  the  na- 
tive states  of  India,  and  the  French  defeated  by 
lord  Nelson  in  the  great  and  decisive  naval  en- 
gagement of  Trafalgar,  in  1805.  Nelson,  who 
lell  in  the  engagement,  was  honored  with  a 
magnificent  public  funeral.  This  was  the  last 
trophy  of  those  great  preparations,  which  Mr. 
Pitt  had  made  to  support  his  system  by  the 
overthrow  of  that  of  the  French,  an  object  which 
in  the  sequel,  they  certainly  accomplished. 
Pitt  died  in  1800,  and  Mr.  Fox,  his  great  poli- 
tical opponent  and  successor,  in  the  same  year. 
During  this  period,  the  successes  in  other  parts 
had  been  partial ;  but,  at  home,  a  triumph  over 
injustice  and  inhumanity  was  obtained  in  the  ab- 
olition of  the  slave-trade.  The  new  ministry  per- 
sisting in  pressing  the  Catholic  claims,  received 
his  majesty's  intimation  to  resign.  It  was  at 
this  juncture,  in  1808,  that  Britain  made  herself 
a  party  to  reinstate  the  imbecile  Bourbon  of 
Spain.  The  campaign  was  commenced  by  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley  (now  lord  Wellington),  with 
the  repulse  of  Junot  at  Virneira ;  but  the  de- 
feat and  death  of  Sir  John  Moore,  at  Corunna, 
followed.  Though  the  English  under  Sir  Ar- 
thur Wellesley  were  still  in  force  in  Portugal, 
and  had  obtained  some  advantages,  they  had  to 
contend  equally  with  the  weakness  of  the  Span- 
iards and  the  power  of  the  French.  They 
therefore  entrenched  themselves  behind  their 
lines  at  Torres  Vedras. 

Two  expeditions  of  different  fortune  took 
place  at  this  time  ;  one  to  the  south  of  Italy,  and 
the  other  to  the  island  of  Walcheren.  Several 
valuable  captures  in  other  parts  were  made.  At 
this  period  (1810),  the  insanity  of  the  king  in- 
capacitated him  from  governing,  and  his  son, 
the  dissipated  prince  oi  Wales,  was  appointed 
regent.  The  war  in  Spain  was  still  carried 
on  with  determination,  but  with  partial  success. 
The  reorganization  of  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese armies,  and  the  reviving  spirit  of  the 
Cortes,  changed  the  aspect  of  arl'Mrs.  Meanwhile, 
Russia.  Prussia,  and  Sweden  had  entered  into 
alliance  with  England,  who  supplied  them  with 
vast  subsidies  to  support  their  armies.  Holland, 
also,  by  the  assistance  cf  England,  had  risen  on 
its  masters,  and  Napoleon,  pressed  by  the  allies, 
and  having  suffered  immense  losses  in  Rus- 
sia, was  obliged  to  give  way,  and  armies  en- 
tered France  on  two  sides.  Lord  Wellington, 
proceeding  through  Spain,  passed  the  Pyrenees 
through  almost  unremitted  conflict,  invested 
Bayonne,  occupied  Bourdeaux,  defeated  Soult 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


BRI 


134 


BRI 


before  Toulouse,  and  there  received  the  news- of 
the  capture  of  Paris,  and  the  cessation  of  hostil- 
ities. Meanwhile  England  had  been  also  en- 
gaged in  a  war  with  America,  which  was  prose- 
cuted on  the  plea  of  her  assumed  right  to  search 
our  vessels  for  deserters.  The  treaty  of  peace 
was  signed  at  Ghent  in  1814. 

The  next  year  Great  Britain  was  again  called 
into  active  co-operation  with  the  other  confede- 
rates, to  depose  Napoleon,  who  had  returned  in 
triumph  from  Elba,  and  resumed  the  throne  of 
France  without  opposition.  After  the  victory 
at  Waterloo,  the  allies  entered  Paris,  and  rein- 
stated Louis  XVIII  on  the  throne,  while  Napo- 
leon surrendered  himself'to  an  English  ship, 
and  was  sent  to  St  Helena,  where  he  was  de- 
tained until  his  death,  in  1820.  The  accession 
of  George  IV,  January  29,  1620,  the  trial  and 
death  of  queen  Caroline,  and  the  disturban- 
ces at  her  funeral ;  the  scarcity  and  distress  in 
Ireland  and  England,  are  facts  of  equal  interest 
and  notoriety.  George  IV  died  in  1830,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  William  IV,  who,  as, 
duke  of  Clarence,  had  served  for  a  long  time  in 
the  navy.  The  accession  of  the  "  sailor-king," 
as  he  is  popularly  termed,  was  hailed  with  joy  by 
the  friends  of  liberal  principles,  and  the  pro- 
gress of  parliamentary  and  popular  reform, 
is  rapid.  "  The  American  mind,"  says  an 
intelligent  writer,  "  appears  to  have  already 
achieved  an  entire  victory  over  that  of  England, 
even  on  English  ground.  The  whole  British 
community, — the  living,  thinking,  feeling;  mov- 
ing, acting  mass  denominated  the.  Public,  is 
thoroughly  penetrated,  imbued,  saturated, — if 
we  may  use  the  expression, — with  American 
principles.  They  have  already  swept  down  the 
Test  and  Corporatigkacts  ; — the  restraints  on 
the  Catholics  ;  the  Bnpdstained  criminal  code  ; 
colonial  slavery  ;  the  Chinese  monopoly,  and 
above  all,  the  old  constitution  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  They  are  now  fast  undermining  tlio 
bank; -the  national  debt; — the  church; — the 
peerage  and  the  throne.  They  already  carry 
all  before  them  in  the  House  of  Commons,  the 
real  seat  of  the  government. — occupy  the  minis- 
terial benches,  and  thence  issue  their  decrees,  in 
the  name  of  tiie  king.  The  great  modern  en- 
gine for  nviintairiinjr  political  influence. 'which 
has  been  well  described  as  a  Fourth  Estate,  more 
important  and  powerful  than  the  other  three 
put  together. — the  press, — is  almost  wholly 
with  them.  The  adversary  still  presents  a  feeble 
show  of  resistance  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
a  few  journals  hang  out  here  ;md  there  the  grand 
hailing  sign  of  distress.  It  is  even  rumored 


that  the  conqueror  of  Waterloo  is  buckling  on 
his  rusty  armor,  and  dreaming  of  a  new  ca- 
reer of  domestic  conquest.  But  what  can  a  few 
gouty  old  gentlemen  effect  against  the  will  of  the 
people  ?  Even  Wellington,  though  backed  by 
the  redoubtable  Christopher  North,  would  find 
himself  as  powerless,  in  Such  a  contest,  as  the 
renowned  knight  of  La  Mancha  and  his  squire, 
in  their  encounter  with  the  windmills." 

England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  with 
the  adjacent  islands,  form  the  United  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  colonial  de- 
pendencies of  Great  Britain  are  of  immense 
importance,  and  found  in  every  quarter  of  the 

§lobe.  The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy, 
ic  king  being  an  hereditary  sovereign.  The 
parliament,  the  legislative  branch  of  govern- 
ment. consists  of  the  House  of  Lords,  compos- 
ed of  hereditary  peers,  and  a  House  of  Com- 
mons, which  is  elective.  The  navy  of  England 
consists  of  nearly  six  hundred  ships.  The  fleet 
furnished  by  British  ports  with  which  Ed- 
ward I'l  besieged  Calais,  was  composed  of  748 
vessels,  manned  by  J4,!)5G  sailors.  The  fleet 
of  Henry  V.  designed  to  invade  France  (1415), 
consisted  of  1500  vessels.  The  national  dfcbt 
of  England  amounts  to  780  millions  sterling. 
The  climate  of  England  is  moist,  but  the  soil 
generally  fertile,  and  tiie  agricultural  and  min- 
eral productions  of  the  greatest  importance. 
Among  the  last  are  coal,  copper,  tin,  and  iron. 
BRITAIN,  dynasties  of. 
The  following  is  the  succession  of  sovereigns 
under  the  Heptarchy  find  United  Kingdom. 

The   kingdom   of  KENT  contained  only  the 
county  of  Kent;  its  kings  were  — 
1.  llengist,  who  becan  ......................  A.  D.  454 


.. 

3.  Octa  ..........................................  512 

4.  V  mbrick  ......................................  M4 

5.  Ethelbert  .....................................  568 

t;.  Kdliald  ...........  ............................  6)6 

7  .  I  ;  i  coiubert  .....................................  640 

H.  K'Ti.ert  ........................................  6fi4 

'.).  I,..rh:iire  ......................................  '<';* 

1<».   Kdrlck  ........................................  684 

Jl.  Withdred  .....................................  685 

]2     (  Kodbcrt  and  j  705 

"'    ?  KtlKjIi.ort        \  .............................. 

j:i.  r.lhelbert  alone  ...............................  743 

14.  Aldrii;  ........................................  760 

IT,.   Kikebert  1'ren  ................................  794 

10.  Cudrmi  .......................................  799 

17.  Hitldred  ......................................  805 

It  ended  in  823,  and  its  first  Christian  king  was 
Ethelbert. 

The   kingdom   of  SOUTH   SAXONY  contained 
the  counties  of  Sussex  and  Surrey. 
1.  Ella  began  to  reign  .......................  A.  o.  49 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BRI 


135 


BRI 


514    It  ended  in  827,  and  its  first  Christian  king  was 

•59i)    Edwin. 


2.  Cissa 

3.  Chevelin , 

5   Ceofuph ^597  '^le  kingdom  of  MERCIA  contained  the  coun- 

'  I  Cinigsil"  (""                                                     m  ties  of  Huntingdon,  Rutland,   Lincoln,  North- 

**'  (  Ciuicelm  j ampton,  Leicester,  Derby,  Nottingham,  Oxford, 

7.  Canowiilch 643  Chester,    Salop,   Gloucester,  Worcester,   Staf- 

8.  Adelwwh... 648  ^   Warwick>    Buckingham,    Bedford,    and 

It  ended  in  G85,  and  its  first  Christian  king  was  Hertford. 

Adelwach.  j.  Creda  began  to  reign .A.  D.  585 

The  kingdom  of  EAST  SAXONT  contained  the      2.  Wibba. 595 

counties  of  Essex  and  Middlesex.  3-  Cheorlas 616 

4.  Peuda b25 

1.  Erchenwin  began  to  reign A.  D.  527      5.  Peada 056 

2.  Sledda 587       (j.  Wolfhere 659 

3.  Sebert 598      7.  Ethelred 675 

(Lexred    )  8.  Keured 694 

4.  ?  Se ward  [ 616      9.  Ceolred 709 

(  Sigebert)  ]0.  Ethelbald 716 

5.  Sigebert  the  Little 623     11.  Offa 757 

6.  Sigebert  the-Good 653     12.  Egfryd 794 

7.  Switbelme 655     13.  Oeuolf 795 

8.  Sphere  and  Sebbi 665     14.  Rerelme 819 

9.  Sebbi , 683     15.  Ceol  wolf 819 

.     (  Sigherd  and  j  694     l(i.  Eurnulf 821 

iu-  (  Leofrid          j  ""  ]7.  Ludecan 823 

11  Offa 700     18.  YVhiglafe 825 

13-  Suithred 746  Jt  ended  in  827,and  its  first  Christian  king  was 

11.  Sigered .  .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.".'.".'.'.'.'.'799  Peada. 

I,  f  nded  ,.  8,7,  and  to  fc,t  C,,r,,Uan  king  „,  J^lf^ >£, £? *&£*££ 

Vhe'kinptem  Of  NOBTH...1.M..KD  Contain-  ^e™lf^;jt«,T.T:™I..                ...   575 

ed  Yorkshire,  Durham.  Lancashire,  Westmore-  2"  TitflhTs"!. 

land,   Cumberland,  and    Northumberland;   its      3!  Redwald'. '.'.'.'...*.'.'.'..'. '. 599 

kings  were —  4.  Erpenwald 624 

5.  Sigebert 036 

1.  Ella,  or  Ida,  whose  reign  commenced A.  D.547  I  Fgrik    ) 

2-  Adda 559      6.  j  Annas  \ b44 

3.  Clappea 566       7.  Ethelhere 654 

4.  Theodwald 572       3.  Ethwald    656 

5.  Fridulph 573       9.  Advvulf 664 

6.  Theodorick 579     10.  Alswald 683 

7  Athelrick , 586     n.  Beorna  and  Ethelbert 749 

8  Athelfrid 593     12.  Beorna  alone 758 

9  Edwin 617     jrt.  Ethelred 761 

10    Osric ; i.33     14.  Ethelbert 790 

12  Oswyld.'.' .'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.".'.'.".".'.'.' .'.'.'.'.'.'.'643  '*  ended  in  792>  and  its  first  Christian  king  was 
is!  Ethel  w'a'r'd  !!!!!!.'!!.'.'.'.'!.'.'.'.' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .'  '.'.653  Redwald .      - 

14.  Eafrid 670  The  kingdom  of  WEST  SAXONY  contained  the 

15.  Alkfrid 680  countjes  of  Cornwall,  Devon,  Dorset,  Somer- 

15:  ^wfeaV.'.V.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.V.V.".':.'.':. •.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.'.'7?6  -et,  Wilts,  Hants,  and  Berks. 

18.  Osrick 718      1.  Cedric  began  to  reign A.  D.  519 

19.  Ceolnphe 730      2.  Kenrick 534 

20.  Egbert 737       3.  Cheroline 560 

21.  Osswulph 758       4.  Ceolric 592 

22.  Edilwald 759      5.  Ceoluph 598 

23.  Alured 765      6.  Kingills  and  duinthelin 611 

24.  Ethelred * 774       7.  Ceonowalch 643 

25.  Alswald  1 779      8.  Adelwalch 648 

26.  Osred  II 789      9.  Sexburga 672 

27.  Ethelred  restored 790     10.  Censua,  Esewin,  and  Centwin 674 

28.  Osbald 796     11.  Ceadwald 686 

29.  Ardulph 797     12.  Ina : 688 

30.  AHwaldll 807     13.  Adelard V 726 

31.  Andred , 810     14.  Cudred 740 

12* 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


BRI 


136 


BRO 


)5.  Sigehert  and  Cenulph i.  D.  754  the  empeior  Claudius,  from  Britain.  Britanni- 

itj.  Brithick 784  C7<s_     His  mother  was  tlie  infamous  iMessalina. 

J7>  >'gl)ert '::••"••"':":".""' By  the  intrigues  of  Agrippina,  the  second  wife 

It  ended  in  S28,  and  its  first  Christian  king  was  J  ciaudius^e  was  poisoned,  after  having  been 

Kmgills.  excluded  from  the  succession. 

THE  HEPTARCHY  UNITED.  BROOKLYN,   a  city  of  the   state  cf  New 

Ejjiert.... A.  D.  827  York,  in  King's  county.  Long  Island,  separated 

Ethel i baui . ! ! ' " ! ! !  1 ! ' ! "  :*'*'''''  '.ew  from  the  city  of  Npw  York  by  the  East  River. 

Elhelbert  l[..........'............................K60  The  population  of  Brooklyn  is  rapidly  increas- 

Ethelred 86(j  incr  with  its  manufactures  and  trade."   In  1S40 

ESiu,VK^;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::^  il  contained  36,221  inhabitants.  At  the  com- 

Atlielstan !&9  menccrnent  of  the  present  year  Brooklyn  re- 
Edmund..'.'.*.'.'.'.'.'. 94(>  ceived  a  city  charter.  The  houses  of  iecent 

Edred iM7  date  are  spacious  and  elegant,  and  the  heights 

Ej"aY '.'"973  which  overhang  the  river  and  command  a  view 

Ed  ward't'he"  JlHrty'r'.V.V.'.'. ".'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.".'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'. '.".'.975  of  New  York,  are  studded  with  neat  and  pretty 

Ethelred  II ". 979  dwellings,  embowered  in  shrubbery  and  flowers. 

S^eyn |°[;|  The  healthiness  of  Brooklyn,  and  its  contiguity 

Edmund'l'ro'nsi'de'.'.".'.'  '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' .'.'.Y.'.'.'lOIti  to  New  York;  have  tended  to  inciease  its  popu- 

Harold !".'...'.'.'.' 103(i  lation  largely  within  a  few  years.  Between  this 

Hardicanute 1041  place  and  Flatlmsh.  the  Americans  sustained  a 

Edward  the  Confessor 1K42  disastrous  defeat  during  the  war  of  the  revolution. 

al1 1UU         BROOKS,  John,  a  revolutionary  officer  and 

SINCE  THE  CONQUEST.  eminent  physician,  born  in  Medford",  Mass.  1752. 

William  the  Conqueror 1006  j]is  father  was  a  farmer.     After  completing  his 

Henry"!.       US'". "^ ::::'.:::'.'.:::'.l\M  professional  studies,  he  joined  with  ardor   the 

Stephen..... ....'............'.................... IKi'i  driay,    and    was   among   the   first  to  fight    for 

Henry  II 1154  the  freedom  of  America.    On  the  retreat  of  the 

John'™*  I I JU9  ^r'l's''  fr0111  Lexington,  the  comp:niy  v.hich  he 

Ileliry'Vll 1216  commanded  had  no  small  share  in  contributing 

Edward  I. ........ .'....... .......................  1272  to  the   annoyances  of  that  humiliating  flight. 

Edward  11 K:U7  Brooks  enjoyed  the  confidence  and  esteem  of 

Edward  III 1307  onerai  Washington,  arid  had  a  colonel's  corn- 
Henry  IV.'.'.'.  '.'.K99  mission,  when  the  army  was  disbanded,  and  he 
Henry  V.. '.'......'.'..'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.......'........'.'...'..  1413  retired  to  the  practice  of  his  profession.  The 

Henry  VI 1422  rank  of  major-general  of  militia  was  conferred 

Edward  'v^ 1483  UJ1on  mm>  nnt*  ne  showed,  in  the  insurrection 

Richard  111.'.'.*.".'.".",  '.'.'.1483  °f  17cfO.  that  he  had  forgotten  none  of  his  for 

Henry  VII ]4g5  mer  vigor  and  address.    He  was  chosen  to  suc- 

Henry  Vlll 15(;9  Cred  Governor  Strong,  and  died,  highly  respect- 

Mar™ ;....'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. V.'.'.'.V.'. '.".'.'.'.'. V!  1553  ed  and  esteemed,  in  the  73d  year  of  his  age, 

Elizabe'th... '..... '.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.''."'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.1?)58  March,  l.-i-">. 

James  I H;o:i        BROWN.  Charles  Brockden.a  distintruished 

|r;h"'es  J; |fM  novelist,  born  in  Philadelphia,  in  1771    He  was 

Jhumeli  II..V.V.V.'  '.!l685  originally  destined  for  the  law,  but  the  delicacy 

Mary'  II ...............'.'.'............. ...V. '.'.'.' .'."h  -1)  of  his  constitution  and  his  natural  timidity  pre- 

William  III K89  vented  his  pursuing  a  legal   career.     He  was 

£"""•••• JI(I7  the  author  of  ieveral  nuvels.  which  possess  a 

George  II.. '.'.'.'.'. ...... ............ ...'......'...  ...1727  fascinating  power,    p.lthoujrli  their  scenes   are 

George  Il'l .'.'.'. .'...'.. .1760  generally  painful  and'unnatural.     Arthur  Mer- 

GeorgelV 1SJO  Vyn  and  Edgar  Huntly  are,  perhaps,  the  best. 

m  1V "^  Brown  edited  several  periodicals,  and  his  literary 

labors  greatly  impaired  his  health,  and  hasten- 
ed the  progress  of  the  consumption  of  which  he 

BRITANNICUS  Cesar,  Tiberius  Claudius  died  in  160'K  at  the  age  of  3b. 
Germanicus.  called  after  the  return  of  his  father,        BROWN,  William,  a  native  of  Ireland,  who 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BRU 


137 


BRU 


came  to  the  United  States  at  the  age  of  14,  in 
J793,  and  was  for  a  long  time  engaged  at  sea 
in  the  merchant  service.  After  being  captured 
by  the  English,  he  found  himself,  in  Idl4,  at 
Buenos  Ayres,  in  the  command  of  a  British 
merchant  ship.  He  immediately  joined  the  re- 
publican navy,  and  gained  great  fame  by  his 
various  daring  exploits. 

BROWNE,  Maximilian  Ulysses,  count,  a 
soldier  of  the  imperial  army,  finally  field-mar- 
shal of  Austria.  Between  1745  and  1757  he 
ran  a  career  of  glory.  He  died  of  wounds  re- 
ceived at  the  battle  of  Prague,  1757. 

BRUCE,  James,  a  native  of  Scotland,  born 
1730,  distinguished  himself  by  his  travels  in 
Africa.  He  died  in  1794.  He  claims  the  hon- 
or of  having  been  the  first  European  who  be- 
held the  spurces  of  the  Nile.  His  veracity  has 
been  often  doubted,  but  his  accounts  have  been 
confirmed  by  more  recent  travellers. 

BRUCE,  Robert,  the  competitor  of  Baliol  for 
the  crown  of  Scotland.  He  regarded  Wallace, 
the  celebrated  Scottish  warrior  and  patriot,  as 
an  ambitious  man,  who.:<-  ;ir'  ;  only  dic- 

tated by  self-interest.  He  accordingly  fought 
beneath  the  banners  of  England,  on  the  field 
of  Falkirk.  After  that  eventful  battle,  Wal- 
lace had  a  meeting  with  him  on  the  banks  of 
Carron.  and  convinced  him  of  the  elevation  of 
his  views.  Bruce,  softened  even  to  weeping, 
swore  to  espouse  the  cause  of  his  country. 

BRUCE.  Robert,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
one  of  the  Scotch  nobles  in  the  train  of  Edward 
I.  when  he  returned  to  London  in  1305,  exult- 
ing in  his  successes  over  the  Scotch.  A  con- 
spiracy was  formed  to  place  Bruce  on  the 
throne,  and,  through  imminent  danger,  he  es- 
caped to  Scotland,  and  raised  the  standard  of 
his  country.  Defeated,  his  wife  a  prisoner,  his 
three  brothers  hanged,  it  was  thought  that  he 
himself  had  yielded  up  his  life.  But  he  had 
only  retired  for  a  season,  and,  reappearing,  he 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  brave  army,  and 
was  completely  victorious  at  Bannockburn, 
June  24.  1314.  This  victory  decided  the  inde- 
pendence of  his  country.  After  his  claim  had 
been  again  disputed  by  the  English,  Edward 
III  coii  irmed  the  independence  of  the  Scottish 
crown,  by  renouncing  all  claims  to  it  in  1329. 
The  haughty  spirit  of  the  Scottish  nobles  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  following  anecdote.  When, 
in  consequence  of  their  encroachments  on  the 
lands  of  the  king  and  commons,  they  were  re- 
quired by  Bruce  to  show  their  titles  to  their 
possessions,  they  drew  their  swords,  and  cried  ; 
"  We  purchased  them,  not  with  gold, but  iron ; 


and  these    are  the  instruments   by  which  we 
hold  them." 

BRUNN,  capital  of  Moravia,  and  of  the 
circle  of  Brunn,  a  manufacturing  place,  with  a 
population  of  33,00& 

BRUNSWICK,  Frederick  William,  duke 
of,  born  in  1771.  He  joined  the  war  against 
France  in  J60(>,  and  continued,  throughout  his 
life,  the  determined  enemy  of  Napoleon.  His 
black  Brunsvvickers,  so  called  from  their  dress 
and  equipments  being  entirely  black,  held  out 
upon  the  continent  as  long  as  resistance  was  of 
any  avail,  and  finally  their  duke  retired  to  Eng- 
land. In  1615,  he  again  appeared  in  arms,  and 
fell  at  Quatre-bras,  on  the  IGth  of  June.  His 
death  was  atoned  for  by  the  bravery  of  his 
black  huzzars. 

BRUSSELS,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Belgium,  with  a  population  of  106,000.  It  is  a 
pleasant  city,  and  was  held  by  the  French  from 
1794  to  1614.  It  is  distinguished  for  its  build- 
ings,  its  canals,  its  fountains,  and  its  manufac- 
tories. The  carpets  made  here  are  highly  val- 
ued. 

BRUTUS,  Lucius  Junius,  a  celebrated  Ro- 
man. He  was  the  son  of  Marcus  Junius  by  a 
daughter  of  Tarquin  the  Elder.  When  his  father 
and  brothers  were  beheaded  by  Tarquin,  Bru- 
tus saved  himself  by  feigning  idiocy,  whence 
his  surname,  signifying  t/ie  Brute,  was  given 
him.  He  continued  this  appearance  until  Lu- 
cretia  killed  herself  in  consequence  of  the  vio- 
lence of  Sextus  Tarquin.  This  was  the  time  for 
Brutus  to  rouse  the  Romun  people  to  action, 
and  display  the  energy  of  his  mind.  By  his 
exertions  the  Tarquin.s  were  expelled  and  the 
monarchy  changed  for  a  republic.  The  con- 
sulship was  then  instituted,  and  Brutus  and 
Collatinus,  the  husband  of  Lucretia,  were 
chosen  the  first  to  hold  that  dignity.  When  his 
sons  joined  in  the  conspiracy  to  restore  the  Tar- 
quins,  Brutus,  convinced  of  their  guilt,  ordered 
theirexecution,  that  this  example  might  confirm 
the  liberty  of  Rome.  The  same  year  he  was 
slain  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  fighting  against 
Aruns,  the  son  of  Tarquin,  who  also  fell  in 
the  encounter.  This  took  place,  B.  C.  500.  Bru- 
tus was  mourned  by  the  whole  Roman  people. 

BRUTUS,  Marcus  Junius,  lineally  descend- 
ed from  the  above,  whose  republican  princi- 
ples he  seemed  to  inherit.  In  the  civil  wars 
he  joined  Pompey,  although  the  latter  was  his 
father's  murderer,  only  because  he  looked  upon 
him  as  just  an.d  patriotic  in  his  claims.  After 
the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  Ca;sar  not  only  spared 
Brutus,  but  made  him  one  of  his  friends.  He 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


BUC 


133 


BUC 


however,  forgot  the  favor  when  Csesar  dis- 
played his  ambition  and  tyranny,  and  con- 
spired with  many  of  the  citizens  of  Rome,  to 
stab  Ca;sar  in  the  senate-house.  Brutus  was 
forced  to  retire  into  Greece  by  the  excite- 
ment created  by  Antony.  Here  he  gained  many 
friends,  but  was  soon  pursued  by  Antony,  ac- 
companied by  the  young  Octavius.  A  battle 
was  fought  at  Philippi.  Brutus,  who  command- 
ed the  right  wing  of  the  republican  army,  de- 
feated the  enemy  ;  but  Cassius,  on  the  left,  was 
overpowered,  and  Brutus  found  himself  sur- 
rounded by  the  soldiers  of  Antony.  He,  how- 
ever, made  his  escape,  and  soon  after  fell  upon 
his  sword.  B.  C.  42.  It  is  said  that,  previous 
to  this  battle,  a  spectral  figure  twice  the  size  of 
life,  appeared  to  Brutus,  and  warned  him  of  his 
fate. 

BUCCANEERS.  The  French  and  English 
freebooters  of  America  acquired  so  great  no- 
toriety, th<it  an  historical  work  would  be  in- 
complete without  a  mention  of  them.  After 
the  assassination  of  Henry  IV  of  France,  many 
Frenchmen  settled  in  St.  Christopher,  an  island 
of  the  group  of  Antilles.  Being  driven  from  this 
place  in  1G30,  they  sought  refuge  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  St.  Domingo,  and  the  neighboring 
island  of  Tortugas.  Their  wild  and  solitary 
life  possessed  a  certain  charm,  which  induced 
many  Englishmen  to  join  them,  and  their  num- 
bers at  length  became  considerable.  They  were 
hardy  and  enterprising,  and,  deprived  of  the 
softening  influence  of  female  society,  nourish- 
ed a  spirit  of  reckless  ferocity.  They  did  not, 
however,  display  at  first  those  stern  features 
which  afterwards  characterized  them,  but  were 
comparatively  peaceful  and  industrious.  Those 
who  were  settled  at  St.  Domingo,  used  to  hunt 
the  wild  cattle  of  the  island,  whose  hides  they 
sold  to  the  crews  that  landed  on  their  coast. 
They  were  accustomed  to  bouc,aner,  that  is,  to 
roast  the  flesh  of  these  animals  before  largo 
fires,  and  thence  received  the  name  of  bour'a- 
ncers,  or  buccaneers.  Increasing  in  strength 
and  spirit,  they  defied  the  attempts  of  the  Span- 
iards to  subdue  them,  and  soon  made  themselves 
formidable  by  their  predatory  excursions. 

The  Spaniards  resolved  to  extirpate  the  wild 
cattle,  and  thus  induce  the  buccaneers  to  be- 
come farmers  for  support,  or  else  to  join  their 
more  lawless  comrades  on  the  island  of  Tortu- 
gas. The  buccaneers  nourished  a  deep-seated 
hatred  of  the  Spaniards,  and  it  was  their  ves- 
sels which  were  most  frequently  attacked  by  the 
pirates.  Sailing  from  the  American  ports,  laden 
with  the  most  precious  productions  of  the  New 


World,  the  size  and  strength  of  the  galleons 
formed  no  adequate  protection  against  the  num. 
hers  and  intrepidity  of  the  buccaneers,  who  at' 
tacked  them  in  boats,  ill  equipped,  it  is  true,  but 
manned  by  creXvs  of  iron  nerve,  and  unquail- 
ing  resolution.  The  spirits  of  the  Spaniards 
became  crushed  by  the  repeated  successes  of 
the  buccanners,  and  before  long  they  did  not 
even  attempt  to  defend  themselves.  Thus  when 
Laurent,  a  famous  buccaneer,  found  himself  in 
a  small  vessel,  with  a  few  guns,  and  two  Span- 
ish GO  gun-ships  alongside,  the  desperation  and 
fury  of  his  resistance  so  overawed  the  Spanish 
officers,  that  they  permitted  him  to  escape,  al- 
though they  had  him  completely  in  their  power, 

The  leaders  of  the  buccaneers  were  chosen 
for  superior  daring,  but  enjoyed  but  few  privi- 
leges save  that  of  being  foremost  in  danger.  In 
dividing  their  spoils,  all  had  an  equal  share,  or, 
if  any  exception  was  made,  it  was  in  favor  of 
those  who  had  received  very  severe  wounds  in 
combat.  The  captain  had  no  larger  share  than 
any  of  his  followers,  unless  he  happened  to 
have  displayed  extraordinary  skill  and  valor. 
Previous  to  dividing  the  booty,  each  was  oblig- 
ed to  swear  that  he  had  kept  back  no  part  of 
the  prize,  and  a  perjury,  which  was  of  rare  oc- 
currence, was  punished  by  the  exile  of  the  of-  ' 
fender  to  a  desert  island.  The  share  of  those 
who  had  fallen  was  appropriated  to  relieve  the 
necessities  of  their  relations,  or  as  gifts  to  the 
church,  in  case  (here  were  no  surviving  friends 
or  relatives.  The  buccaneers  were  scrupulous 
in  observing  the  outward  rites  of  religion,  and 
offered  up  prayers  for  the  success  of  each  enter, 
prise  before  embarking  in  it.  So  formidable  were 
the  operations  of  the  buccaneers,  that  they 
greatly  diminished  the  trade  between  Spain  and 
America.  The  baleful  effects  of  the  climate, 
and  the  nature  of  their  occupation  gradually  di- 
minished their  numbers,  and  they  were  at  length 
extirpated  by  the  French  and  English  govern- 
ments. From  them  originated  the  French  set- 
tlements on  the  western  part  of  St.  Domingo, 
although  their  piracies  were  ended  in  the  com- 
mencement of  the  .18th  century. 

Several  of  their  leaders  acquired  a  reputation 
for  daring  and  enterprise,  which  has  preserved 
their  names  from  oblivion.  One  of  the  most 
noted  of  these  was  Montbar,  the  son  of  a  gen- 
tleman of  Languedoc,  who  early  imbibed  a 
hatred  for  the  " Spaniards.  While  at  school, 
performing  the  part  of  a  Frenchman  in  a  drama, 
in  his  combat,  with  a  fellow  student,  who  re- 
presented a  Spaniard,  he  so  far  forgot  the  real- 
ity of  his  situation,  in  the  illusion  of  the  mo- 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BUG 


139 


BUE 


ment,  that  he  would  have  slain  his  antagonist 
but  for  the  intervention  of  the  more  cool-head- 
ed spectators.  At  an  early  age  Montbar  em- 
barked for  America,  and  was  highly  delighted 
when,  one  day,  a  Spanish  galleon  hove  in 
sight.  Long  before  the  vessels  met,  Montbar 
had  completed  his  preparations  for  the  combat, 
and,  with  an  unsheathed  sword  beneath  his 
arm,  was  pacing  the  deck,  in  all  the  hot  hurry 
of  untried  valor.  The  moment  the  vessels 
closed,  calling  to  the  boarders,  he  sprang  on  the 
deck  of  the  galleon,  and  carried  all  before  him 
by  the  impetuosity  of  his  attack.  While  his 
comrades  were  busy  in  estimating  and  dividing 
the  booty,  he  was  sternly  gazing  on  the  stif- 
fened bodies  of  the  first  victims  of  his  hatred, 
like  an  eagle  hovering  over  the  slain.  Arrived 
at  St.  Domingo,  the  buccaneers  who  came  on 
board  to  trade,  complained  that  the  Spaniards, 
during  their  absence  in  the  chase,  destroyed 
their  settlements.  "  Make  me  your  leader," 
cried  Montbar,  "  and  I  will  teach  these  spoilers 
that  there  exists  a  power  greater  than  theirs. 
I  seek  for  no  emoluments,  the  joys  of  battle  are 
enough  for  me.''  Struck  with  his  appearance 
and  impetuosity,  they  chose  hirn  their  leader, 
and  had  no  reason  to  repent  having  done  so, 
for  he  unweariedly  pursued  the  Spaniards  with 
invariable  success,  and  succeeded  in  inducing 
the  Indians  to  forsake  the  Spaniards  and  league 
against  them  with  the  buccaneers. 

BUCHAREST,  the  chief  city  of  Walachia, 
with  81) ,000  inhabitants,  has  a  considerable  trade 
in  wine,  and  other  productions.  Peace  was 
concluded  here  between  Russia  and  Turkey, 
May  23,  1812. 

BUCHARIA,  Great ;  a  country  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Asia,  including  Bucharia  Proper,  Sa- 
marcand,  and  Balkh.  the  Sogdiana  and  Bactri- 
ana  of  antiquity.  It  is  the  southeastern  part  of 
Independent  Tartary.  The  Bucharians,  original 
inhabitants,  of"  Persian  descent,  are  frugal  and 
industrious.  The  natural  productions  of  the 
country  are  various  and  valuable.  The  city 
of  Bucharia  contains  a  population  of  about  100, 
000  souls.  The  province  of  Balkh  now  forms 
an  independent  state.  The  government  is 
despotic,  and  the  religion  Mohammedan.  The 
trade  is  important.  / 

BUCHARFA,  Littlo.  lying  to  the  east  of  the 
preceding,  is  not  well^knov.-n.  Its  situation  is 
elevated,  and  the  climate  accordingly  very  se- 
vere. In  1683,  this  country  was  conquered  by 
the  Calmucks,  who  were  in  turn  subdued  by 
the  Chinese,  in  1759. 

BUCKINGHAM,  George  Vffliers,  duke  of, 


born  in  1592,  was  the  favourite  of  James  I , 
and  Charles  I,  of  England.  He  abused  his 
power  in  the  most  shameless  manner,  and  dis- 
graced the  high  dignities  which  were  conferred 
upon  him,  displaying  in  all  his  acts,  ambition, 
avarice,  and  caprice.  In  the  reign  of  Charles 
I,  he  fermented  discords  between  the  king  and 
people,  and  was  hated  by  all  those  who  had 
acquired  an  insight  into  his  character.  He  was 
killed  at  Portsmouth,  August.  1026,  by  a  subal- 
tern officer. 

BUCKINGHAM,  George  Villiers.  duke  of, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  January  30, 
1C27.  After  completing  his  course  at  the  uni- 
versity, and  travelling  for  some  time  on  the 
continent,  he  returned,  and,  on  the  breaking 
out  of  the  civil  war,  served  in  the  royal  army. 
In  1G4S,  after  an  absence  of  some  time  he  fought 
under  the  banners  of  Charles  II,  and  fled  with 
him  to  Flanders.  After  the  restoration  he  was 
high  in  favor  with  the  king,  and  became  one  of 
his  ministers.  The  treason  of  which  he  was  af- 
terwards guilty,  was  pardoned,  but  he  continued 
his  plots,  and  died,  despised  by  all,  at  Kirkby 
Moorside,  in  Yorkshire,  April  16,  1688.  His 
private  life  was  profligate.  His  talents  were 
brilliant,  and  he  did  much  to  improve  the  lite- 
rary taste  of  his  arre. 

BUENOS  AYRES,  a  country  of  South  Ame- 
rica, is  bounded  north  by  Bolivia,  east  by  Bra- 
zil, southeast  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  south  by 
Patagonia,  and  "west  by  Chili  and  the  Pacific 
ocean.  Inl316.il  declared  its  independence, 
previous  to  which,  it  was  a  Spanish  vice-royalty, 
called  the  '•  Vice-royalty  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,"  or 
simply,  "  la  Plata."  The  western  and  north- 
ern parts  of  the  country  are  rough,  but  large 
portions  are  extremely  level ;  in  the  south,  for 
instance,  the  pampas  (immense  plains)  are  more 
than  1200  miles  long,  and  500  broad,  filled  with 
wild  cLitt.ic',  and  the  abode  of  Indians  hardly  less 
wild.  The  fertility  of  a  large  proportion  of 
the  soil  is  surprising,  although  agriculture  is 
strangely  neglected.  Among  the  mineral  pro- 
ductions are  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  and  lead. 
Hides,  tallow,  beef,  and  tiie  precious  metals,  are 
exported  in  great  quantities.  The  capital  city, 
called  Buenos  Ayres,  or  Nuestra  Senora  de 
Buenos  Ayres,  was  built  in  1535,  and  con- 
tains a  population  which  has  been  variously 
stated  at  from  50,000,  to  100.000,  composed  of 
whites,  negroes,  indians.  and  mixed  races.  A 
few  of  the  public  buildings  may  well  be  called 
magnificent,  but,  generally,  architecture  is  in  a 
low  state  in  Buenos  Ayres,  chiefly  from  the 
scarcity  of  a  good  building  material, — chalk 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


BUN 


140 


BUR 


and  brick,  forming  but  a  very  inferior  substitute. 
In  1826,  it  was  made  the  seat  of  government  of 
the  United  Provinces  of  la  Plata.  In  180(5,  it 
was  captured  by  the  English,  who  were  shortly 
afterwards  attacked  by  surprise,  and  suffered 
great  loss.  The  reinforcements  which  dame 
over  the  following  year,  were  received  into  the 
city  with  apparent  submission,  but  then  at- 
tacked with  vigor,  and  compelled  to  conclude  a 
truce,  after  suffering  immense  loss.  The  trade 
of  the  city  is  very  considerable. 

BUFFALO;  a  town  of  New-York,  at  the 
east  end  of  lake  Erie,  29G  miles  west  of  Albany. 
Its  population,  in  1830,  was  12,000.  Its  trade  is 
very  extensive  and  lucrative.  In  1813,  when 
it  contained  but  one  hundred  houses,  it  wan 
burned  by  the  British. 

BUFFON,  George  Louis  Leclerc.  count  de,a 
famous  French  naturalist,  born  at  Montbard,  in 
Burgundy,  in  1707,  and  died  at  Paris,  April  Hi, 
1788,  at  the  age  of  eighty -one.  His  natural  his- 
tory continues  to  be  read  with  pleasure,  and  at 
the  time  of  its  appearance,  differed  from  all  pre- 
vious works,  which  were  merely  masses  of 
technical  description,  with  no  interesting  gen- 
eral views  and  details.  His  History  of  Quadru- 
peds is  regarded  as  his  best  work. 

BULGARIA,  European  or  Little,  a  Turkish 
iflnce,  which  before  its  conquest  bv  the  Bul- 
ians.  was  the  Mti^ia  Inferior  of  antiquity.  It 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  in  1392.  and 
forms  part  of  the  pachalic  of  Romelia.  It  is 
bounded  north  by  the  Danube,  east  by  the  Black 
Sea,  and  south  and  west  by  the  Balkan.  It  con- 
tains 1,800,000  inhabitants,  who  arc  industrious, 
and,  for  the  most  part,  Christians.  The  Bulga- 
rians, or  Voulgarians,  were  an  ancient  Tartar 
nation,  whose  kingdom  included  no  small  por- 
tion of  the  ancient  Sarmatia.  They  spread  their 
ravages  far  and  wide, and  penetrated  intoThrac:', 
Macedonia,  and  Thessaly.  In  1010,  their  sw;iy 
in  Macedonia,  Servia.  and  Albania,  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  emperor  Basil  II,  and  they  sought 
refuge  in  Turkey,  where  their  new  Kingdom 
was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Ottomans  in  the 
14th  century. 

BUN  VAN,  John,  the  son  of  a  tinker,  born  at 
Elston,  in  1628.  At  an  early  age  he  was  dissi- 
pated, and  served  as  a  soldier  in  the  parliamen- 
tary anny.  Reflection  and  reformation,  how- 
ever, brought  out  the  bright,  points  of  his  char- 
acter. He  became  a  member  of  a  society  of 
anabaptists,  and  fin  illy  their  teacher.  As  a  dis- 
senter he  was  imprisoned  twelve  years,  and  (In- 
occupation of  his  mind  during  his  li>n;r  roiiline- 
racnt,  was  the  composition  of  his  unrivalled  Pil- 


grim's Progress,  a  religious  allegory,  bearing 
the  impress  of  a  strong  mind,  and  an  ardent 
imagination.  Bunyah  died  in  1U88. 

BURCKHARD,  John  Louis,  famous  for  his 
travels  in  Africa,  born  in  Bale  in  J784.  His  coun- 
try being  oppressed  by  France,  he  went  to  London 
in  1 800.  and  was  engaged  by  the  African  Associa- 
tion to  explore  Africa  from  the  north.  To  fa- 
cilitate his  progress  in  Nubia  and  other  parts  of 
the  country,  lie  assumed  the  character  of  a  Sy- 
rian Turk,  and  so  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  manners  and  religion  of  the  East  was  lie. 
that  he  underwent  an  examination  by  two  learn- 
ed Jurists,  and  was  pronounced  by  them  a 
learned  and  true  Mussulman.  He  died  at  Cairo, 
April  lf>,  1817, and  was  buried  with  greatsplen- 
dor.  He  was  the  first  modern  traveller  who 
reached  Shendy  in  Soudan,  the  Meroc  of  the 
ancients.  His  travels  were  published  in  181!*. 

BURGOS,  in  Spain,  the  capital  city  of  Old 
Castile,  and  once  a  royal  residence,  on  the  bank 
of  the  Arlanzon,  containing  10,000  inhabitants. 
Its  superb  Gothic  cathedral  is  of  so  great  size, 
that  service  can  be  performed  in  its  eight  cha- 
pels, at  the  same  time.  It  was  captured  by 
the  British  troops  in  the  campaign  of  ]813. 

BURGOYNE,  John,  the  natural  son  of  lord 
Bingly,  a  general  in  the  English  nrmy,  and  an 
agreeable  dramatist.  He  entered  the  army  at 
an  early  age.  and,  in  17(i2,  had  the  command  of 
a  body  of  troops  sent  to  Portugal  for  the  defence 
of  that  kingdom  against,  the  Spaniards,  lie  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  American  war  by  the 
taking  of  Ticonderoga.  but  after  two  severe 
engagements,  was  forced  to  surrender,  with  his 
whole  army,  to  General  Gates,  in  1777. 

BURGUNDIANS,  a  tribe  of  Germans,  a 
branch  of  the  Vandals,  who  occupied  a  part  of 
France,  in  the  5th  century,  which  has  since 
been  called  Burgundy.  It  was  long  an  inde- 
pendent state,  but  was  attached  to  France  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  loth  century,  on  the  death 
of  Charles  the  Bold.  The  independent  dukes 
of  Burgundy  rendered  their  name  illustrious, 
and  many  of  them  were  distinguished  for  the 
possession  of  bravery  and  other  high  qualities. 

BURKE,  Edmund,  a  statesman  and  great 
political  writer,  was  born  at  Dublin,  January  1, 
1730.  lie  was  contemporary  with  Pitt  and  Fox, 
whose  political  principles  he  alternately  avowed. 
After  finishing  his  education  at  Trinity  college, 
he  entered  his  name  at  the  Temple  as  ;:  law  stu- 
dent, but  devoted  himsejf  1p  literature.  His 
political  career  commenced  by  his  accompa- 
nying Hamilton  secretary  of  the  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  to  Dublin,  and  on  his  return  he  was 


Birth-place  of  Robert  Burns. 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BUR 

made  private  secretary  to  the  Marquis  of 
Rockingham.  On  the  fall  of  the  llockingham 
ministry,  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  on  the  subject, 
and  became  an  active  member  of  the  opposition, 
being  chosen  for  Bristol,  in  177-1,  without  ex- 
pense. His  speeches  in  the  senate  had  now 
eclipsed  even  the  reputation  of  his  writings,  and 
\vere  delivered  with  a 'vehemence  which  it  was 
difficult  to  resist.  On  the  return  of  the  Rock- 
mgham  administration,  Mr.  Burke  for  a  short 
time  filled  the  office  of  paymaster-general,  but 
he  resigned  the  post,  upon  the  succession  of  lord 
Shclburne  to  the  premiership.  The  leading 
features  of  his  subsequent  political  life,  in  which 
he  held  no  office,  are  his  impeachment  of  War- 
ren Hastings  ;  his  opposition  to  the  limited  re- 
gency in  1788 ;  his  prediction  of  the  effects  of 
the  French  revolution  :  and  his  separation  from 
Mr.  Fox  upon  those  sentiments."  This  was  his 
last  great  political  act,  all  his  subsequent  ones 
being  to  establish  and  defend  it.  On  this  sub- 
ject lie  published  several  pamphlets,  the  merit 
of  which  obtained  him  a  pension,  and  many  se- 
vere reflections  from  his  opponents,  to  which  he 
replied  in  "  a  letter  to  a  Noble  Lord,"  replete 
with  sarcastic  irony,  fie  died  Julv  8th,  1797, 
having  previously  vacated  his  seat'for  Malton. 
Mr.  Burke  had  a  most  commanding  oratory,  to 
enhance  which,  he  spared  no  incidental  act  of 
gesticulation  and  manner.  On  one  occasion,  he 
is  said  to  have  drawn  forth  and  brandished  a 
dagger,  to  give  a  greater  effect  to  his  words. 

BURLINGTON,  a  town  in  Vermont,  situa- 
ted on  Burlington  bay.  at  the  entrance  of  Onion 
river  into  lake  Champlain.  In  1840,  it  con- 
tained 4,271  inhabitants.  Its  commerce  is  very 
extensive.  It  is  a  pleasant  place,  has  several 
public  buildings,  and  a  university,  the  reputa- 
tion of  which  is  established.  It  is  the  capital 
of  Chittenden  county. 

BURNri,  Robert,  one  of  the  most  popular  of 
Scottish  bards.  He  was  the  son  of  a  gardener, 
and  was  born  near  the  town  of  Ayr,  January 
25,  1759.  He  had  some  instruction  and  was 
fond  of  reading.  His  poetical  talent  was  first 
displayed  in  some  amatory  verses,  and  his  con- 
versational talents  caused  him  to  be  sought  for 
by  convivial  parties,  which  tended  to  fix  his 
habits  of  dissipation.  The  publication  of  his 
poems  procured  him  a  sum  of  money  larger  than 
he  anticipated,  and  a  high  literary  reputation. 
He  was  enabled  to  take  a  farm  near  Dumfries, 
and  at  the  same  time  procured  the  office  of  ex- 
ciseman. He  married  the  early  object  of  his 
affections,  the  "  bonnie  Jean."  of  whom  he  has 
written  so  tenderly  in  the  most  musical  of  his 


141  BYL 

verses.  She  survived  the  poet  who  immortali- 
zed her  name,  and  died  within  the  year  1834. 
Burns  might  have  prospered  and  enjoyed  a  long 
life,  had  he  but  listened  to  the  advice  and  remon- 
strances of  his  friends,  and  forsaken  those  ruin- 
ous indulgences  which  produced,  or  at  least 
hastened  his  death,  which  took  place  July  21, 
1706.  His  fate  was  that  which  usually  awaits 
the  intemperate.  Burns  was  emphatically  the 
poet  of  truth  and  of  nature.  It  was  a  court 
bard  (Cowley),  who  declared  to  Charles  II  that 
poets  succeed  best  in  fiction,  and  however 
true  the  assertion  might  be  with  regard  to  life 
own  writings,  it  is  disproved  by  those  of  Burns. 
His  most  beautiful  poems  were" composed  in  the 
spirit  of  truth,  and  glow  with  the  fire  of  real 
feeling  and  passion.  Full  of  affectionate  and 
sad  remembrances,  he  composed  the  verses"  to 
Mary  in  Heaven,"  commencing; 

"  My  Mary,  clear,  departed  shade, 
Where  i's  thy  blissful  place  of  rest  ? 

Sees't  thou  thy  lover  lowly  laid, 

Hear'st  thou  the  groans  that  rend  his  breast?" 

In  this  he  celebrates  their  last  meeting.  The 
Mary  of  Burns  was  a  peasant-girl,  whose  ac- 
quirements merely  enabled  her  to  read  her  Bible 
and  psalm-book,  and  who  walked  bare-footed 
to  their  try  sting-place,  and  yet  she  inspired  the 
most  enthusiastic  attachment  in  a  man  whose 
intellect  cast  a  glory  upon  the  hills,  and  woods, 
cjid  streams  of  his  native  land,  and  a  halo  round 
the  objects  of  his  love,  which  will  endure  as 
long  as  the  human  breast  is  warmed  with  the 
glow  of  social  and  patriotic  feeling. 

BUSACO,  a  convent  in  Portugal,  celebrated 
for  the  repulse  of  the  French  under  Massena, 
by  the  English  under  Lord  Wellington,  in 
1810. 

BUTLER.  Samuel,  an  English  poet,  the  son 
of  a  farmer,  born  in  Strenzham,  Worcestershire, 
in  1G12.  His  poem  of  Hudibras,  in  which  the 
weak  points  of  the  Puritans  are  happily  expos- 
ed brought  the  author  into  notice,  but  did  not 
better  his  circumstances,  and  he  died  poor  in 
1680.  • 

BYLES,  doctor  Mather,  a  clergyman  of  Bos- 
ton, born  in  1706.  He  was  for  sometime  pastor 
of  Hollis  street  church,  but  was  removed  from 
his  pulpit,  in  consequence  of  his  Tory  principles. 
His  political  opinions  subjected  him  to  a  tem- 
porary imprisonment  on  board  a  guardship.  He 
was  however  released,  but  a  guard  put  over 
him  in  his  own  house.  The  guard  was  remo-- 
ved.and  then  replaced  in  consequence  of  further 
complaint  against  him.  Finally,  the  presence 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


BYR 


142 


BYR 


of  the  sentinel  was  dispensed  with.  It  was  on 
this  occasion,  that  the  doctor  happily  remarked 
that  he  had  been  "guarded,  regarded,  and  dis- 
regarded." When  two  selectmen  stuck  last  in 
the  slough  opposite  his  house,  he  said  to  them  ; 
"  Gentlemen.  I  have  several  times  complained 
of  this  nuisance,  and  am  therefore  pleased  to 
see  you  stirring  in  the  matter."  Byles  corres- 
ponded with  i'ope,  Lansdowne,  and  Watts, 
and  possessed  some  poetical  talents.  His  essays 
and  poems  were  collected,  and  published  in  a 
volume.  He  died  July  5,  1768. 

BYNG,  George,  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
JGM.  He  became  rear-admiral  in  1703.  In 
170('»,  he  relieved  Barcelona,  besieged  by  the 
uuke  oP  Anjou;  and  in  1708,  frustrated  the 
efforts  of  the  French  to  assist  the  Pretender  by 
an  invasion.  In  17.18,  he  defeated  the  Spanish 
fleet  off  Sicily.  For  these,  and  other  services, 
he  received  many  offices  and  honors,  and  was 
made  Viscount  Torrington.  He  died  in  I  ?:!:{. 

BYNG,  John,  an  English  admiral,  son  of  the 
preceding,  served  under  his  father  in  many  ex- 
peditions, and,  although  esteemed  an  able  sea- 
man and  a  brave  man,  was  ruined  by  popular 
animosity.  Failing  in  his  attempts  to  relieve 
Minorca,  in  1755,  he  was  tried  by  a  court-mar- 
tial, and,  although  recommended  to  mercy, 
shot  in  1757.  After  party  fury  had  subsided, 
and  his  conduct  had  .been  dispassionately  ex- 
amined, his  intentions  were  allowed  to  have 
been  good,  his  courage  indisputable,  and  his 
death  the  consequence  of  rancorous  misrepre- 
sentation from  personal  dislike.  His  conduct 
in  his  last  momonis  confirmed  no  part  of  the  evi- 
dence against  him;  it  was  cool,  determined, 
dignified,  and  resigned.  Immediate  posterity 
honored  him  as  a  British  admiral,  his  connex- 
ions, as  a  man  of  honor,  and  it  was  obtained 
from  among  the  secrets  of  ministerial  intrigue, 
that  he  was  the  victim  of  ministerial  coward- 
ice, undeserving  of  the  disgrace  of  an  execu- 
tion, and  obedient  to  orders  which  the  men  in 
office  had  not  the  courage  to  avow.  Byng 
showed,  in  his  last  moments,  the  fearlessness 
of  his  disposition,  and  the  elevation  of  a  mind 
that  dreaded  only  disgrace. 

BYRON,  George  Gordon,  lord,  one  of  the 

most.  celebrated  English  poets  of  modern  days, 

was  born  in  London,  January  22,  1788.     His 

mother  was  a  Scotch  heiress,  only  daughter  of 

•  i.irdori,  Esq.  of  Gight,  and  his  father 

un   Byron,  or,  as  he  was    popularly 

termed,  for  his  reckless    profligacy,  Mad  Jack 

Byron  of  the  Giianls.     Tne  parents  of  the  poet 

lived  unhappily  together,  and  the  heartless  liber- 


tine who  transmitted  so  many  failings  to  his  son. 
squandered  the  property  of  the  woman  he  had 
married  for  her  wealth,  and  reduced  her  to  com- 
parative poverty.  Economy  induced  Mrs.  By- 
ron to  take  up  her  residence  at  Aberdeen  in 
171)0,  where  her  son  was  placed  at  school.  Her 
management  of  young  Byron  was  any  thing  but 
judicious,  and  in  her  fits  of  passion,  she  even 
reproached  him  with  the  lameness  of  one  of 
his  feet,  a  deformity ,which,  although  trifling,  was 
severely  felt  by  the  sensitive  poet,  and  even  en- 
gendered many  of  his  misanthropic  views.  It 
was  rarely  that  lie  alluded  to  it  in  a  jesting  way. 
In  his  youth,  however,  lie  was  acquainted  with 
a  child  who  had  a  similar  defect,  and  used  to 
say  to  his  nurse,  in  the  Scotch  dialect  which  h;1 
had  acquired  :  "  see  the  twa  laddies  vvi'  the  twa 
club  feet  ganging  up  the  high  street."  His 
rambles  among  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  had 
a  strong  effect  upon  his  imagination,  and  proba- 
bly kindled  the  spark,  which  afterwards  bright- 
ened to  a  flame.  In  one  of  his  poems,  he  says  : 

"  Long  have  I  roamed  through  lands  which   are  not 

Adured  the  Alps,  and  loved  the  Appenine,        [mine, 

Jievered  1'aniassus,  and  beheld  the  steep 

Jove's  Ida  and  Olympus  crown  the  deep  ; 

But  't  was  not  all  long  a<i«s'  lore,  nor  all 

Tliclr  nature  held  me  in  their  thrilling  thrall  ; 

The  infant  rapture  still  surviv.-d  the  l.oy, 

And  Loch-na-gar  with  Ida  looked  o'er  Troy. 

Mixed  Celtic  memories  with  the  Phrygian  mount, 

And  Highland  linns  with  ('asialie's  clear  fount. 

Forgive  me,  Homer's  universal  shade  ! 

Forgive  me,  I'hu'biis  !  that  my  fancy  strayed  ; 

The  North  and  nature  taught  me  to  adore 

Your  scenes  sublime,  from  those  beloved  before." 

To  this  passage  the  following  note  is  appended 
by  the  author  :  "  When  very  young,  about  eight 
years  of  age,  after  an  attack  of  the  scarlet  fever 
at  Aberdeen,  1  was  removed  by  medical  advice, 
into  the  Highlands.  Here  I  passed  occasionally 
some  summers,  and  from  this  period  I  date  my 
love  of  mountainous  countries.  I  can  never 
forget  the  effect,  a  few  years  afterwards  in  Eng- 
land, of  the  only  tiling  1  had  long  seen,  even  in 
miniature,  of  a  mountain,  in  the  Malvern  Hills. 
After  I  returned  to  Cheltenham,  I  used  to  watch 
them  every  afternoon  at  sunset,  with  a  sensation 
which  I  cannot  describe.  This  was  boyish 
enough  ;  but  I  was  then  only  thirteen  years  of 
age.  and  it  was  in  the  holidays." 

In  the  year  171'?.  <m  the  death  of  his  grand 
uncle,  he  became  a  chancery  ward  under  the 
guardianship  of  the  earl  of  Carlisle,  n gainst 
whom  he  soon  conceived  a  dislike.  Placed  at 
Harrow,  he  had  t;>  encounter  all  the  temptations 
and  annoyances  inseparable  from  public  educa- 
tion. School-boys  are  not  famous  for  feeling, 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BYR 


143 


BYR 


and  the  lameness  of  Byron  was  perpetually 
called  to  mind  by  the  rudest  practical  sarcasms. 
He  would  often  wake,  and  find  his  lame  foot 
plunged  in  a  pail  of  water.  Through  Harrow, 
he  fairly  "  fought  his  way."  "  I  had,"  said  he, 
in  one  of  his  conversations  with  captain  Med- 
win,  "  a  spirit  that  ill  brooked  the  restraints  of 
school  discipline ;  for  I  had  been  encouraged  by 
servants  in  all  my  violence  of  temper,  and  was 
used  to  command.  Every  thing  like  a  task  was 
repugnant  to  my  nature,  and  I  came  away  a 
very  indifferent  classic,  and  read  in  nothing  that 
was  useful.  That  subordination,  which  is  the 
soul  of  all  discipline,  1  submitted  to  with  diffi- 
culty ;  yet  I  did  submit  to  it ;  and  I  have  al- 
ways retained  a  sense  of  Drury's  kindness, 
which  enabled  me  to  bear  it  and  fagging  too. 
The  duke  of  Dorset  was  my  fag.  1  was  not 
a  very  hard  task-master.  There  were  times 
at  which,  if  I  had  riot  considered  it  as  a  school, 
I  should  have  been  happy  at  Harrow.  There 
is  one  spot  I  should  like  to  see  again  :  I  was 
particularly  delighted  with  the  view  from  the 
churchyard,  and  used  to  sit  for  hours  on  the 
slile  leading  into  the  fields  ; — even  then  I  form- 
ed a  wish  to  be  buried  there."  "  There  were 
two  things  that  strike  me  at  this  moment,  that 
I  did  at  Harrow.  I  fought  lord  Calthorpe  for 
writing  Atheist !  under  my  name  ;  and  pre- 
vented the  school-room  from  being  burnt  dur- 
ing a  rebellion,  by  pointing  out  to  the  boys 
the  names  of  their  fathers  and  grand-fathers  on 
the  walls." 

In  October,  1805,  the  young  lord  entered 
Cambridge  university,  where  he  was  little  dis- 
tinguished for  application,  and  showed  no  great 
respect  for  academic  honors.  He  even  evinced 
his  contempt  for  them  by  keeping  a  young  bear 
in  his  room,  which  he  said  he  was  training  for  a 
fellowship.  In  his  20th  year  be  took  up  his 
abode  at  Newstead  Abbey,  a  fine  old  building 
which  he  proceeded  immediately  to  repair.  His 
"  Hours  of  Idleness,"  now  appeared,  a  collection 
of  poems  written  during  his  minority,  which 
was  attacked  by  the  Edinburgh  Review,  with  a 
degree  of  malignity  and  violence,  that  provoked 
the  youthful  bard  to  vindicate  his  reputation  in 
a  satire  entitled  "  English  Bards  and  Scotch 
Reviewers."  This  severe  and  sweeping  philip- 
pic appeared  a  few  days  after  he  had  taken  his 
seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  gained  the  fa- 
vor of  the  public  in  a  short  time.  He  soon  after 
went  abroad,  travelling  through  Portugal.  Spain, 
and  Greece.  The  scenes  through  which  he 
passed  are  finely  described  in  "  Childe  Harold's 
Pilgrimage."  In  the  east  he  swam  from  Sestts 
13 


to  Abydos,  and  prided  himself  greatly  on  this 
daring  feat.  He  returned  to  England  in  1811, 
after  an  absence  of  two  years. 

He  hastened  to  Newstead,  but  arrived  too  late 
to  close  the  eyes  of  his  mother.  About  this 
period,  the  acquaintance  between  himself  and 
the  poet  Thomas  Moore  commenced — an  ac- 
quaintance which  afterwards  ripened  into  the 
warmest  friendship.  On  the  29th  of  February, 
1812,  appeared  the  two  first  cantos  of  "  Childe 
Harold,"  and  the  success  and  sale  of  the  work 
was  instantaneous.  The  hero,  a  proud  but  mel- 
ancholy wanderer,  satiated  with  sensual  pleas- 
ure, was  at  once  recognised  as  a  delineation  of 
the  noble  author,  notwithstanding  his  decisive 
denial.  The  Giaour,  the  Bride  of  Abydos,  and 
the  Corsair,  poems,  in  all  of  which  the  author 
displayed  his  unrivalled  talents,  and  accurate 
knowledge  of  eastern  customs  and  manners, 
followed  at  short  intervals.  Of  one  of  these 
20,000  copies  were  sold  in  one  day.  On  the  2d 
of  January,  1815,  Byron  married  Miss  Mil- 
banke,  daughter  of  Sir  Ralph  Milbanke.  The 
marriage  was  unhappy,  and  after  various  quar- 
rels, and  much  distress,  the  parties  separated. 
Ada,  the  daughter  of  unhappy  parents,  was 
taken  from  Byron,  who,  in  18J(3,  left  England 
forever.  He  gave  in  conversation  the  follow- 
ing melancholy  account  of  his  situation  imme- 
diately before  leaving  England :  "  In  addition 
to  all  my  other  mortifications,  my  affairs  were 
irretrievably  involved,  and  almost  so  as  to  make 
me  what  they  wished.  I  was  compelled  to  part 
with  Newstead,  which  I  never  could  have  ven- 
tured to  sell  in  my  mother's  lifetime.  As  it  is, 
I  shall  never  forgive  myself  for  having  done  so; 
though  I  am  told  that  the  estate  would  not  now 
bring  half  so  much  as  I  got  for  it.  This  does 
not  at  all  reconcile  me  to  having  parted  from 
the  old  Abbey.  I  did  not  make  up  my  mind  to 
this  step  but  from  the  last  necessity.  I  had  my 
wife's  portion  to  repay,  and  was  determined  to  add 
£10,000  more  of  my  own  to  it,  which  I  did.  I 
always  hated  being  in  debt,  and  do  not  owe  a 
guinea.  The  moment  I  put  my  affairs  in  train, 
and  in  little  more  than  eighteen  months  after 
my  marriage,  I  left  England,  an  involuntary 
exile,  intending  it  should  be  forever." 

After  a  residence  in  Italy,  where  his  dramas, 
and  many  poems  were  written,  and  where  he 
was  alternately  dissolute  and  temperate,  the  re- 
volution in  Greece  engaged  his  attention,  and 
he  determined  to  embark  his  person  and  fortune 
in  the  cause  of  liberty.  He  was  received  in 
Greece  with  enthusiasm,  and  proceeded  to  Mis- 
solonghi,  where  his  reception  was  most  gratify 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


BYR 


144 


BYZ 


ing  to  his  feelings.  He  immediately  formed  a 
brigade  of  500  feuliotes.  He  was  aware  of  the 
dissensions  existing  among  the  Greeks,  but  was 
confident  of  their  ultimate  success.  He  was 
urged  to  go  to  Zante,  on  account  of  the  un- 
healthiness  of  Missolonghi.  "  I  cannot  quit 
Greece,"  he  wrote  to  a  friend,  "  while  there  is 
a  chance  of  my  being  even  of  (supposed)  utili- 
ty. There  is  a  stake  worth  millions  such  as 
I  am,  and  while  I  can  stand  at  all,  I  must  stand 
by  the  cause.  While  I  say  this,  I  am  aware  of 
the  difficulties,  dissensions,  and  defects  of  the 
Greeks  themselves ;  but  allowance  must  be 
made  for  them  by  all  reasonable  people." 

On  the  9th  of  April,  while  riding  on  horse- 
back, he  was  overtaken  by  a  rainstorm,  and  the 
feverish  cold  he  took  was  the  precursor  of  a  fa- 
tal malady.  He  died  April  19th,  1«24 ;  his  last 
thoughts,  as  his  words  indicated,  were  with  his 
wife  and  child.  His  funeral  was  solemnized  in 
Missolonghi,  and  his  death  publicly  mourned  in 
Greece.  His  body  was  conveyed  to  England, 
and  interred  at  Hucknall  church,  near  New- 
Btead  Abbey.  The  exterior  of  the  coffin  bore 
the  following  inscription  : 

GEORGE  GORDON  NOEL  BYRON, 

LORD  BYRON 

OF  ROCHDALE ; 

BORN  IN  LONDON, 

JAN.  22, 1788. 

DIED  AT  MISSOLONGHI, 

IN  WESTERN  GREECE, 

APRIL  19, 1824. 

Most  of  Lord  Byron's  vices  sprang  from  his 
freedom  from  all  control  at  an  age,  when  he  most 
stood  in  need  of  friendly  advice  and  friendly 
restraint,  to  guard  him  from  those  evils  which 
beset  young  men,  and  particularly,  young  men 
of  rank,  in  the  outset  of  their  career.  Yet  his 
reckless  gallantry,  and  laxity  of  morals,  did  not 
efface  fine  traits  of  feeling,  benevolence,  and  a 
respect  for  virtue.  His  attachment  to  his 
daughter  Ada  was  sincere  and  lasting ;  and  he 
often  spoke  of  his  wife  with  affectioA  and  re- 
spect. Medwin  says  that  his  absent  daughter  oc- 
cupied much  of  his  thoughts.  "  He  opened  his 
writing  desk,  and  showed  me  some  hair,  which 
he  told  me  was  bia  child's.  During  our  ride 
and  drive  this  evening,  he  declined  our  usual 
amusement  of  pistol-firing,  without  assigning  a 
cause.  He  hardly  spoke  a  word  during  the 
first  half-hour,  and  .it  was  evident  that  some- 
tiling  weighed  heavily  on  his  mind.  There  was 
a  sacredness  in  his  melancholy  that  I  dared  not 


interrupt.  At  length  he  said :  "  This  is  Ada's 
birth-day,  and  might  have  been  the  happiest  day 
of  my  life  ;  as  it  is !"  He  stopped,  seem- 
ingly ashamed  of  having  betrayed  his  feelings. 
He  tried  in  vain  to  rally  his  spirits  by  turning 
the  conversation ;  but  he  created  a  laugh  in 
which  he  could  not  join,  and  soon  relapsed  into 
his  former  reverie.  It  lasted  till  we  came  with- 
in a  mile  of  the  Argive  gate.  There  our  si- 
lence was  all  at  once  interrupted  by  shrieks 
that  seemed  to  proceed  from  a  cottage  by  the 
side  of  the  road.  We  pulled  up  our  horses,  to 
inquire  of  a  contadino  standing  at  the  little  gar- 
den-wicket, lie  told  us  that  a  widow  had  just 
lost  her  only  child,  and  that  the  sounds  pro- 
ceeded from  the  wailings  of  some  women  over 
the  corpse.  Lord  Byron  was  much  affected, 
and  his  superstition,  acted  upon  by  a  sadness 
that  seemed  to  be  presentiment,  led  him  to  au- 
gur some  disaster.  "  1  shall  not  be  happy." 
said  he,  "  till  I  hear  that  my  daughter  is  well. 
I  have  a  great  horror  of  anniversaries ;  people 
only  laugh  at  it.  who  have  never  kept  a  register 
of  them.  I  always  write  to  my  sister  on  Ada's 
birth-day.  I  did  so  last,  year  ;  and.  what  was 
very  remarkable,  -.ny  letter  readied  her  on  my 
wedding-day,  and  her  answer  reached  me  at 
Ravenna  on  my  birth-day.  Several  extraordi- 
nary things  have  happened  to  me  on  my  birth- 
day ;  so  they  did  to  .Napoleon  ;  and  a  more  won- 
derful c;rcii:i:^:ri'.v  still  occurred  to  Marie 
Antoinette."  That  Lord  Byron  should  have 
joined  to  his  religious  scepticism  some  supersti- 
tious weaknesses,  will  surprise  many ;  yet  it 
should  seem  no  incompatibility.  There  is  little 
or  no  connection  bcUveen  reason  and  sentiment, 
and  all  imaginative  jx-rsons  are  liable  to  this  dis- 
ease :  for  superstition  is  the  malady  of  man- 
himself,  only  as  he  is  an  imaginative  animal. 
Byron  once  consulted  a  conjuror,  more  out  of 
sport  than  curiosity.  He  was  told  that  two  years 
would  be  fatal  to  him,  his  twenty  -seventh,  and 
his  thirty-seventh.  In  the  first  he  married,  in 
the  second  he  died. 

BYZANTIUM,  named  from  Byzas.  its 
founder,  was  situated  on  the  Thracian  Baspho- 
rus,  near  the  small  bay  of  Keras.  with  three 
harbors,  on  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Constan- 
tinople. The  Thracians,  Bithyn'sms,  and  Gauls, 
attacked  this  nourishing  place,  but.  after  its  suf- 
ferings in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  its  prospects 
brightened,  and  during  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tine  the  Great,  it  was'made  the  capital  of  the 
empire  of  Rome.  The  Byzantine  empire  is  a 
name  given  to  the  Eastern  Roman  empire. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


CAD 


145 


CJEB 


CABOT,  George,  a  native  of  Massachusetts, 
born  at  Salem  in  1752,  whose  patriotism  and 
perseverance  have  gained  him  a  high  rank  in 
the  list  of  Americans,  who  have  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  legislative  halls  of  our  eman- 
cipated states.  His  views  of  political  economy 
were  clear  and  enlightened.  He  died  at  Bos- 
ton, highly  respected,  April  18th,  1823. 

CABOT,  or  Gabotto,  Sebastian,  a  celebrated 
navigator,  son  of  John  Cabot,  was  born  at  Bris- 
tol, in  1467.  He  was  the  discoverer  of  Florida. 
He  visited  the  eastern  side  of  the  island  of  New- 
foundland. John  Cabot  and  his  son,  Sebas- 
tian, discovered,  on  the  24th  of  June,  1497,  the 
shores  of  Newfoundland.  The  neighboring 
island  received  the  name  of  St.  John,  because 
it  was  discovered  upon  the  festival  of  that  saint. 
After  having  sailed  in  the  English  service,  Se- 
bastian went  to  Spain  in  1520,  where  he  was 
furnished  with  vessels  with  which  he  ascended 
the  river  la  Plata.  He  made  other  voyages 
also  in  Spanish  vessels.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land, however,  and  was  graced  with  various 
dignities,  and  entrusted  with  the  direction  of 
the  merchant's  company  formed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  discoveries.  He  superintended 
VVilloughby's  expedition  in  ]553,  and  an  act  of 
Edward  VI,  dated  1549,  grants  him  a  pension 
of  £16(3,  a  considerable  sum  if  we  consider  the 
value  of  money  at  that  period.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  died  in  1557. 

CABUL,  capital  of  Afghanistan,  a  city  of 
great  antiquity,  but  meanly  built.  The  inhab- 
itants are  Usbecks,  Afghans,  and  Hindoos.  The 
surrounding  country  is  rich  in  fruits  and  flow- 
ers. In  1739  it  was  taken  by  Nadir  Shah,  and 
plundered  by  his  troops.  In  1774  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Ahmed  Shah  Abdally,  whose  son 
Timour  Shall  made  it  the  capital  of  Afghanis- 
tan. Population  80,000. 

CABULISTAN.  (See  Afghanistan.) 
CACHET,  Lettres  de.  (See  Bastile.) 
CADE,  John,  a  native  of  Ireland,  wiio,  hav- 
ing been  compelled  to  fly  to  France,  return- 
ed to  England  in  1450,  assumed  the  popular 
name  of  John  Mortimer,  and  raised  a  formida- 
ble force  at  the  head  of  which  he  placed  him- 
self. He  promised  to  lay  down  his  arms,  if 
the  grievances  of  which  he' complained  were  re- 
dressed ;  but  losing  his  authority  over  his  fol- 
lowers they  committed  various  outrages  which 
were  resented  by  the  well-disposed  part  of  the 
community.  The  rebels  were  defeated,  a  price 
was  set  on  Cade's  head,  and  he  was  killed  by 


one  Iden,  a  gentleman  of  Sussex.    Many  of  his 
followers  were  brought  to  punishment. 

CADMUS.  This  name  belongs  to  several 
characters  of  Mythology  and  history.  One,  a 
Phoenician,  brought  a  colony  of  his  country- 
men to  Greece,  and  introduced  letters  there, 
B.  C.  1550. 

CADWALADER,  John,  a  distinguished  mil 
itary  officer  born  in  Philadelphia.  He  command- 
ed the  Pennsylvania  troops  in  the  winter  of  1777, 
and  enjoyed  "the  confidence  of  General  Wash- 
ington. At  the  battles  of  Princeton,  Brandy- 
wine,  Germantown,  and  Monmouth,  he  served 
as  a  volunteer  or  acted  in  his  command,  and 
died  in  17d6. 

CAEN,  a  French  city  with  39,140  inhabit- 
ants, important  as  the  centre  of  considerable 
trade  and  manufactures,  and  containing  several 
literary,  scientific  and  charitable  institutions. 
It  is  132  miles  N.  W.  of  Paris.  Caen  was  an- 
ciently the  capital  of  Lower  Normandy,  and 
the  favorite  residence  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, who  was  buried  in  the  Mbaye-aux-hom- 
mes,  which  he  built.  Caen  was  taken  by  Ed- 
ward III  of  England,  who  met  with  a  desperate 
resistance.  In  144d  it  passed  from  the  hands 
of  the  English  into  those  of  .Charles  VII  of 
France.  In  1562  Admiral  de  Coligni  took  it 
for  the  Protestants,  and  in  1715  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Prussians  for  a  brief  space. 

CAESAR,  Caius  Julius,  descended  from  the 
illustrious  family  of  Julia,  which  traced  its  ori- 
gin to  ^neas  and  Venus,  was  born  100  B.  C. 
In  his  infancy  he  witnessed  the  civil  wars  of 
Sylla  and  his  maternal  uncle,  Marius.  When 
Caesar  had  arrived  at  man's  estate,  Sylla,  then 
at  the  height  of  power,  could  not  excuse  his 
crime  in  being  the  nephew  of  Marius,  and  the 
relation  of  China.  He  was  proscribed  and  his 
sentence  revoked  only  by  means  of  the  earnest 
solicitations  of  the  vestals,  and  the  credit  of 
his  family.  Sylla  is  said  to  have  declared,  in 
yielding  to  their  urgency,  that  they  would  one 
day  repent  having  saved  the  life  of  a  young 
man,  in  whom  he  beheld  the  spirit  of  more  than 
one  Marius.  Young  Caesar  commenced  his 
military  career  in  Asia.  Returning  to  Rome 
after  the  death  of  Sylla,  he  gained  applause 
and  popularity  by  his  eloquence,  an  art  in 
which  Appollonius  of  Rhodes  was  his  instruc- 
tor. While  absent  from  Rome,  pursuing  his 
studies,  he  learned  that  Mithridates  had  attack- 
ed the  provinces  of  the  allies  of  Rome,  and  ao- 
coi  vjjngly,  leaving  Rhodes  for  the  continent,  he 
assembled  troops  and  led  them  against  the  king 
of  Pontus,  whom  he  vanquished. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


CJES 


146 


C^ES 


On  his  return  to  Rome,  finding  Pompey  at 
the  head  of  the  senate  and  the  republic,  and 
fearing  that  his  connexion  with  the  partisans 
of  Marius  might  prove  disadvantageous  to  him, 
he  joined  the  Pompeian  party.  The  office 
of  military  tribune,  and  afterwards  that  of 
questor,  were  conferred  upon  Caesar.  Upon 
pronouncing  the  funeral  eulogium  on  his  aunt 
Julia,  while  enjoying  the  latter  dignity,  he  pro- 
duced the  images  of  Marius,  which  had  not 
seen  the  light  since  the  dictatorship  of  Sylla. 
When  promoted  to  the  dignity  of  edile,  he 
caused  the  statues  and  trophies  of  Marius  to 
be  replaced.  At  this  period  he  was  accused  of 
aiming  at  the  supreme  power,  but  the  people, 
whose  tastes  he  flattered,  vaunted  liis  devotion 
and  courage,  and  the  zeal  with  which  he  hud 
discharged  his  official  duties,  and  the  multitude 
did  not  forget  the  magnificent  spectacles  for 
which  they  were  indebted  to  him,  and  the  am- 
ple arrangements  which  he  had  made  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  spectators  at  the  public 
shows.  When  the  conspiracy  of  Cataline  was 
discovered.  Ctesar  had  the  hardihood  to  recom- 
mend the  conspirators  to  mercy,  and  sustained 
his  opinion  with  a  warmth  which  gave  rise  to  a 
suspicion  that  he  was  not  altogether  a  stranger 
to  the  plot.  So  strongly  did  the  tide  of  indig- 
nation set  against  him,  that  the  knights  who 
composed  the  guard  on  that  day,  waited  only 
for  a  sign  from  Cicero  to  kill  him ;  but  the  lat- 
ter, fearing  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  sub- 
stantiate his  guilt,  saved  him  from  their  fury. 
Caesar,  while  engaged  in  ambitious  schemes, 
mingled  in  the  dissipation  of  the  day,  and  con- 
cealed under  the  exterior  of  a  man  of  pleasure 
the  traits  of  a  determined  foe  to  liberty. 

On  the  death  of  Metellus,  Caesar  obtained 
the  office  of  high  priest,  although  two  power- 
ful men  were  his  competitors.  On  the  day  of 
the  election,  seeing  his  mother  in  tears,  he  em- 
braced her,  and  said  ;  "  Today  you  will  see  me 
a  high  priest,  or  an  exile."  Shortly  after  this, 
Clodius  having  been  accused  of  attempting  to 
corrupt  the  fidelity  of  Cccsar's  wife,  he  divorc- 
ed her,  and  said,  "  The  wife  of  Cajsar  must  not 
even  be  suspected."  He  was  then  pretor,  after- 
wards the  government  of  Spain  fell  to  his  lot. 
A  saying  of  his  at  this  time  proved  that  he 
then  entertained  the  most  ambitious  ideas.  At 
a  poor  village  in  the  Alps,  some  of  his  friends 
asked  if,  in  that  miserable  place,  power  and 
rank  occasioned  discussion.  "  I  had  rather," 
said  he  to  them,  '•  IK-  the  first  even  in  t:  ' ; 
place,  than  the  second  in  Rome."  He  was  by 
no  means  idle  in  his  government,  but  made 


many  conquests  while  he  did  not  neglect  his 
private  interests,  for  he  extorted  money  enough 
to  pay  his  enormous  debts,  and  enable  him  to 
purchase  a  vast  number  of  creatures. 

To  obtain  the  consulate,  he  reconciled  Cras- 
sus  and  Pompey,  and  made  nsc  of  both.  Al- 
though he  had  a  colleague,  he  governed  with 
absolute  authority.  Bibulus  who  was  associated 
with  him,  and  vainly  opposed  his  wishes,  wittily 
declared  "  that  the  Romans  were  not  under  the 
consulate  of  Ctesar  and  Bibulus,  but  under  the 
consulate  of  Julius  and  Csesar."  Caesar  gained 
popularity  by  procuring  the  distribution  of  the 
lands  of  Campania. 

Shortly  after  the  union  of  Pompey  with 
Julia,  the'daughter  of  Ca>sar,  the  latter  obtained 
the  government  of  the  Gauls  and  Illyria,  with 
the  command  of  four  legions.  He  triumphed 
over  the  Gauls,  the  Helvetians,  the  brave  Bel- 
gians, and  others,  carried  his  arms  beyond  the 
Rhine,  and  raised  the  Roman  eagles  in  the 
hitherto  unconqnered  Britain.  During  the  ten 
years  of  the  Gallic  war,  Caesar  is  said  to  have 
possessed  himself  of  800  towns,  and  to  have  tri 
uniphed  in  arms  over  3,000,000  men. 

In  the  midst  of  his  victories,  he  was  ever 
mindful  of  his  own  interests,  and  robbed  even 
altars  and  temples  to  increase  his  wealth.  He 
is  said  to  have  quoted  with  approbation  this 
sentence  of  Euripides  ;  ';  violate  justice  only 
for  the  sake  of  ruling."  The  soldiers  were 
gained  by  the  most  liberal  presents,  and  it 
seemed  as  if  the  army  was  the  depositary  of  the 
immense  wealth  which  Cirsar  was  accumula- 
ting. Thus  the  troops  were  the  soldiers  of 
Ca?sar,  and  not  of  the  republic.  Rome  had 
become  venal — every  thing  was  for  sale,  and 
Caesar  was  the  purchaser  of  every  thing..  He 
had  come  to  Ravenna  with  a  legion,  when  the 
senate  sent  bin)  a  decree,  the  p'urport  of  which 
was,  that  if,  in  a  limited  time,  Cossar  did  not 
relinquish  his  command,  he  should  be  treated 
as  the  enemy  of  the  commonwealth.  Three 
tribunes  of  Caesar's  party,  among  them  Mare 
Antony,  having  been  expelled  from  the  senate 
for  opposing  this  decree,  fled  to  the  camp  of 
Co?sar  in  the  garb  of  slaves. 

War  was  now  declared.  The  senate  com- 
manded the  consuls  to  look  to  the  safety  of  the 
republic,  and  Caesar  ordered  his  troops  to  ad- 
vance to  the  Rubicon,  a  small  river,  separating 
Cisalpine  Gaul  from  Italy.  The  republic, 
which  both  parties  invoked,  was  no  more  than 
a  name  ;  Caesar  and  Pompey  were  both  heads 
of  factions,  who  sought  to  elevate  themselves 
above  the  laws.  Learning  the  d^feree  of  the 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


C.ES 


147 


C^ES 


senate,  Caesar  marched  directly  to  the  Rubicon. 
There,  the  risks  he  was  about  to  incur,  and  the 
evils  he  was  about  to  bring  upon  his  country, 
held  his  mind  in  suspense  for  a  long  time  ;  but, 
after  having  reflected  upon  the  hate  and  ani- 
mosity of  his  enemies,  and  upon  his  own 
strength,  he  dashed  forward,  exclaiming  ;  "the 
die  is  cast."  His  soldiers  followed  him.  Arrived 
at  Rimini,  the  terror  of  his  arms  spread  to  Rome, 
where  disorder  prevailed.  Conflicting  opin- 
ions distracted  the  city,  and  all  energy  seemed 
sunk  in  the  consideration  of  the  greatness  of 
the  danger,  and  the  insufficiency  of  the  means 
of  defence. 

Pompey  left  Rome,  with  the  consuls,  princi- 
pal senators,  &c.,  and,  from  Capua,  went  to 
Dyrrachium,  to  which  last  place  he  escaped, 
under  cover  of  night,  leaving  the  whole  of  Italy 
in  the  power  of  Caesar.  The  latter,  sending 
his  lieutenants  to  take  possession  of  Sardinia 
and  Sicily,  advanced  to  Rome.  The  only  act 
of  violence  which  he  committed,  was  the  sei- 
zure of  the  public  treasure,  deposited  in  the 
temple  of  Saturn.  Pompey's  party  had  idly 
imagined  that  the  removal  of  the  key  was  a 
sufficient  safeguard.  The  tribune  Metellus 
opposed  the  passage  of  Csesar,  who  threatened 
him  with  death,  sternly  adding,  "  this  is  an  act 
easier  for  me  to  execute,  than  to  name."  The 
tribune  retired,  and  Caesar  found  in  the  money 
the  means  of  subjugating  a  victorious  people. 
Having  subdued  Pompey's  lieutenants  in  Spain, 
Coesar  was  named  dictator.  He  then  went  to 
Greece  for  the  purpose  of  crushing  Pompey. 
Crossing  the  sea  in  a  mere  fishing  boat,  he  was 
exposed  to  great  danger,  and  animated  the  pilot 
by  the  memorable  exclamation  ;  "  fear  nothing  ! 
you  carry  Cssar  and  his  fortunes  !"  The  fate 
of  Pompey  and  of  the  republic  was  decided  by 
the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  fought  48  B.  C.,  in 
which  Ctesar  was  completely  victorious.  He 
pursued  Pompey  to  Egypt',  but  was  indignant 
when  the  head  of  his  unfortunate  rival  was 
brought  him  by  his  assassins. 

While  he  was  in  Alexandria,  detained  by  the 
charmsof  Cleopatra, and  the  differences  existing 
between  the  members  of  the  family  of  Ptolemy, 
he  witnessed  the  breaking  out  of  a  sedition  which 
shortly  became  an  open  war,  and  called  for  the 
exertion  of  all  his  energy.  After  remaining 
some  months  in  Egypt,  he  marched  against 
Pharnaces,  king  of  Pontus,  whom  he  defeated 
with  a  celerity  well  expressed  in  his  own  words  ; 
"  veni,  ridi,  mci ;"  I  came,  1  saw,  I  conquered. 
There  still  remained  to  be  conquered  some  for- 
midable enemies  ;  Scipio,  Labienus,  Cato.  and 
13* 


Juba,  the  king  of  Mauritania,  had  powerful 
armies  in  Africa.  After  a  campaign  in  which 
Ctesar  displayed  all  his  skill,  Africa  no  longer 
sheltered  a  Roman  opposed  to  him,  except 
Cato,  who  shut  himself  up  in  Utica,  and  pre- 
ferred death  to  submission.  (See  Cato.)  Caesar, 
who  admired  elevation  of  soul,  envied  Cato 
the  glory  of  his  death,  and  wept  for  his  fate,  as 
he  had  shed  tears  at  that  of  Pompey.  The 
conqueror,  after  having  subjected  Africa,  and 
ordered  the  rebuilding  of  Carthage,  returned  to 
Italy,  where  he  was  received  with  the  acclama- 
tions of  the  senate  and  Roman  people.  Four 
triumphs  were  decreed  to  him. 

His  liberality  was  felt  by  the  people  for 
whose  amusements  he-  prepared  festivals  and 
shows.  Notwithstanding  the  two  sons  of  Pop- 
pey  mustered  a  strong  force  in  Spain,  but 
were  attacked  in  the  plains  of  Munda,  by  Cae- 
sar, and  signally  defeated,  so  obstinate  was 
the  battle,  that  Crosar  himself  declared  that  he 
fought  less  for  victory  than  life,  but  from  the 
moment  that  both  were  secure,  every  thing  was 
in  his  power.  He  re  entered  Rome,  the  mas- 
ter of  the  world.  The  triumph  which  he  then 
obtained  for  having  vanquished  Romans  excited 
secret  murmurs  among  the  people  and  senators, 
but  no  one  dared  to  utter  a  complaint  in  public. 
The  senate  decreed  him  extraordinary  honors 
and  unlimited  authority.  He  was  declared 
consul  for  10  years,  and  perpetual  dictator: 
they  gave  him  the  titles  of  emperor,  and  father 
of  his  country.  His  person  was  declared  sacred 
and  inviolable.  He  had  the  privilege  of  being 
present  at  spectacles  in  a  gilded  chair,  with  a 
crown  of  gold  upon  his  head.  The  decree  of 
the  senate  provided  that,  even  after  his  death, 
this  chair  and  the  crown  of  gold  should  be  con- 
spicuously placed  at  all  spectacles  in  honor  of 
his  memory.  There  was  now  but  one  thing 
wanting — the  title  of  king.  He  is  said  to  have 
deliberated  whether  he  should  take  it. 

He  preserved  the  republican  forms  in  the 
midst  of  an  absolute  government,  and  showed 
himself  as  able  to  maintain  power,  as  to  gain 
it.  "  His  clemency,"  says  Montesquieu,  "  was 
insulting.  It  was  considered  that  he  did  not 
pardon,  but  disdained  to  punish."  Having  by 
victory  obtained  the  highest  power,  he  wished 
to  enjoy  it  as  if  it  had  been  transmitted  to  him, 
and  sought  too  soon  to  banish  the  inqui^ides 
which  almost  invariably  trouble  a  poww  of 
recent  growth.  "  I  had  rather,"  said  he,  "die 
at  once,  than  live  always  in  fear."  He  sent 
away  his  Spanish  guard,  contrary  to  the  adffce 
of  his  best  friends,  and  trusting  too  readily  the 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  HISTORY. 


148 


CAL 


assertions  of  his  flatterers,  who  declared,  "  that 
after  having  put  an  end  to  the  civil  wars,  the 
republic  was  more  interested  than  he  was,  in 
his  safety."  His  death  was  caused  by  this 
want  of  caution. 

He  had  formed  a  plan  for  conquering  the 
Partisans,  and  was  on  the  eve  of  departing  for 
Asia.  His  partisans,  to  reconcile  the  Romans 
to  his  assumption  of  the  title  of  king,  circulated 
a  report  that  the  books  of  the  Sibyls  declared, 
that  the  Parthians  could  only  be  subjugated  by 
the  Romans,  when  their  leader  was  a  king. 
The  rumor  gave  the  enemies  of  Caesar  a  pre- 
text for  seeking  his  death.  A  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  him,  at  the  head  of  which 
were  Brutus  and  Cassius,  whom  he  had  made 
pretors.  The  assassination  was  to  take  place 
on  the  ides  of  March,  the  day  on  which  Ctesar, 
according  to  report,  was  to  assume  the  royal 
title.  The  conspiracy  was  not  so  secret  as  to  pre- 
vent the  circulation  of  some  reports  with  regard 
to  it,  but  Ccesar  refused  to  take  any  precaution. 
Moved,  however,  by  the  tears  and  entreaties 
of  his  wife  Calphurnia,  he  had  made  up  his 
mind  to  remain  at  home,  when  Decimus  Bru- 
tus, by  representing  to  him  the  importance  of 
presenting  himself  at  the  senate-house,  changed 
his  resolution.  As  he  was  leaving  his  house, 
a  certain  Artemidorus  placed  in  his  hand  a 
paper  containing  an  exposure  of  the  whole 
plot.  Being  unable  to  read  this  and  other  let- 
ters from  the  pressure  of  the  crowd  about  him, 
Caasar  gave  them  to  his  secretaries.  He  had 
no  sooner  entered  the  senate-house,  than  he 
was  surrounded  by  the  conspirators.  Cimber, 
under  pretext  of  respect,  siezed  the  skirt  of  his 
robe,  a  signal  which  Casca  responded  to  by 
stabbing  Csesar  in  the  shoulder.  The  weapon 
was  caught  by  the  intrepid  victim,  who  ex- 
claimed ;  "  Wretch  !  what  art  thou  doing  ?" 
Cffisar,  though  repeatedly  wounded,  defended 
himself  against  his  assassins,  until  Brutus 
struck  him,  when,  fixing  his  eyes  upon  him, 
he  mournfully  exclaimed  ;  "  and  thou,  too,  Bru- 
tus ?"  Then,  folding  his  head  in  his  mantle, 
he  fell,  pierced  with  thirty -three  wounds,  at  the 
base  of  Pompey's  statue,  March  15,  43  years 
B.  C.  He  was  then  56  years  old.  The  body 
of  Caesar,  abandoned  by  all,  was  carried  home 
by  three  slaves.  When  his  will  was  read  from 
the  fcibune,  the  people  made  the  air  ring  with 
theiVcries  of  grief  and  anger.  The  funeral 
cciOTJonies  were  distinguished  by  uncommon 
magnificence.  The  senate,  who  dared  not  de- 
fend him  in  his  hour  of  need,  placed  him  among 
the  gods,  and  ordered  that  his  laws  should  be 


immutable.  The  results  of  this  assassination 
were  deplorable,  for  jealousy,  ambition,  and 
personal  anger  armed  the  greater  part  of  the 
murderers,  and  but  few  among  them  were  ani- 
mated by  a  love  of  liberty.  Ccesar,  with  many 
faults  and  foibles,  possessed  many  fine  traits, 
and  was  fitted  by  nature  to  command.  His 
erudition  was  considerable,  and  his  commen- 
taries are  models  of  good  writing. 

CAFF  A,  a  port  of  the  Crimea,  formerly  a 
considerable  place,  but  now  of  little  importance. 
It  was  captured  by  the  Turks  in  1475.  In  1775, 
the  Russians  took  it  by  storm.  In  1763,  it  was 
annexed  to  the  Russian  empire,  and  is  now 
called  by  the  Russians,  Feodosia,  from  its  an- 
cient name,  Thcodosiu. 

CAFFRARIA,  a  region  of  Africa,  little 
known,  which  includes  a  tract  of  country  lying 
in  the  north-east  of  the  territories  of  the  Cape 
Colony. 

CAIPH AS,  the  high  priest  of  the  Jews  when 
Christ  was  crucified. 

CAILLIE,  Rene,  a  native  of  France,  cele- 
brated for  his  travels  in  Africa.  He  won  the 
prize  offered  by  the  Geographical  Society  of 
Paris  to  the  man  who  should  first  reach  Tim- 
buctoo;  and,  besides  other  rewards,  was  pre- 
sented with  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor. 

CAIN,  the  first  murderer,  the  eldest  born  of 
Adam  and  Eve.  For  the  particulars  of  his  his- 
tory, see  Genesis. 

CAIRO  or  Kahira,  the  capital  of  Egypt.  It 
contains  a  population  of  350,000,  including 
Arabs  or  Mohammedans,  Copts,  Mamelukes, 
Greeks,  Syrians,  Armenians,  Jews,  &c.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  in  973.  The  Sara- 
cens having  neglected  Alexandria,  Cairo  be- 
came the  capital  of  Egypt,  and  is  the  seat  of  an 
extensive  commerce. 

CALABRIA,  a  mountainous  but  fertile 
country,  the  inhabitants  of  which  are  sunk  in 
barbarism.  It  forms  the  southern  part  of  Italy, 
and  contains  d!K),000  inhabitants.  It  anciently 
formed  a  part  of  Magna  Grcecia,  and  was  cele- 
brated for  the  refined  luxury  of  its  inhabitants. 
At.  the  city  of  Pizzo,Murat  was  seized,  October 
13th,  1815. 

CALAIS,  a  sea-port  town  of  France,  in  the 
British  channel,  opposite  to  Dover.  It  is 
strongly  fortified,  and  contains  .10,450  inhabi- 
tants. In  the  12th  century  it  was  a  village 
belonging  to  the  counts  of  Boulogne.  In  1346, 
Edward  III.  of  England,  after  his  great  victory 
of  Cressy,  laid  siege  to  it,  and  concerted  his 
measures  so  well,  that  his  adversaries  could  not 
throw  succors  into  the  place.  Nearly  2,000  of 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CAL 


149 


CAL 


the  wretched  inhabitants,  who  had  been  sent 
out  of  the  place  to  lessen  the  consumption  of 
provisions,  came  to  the  camp  of  the  besiegers. 
Edward  gave  each  of  them  a  hearty  meal,  and 
two  shillings,  and  provided  for  their  future 
safety-  Calais  was  obliged  to  surrender  to  the 
English,  remained  in  their  possession  until 
155d,  when  it  was  invested  and  attacked  by 
the  duke  of  Guise,  and,  after  a  siege  of  eight 
days,  was  obliged  to  capitulate.  Durinof  the 
operations  of  Francis  I,  and  the  duke  of  Bour- 
bon, against  the  emperor  Charles  V,  of  Ger- 
many, a  congress  was  held  at  Calais,  under  the 
mediation  of  Henry  VIII,  of  England,  which 
proved  unsuccessful. 

CALCUTTA,  the  capital  of  the  British  India, 
situated  on  the  west  branch  of  the  Hoogly,  an 
arm  of  the  Ganges,  which  is  navigable  to  the 
city  for  vessels  of  any  size.  The  first  settle- 
ment of  the  English  was  made  here  in  16'JO; 
the  climate  was  at  first  very  unhealthy,  but  it 
has  since  improved.  The  population  is  very 
great.  The  Black  Hole  (which  see),  is  con- 
verted into  a  warehouse.  The  commerce  is 
very  extensive. 

CALDERON  (Don  Pedro  Calderon  de  la 
Barca  Henao  y  Riano),  a  Spanish  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  at  Madrid,  1601,  and  died  1637. 
He  served  in  a  military  capacity,  but  afterwards 
embraced  the  clerical  profession.  He  was  the 
author  of  300  plays. 

CALEDONIA,  New  ;  a  country  of  North 
America,  west  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  inhab- 
ited by  the  Td-cullies,  or,"  as  the  whites  call 
them,  Carriers,  whose  number  is  five  thousand. 

CALEDONIA,  New,  a  large  island  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  the  access  to  which  is  difficult 
and  dangerous;  discovered  by  Cook  in  1774. 
The  inhabitants  are  represented  as  mercenary 
and  treacherous,  resembling  in  appearance  the 
negroes  of  Africa.  They  eat,  among  other 
articles  of  food,  the  nokee  spider.  The  longi- 
tude of  the  island  is  163°  to  1(37°  east;  lat.  20° 
to  22°  26'  S.  It  is  from  220  to  250  miles  long, 
and  50  broad. 

CALICUT,  a  city  of  Hindostan,  formerly 
capital  of  a  kingdom  of  the  same  name.  It  was 
taken  and  destroyed  by  Tippoo  Saib,  but  rebuilt 
by  the  English. 

CALIFORNIA,  Old  or  Lower;  a  territory 
of  Mexico,  comprising  a  peninsula  which  is 
separated  from  the  main  land  by  the  Gulf  of 
California.  In  some  places,  the  soil  is  covered 
with  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  while  in  others, 
barren  rocks,  and  sterile  tracts  of  land  present 
no  object  upon  which  the  eye  can  rest  with 


pleasure.     The   population  of  the  territory  is 
about  14,000,  on  an  area  of  nearly  40.000  square 

CALIFORNIA,  New  or  Upper,  likewise  a 
territory  of  Mexico,  lies  upon  the  north  Pacific 
Ocean,  north  of  Old  California.  It  has  an  area 
of  375,000  square  miles,  containing  a  population 
of  25,000.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  woods 
and  waters  never  fail  to  yield  hunters  an  abund- 
ance of  game  and  fish. 

CALfGULA,  Caius  Caesar  Augustus  Ger- 
manicus,  a  Roman  emperor,  was  the  son  of 
Germanicus  and  Agrippina,  and  born  A.  D.  12. 
He  received  its  surname  from  the  Caligce  (half 
boots)  which  he  wore.  His  life,  with  a  single 
exception,  presented  only  a  series  of  acts  of 
horrible  cruelty,  disgusting  absurdity,  and  dar- 
ing impiety.  The  reputation  of  his  father  at 
first  disposed  the  Romans  to  think  favorably  of 
the  son,  but  after  a  few  hollow  displays  of  clem- 
ency and  liberality,  he  showed  himself  in  his 
true  light,  and,  even  while  a  boy,  committed 
incest.  He  married  and  repudiated  several 
wives,  the  last  of  whom,  Cassonia,  retained  a 
firm  hold  upon  his  affections.  His  murders 
were  numerous,  and  rendered  memorable  by 
the  rank  of  the  victims  and  the  relation 
which  they  bore  to  him.  It  was  Caligula,  who 
wished  that  the  "  people  of  Rome  had  but  one 
head,  that  he  might  sever  it  at  a  blow." 

If  the  cruelties  of  the  tyrant  call  forth  our 
indignation,  his  unmanly  follies  excite  our  con- 
tempt. His  treatment  of  his  horse  Incitatus 
exhibited  the  ridiculous  part  of  his  character. 
This  animal  had  a  gorgeous  stable,  a  house  to 
entertain  visitors,  and  frequently  dined  at  the 
emperor's  table,  when  he  was  presented  with 
wine  and  gilded  oats.  His  master  even  med- 
itated elevating  him  to  the  consulship.  Cali- 
gula appeared  in  public  in  the  attributes  of 
various  divinities,  male  as  well  as  female,  and 
claimed  homage  as  a  Venus  and  a  Mars. 
Among  his  absurdities  may  be  reckoned  the 
bridge  of  boats  built  from  Baioe  to  Puteoli  ;  his 
expedition  against  Britain,  when  the  soldiers 
gathered  cockle-shells  for  spoils,  and  lastly,  his 
design  of  decimating  the  German  army  for  a 
revolt.  To  this  last  act  the  world  owed  its 
deliverence  from  the  monster  who  was  mur- 
dered by  Chojrea  and  Cornelius  Sabinus, 
tary  tribunes,  A.  D.  41. 

CALIPH.  The  successors  of 
uniting  secular  and  spiritual  functions  inmeir 
persons,  assumed  the  title  of  Caliph  or  vice- 
gerent Many  of  them  were  distinguished  by 
brilliant  qualities  of  mind  and  person,  by  the 


s  mur 
s,  jnili 

^fcd 
inmei 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


CAL 


150 


CAL 


patronage  of  the  arts  and  literature,  and  by  ex-  CALMUCS,  a  branch  of  the  Mongol  race  of 

tensive   conquests.     The    most    noted   among  great  antiquity.     Their  tribes  are  scattered  ;  in 

them  will  be  noticed  under  separate  heads,  as  1759,  a  part  of  them,  consisting  of]  800  families, 

Haroun  al  Raschid.  settled  on  the  Wolga,  and   placed  themselves 

CALIPHS,  list  of —  under  the  protection  of  the  Russian  eovern- 

THE  FIRST  FOUR  CALIPHS.  merit,  to  whom  they  paid  voluntary  allegiance. 

I  (Abdallah  Ebm  Abu  Koafas', )           R9O  Others  are  settled  in  different  parts;  many  of 

ir~j       or  Father  of  the  Virgin.       \  A' D"  632  them  are  Mohammedans.     Their  personal  ap- 

Omar 634  pearance  is  far  from  pleasinnr  and  their  habits 

2{iman •;::.:v:.::::v::::.v.:v*i; :  '.v.v.v:  %£  ™  extremely  rude. 

CALIPH  OF  THE  FAMILY 'OF  'MOHAMMED.  CALONNE,  Charles  Alexander  de,  an  emi- 

Hassan  or  Al-Hassan-(So»  of  Mi  and  Fatima).. . .  660  "ent  French  statesman,  born  at  Douai  m  1734, 

CALIPHS  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  OMMUAH.  succeeded  to   the    management   of  an    empty 

Moawiyah  I 661  treasury  in   1783,  and  skilfully  met  the  claims 

Moaw?  ah  II 084  uPon  ^>  without  adding  to  the  burthens  of  the 

AbdaNah  Ebn'zobeYr;'n'ot'  ofVlie  ho'Jse  of  Omm'i-"  people.     He  advised  the  abolition  of  the  pecu- 

yah,  is  saluted  Caliph  of  Meca 684  niary  exemptions  enjoyed  by  the  nobility,  cler- 

Merwan  I 684  gy,  and  magistracy.     He  was,  however,  obliged 

AMV-iVid  ei° -05  to  retire  from  the  vengpance  of  those  bodies. 

Soliman  .. .V. V. '. '.V. V. '. '.'.'. V.V. .'.'... .....'...       .'..'  715  He  a'et^  m  1802- 

Omar  n!!!!!!!!!!!. ..!.!'.!..!!!'.!!.!!!!!.!!!!!'.  7is  CALVARY,  in  Hebrew,  Golgotha,  tiiepiace 

J«zid  It 720  of  the  skull,  a  mountain  in  the  vicinity  of  Jeru- 

AlvVaTid  ii 743  salem>  on  which  our  Savior  Jesus  Christ  was 

Jezid  III. . . .\V.V.V.V.'.V.V.'.V.V.V.'.V.'.'.'.V.V.'.'.'.'.'.'  744  crucified. 

Ibrahim 744  CALVIN,  John, second  leader  ofth&Reform- 

Merwan  II 744  ation  in  the  16th  century,  was  born  at  Noyon, 

CALIPHS  OF  THE  FAMILY  OF  AL  ABBAS.  juiy  ]5   15Cj)  and  was  destined  for  the  church 

^^5S^%.b«^)V::::;7;;.:.7S  *  an-rly  af  >!>e^  presented  waiiabe*,. 

Al  Mahadi 775  nee  in  the  cathedral  of  his  native  place,  when 

Musa  al  Hadi 785  he  was  but  twelve  years  old.     His  progress  was 

Haroun  al  Raschid  (the  just) 786  rapid,  but  it  was  not  long  before  he  received 

^ST"" !?2  the  seeds  of  the  new  doctrines.     In  153:5,he  was 

AlMamun clo  .                                               .               "               ^.  .  '    ,    ... 

Al  Motasem 833  involved  in  a  persecution  with  his  friend   Mi- 

Al  Vathek  Billah  (by  the  grace  of  God) 842  chael  Cop,  who  had  defended  the  reformed  doc- 

Al  Motawakkel  Alallah 847  trines  jn  a  public  discourse.     Obliged  to  quit 

Al  Ito«SS?UUh!v;iJ"'t^'I"I!XI!"il"I"  8(33  France,  he  repaired  to  B;\le,  in  1534,  where  he 

Al  Motaz 866  composed  his  famous  Institution  of  Christianity. 

Al  Mohadi  Billah 869  He  was  induced  to  write  this  by  the  persecu- 

Aj  ^°!?n\edlA'a,1,l!\'' •  ?™  tions  of  Protestants,  which  disgraced  the  reign 

Al  Hotbftdflfl  Ilillah ....  &!>2  /.-rt         •    *      f  n 

Al  Molltaphi  Billah 902  of  Francis  I,  of  trance.     Although  received  in 

Al  Moctader  Billah .......'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  908  different  places  with    marks  of  respect,  Calvin 

Al  Klher  Billah 932  found  the  warmest  welcome  and  the  safest  asy- 

Al  M,maki  Bmali!.'!!!!!!;!;!'.'!'.!!'.'.!!!!'.'.'.!!!!.'  941  lum  ^  Geneva-     Aftersome  agitation,  the  new 

Al  Mostakplii  Ilillah'.'.*.'. .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".  944  doctrine  was  generally  received  at  Geneva.  On 

Al  Moti  l.illah .' ....'.'."".'.'.'.'.'.  946  the  refusal  of  Calvin  and  Farel,  to  comply  with 

A'Tay  l.illah  974  the  decrees  of  the   council  of  Lausanne,  the 

Al  Raver  Beamriilah  "  "                             l(m  magistrates  compelled  them  to  leave  the  city  in 

Al  Moktiidi  Beamrillah.V.'.V.V*.V.'.V'.'.'.'.'.V.'.".'.'*.'l075  15JB.     At  Strasbourg,  Calvin's  reception   was 

Al  Mostader  Billah 1094  favorable,  but  he  turned  a  longing  look   upon 

Al  K '  MV!Milla1' llv  Geneva.     He  was  finally  invited  to  return,  and 

AlKnti  neamril'la.y.'.'.'.'.V.'. '.'."'.'.'.'. '.V.'.'.'.V.V.'l  136  h<?  ffain^d  a  great  ascendancy  over  the  Genevi- 

AllKta.ij.-d  Billah HfiO  ans.    The  rigor  of  Calvin  was  excessive.    Thus, 

A I  Mostaili  licamrillah 1170  a  magistrate  was  deprived  of  his  office  and  im- 

A!nk*'r  !;';',H'1lillah }iS2  prisoned  for  two  months,  because  "  his  habits 

A!  M±n"eli "Biiian:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::!^  ™e  irregular,  and  he  had  ieagued  with  the 

Al  Mostasem  Billah 1242  enemies  of  Calvin.       James  Gruet  was  behead- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CAM 


151 


CAM 


ed,  for  having  written,  "impious  letters,  and 
libertine  verses,"  and  for  having  "  labored  to 
destroy  ecclesiastical  regulations."  Geneva,  in 
becoming  the  metropolis  of  the  reformed  wor- 
ship, became  the  centre  of  a  prodigious  book- 
trade,  and  the  city  of  all  Europe,  in  which  the 
arts  and  sciences  were  cultivated  with  the 
greatest  success. 

Calvin  died  in  Geneva,  May  27th,  1564,  in 
the  55th  year  of  his  age.  His  constitution  was 
weak,  and  throughout  life,  he  had  suffered 
much  from  disease.  In  1539,  he  married  a 
widow,  by  whom  he  had  one  son,  who  died 
young.  She  died  in  1549,  and  he  never  mar- 
ried again.  He  was  sombre  and  austere  in  his 
manners,  of  a  melancholy  disposition.  He  nev- 
er knew  the  sweets  of  friendship,  and  his  sole 
joy,  if  joy  it  was,  was  in  .ruling  and  beholding 
the  triumph  of  his  opinions.  Calvin  never  had 
any  other  title,  in  the  church  of  Geneva,  than 
that  of  pastor.  His  temper,  according  to  his 
own  confession,  was  impatient  and  opposed  to 
all  contradiction.  Thus  the  tone  of  his  polemi- 
cal writings  is  almost  always  harsh  and  insult- 
ing. As  a  theologian,  Calvin  gained  the  highest 
rank  among  the  men  of  his  century,  by  his  pro- 
found knowledge,  by  his  tact,  and,  as  he  him- 
self boasted,  by  his  art  in  pressing  an  argument. 
As  a  writer,  he  merits  high  praise.  His  mode 
of  worship,  bare  and  stern,  appeared,  in  the 
eyes  of  many,  to  have  elevated  religion  above 
all  sublunary  things,  by  stripping  it  of  every 
object  which  had  an  attraction  for  the  senses. 

CALYDON,  a  city  of  ^Etoba,  noted  in  fabu- 
lous history  as  the  spot  where  Meleager  slew 
the  wild  boar,  which  the  revengeful  Diana  had 
sent  to  punish  the  inhabitants  for  neglecting 
her  worship. 

CALYPSO,  a  daughter  of  Atlas,  who  dwelt 
upon  the  island  of  Ogygia,  where  Ulysses  was 
shipwrecked.  He  refused  to  marry  the  god- 
dess, although  immortality  was  the  promised 
reward,  preferring  to  revisit  Ithaca,  and  again 
behold  his  wife.  He  remained  seven  years  on 
the  island,  and  grief  at  his  departure  destroyed 
the  enamored  soddess. 

CAMBACERES,  Jean  Jacques  Regis,  was 
duke  of  Parma,  prince  and  arch-chancellor  of 
the  French  empire,  dignities  which  he  enjoyed 
during  the  ascendency  of  Napoleon,  of  whom 
he  was  a  colleague  in  the  consulate  in  1799. 
His  Plan  of  a  Civil  Code,  drawn  up  in  1796, 
was  the  basis  of  the  celebrated  Code  Napoleon. 
He  left  France  on  the  downfal  of  the  emperor, 
and  died  in  Paris,  March  8.  1824. 

CAMBODIA,  or  Camboge,  or  Camboya,  a 


fertile  and  wealthy  country  province  of  the  em- 
pire of  Annam,  in  Asia,  with  a  population  of 
100.000.  Laos  lies  upon  the  north,  Cochin 
China  and  Chiampa  on  the  east,  the  sea  on  the 
south,  and  Siam  on  the  west. 

CAMERA Y,  or  Camerich,  a  strongly  forti- 
fied town  of  the  French  department  of  the 
North,  containing  17,650  inhabitants,  celebrated 
in  diplomatic  history  for  several  important  trea- 
ties negociated  there.  Its  manufactures  are  ex- 
tensive, one  of  the  principal  articles  being  Cam- 
bric. The  town  was  taken  by  Charles  V,  in 
1544;  by  the  Spaniards  in  1596;  and  by  Louis 
XIV  in  person,  in  1677.  In  August,  1793,  it 
was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Austrians, 
and  in  the  campaign  of  1815,  it  was  taken  by 
the  British,  and  made  the  head-quarters  of  the 
allied  armies. 

CAMBRIDGE,  a  town  in  Middlesex  coun- 
ty, Massachusetts,  on  Charles  river,  3  miles  N. 
W.  of  Boston,  with  a  population  of  8,127.  It  is 
a  neat  and  thriving  place,  distinguished  as  the 
seat  of  Harvard  University,  the  oldest  and  best 
endowed  institution  in  the  United  States,  and 
having  the  largest  library  in  America.'  The 
medical,  divinity,  and  law  departments,  enjoy  a 
high  reputation.  The  course  of  education  is 
completed  in  four  years. 

CAMBRONNE,  Pierre  Jacques,  Etienne, 
baron,  general,  commander  of  the  legion  of  hon- 
or, and  distinguished  for  his  personal  bravery, 
was  born  December  26, 1770.  He  commanded 
the  small  band,  which  Napoleon  led  from  Elba. 
At  Waterloo,  he  was  severely  wounded,  and 
taken  prisoner.  When  he  heard  the  British 
proposal  of  capitulation,  he  answered  nobly, 
<;  La  garde  meurt,  elle  ne  se  rend  pas."  Tht 
guard  dies,  but  docs  not  surrender. 

CAMBYSES,  a  king  of  Persia,  and  son  of 
Cyrus  the  Great,  ascended  the  throne,  B.  C. 
5'30.  He  conquered  Egypt ;  offended  at  the  su- 
perstitions of  the  Egyptians,  he  killed  their  god 
Apis,  whose  flesh  was  eaten  by  his  soldiers,  and 
plundered  their  temples.  On  mounting  his 
horse  at  a  subsequent  period,  his  sword  gave 
him  a  fatal  wound  in  the  thigh,  the  place  where 
he  had  injured  the  bull,  and  the  Egyptians 
looked  upon  this  event  as  the  retributive  ven- 
geance of  the  gods.  He  was  dissolute  and  des- 
titute of  moral  principles.  In  his  fits  of  intoxi- 
cation, his  brutality  was  feared  even  bigfcose 
who  had  the  greatest  claims  upon  his  ffl^ar- 
ance.  In  a  fit  of  drunken  rage  he  gave  his 
wife  a  kick  which  killed  her.  His  throne  was 
usurped  by  one  of  the  Magi,  who  assumed  the 
name  of  Smerdis,  a  brother  of  the  king,  who 


* 


CYCLOPEDIA    Of   HISTORY.. 


CAM 


152 


CAM 


had  been  secretly  murdered  on  account  oi»a 
dream,  which  prognosticated  to  the  tyrant  fu- 
ture troubles,  and  warned  him  to  save  himself 
by  the  death  of  his  brother. ' 

CAMDEN,  in  South  Carolina,  130  miles  N. 
W.  of  Charleston,  with  a  population  of'1000. 
Here  Gates  was  defeated  by  lord  Cormvallis, 
in  1730,  and  another  battle  was  fought  between 
general  Greene  and  lord  Rawdon,  in  the  ensu- 
ing year. 

CAMILLUS,  Marcus  Furius,  an  illustrious 
Roman,  who  Obtained  four  triumphs,  and  five 
times  filled  the  office  of  dictator,  but  being  pro- 
secuted on  a  charge  of  peculation,  went  into 
voluntary  banishment.  While  he  was  absent, 
Brennus,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  Gauls,  took 
Rome,  and  besieged  the  senate  in  the  capital. 
Camillus,  forgetting  his  wrongs,  hastened  to 
the  relief  of  his  country,  defeated  the  barbarians, 
and  was  created  dictator.  He  died  B.  C.  365, 
of  the  plague.  He  was  generally  honored  and 
respected,  although  party  and  personal  prejudi- 
ces more  than  once  involved  him  in  persecution. 

In  the  siege  of  Falerii,  the  schoolmaster  of 
the  town,  who  had  the  children  of  the  senators 
under  his  care,  led  them  out  of  the  city  under 
pretext  of  recreation,  carried  them  to  the  Ro- 
man camp,  and  surrendered  them  to  the  Roman 
general,  telling  him,  that  he  might  now  propose 
to  the  besieged  what  terms  he  chose,  since  the 
treasures  they  valued  most  were  in  his  hands. 
Camillus,  indignant  at  this  unparalleled  treach- 
ery, answered  that  the  Romans  warred  with 
men,  and  not  with  boys,  and  that,  in  the  con- 
duct of  hostilities,  integrity  as  well  as  courage 
should  be  prized.  He  then  ordered  the  school- 
master to  be  stripped,  and  with  his  hands  bound 
behind  his  back,  to  be  delivered  to  the  boys  to 
he  lashed  back  to  the  town.  The  Falerians,  be- 
fore obstinate  in  their  resistance,  struck  with 
this  noble  act,  delivered  themselves  up  to  the 
Romans,  convinced. that  it  would  be  better  to 
have  such  men  for  friends  than  foes. 

CAMOL'NS,  Louis,  the  most  celebrated  of 
Portuguese  poets,  was  born  in  Lisbon,  in  1517. 
His  father  was  of  a  noble  family,  and  his  mother 
of  the  illustrious  house  of  Sa.  Camofins  studied 
at  Coimbra,  where  his  instructors  valued  no 
literature,  but  that  which  was  written  in  imita- 
tion *£  the  ancients.  But  the  genius  of  Ca- 
mod^Bras  animated  by  the  history  of  his  coun- 
try ^B  the  manners  of  his  age  ;  and  his  lyric 
poems  belong,  like  the  works  of  Dante,  of  Pe- 
trarch, Ariosto  and  Tasso,  to  that  literature 
which  was  renewed  by  Christianity,  and  to  the 
spirit  of  chivalry,  rather  than  to  a  purely  classi- 


cal style  of  writintr.  For  this  reason,  the  nu- 
merous partisans  ot  the  classic  school  did  not 
applaud  the  performances  of  Camoens  in  the 
early  part  of  his  career.  On  the  completion  of 
his  studies,  he  returned  to  Lisbon,  where  he 
became  warmly  attached  to  Catharine  d'Attayde, 
a  lady  of  the  court.  Ardent  passions  are  often 
united  to  great  genius,  and  the  life  of  Camoens 
was  alternately  consumed  by  his  feelings  and 
his  genius. 

He  was  exiled  to  Santarern  on  account  of  the 
quarrels  which  his  attachment  to  Catharine 
brought  upon  him.  There,  in  his  seclusion,  he 
composed  detached  poems,  which  distinctly 
pourtray  the  state  of  his  feelings  at  the  time  01 
their  composition..  The  hopelessness  of  his  sit- 
uation led  him  to  ethbark.  as  a  soldier,  in  the 
Portuguese  fleet  sent  against  the  inhabitants  of 
Morocco.  In  the  midst  of  battles  he  composed 
poems,  the  glories  and  the  dangers  cf  war  kin- 
dling his  poetic  spirit,  and  his  poetic  imagina- 
tion, in  turn,  urging  him  onward  to  the  perform- 
ance of  military  exploits.  He  lost  his  right  eye 
by  an  arrow  before  Ceuta.  On  his  return  to 
Lisbon,  he  hoped,  at  least,  that  his  wounds 
would  entitle  him  to  some  favor,  e.ven  if  his 
talents  were  despised ;  but  although  he  had  a 
double  claim  upon  the  notice  of  government,  he 
encountered  unexpected  obstacles.  Justly  in- 
dignant at  this  neglect,  he  embarked  for  the 
Indies  in  1553,  and  like  Scipio,  bade  farewell  to 
his  country,  declaring  that  even  his  ashes  should 
not  repose  there. 

He  landed  at  Goa,  the  principal  Portuguese 
establishment  in  India ;  here  his  imagination 
was  excited  by  the  exploits  of  his  countrymen 
in  this  part  of  the  world,  and,  great  as  were  his 
inducements  to  complain  of  them,  he  thought 
to  consecrate  their  glory  in  an  epic.  But  indig- 
nant at  the  abuses  which  were  committed  by 
the  government,  he  composed  so  severe  a  satire 
upon  the  subject,  that  the  enraged  viceroy  of 
Goa  banished  him  to  Macao,  where  he  lived 
many  years,  surrounded  by  the  most  glorious 
scenes,  which  the  fairy  reijions  of  the  east  can 
boast.  Here  he  composedliis  Lusiad.  The  ex- 
pedition of  Vasco  da  Gama  to  the  Indies,  is  the 
subject  of  this  work,  which  is  sustained  by  the 
skill  of  CamoCnsin  mingling  successfully,  de- 
tails of  Portuguese  history  with  the  splendors 
of  poetry,  and°christian  piety  with  pagan  fable. 

Camoe'ns,  on  being  recalled  from  his  banish- 
ment, was  shipwrecked  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Mecon,  in  Cochin  China,  and  saved  him- 
self by  swimming  with  one  hand,  while  in  the 
other,  he  held  the  leaves  of  his  immortal  poem, 


' 


H i S.T o  iw-c A,"L  'AN p  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CAM 


153 


CAN 


the  only  treasure  that  he,  saved,  above  tfre  reach 
of  the  greedy  waves.  Camoens  was  persecuted 
by  a  new  viceroy  af  Goa,  and  imprisoned  for 
debt,  but  some  of  his  friends  becoming  security 
for  him,  he  embarked  for  Lisbon,  in  15G9,  six- 
teen years  after  having  quitted  Europe.  The 
young  king  Sebastian,  took  an  interest  in  Ca- 
mo6ns,  accepted  the  dedication  of  his  epic  poem, 
and,  on  the  eve  of  departing  on  his  unfortunate 
expedition  against  the  Moors,  in  Africa,  felt 
more  than  any  one  else,  the  genius  of  the  poet, 
who,  like  himself,  gloried  in  dangers,  when 
they  led  the  way  to  fame.  But  Sebastian  was 
killed  in  the  battle  of  Alcazar,  in  1578  ;  the  roy- 
al line  became  extinct,  and  Portugal  lost  her 
independence.  The  unfortunate  Camoens  was 
reduced  by  this  event  to  euch  extremes,  that, 
during  the  night,  a  slave  whom  he  had  brought 
from  India,  begged  in  the  streets,  to  obtain  food 
for  his  master.  In  this  wretched  state,  he  still 
composed  lyric  poems,  and  the  finest  of  his  de- 
tached pieces  are  those  which  contain  com- 
plaints of  his  misfortunes.  How  brilliant  was 
tho.t  genius  which  could  extort  inspiration  from 
the  very  calamities  which  finally  extinguished 
it.  This  hero  of  Portuguese  li  terature,  the  only 
one  whose  glory  belongs  alike  to  his  nation,  and 
to  Europe,  died  in  an  hospital,  in  1579,  aged  62 
years.  After  his  death,  a  monument  was  erect- 
ed to  his  memory,  and  thousands,  who  would 
have  denied  succor  while  he  was  living, 
crowded  to  do  homage  to  his  inanimate  re- 
mains.. 

CAMPANI A .  the  ancient  name  of  a  province 
of  Italy,  now  called  Terra  di  Lavoro,  included 
in  the  modern,  kingdom  of  Naples.  Its  soil  is 
extremely  fertile.  The  classical  associations 
heighten  the  interest  and  charm  of  its  naturally 
fine  scenery,  of  which  Vesuvius  is  far  from 
being  the  least  prominent  feature. 

CAMPEACHY,  or  Campeche,  a  seaport  sit- 
uated on  the  western  part  of  the  peninsula  of 
Yucatan,  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name  in  Mexi- 
co. The  Indians  who  occupied  it  at  the  time 
of  the  Spanish  invasion,  had  made  great  pro- 
gress in  the  arts,  and  were  extremely  numerous. 
Population  3,000. 

CAMPO-FORMIO,  a  castle  of  Udine  in  Fri- 
uli,  a  province  of  Venice,  belonging  to  the  Aus- 
trians,  famous  for  the  treaty  signed  here,  Oct. 
17, 1797,  by  which  the  emperor  of  Austria  ced- 
ed to  the  French  republic  the  whole  of  the 
Austrian  Netherlands,  and  consented  to  their 
remaining  in  possession  of  the  islands  of  Corfu, 
Zante,  Cephalonia.  and  all  the  islands  in  the 
Adriatic,  together  with  the  Venetian  territories 


ia  Albania.  He  also  acknowledged  the  Cisal- 
pine republic  as  an  independent  state  ;  ceded  to 
it  the  countries  in  Lombardy,  which  had  former- 
ly belonged- to  Austria,  and  consented  that  it 
should  possess  Bergamo,  Brescia,  and  other  Ve- 
netian territories,  together  with  the  duchies  of 
Mantua  and  Modena,  the  principalities  of  Car- 
rara and  Massa,  and  the  cities  of  Romagna,  Fer- 
rara,  and  Bologna,  belonging  to  the  Pope. 
France  yielded  up  to  Austria4  Istria,  Dalmatia, 
the  city  of  Venice,  with  a  large-.portion  of  the 
dominions  of  that  republic,  and  the  Venetian 
islands  in  the  Adriatic,  lying  to  the  northeast 
of  the  gulf  of  Lodrino.  'These  were  the  prin- 
cipal articles  of  the  treaty. 

CANAAN,  a  country" situated  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  mountains  of  Arabia, 
and  extending  from  Egypt  to  Phoenicia.  The 
first  inhabitants  were  descended  from  Ca- 
naan, who  settled  colonies  in  almost  all  the 
islands,  &c.  in  the  Mediterranean.  They  were 
subdued  by  the  Israelites  under  Joshua,  who 
destroyed  many  of  them,  and  obliged  the  rest 
to  flee  the  country.  The  colonies  which  Cad- 
mus conducted  to  Thebes  in  Bceotia,  and  his 
brother  Cilix  into  Cilicia,  were  from  Canaan  ; 
and  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Malta,  Cyprus,  Majorca 
and  Minorca,  are  said  to  have  been  peopled  by 
Canaanites. 

CANADA,  a  country  in  North  America,  be- 
longing to  the  British,  and  divided  into  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada,  since  the  year  1791 . 

Lower  Canada  is  thus  bounded : — north  by 
New  Britain,  east  by  New  Britain  and  the  gulf 
of  fit.  Lawrence,  south  and  south  east  by  New 
Brunswick,  and  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Ver- 
mont and  New  York  ;  west  by  Upper  Canada. 
Nearly  five-sixths  of  the  inhabitants,  (of  whom 
there  are  600,000).  are  French  Canadians,  the 
remainder  being  English,  Scotch,  Irish,  and 
Americans.  It  is  divided  into  five  districts, 
which  are  subdivided  in  40  counties.  Seigniories, 
or  grants  of  the  French  government,  and  town- 
ships, or  grants  of  the  English,  are  the  minor 
subdivisions.  A  governor-general,  whose  resi- 
dence is  at  Quebec,  is  at  the  head  of  the  British 
American  government.  Besides  the  governor, 
there  is  a  council  of  10,  appointed  by  the  king, 
who  also  appoints  the  three  members  of  the 
council  of  the  legislature,  the  other  branA  of 
wh'rcli  is  an  elective  house  of  assembly.  V 

The  principal  towns  are  Montreal.  QuSbec, 
Three  Rivers,  and  Sorelle.  Chambly,  St.  John's, 
and  La  Chine!  The  houses  of  the  Canadians  are 
generally  low,  and  built  of  stone,  with  little 
finish.  Education  is  generally  at  a  low  ebb 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


CAN 


154 


CAN 


among  them,  although  Quebec  and  Montreal 
sustain  some  highly  reputable  seminaries.  The 
commerce  of  the  province  has  gradually  in- 
creased under  the  fostering  spirit  of  the  British 
government.  The  fur  trade,  of  which  Mon- 
treal is  the  depot,  is  considerable,  and  timber, 
pot  and  pearl  ashes,  grain,  &c.  are  exported  in 
great  quantities.  Grass,  wheat,  barley,  rye, 
&c.  are  the  principal  productions  of  the  soil. 
The  majestic  St.  Lawrence  is  the  main  river  of 
the  Canadas,  but  there  are  also  others  of  great 
importance. 

The  French  Canadians  possess  all  the  charac- 
teristics which  distinguish  the  volatile  inhabit- 
ants of  France.  The  same  passionate  vivacity, 
the  same  eagerness  in  the  pursuit  of  pleasure, 
the  same  levity,  and,  it  must  be  added,  laxity 
of  principle,  exhibits  the  connection  between 
the  parent  stock  and  the  transplanted  race. 
Their  amusements  in  winter  consist  of  sleigh- 
ing expeditions,  in  which  the  spirited  little 
Canadian  horses  prove  their  worth,  varied  by 
dancing,  and  social  gayeties.  Where  the  females 
are  distinguished  for  their  temperance,  the  men 
are  unfortunately  addicted  to  the  use  of  spiritu- 
ous liquors,  and  can  scarcely  be  persuaded  to 
abandon  them  in  winter,  alleging  the  severity 
of  the  weather,  which  frequently  depresses  the 
mercury  in  the  thermometer  to  40  degrees  be- 
Inw  Zero,  as  an  excuse. 

The  eastern  and  southeastern  boundary  of 
Upper  Canada,  is  Lower  Canada,  while  the 
United  States  lie  upon  the  south,  separated  by 
the  great  lakes,  and  New  Britain  on  the  north 
and  west.  It  contains  11  districts,  23  counties, 
divided  into  numerous  townships,  and  has  an 
aggregate  population  of  more  than  23]  ,778.  A 
large  proportion  of  emigrants  to  Canada,  now 
settle  in  this  province.  They  have  been  in- 
duced to  settle  here  from  the  very  great  fertility 
of  the  soil,  and  the  value  and  abundance  of  the 
timber.  The  forests  increase  in  extent  as  they 
spread  to  the  regions  of  the  north,  of  which  few 
but  the  Indians,  possess  any  knowledge.  In 
these  wooded  districts,  vast  sheets  of  water  ex- 
pand in  solitary  splendor,  haunted  only  by  the 
beasts  of  prey,  or  Indians  hardly  less  wild.  To- 
ronto, lately  York,  the  seat  of  government, 
which  is  finely  situated  on  lake  Ontario,  has 
an  admirable  harbor.  The  established  religion 
oflle  Canadas,  is  that  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, but  a  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Catholics.  The  British  constitution  forms  the 
basis  of  that  of  British  America,  and  the  vicin- 
ity of  tlie  British  possessions  to  the  United 
States  has  not  been  without  effect  in  exciting 


discontents  among  the  people,  who  have  an 
opportunity  of  comparing  their  political  condi- 
tion with  our  own.  much  to  the  disadvantage  of 
the  government  under  which  they  live. 

The  French,  at  a  very  early  period,  seemed 
to  be  aware  of  the  importance  of  the  discovery 
of  Canada  by  Cabot,  and  the  cod-fishery  began 
to  employ  their  men  as  early  as  the  commence- 
ment of  the  16th  century.  In  the  early  part  of 
that  century  a  Frenchman  is  said  to  have  made 
a  chart  of  the  entrance  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  In 
1524,  Francis  I,  of  France,  sent  four  ships,  un- 
der Verazzani,  a  Florentine,  to  prosecute  dis- 
coveries in  this  country.  In  1535  James  Car- 
tier,  of  St.  Maloes,  sailed  up  the  river  St. 
Lawrence,  formed  alliances  with  the  natives, 
took  possession  of  the  territory,  built  a  fort,  and 
wintered  in  the  country.  Henry  IV  appointed 
the  marquis  de  la  Roche  lieutenant-general  of 
Canada,  and  the  neighboring  countries.  In  1608 
the  city  of  Quebec  was  founded,  and  from  that 
period  the  establishment  of  a  permanent  French 
colony  commenced.  In  1629  an  English  expe- 
dition took  possession  of  Quebec,  but  it  was  sur- 
rendered again  to  the  French  by  the  treaty  of 
St.  Germains.  This  expedition  was  headed  by 
Sir  David  Keith.  In  16!M),  a  bold  attempt  was 
made,  but  without  success,  to  subject  Canada  to 
the  English  crown.  The  attempt  was  renewed 
in  1711 ,  but  equally  in  vain.  Canada  continu- 
ed in  the  occupation  of  the  French  till  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  between  France  and 
England  in  1756.  In  1751)  the  British  govern 
ment  formed  the  project  of  attempting  its  con- 
quest, and  the  English  took  possession  of  Que- 
bec after  a  gallant  resistance  on  the  part  of  the 
French ;  in  which  the  English  general  Wolfe, 
and  Montcalm,  the  French  commander,  both 
perished.  The  latter,  en  being  told  that  his 
wound  was  mortal,  nobly  exclaimed  :  "  Then  I 
shall  not  live  to  see  the  city  surrendered  to  the 
British  !"  The  whole  province  of  Canada  was 
soon  after  subdued  by  the  English,  and  was  con- 
firmed to  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  1763. 
In  177")  C.-mada  was  invaded  by  a  body  of  pro- 
vincial troops,  led  by  Montgomery  ;  Montreal 
was  taken,  but  the  gallant  general  perished  in 
the  unsuccessful  attempt  upon  Quebec.  During 
the  last  war  with  Great  Britain,  Upper  Canada 
became  the  theatre  of  a  sanguinary  struggle. 
The  province  has  since  remained  subject  to 
Great  Britain. 

CANDI,  a  city  and  kingdom  of  Ceylon,  which 
long  resisted  all"  attacks,  but  was  finally  annex- 
ed to  the  British  dominions  in  1816. 

CANDI  A,  anciently  Idaa,  and  Crete,  called 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CAN 


155 


CAN 


by  the  Turks,  Kirid,  a  large  island  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, lying  about  80  miles  south  of  the 
Morea.  The  climate  is  mild  and  the  soil  pro- 
ductive, capable,  as  was  proved  in  ancient 
times,  of  support! no-  1,200,000  inhabitants,  a 
population  which  Turkish  tyranny  and  indo- 
lence have  diminished  to  300,000.  It  was,  in 
mythological  accounts,  the  kingdom  of  Saturn. 
After  becoming  a  republic,  and  a  pirate  isle,  it 
was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  and  then  by  the 
Saracens  in  823.  In  962  the  Greeks  regained 
possession  of  it.  It  was  sold  to  the  Venetians 
in  1204,  and  was  fiercely  contended  for  by  the 
troops  of  the  Porte  and  the  republic.  Hither 
the  Christian  chivalry  of  Europe  rushed  to  dis- 
play their  valor  against  the  infidels,  and  the  capi- 
tal was  only  surrendered  after  a  war  of  25  years, 
Sept.  27,  1069.  The  siege  which  immediately 
preceded  it  lasted  for  more  than  two  years. 
Candia  continued  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
until  its  recent  cession  to  the  viceroy  of  Egypt. 
CANNAE,  a  city  on  the  Adriatic,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Aufidus.  where  the  Romans  were  defeat- 
ed by  the  Carthaginians,  under  Hannibal,  21G 
B.C.  Hannibal  had  10,000  horse  and  40.000 
loot,  while  the  Roman  troops,  headed  by  JEmi- 
lius  Paulus,  and  Terentius  Varro,  amounted  to 
87,000  men.  The  opponents  of  Hannibal  had 
two  to  one  against  him  in  infantry,  while  Han- 
nibal had  five  to  one  against  them  in  cavalry. 
The  light-horse  and  slingers  began  to  skirmish, 
after  whom  Hasdrubal  charged  the  troops  of 
horse  that  were  led  by  yEmilius,  and  broke  their 
ranks.  The  last  blow  that  ended  all  resistance 
was  given  by  the  same  hand  that  aimed  the  first. 
Hasdrubal,  having  cut  in  pieces  all  the  Roman 
horse  that  opposed  him,  fell  back  upon  the  rear, 
and  came  up  to  the  Numidians,  with  whom  he 
joined,  and  made  a  charge  upon  Varro.  The 
Romans,  whom  they  charged,  appeared  incapa- 
ble of  resistance,  and  were  completely  routed. 
Livy  says  that  40.000  foot,  and  above  2.700 
horse  were  slain  ;  Polybius  accounts  the  loss 
much  greater.  The  prisoners  taken  amounted 
to  3,000  foot,  and  300  horse,  according  to  Livy, 
according  to  others,  to  8000.  Hannibal  collect- 
ed the  rings,  the  badges  of  the  fallen  Roman 
knights,  and  sent  many  bushels  of  them  to  Car- 
thage, as  tokens  of  his  triumph.  He  lost  4000 
Gauls,  1500  Spaniards  and  Africans,  and  200 
horse.  Had  he  pursued  his  victory  and  march- 
ed forthwith  to  Rome,  instead  of  quartering  his 
troops  in  the  seductive  Capua,  he  might  proba- 
bly have  ended  the  war — but  he  did  not  trust 
his  own  good  fortune  to  such  a  length.  Varro, 
the  consul,  whose  imprudence  brought  on  the  de- 


feat, saved  himself  by  flight,  while  his  brave 
colleague,  JEmilius,  perished  on  the  field  of 
battle. 

CANOVA,  Antonio,  the  most  celebrated  and 
successful  sculptor  of  the  19th  century.  He 
was  born  in  the  Venetian  territory ,  at  Possagno, 
Nov.  1. 1757,  and  from  his  twelfth  year  devoted 
himself  to  the  art  in  which  he  became  so  cele- 
brated. When  quite  young,  he  modelled  the 
figure  of  a  lion  in  butter,  with  exquisite  skill. 
This  was  placed  upon  the  table  of  the  seigneur 
of  the  place,  Falieri,  whose  attention  it  attract- 
ed. The  ingenious  artist  was  sought  for,  found, 
and  placed  with  a  statuary.  At  17  his  statue  of 
Eurydice  was  sculptured,  and  highly  praised. 
In  1779  he  went  to  Rome  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Venetian  Senate.  His  works  are  nu- 
merous, and  his  subjects  various ;  the  female 
figures  being  the  most  perfect  and  beautiful. 
His  graces,  his  Venus,  his  dancing  figures,  Cu- 
pid and  Psyche.  &c.  surpass  all  of  the  recent 
productions  of  Italian  art.  Canova  had  a  me- 
thod of  finishing  his  statues,  by  applying  to 
the  marble  a  peculiar  preparation,  which  de- 
stroyed the  glare  and  glitter  of  the  stone,  and 
imparted  to  it  the  soft  and  mellow  lustre  of  wax. 
Modest,  moral,  and  amiable,  Canova  was  free 
from  all  professional  jealousy,  and  liberally  pa- 
tronized young  artists  of  merit,  removing  many 
of  the  obstacles  which  oppose  the  early  steps 
of  devotees  to  the  fine  arts.  He  was  created 
marquis  of  Ischia,  with  a  large  pension,  by  pope 
Pius  VII,  who  was  by  no  means  backward  in 
acknowledging  his  merit.  The  amiable  artist 
died  at  Venice,  Oct.  13,  1822,  leaving  behind 
him  many  monuments  of  his  talents,  industry, 
goodness,  and  liberality.  A  late  writer,  in 
speaking  of  the  comparative  merits  of  the  Me- 
dicean  and  Canova  Venus,  says,  "  I  am  by  no 
means  convinced  of  the  great  superiority  of  the 
ancient  over  the  modern  work.  It  is  certain 
the  general  attitude  and  aspect  are  copied  in 
the  latter,  which  deprives  the  artist  of  a  great 
share  of  the  merit  of  originality ;  but  if  we 
were  to  regard  the  works  alone,  without  any 
reference  to  their  formation,  I  am  not  sure  that 
the  palm  would  not  be  given  to  Canova.  As  a 
friend  of  mine,  no  mean  judge,  said  to  me, '  If 
they  were  both  dug  out  of  the  earth  now,  and 
nobody  knew  any  thing  about  either,  the  Ca- 
nova statue  would  be  preferred.'  " 

CANTON,  principal  city  of  the  Chinese  pro- 
vince of  Quan-tong,  on  the  banks  of  the  Taho, 
and  a  place  of  immense  commercial  importance, 
being  the  only  Chinese  sea-port  open  to  Amer- 
ican and  European  vessels.  According  to  the 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


CAP 


156 


CAP 


missionaries  it  has  a  million  of  inhabitants.  The 
surrounding  scenery  is  charming,  and  the  east- 
ern hills  present  a  most  noble  prospect.  The 
houses,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  the  man- 
darins and  wealthy  merchants,  are  low,  the 
streets  long,  narrow  and  well-paved,  spanned, 
here  and  there,  by  triumphal  arches,  and  shad- 
ed at  the  sides  by  continuous  ranges  of  piaz- 
zas. But  the  main  charm  of  the  city  consists 
in  its  beautiful  pleasure  gardens,  which  are 
studded  with  fish-pools. 

The  exports  are  tea,  India  ink,  varnish,  por- 
celain, rhubard,  silk,  nankeen,  &c.  The  cli- 
mate of  Canton  is  considered  healthy,  although 
the  heat  of  summer,  and  the  warmth  of  win- 
ter are  great. 

CANUTE,  the  Great,  king  of  Denmark  and 
England,  succeeded  his  father  Sweyn  in  the 
former  kingdom,  about  the  year  1015.  He  com- 
menced his  reign  by  an  expedition  against 
England,  but  hearing  that  the  king  of  Norway 
had"invaded  Denmark,  he  was  obliged  to  make 
a  precipitate  return.  Having  repulsed  the  in- 
vader, he  resumed  his  enterprise,  and  landing 
on  the  southern  coast,  committed  dreadful  rava- 
ges; but  Edmund  Ironsides  opposed  him  with 
such  bravery,  that  Canute  agreed  to  divide  the 
kingdom  with  him  On  the  murder  of  Edmund 
by  Edric  in  1017,  Canute  obtained  the  whole 
kingdom  ill  an  assembly  of  the  states,  and  put  to 
death  Edric,  and  several  of  the  English  nobili- 
ty, who  had  basely  deserted  their  sovereign. 
He  likewise  levied  heavy  taxes  on  the  people, 
and  particularly  on  the  inhabitants  of  London. 
The  king  of  Sweden  havinn1  attacked  Denmark, 
he  went  thither  and  slew  the  Swedish  monarch 
in  battle.  Canute  built  churches,  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  Rome,  cherished  the  interests  of 
learning,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  un- 
affected piety. 

Canute's  reproofs  of  his  courtiers  is  well 
known.  These  flatterers  having  assured  him  he 
had  power  over  all  things,  he  seated  himself  upon 
the  sea-shore,  and  commanded  the  waves  not 
lo  approach  his  feet.  The  element  advanced 
with  ito  usual  rapidity,  and  Canute,  rising,  said 
to  his  courtiers  in  a  tone  of  great  solemnity  : 
"  He  alone  can  rule  the  waves,  who  has  said  "to 
them. — Thus  far  shall  ye  go,  and  no  further.'1 
Canute  died  at  Shaftesbury,  I0;!(>. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE.  Some  notice  cf 
the  settlements  in  this  part  of  Africa  has  been 
given  already.  (See  Africa.)  The  Cape,  near- 
ly at  the  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  long  in 
the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  was  found,  on  the  con- 
quest by  the  English,  in  the  year  1705,  to  be  550 


English  miles  in  length,  and  233  in  breadth. 
The  soil  is  various,  but  generally  fertile ;  ani- 
mals are  numerous,  and  fish  abound  along  the 
coast.  The  average  annual  amount  of  exports 
is  about  1,000,000.  This  flourishing  colony  was 
originally  founded  by  the  Dutch.  Van  Riebeck. 
surgeon  of  one  of  the  Dutch  company's  ships, 
having  touched  at  the  Cape,  was  struck  with 
the  extent  of  the  bay,  capable  of  containing 
more  than  one  hundred  vessels  ;  its  situation3, 
halfway  between  Europe  arid  India;  and  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  which  seemed  proper  for 
every  kind  of  cultivation.  On  his  return,  he 
communicated  his  ideas  to  the  company,  who 
approved  of  his  plan,  and  gave  him  full  powers 
to  carry  it  into  execution.  Van  Riebeck  ac- 
cordingly embarked  with  four  vessels,  and.  after 
arriving  at  the  Cape,  purchased  from  the  inhab- 
itants land  for  an  establishment,  for  which  he 
gave  them  merchandize,  to  be  selected  at  their 
own  choice,  to  the  value  of  50,000  florins.  In 
the  year  1805,  the  Cape  was  taken,  for  the 
second  time,  by  the  English,  in  whose  hands  it 
still  remains. 

CAPE  VERDE  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  Af- 
rican islands,  in  the  Atlantic,  opposite  to,  and 
3[>0  mi'les  from  Cape  Verde,  belonging  to  Por- 
tugal. Their  number  has  been  variously  stated 
from  10  to  14.  The  air  is  unwholesome,  but 
some  portions  of  the  soil  is  fertile.  Rain  is 
unf'requent,  and  the  drought  has  been  so  severe, 
that  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  have  perished 
from  the  consequent  famine,  an  instance  of  which 
occurred  recently.  On  tli.it  occasion,  provis- 
ions were  liberally  supplied  by  voluntary  con- 
tributions from  the  citizens  of  the  United  States. 
The  salt  manufactured  at  Mayo,  a  small  island, 
is  exchanged  for  flour,  and  this  trade  is  chiefly 
carried  on  by  means  of  American  vessels. 

CAPERNAUM,  a  town  of  Palestine,  on  the 
sea  of  Tiberias,  for  some  time  the  residence  of 
our  Savior,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  which  he 
delivered  his  sermon  on  the  mount.  It  was  on 
the  f-ast  of  Galilee. 

CAPET.  The  family  name  of  a  royal  race, 
3G  members  of  which  have  reigned  in  France, 
and  82  in  other  European  slates.  The  word 
signifies  bratid-hfiid,  or  perhaps,  broad-hat,  and 
was  first  given  to  Hugh,  son  of  llmyh  the  (.'rent. 
duke  of  France,  ana  c«<>int  of  Paris,  by  his 
adherents,  in  the  10th  century. 

CAPITOL.  (Capitolium)  now  Campidoglio, 
the  citadel  of  ancient  Rome,  situated  on  the 
C.-ipitoline  hill.  orTarpeian  rock.  It  was  plan- 
ned by  Tarquinius  Prisons,  who  commenced  it 
B.  C.  614.  It  was  built  upon  four  acres  of 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


CAP 


157 


CAR 


ground ;  the  front  was  adorned  with  three  rows 
of  pillars,  and  the  sides  with  two.  The  ascent 
to  it  from  the  ground  was  by  an  hundred  steps. 
The  magnificence  and  richness  of  this  temple 
are  almost  incredible.  It  was  several  times 
destroyed  by  fire,  and  as  frequently  rebuilt ; 
Domitian  raised  the  lost  and  most  splendid 
temple  of  all,  in  which  the  gilding  alone  amount- 
ed to  nearly  4,000?.  sterling.  The  capitol  was 
in  the  form  of  a  square,  extending  nearly  200 
feet  on  each  side  ;  it  was  the  highest  part  of  the 
city,  and  strongly  fortified.  The  gates  were  of 
brass,  and  the  tiles  gilt.  The  prodigious  gifts 
and  ornaments  with  which  it  was  occasionally 
endowed,  almost  exceed  belief.  Augustus  pre- 
sented to  it  at  one  time,  2,000  pounds  weight 
of  gold,  and  jewels  to  the  value  of  2,000,OUO/. 
sterling.  A  few  vestiges  of  this  building  still 
remain  ;  the  Campidotrlio  is  a  modern  edifice. 

CAPO  D'ISTRIA,  John,  count  of,  a  native 
of  Greece,  was  born  at  Corfu,  in  1780.  He 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  of  Russia,  and 
was  entrusted  with  several  important  missions. 
Having  displeased  the  Russian  government  by 
taking  the  part  of  the  Greeks  when  their  strug- 
gle for  liberty  commenced;  he  retired  from 
public  service  in  1822,  arid  was  living  at  Geneva 
in  1827,  when  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
Greek  republic.  In  this  responsible  station,  his 
measures  appear  to  have  been  directed  by  pure 
patriotism,  and  his  talents  to  have  been  of  a 
high  order,  although  the  weakness  of  the  state, 
and  the  disorders  which  reigned  throughout 
Greece,  rendered  it  impossible  to  form  an  accu- 
rate estimate  of  his  abilities.  His  assassination 
is  too  recent  an  event  to  require  description. 

CAPPADOCIA,  a  province  of  Asia,  once  of 
great  importance  as  an  independent  kingdom, 
at  times,  although  nominally  dependent  upon 
Persia,  whose  satraps  governed  it.  The  Pontus 
Euxinus  lay  upon  the  north,  Armenia  on  the 
east,  Cilicia  and  Syria  on  the  south,  and  Lyca- 
oniaon  the  west.  It  was  divided  mtoC'appadocia 
Ma<rna,  and  Cappadocin  Minor,  afterwards  Cap- 
paaocia  Proper,  and  Pontus.  These  divisions 
were  not,  however,  inflexibly  adhered  to. 

CAPRI,  anciently  Caprea  or  Caprese,  a  fer- 
tile island  in  the  gulf  of  Naples,  whose  inhabi- 
tants are  3000  in  number.  Besides  being  valu- 
able on  account  of  its  oil  and  wine,  it  is  en- 
riched by  quails,  which  come  hither  in  great 
numbers  from  Africa,  and  are  caught  with  ease. 
The  charms  of  this  island  induced  Tiberius  to 
select  it  for  his  retreat  when  he  chose  to  retire 
from  the  active  administration  of  goverment, 
and  give  himself  up  to  the  most  revolting  de- 


bauchery, occasionally  reminding  his  subjects 
of  his  existence  by  ordering  the  executior  of 
Rome's  best  citizens. 

CAPUA,  a  fortified  city  on  the  Volturno,  in 
the  Terra  di  Lavoro,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
which  contains  8,000  inhabitants.  The  rums 
of  the  ancient  city  of  Capua  are  at  a  little  dis- 
tance from  the  modern  one.  The  ancient  Ca- 
pua was  famous  for  its  luxuries,  which  were 
more  fatal  to  the  Carthaginian  troops  of  Hanni- 
bal than  the  arms  of  his  adversaries,  the  Ro- 
mans. January  llth,  1790,  Capua  was  taken 
by  the  French,  and,  in  1820,  occupied  by  the 
Austrians. 

CARABOBO,  a  province  of  Venezuela,  in 
South  America.  The  famous  battle  of  Cara- 
bobo,  which  decided  the  independence  of  Ve- 
nezuela, was  fought  between  Bolivar  and  La 
Torre,  the  Spanish  general,  June  24,  1821. 

CARACALLA,  Antoninus  Bassianus,  the 
eldest  son  of  the  emperor  Severus,  born  A.  D. 
188,  and  associated  with  his  father  in  the  gov- 
ernment at  the  age  of  13  years.  After  his  fa- 
ther's death,  he  assassinated  his  brother  Geta, 
who  shared  the  throne  with  him  in  212.  Cara- 
calla  received  the  surname  of  JUemannicus,  for 
basely  murdering  a  tribe  of  the  Germans,  whom 
he  pretended  to  assist.  He  visited  Egypt,  and 
displayed  every  where  the  greatest  cruelty. 
He  was  finally  assassinated  at  Edessa,  A.  D. 
217,  by  Macrinus,  the  praetorian  prefect. 

CAR  A  CC  AS,  a  province  of  Venezuela,which, 
with  Caraboba,  forms  the  department  of  Vene- 
zuela. By  the  earthquake  of  1812,  and  the 
political  convulsions,  the  number  of  inhabitants 
of  the  city  of  Caraccas  has  been  reduced  from 
50,000  to  25,000.  The  productions  of  the  pro- 
vince are  numerous,  and  the  climate  mild  and 
agreeable.  The  inhabitants,  male  and  female, 
are  handsome,  sprightly,  and  intelligent,  but 
proud  and  uncultivated. 

CARACTACUS,  king  of  the  Silures,  a 
British  tribe  of  Wales,  who,  being  taken  pris- 
oner by  the  Romans,  was  led  before  the  empe- 
ror Claudius,  A.  D.  52.  He  was  unawed  by 
the  power  and  splendor  which  surrounded  him, 
but  was  surprised,  as  he  told  the  em,peror.  that 
the  possessors  of  so  much  wealth  and  grandeur 
could  envy  him  his  humble  cottage.  The  mag- 
nanimity of  his  bearing,  and  the  candor  and 
moderation  of  his  remarks,  so  moved  the  empe- 
ror, that  he  gave  orders  to  have  the  captive 
monarch  set  at  liberty.  This  was  the  only  good 
action  that  Claudius  performed. 

CARBONARI.  Colliers,  the  name  of  a  secret 
political  society  of  Italy  which  has  existed  for 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


CAR 


158 


CAR 


many  years,  but  the  origin  of  which  is  doubtful. 
The  carbonari  are  the  sworn  foes  of  oppression 
—  "hatred  to  tyrants!" — being  the  initiatory 
oath.  The  places  where  they  meet  are  called 
huts ;  the  interior  the  colliery,  and  the  exterior 
the  vfood.  Tolerance  in  religious  matters  is 
secured  by  their  principles.  Whole  cities  and 
towns  have  joined  the  society,  and,  in  1820, 
when  Italy  was  disturbed  by  plots,  050,000  new 
members  were  admitted,  in  the  month  of  March. 

CAR1BBEE  ISLANDS,  are  the  islands  which 
form  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
They  are  divided  into  Leeward  and  Windward 
Islands.  St.  Christopher's,  GuadaJoupe,  Dom- 
inica, Martinico,  Grenada,  Tobago,  FSarbadoes, 
are  some  of  the  principal.  The  Caribbees,  or 
original  inhabitants  of  the  Caribbee  Islands, 
were  found  by  the  Spaniards  to  be  fierce,  war- 
like, and  confirmed  cannibals. 

CARLISLE,  anciently  Luguvallium,  and 
Lugubalum,  capital  of  Cumberland,  England, 
and  a  large  manufacturing  place.  It  was  one 
of  the  most  important  stations  at  the  time  of  the 
Romans.  The  castle  was  burned  by  the  Scots 
in  the  time  of  Henry  II,  and  twice  accidentally 
in  that  of  Edward  I.  Jt  was  besieged  by  an 
army  of  8,000  men  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII, 
and  in  1G44,  surrendered  to  General  Leslie. 
In  1745,  it  was  taken  by  the  partisans  of  Charles 
Edward,  but  retaken  by  the  duke  of  Cumber- 
land. Population  20,000. 

CARLISLE,  capital  of  Cumberland  county 
(Penn.),  114  miles  west  of  Philadelphia,  con- 
taining 3,700  inhabitants.  Its  trade  is  very 
considerable,  and  its  appearance  agreeable  ;  the 
streets  being  regular,  and  the  houses  neatly 
built.  Its  court  Tiouse  and  churches  are  fine 
buildings.  Dickinson  college  is  a  flourishing 
institution. 

CARLOS,  Don,  son  of  Philip  II,  and  Mary, 
of  Portugal,  was  born  at  Valladolid,  Jan.  8, 1544. 
Four  days  after,  his  mother  died  in  the  midst  of 
preparations  for  the  celebiation  of  the  birth  of 
the  prince.  Carlos  was  naturally  infirm,  and 
had  one  leg  shorter  than  the  other.  The  exces- 
sive indulgence  with  which  he  was  treated, 
fostered  his  strong  passions,  and  rendered  him 
vindictive  and  obstinate.  His  preceptor,  Bos- 
sulus,  a  learned,  but  dissolute  Frenchman,  ex- 
erted an  unhappy  influence  over  the  mind  of 
his  pupil,  and  prevented  him  from  treating  his 
father  witli  proper  respect.  It  is  said  that  JBos- 
sulus,  being  reproached  by  the  prince  with 
beinf  the  son  of  a  monk,  replied  witli  warmth 
and  insolence ;  <;  I  know  I  am  :  but  my  father 
is  a  better  one  than  yours." 


In  15GO,  Philip  caused  the  states,  assembled 
at  Toledo,  solemnly  to  recognise  Don  Carlos 
as  heir  to  the  crown.  A  fall  down  the  staircase 
of  the  palace  of  the  Cardinal  Ximenes,  nearly 
deprived  the  young  prince  of  life,  and  his  mind 
was  ever  afterwards  impaired.  Contemporary 
greatly  in  the  portraits  which 


historians 

they  draw  of 

he  was  born  with  all  those  qualities  w 


n  Carlos.  According  to  some, 
ose  qualities  which  adorn 
a  hero ;  with  a  love  of  glory  joined  to  high 
courage ;  a  proud  disdain  of  opposition,  and  a 
desire  of  extended  power.  According  to  others, 
he  was  fond  of  extraordinary  adventures,  of 
every  thing  eccentric  and  odd,  and  his  actions 
vere  those  of  a  madman,  whom  accident  and 
opposition  irritate,  but  address  or  submission 
calms.  Ferreras  relates  some  curious  anecdotes 
of  him. 

One  night,  as  he  was  traversing  the  streets 
of  Madrid,  some  one  accidentally  threw  a  little 
water  on  his  head.  Instantly  stopping,  Don 
Carlos  ordered  his  attendant  gentlemen  to  set 
fire  to  the  house,  and  cut  the  throats  of  its  in- 
mates. They  parted,  as  if  to  execute  his  com- 
mands, but  returning  immediately,  assured  him 
that  it  was  impossible  to  obey  him,  because  the 
holy  sacrament  was  on  the  point  of  being  ad- 
ministered to  a  sick  person  in  the  offensive 
dwelling.  This  reply  pacified  the  prince. 

One  of  the  obnoxious  courtiers  of  his  father, 
the  president  Spinola,  having  banished  Cisne- 
ros,  a  comedian,  whose  performances  Don 
Carlos  had  a  great  desire  to  behold,  the  prince 
met  the  president  in  the  royal  palace.  Carlos, 
seizing  him  by  the  hat,  anil  handling  his  dag- 
ger-hilt, exclaimed;  "  How  dare  you  cross  me 
by  preventing  Cisneros  from  contributing  to 
my  amusement .-"  By  the  life  of  my  father  !  I 
will  kill  tliee  !"  The  terrified  president  fell  at 
the  prince's  feet,  and  changed  his  resolution 
by  his  abject  supplications. 

A  shoemaker  having  made  a  pair  of  boots 
much  too  tight  for  the  prince,  the  latter  ordered 
them  to  be  cut  to  pieces.  "  Villain  !"  exclaimed 
lie.  to  the  terrified  tradesman,  "  thou  must  cat 
these  or  die  !"  In  vain  the  unfortunate  man 
represented  the  cruelty  of  the  sentence,  and  the 
trivial  nature  of  his  o'rTonce.  He  was  not  per- 
mitted to  depart  until  he  had  eaten  up  his 
boots. 

Don  Alonzo  de  Cordova,  brother  of  the  mar- 
quis of  Las  Nevas,  having  failed  to  repair  in- 
stantly to  the  prince's  chamber,  at  the  sum- 
mons of  his  bell,  the  furious  prince  seized  him 
by  the  waist,  and.  but  for  the  cries  of  the  suf- 
ferer, which  procured  the  assistance  of  servants, 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CAR 


159 


CAR 


would  have  dashed  him  through  the  window 
into  the  moat. 

In  1559,  a  marriage  having  been  proposed, 
between  Don  Carlos  and  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  Henry  II,  Philip  judged  proper  to  substitute 
himself 'for  his  son.  It  is  said  that  Carlos  loved 
Elizabeth ;  that  their  passion  was  mutual,  and 
that  he  never  forgave  his  father  for  having 
deprived  him  of  his  bride.  He  was  led,  in 
1505,  to  hope  for  a  union  with  archduchess 
Anne,  his  cousin,  and  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Maximilian,  but  Philip  shortly  afterwards  op- 
posed the  match,  and,  on  the  death  of  Don 
Curios,  married  the  lady  himself.  Thus  he 
successively  deprived  his  son  of  two  females, 
whose  attractions  might  have  bound  him  to 
domestic  life,  and  softened  all  the  wilder  and 
more  obdurate  portions  of  his  character. 

In  15(53,  Philip,  who  had  no  heir  but  Don 
Carlos,  whom  he  doubtless  judged  incapable  of 
governing,  sent  for  his  nephews,  the  archdukes 
Rodolphus  and  Ernest,  whom  he  received  in 
person,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  succes- 
sion to  them.  The  following  year,  Don  Car- 
los, who  was  discontented,  and  at  variance  with 
his  father,  projected  his  escape  from  Spain  under 
the  pretext  of  going  to  the  relief  of  Malta,  then 
besieged  by  the  troops  of  Solhnan.  He  col- 
lected 50,000  ducats,  and  was  on  the  eve  of 
departing,  when  a  forged  letter  of  the  viceroy 
of  Naples,  urging  his  stay  in  Spain,  induced 
him  to  change  his  resolution.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  dwell  upon  the  various  projects  of  Don  Car- 
los for  securing  fame  and  distinction  in  other 
countries,  all  of  which  were  crossed  by  his 
stern  parent,  who  regarded  him  with  a  jealous 
eye,  and  punished  several  of  his  confidants  and 
friends. 

Philip  appeared  to  repose  implicit  confidence 
in  the  duke  of  Alva,  Ruy  Gomez  de  Sylva, 
Don  John  of  Austria,  and  Spinola.  Don  Car- 
los had  an  invincible  repugnance  to  these  men, 
either  from  jealousy  of  the  confidence  they 
enjoved,  or  from  considering  them  as  authorised 
and  privileged  spies  upon  his  conduct.  He 
could  not  bear  to  dwell  upon  the  thought  that 
the  duke  of  Alva  had  obtained  the  government 
of  Flanders,  which  he  had  solicited  for  himself. 
Resolved  on  revenge,  he  attacked  the  duke 
with  a  poignard,  when  he  came  to  take  leave 
of  him,  and  would  have  killed  him  outright, 
but  for  the  agility  and  strength  of  his  foe. 
Philip  appeared  to  believe  that  Don  Carlos  had 
a  design  upon  his  own  life,  for  he  always  wore 
two  curiously  constructed  pistols. 

Louis  de  Foix,  a  French  engineer,  the  cele- 
14* 


brated  architect,  who  built  the  Escurial,  a  royal 
palace  in  the  form  of  a  gridiron,  is  said  to  have 
been  commanded  by  Don  Carlos  to  make  him 
a  book  heavy  enough  to  kill  a  man  at  one  blow. 
De  Thou,  the  historian  who  relates  this,  says, 
"  This  prince  desired  the  book,  after  leaving 
.read  in  the  annals  of  Spain,  that  an  imprisoned 
archbishop  had  made  a  leather  cover  to  a  brick 
of  the  size  of  his  breviary,  and  used  it  to  kill  his 
jailer,  whom  he  struck  dead."  De  Foix  told 
the  historian  that  he  made  the  prince  a  book, 
composed  often  tablets  of  a  blue  stone,  covered 
with  plates  of  steel,  concealed  under  plates  of 
gilt,  and  this  book,  six  inches  by  four,  weighed 
more  than  fourteen  pounds.  He  said  also  that 
Don  Carlos,  wishing  to  be  alone  in  his  chamber, 
employed  him  to  make  him  a  machine,  with 
which,  by  means  of  pulleys,  he  could  open  and 
shut  his  door  without  rising  from  his  bed.  The 
prince  had  always  under  his  pillow  two  drawfi 
swords,  a  brace  of  loaded  pistols,  and,  at  the 
bedside,  half  a  dozen  harquebusses,  and  an  arm- 
chest.  These  precautions  and  preparations 
alarmed  Philip.  Don  Carlos  was  often  heard 
complaining,  in  bursts  of  indignation,  of  the 
conduct  of  his  father.  He  avowed  to  his  con- 
fessor that  there  was  'one  man  whom  he  had 
resolved  to  kill.  The  confession  being  betrayed 
to  Philip,  he  exclaimed  ;  '-  I  am  the  man  whose 
life  he  seeks !  but  I  will  take  care  to  prevent 
the  execution  of  his  designs." 

Philip  did  nothing  without  consulting  the 
Holy  office.  De  Foix  was  ordered  to  arrest  the 
action  of  the  pulleys,  which  closed  the  door  of 
the  prince's  chamber.  This  he  did  privately, 
and  with  so  much  skill,  that  the  prince  never 
perceived  it.  He  slept  soundly  on  the  night 
of  the  18th  of  January,  1568,  when  the  count 
of  Lerma  first  entered  his  apartment,  silently 
removed  all  separate  weapons,  and  sat  down 
upon  the  chest  which  contained  the  remainder. 
The  king  then  entered,  preceded  by  Ruy  Go- 
mez de  Silva,  the  duke  of  Feria,  and  several 
other  noblemen,  Don  Carlos  being  still  buried 
in  sleep.  Being  awaked,  and  seeing  the  king, 
his  father,  he  exclaimed;  "I  am  lost ;"  and 

E  rayed  for  death.     Philip  coldly  replied  that  his 
fe  was  not  in  danger ;  ordered  him  to  rise ; 
removed  his  attendants,  seized  a  casket  filled 
with  papers,  which  was  under  the  bed,  charged 
those  whom  he  entrusted  with  the  care  of  the 

Erince  not  to  lose  sight  of  him,  and  to  prevent 
is  writing  or  communicating  with  any  one, 
and  withdrew. 

The  guards  of  Don  Carlos  dressed  him  in 
black.  They  -removed  the  bed  itself,  leaving 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


CAR 


160 


CAR 


only  a  small  trundle-bed  in  its  place.  Don 
Carlos,  hurried  by  despair  to  madness,  caused  a 
large  fire  to  be  built,  under  pretence  of  cold, 
and  threw  himself  into  it,  hoping  to  perish  in 
the  flames.  It  required  the  utmost  exertions 
of  his  guards  to  save  him.  He  attempted  to 
destroy  himself  by  hunger,  thirst,  and  excess  in 
eating,  lie  endeavored  also  to  choke  himself 
by  swallowing  a  large  diamond  which  be  wore 
about  him.  Philip  is  said  to  have  discovered  in 
the  casket,  which  was  found  concealed  under 
the  bed  of  Don  Carlos,  communications  with 
the  rebels  of  the  Netherlands,  and  a  secret  cor- 
respondence with  the  queen,  which  left  no 
doubt  of  his  attachment  to  the  princess,  and  of 
the  existence  of  a  reciprocal  passion.  The  ex- 
cessive precautions  which  Philip  took  to  justify 
his  conduct,  have  disposed  posterity  to  judge 
favorably  of  Don  Carlos.  It  is  certain  that 
many  of  the  most  influential  grandees  of  Spain 
vainly  petitioned  for  his  liberation. 

Some  historians  are  of  opinion  that  Carlos 
was  condemned  to  death  by  the  inquisition, 
that  the  sentence  was  secretly  executed,  that 
the  prince  partook  of  some  poisoned  broth,  and 
died  a  few  hours  afterwards.  Some  believe 
that  his  veins  were  opened  in  the  bath,  others 
that  he  was  strangled  ;  while  Ferreras  and  the 
Spanish  historians  in  general,  pretend  that  he 
died  of  a  malignant  fever,  occasioned  by  an 
improper  regimen,  and  bv  violent  fits  of  pas- 
sion ;  that  he  received  the  last  sacraments  with 
piety,  and  wished  to  have  the  blessing  of  his 
father.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  manner 
or  date  of  the  prince's  death,  but  we  incline  to 
refer  it  to  the  24th  of  July,  1568.  The  same 
year  Elizabeth  died,  aged  23.  but  her  death  was 
natural  and  had  no  connexion  with  the  fate  of 
Don  Carlos.  We  do  not  know  how  much  faith 
to  repose  in  the  Spanish  historians,  who  defend 
the  memory  of  Philip,  as  the  protector  of  reli- 
gion, and  represent  his  son  as  a  languid  mem- 
ber of  the  church,  a  partisan  of  the  revolted 
calvinists  of  the  Netherlands,  and,  above  all,  a 
determined  opponent  of  the  inquisition. 

CAHNOT,  Lazare  .Nicholas  Marguerite; 
born  in  Burgundy,  1753.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  mathematical  abilities,  and  in  the  revo- 
lution, commenced  his  career  as  captain  of  a 
corps  of  engineers.  He  voted  for  the  deatli  of 
the  king.  Carnot  distinguished  himself  in  a 
military  and  civil  capacity,  but  was  obliged  to 
leave  Paris,  June  18th,  1799;  being  soon  after 
recalled,  he  was  made,  in  April,  1800,  minister 
of  war.  He  was  a  firm  republican,  opposed  the 
ambitious  views  of  Napoleon,  and  equally  so 


the  attempts  of  the  royalists.  He  died  at  Mag- 
deburg, August  3, 1823.  Carrot  was  a  man  of 
integrity  and  talents,  brave,  learned,  and  patri- 
otic, and  honored  by  all  parties. 

CAROLINA,  North,  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Virginia,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
on  the  south  by  South  Carolina,  and  on  the 
west  by  Tennessee.  It  is  of  considerable  ex- 
tent, comprising  50,000  square  miles,  with  a 
population,  in  1840,  of  753.419  souls,  of  whom 
245,600  are  slaves,  and  22,732  free  blacks.  The 
state  is  divided  into  64  counties,  and  Raleigh  is 
the  seat  of  government.  This  place  is  pleas- 
antly situated.  A  Senate  and  House  of  Com- 
mons, are  the  legislative  branches  of  govern- 
ment. Education  is  by  no  means  neglected  in 
North  Carolina,  there  being  several  respectable 
academies  at  various  places,  and,  at  Chapel 
Hill,  an  institution  styled  the  University  of 
North  Carolina,  which  is  well  endowed  and  in 
high  repute.  The  face  of  the  country  is  ex- 
tremely diversified, — a  wide  belt,  skirting  the 
sea,  is  perfectly  level,  while,  in  other  parts,  the 
surface  is  broken  and  rough,  presenting,  in  some 
places,  considerable  elevations.  One  of  these 
is  Pilot  Mountain,  or  Ararat,  which  is  of  a  py- 
ramidal form,  and  almost  a  mile  in  height,  ter- 
minating in  a  wide  and  level  area,  commanding 
a  most  imposing  view  of  the  surrounding  coun- 
try. 

"The  coast  of  North  Carolina  is  well  defended 
by  capes  and  shoals,  which  are,  however,  for- 
midable to  friend  as  well  as  foe.  The  names 
of  some  of  these  indicate  the  terror  they  excite. 
This  state  contains  a  portion  of  that  swamp 
which  is  justly  called  the  Great  D Isinid  Swamp , 
a  marshy  tract  whose  low  brush-wood,  in  many 
parts  impenetrable,  covers  a  space  of  nearly 
thirty  miles  in  extent.  Parts  of  the  soil  are  ex- 
tremely productive,  and  tin?  earth  has  been  late- 
ly found  to  possess  a  treasure  in  gold  mines  of 
considerable  extent  and  value.  The  commerce 
of  this  state  is  not  extensive,  but  many -of  the 
planters  are  very  wealthy. 

The  earliest  attempt  to  colonize  North  Caro- 
lina was  made  by  the  English  in  1587,  but  the 
feeble  colony  which  was  left  on  the  Roanoke, 
perished  either  from  want,  or  from  the  incur- 
sions of  hostile  Indians,  as  they  were  never  af- 
terwards heard  of.  The  first  permanent  set- 
tlement was  made  near  Albemarle  Sound  by 
some  planters  from  Virginia,  in  ](150.  The 
name  of  Carolina  was  given  to  the  country  by 
the  French,  in  honor  of  Charles  IX.  in  whose 
reign  they  unsuccessfully  attempted  the  coloni 
zation  of  the  North  American  coast.  In  1661 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CAR 


161 


CAR 


a  colony  from  Massachusetts  arrived  here.  It 
was  not  without  many  struggles  that  the  colony 
obtained  a  representative  government,  nor  until 
it  had  undergone  many  fluctuations,  that  the 
constitution  was  firmly  established.  Besides 
the  agitation  produced  by  conflicting  political 
schemes,  the  hostility  of  the  Indians  caused  the 
colonists  no  little  suffering  and  loss.  Jn  1717 
Carolina,  by  purchase,  became  a  royal  govern- 
ment, and  continued  so  until  1775,  when  it 
warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  liberty,  but  suf- 
fered less  than  other  states,  on  account  of  the 
forbidding  aspect  of  its  guarded  coast.  Decem- 
ber 18, 1770,  the  present  constitution  was  adopt- 
ed. The  Carolinas  had  been  separated  in  1720. 

CAROLINA,  South;  bounded  north  by 
North  Carolina,  east  by  the  Atlantic,  southwest 
and  west  by  Georgia,  containing  (in  J840), 
594,398  inhabitants,  of  whom  327,038  are  slaves, 
and  8,276  free  colored  people.  This  state  is  of 
less  extent  than  North  Carolina,  having  an  area 
of  30,000  square  miles.  The  legislative  pow- 
er is  vested  in  a  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. Columbia,  120  miles  northwest  of 
Charleston,  is  the  seat  of  government,  but 
the  latter  is  the  largest  town  in  the  state. 
The  inhabitants  differ  but  little  from  those  of 
other  southern  states.  The  rich  planters  are 
fond  of  ease  and  pleasure,  but  generous,  hos- 
pitable, frank  and  brave.  The  soil  in  many  parts 
is  rich,  producing  cotton  and  rice,  which  are 
the  staple  commodities,  but  adapted  to  various 
kinds  of  agriculture.  A  tract  of  great  breadth, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  sea,  is  perfectly 
level,  but  proceeding  inland,  we  observe  the 
land  to  become  more  elevated,  and  gradually  to 
present  an  undulating  and  broken  appearance. 
The  low  lands  are  an  unhealthy  residence,  but 
in  the  upper  regions  the  inhabitants  enjoy  a  sa- 
lubrious climate. 

South  Carolina  was  granted  to  lord  Claren- 
don and  others,  in  1663,  but  no  permanent 
establishment  was  made  until  1680.  It  was 
formed  into  a  separate  government  in  1729,  and 
the  present  constitution  was  adopted  in  1790. 
During  the  revolutionary  war,  this  state  was 
distinguished  for  its  exertions  in  the  good  cause, 
which  owed  much  to  the  bravery  of  Marion, 
the  celebrated  partisan  leader,  Sumpter  and 
Lee,  all  of  whom  were  worthy  of  the  military 
reputation  they  enjoyed.  With  few  exceptions, 
the  state  has  enjoyed  tranquillity  from  the  pe- 
riod of  the  revolution,  and  the  course  of  go- 


vernment has  been  impeded  by  few  obstacles. 
The  legislative  appropriations  for  the  support  of 
education  are  extremely  liberal,  and  do  honor 


to  the  state.  More  than  30,000  dollars  are  ex- 
pended annually  for  the  support  of  free  schools, 
and  South  Carolina  College  (Columbia)  is  libe- 
rally patronised. 

CAROLINE,  Amelia  Elizabeth,  wife  of 
George  IV  of  England,  was  born  in  May,  1768. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, and  in  17'Jo  became  the  bride  of  the 
prince  of  Wales.  Her  daughter,  the  princess 
Charlotte,  died  at  an  early  age,  regretted  by  all. 
The  prince  abandoned  Caroline.,  and,  in  order 
to  procure  her  ruin,  accused  her  of  infidelity. 
The  trial  of  the  unhappy  queen  reflects  disgrace 
upon  the  profligate  prince.  She  refused  the  of- 
fers which  were  made  to  induce  her  to  quit 
England  with  the  empty  name  of  queen,  but  she 
asserted  her  rights  with  dignity  and  firmness. 
She  finally  succumbed  under  the  persecution 
of  her  enemies,  and  died,  Aug.  1621. 

CARRIER,  John  Baptist,  originally  an  ob- 
scure attorney,  rose  to  infamous  notoriety  in  the 
French  revolution.  Under  his  direction,  the 
greatest  cruelties  were  perpetrated,  and  15,000 
individuals  perished  in  little  more  than  a  month. 
He  was  finally  apprehended  and  condemned  to 
death  by  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  Dec.  16, 
1794. 

CARROL,  Charles,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  declaration  of  Independence,  who  died  at  an 
advanced  age,  at  Carrolton,  Md.  in  1832.  He 
was  possessed  of  considerable  wealth,  at  tho 
breaking  out  of  the  American  revolution,  and 
as  he  advanced  to  sign  the  immortal  document, 
a  member  sportively  remarked  : — "  There  goes 
half  a  million  at  the  dash  of  a  pen."  But  his 
wealth  vanished  from  his  view,  when  he  looked 
upon  the  interests  of  his  country. 

CARTER,  Elizabeth,  an  English  literary 
lady,  daughter  of  a  clergyman  of  Kent,  born  in 
1717.  She  was  versed  'in  languages,  being  ac- 

fuainted  with  Latin,  Greek,  French,  German, 
talian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Hebrew,  and  Ara- 
bic. Her  early  poems,  published  in  periodicals 
before  her  17th  year,  gained  great  applause.  In 
1749,  her  translation  of  Epictetus  was  commenc- 
ed. She  died  in  1806,  having  enjoyed  a  high  lite- 
rary reputation,  and  the  esteem  of  all  who  knew 
her.  The  following  tribute  to  her  worth  and 
talents  will  not  be  thought  unmerited.  Among 
the  unmarried  ladies  of  the  last  century,  Miss 
Carter,  by  seniority  and  learning,  is  justly  enti- 
tled to  precedence ;  and  were  we  to  decide  on 
the  comparative  happiness  of  married  or  single 
authoresses,  from  the  individual  examples  of 
this  lady,  and  her  excellent  friend  Catharine 
Talbot,  we  should  have  no  hesitation  in  pro- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


CAR 


162 


CAR 


nouncing  for  the  spinster's  choice.  Without 
rank  and  affluence,  the  translatress  of  Epicte- 
tus  apj>ears  to  have  constantly  revolved  in  the 
orbit  of  peace  and  equanimity  ;  alternately  the 
pupil  of  her  father,  and  the  preceptress  of  her 
brothers,  she  enjoyed  the  privileges  of  home 
without  its  restrictions,  tasted  all  the  sweets  of 
friendship,  unimbittered  by  jealousy,  and,  what 
is  more  extraordinary,  attracted  the  homage  of 
the  great,  without  submitting  to  humiliation  or 
incurring  reproach.  Among  the  causes  of  this 
rare  felicity,  something  may  be  ascribed  to  a 
philosophic  temperament,  and  still  more  to  strict 
moral  discipline,  eminently  distinguished  by 
directness  and  steadiness  of  purpose.  To  the 
latest  period  of  her  existence  (she  died  in  her 
89th  vear),  she  retained  her  aptitude  to  study, 
and  even  persevered  in  the  laudable  habit  of 
yielding  a  portion  of  every  day  to  classical  lite- 
rature. 

Nor  did  she  ever  cease  to  cherish  that  spirit 
of  independence  that  taught  her  to -value  the 
privileges  of  home.  In  her  annual  visits  to  the 
metropolis,  she  resisted  every  solicitation  to  do- 
mesticate herself  in  the  mansions  of  the  great, 
choosing  rather  to  return  to  her  plain  lodging, 
where  sne  enjoyed  in  its  full  extent,  the  pri- 
vileges of  her  own  fireside.  It  would  not  be 
easy  to  find  a  female  character  exactly  corres- 
ponding with  that  of  Miss  Carter ;  perhaps  the 
portrait  of  the  princess  Palatine,  the  friend  of 
Penn  and  Descartes,  offers  the  closest  resem- 
blance ;  and,  like  madame  Dacier,  her  prevail- 
ing quality  was  modesty.  To  her  learning.  An- 
cient Greece,  would,  perhaps,  have  raised  a 
votive  statue;  in  Rome  her  accomplishments 
would  have  been  eulogized  in  a  funeral  oration ; 
in  modern  Italy  her  rare  attainments  might  have 
secured  her  progress  to  academic  honors.  In 
England  not  even  a  funeral  tribute  was  offered 
to  her  memory,  no  enthusiasm  being  there  in- 
spired by  a  female  scholar.  The  purity  of  her 
character,  her  moral  worth,  her  benevolence  and 
dignity,  are  justly  valued. 

As  the  translatress  of  Epictetus,  she  is  cer- 
tainly less  popularly  admired,  than  as  the  cor- 
respondent of  Miss  Talbot  and  Mrs.  Montague  ; 
and  the  charm  of  this  epistolary  collection  con- 
sists in  the  living  sketches  which  it  offers  of  those 
who  have  gone  before  us,  and  who.  in  many 
respects,  are  essentially  different  from  the  pre- 
sent age.  Curiosity  is  at  once  stimulated  and 
gratified  by  the  careless,  yet  faithful  portraiture 
which  these  volumes  present  to  us,  of  bishops 
and  generals  and  scholars  ;  fine  gentlemen  and 
elegant  ladies,  strikingly  different  from  those 


we  are  now  accustomed  to  meet  in  parallel  lines 
of  society. 

CARTHAGE,  a  celebrated  city  of  Africa, 
the  rival  of  Rome,  and  long  the  mistress  of 
Spain,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia.  The  precise  time 
of  its  foundation  is  unknown,  yet  most  writers 
agree  that  it  was  built  by  Dido  about  8(i9  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  or,  according  to  others, 
72  or  93  years  before  the  foundation  of  Rome. 
This  city  and  republic  flourished  for  several 
centuries,  and  attained  the  zenith  of  its  glory 
under  Hannibal  and  Hamilcar. 

During  the  first  Punic  war  it  contained  no 
fewer  than  700,000  inhabitants.  It  maintained 
three  famous  wars  against  Rome,  called  the 
Punic  wars,  in  the  third  of  which  it  was  totally 
destroyed  by  ^cipio,  the  second  Africanus,  B.  C. 
I4G,  and  only  5000  inhabitants  were  found  with- 
in the  walls.  It  was  23  miles  in  circumference, 
and  when  it  was  set  on  fire  by  the  Romans,  it 
burned  incessantly  for  17  days.  After  the  de- 
struction of  Carthage,  Utica  became  powerful, 
and  the  Romans  thought  themselves  secure ; 
and  as  they  had  no  rival  to  dispute  with  them 
in  the  field,  they  fell  into  indolence  and  inacti- 
vity. Coesar  planted  a  small  colony  on  the  ruins 
of  Cartilage,  and  Augustus  sent  thither  3000 
men.  Adrian,  after  the  example  of  his  impe- 
rial predecessors,  rebuilt  a  portion  of  it,  and 
gave  it  the  name  of  Adrianopolis. 

Carthage  was  conquered  from  the  Romans  by 
the  arms  of  Genseric,  A.  D.  439,  and  it  was  for 
more  than  a  century  the  seat  of  the  Vandal  em- 
pire in  Africa,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Sa- 
racens, in  the  7th  century.  Cartilage  was  gov- 
erned as  a  republic,  and  had  two  persons  chosen 
annually,  with  supreme  authority.  The  Car- 
thagenians  were  very  superstitious,  and  offered 
human  victims  to  their  gods;  an  unnatural  cus- 
tom, which  their  allies  vainly  endeavored  to 
induce  them  to  abolish.  Their  riches  and  com- 
merce were  immense,  and  their  naval  power, 
at  one  time,  supreme.  They  bore  the  character 
of  a  faithless  and  treacherous  people,  and  the 
proverb  Punica  fides  (Cartluigenian  faith),  is 
well  known. 

CARTHAGENA,  a  sea-port  of  Spain,  and 
one  of  the  finest  ports  in  the  Mediterranean.  It 
is  on  the  east  of  Murcia,  and  contains  37.000 
inhabitants.  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  un- 
der Scipio,  notwithstanding  the  defence  of  the 
Carthagenians,  A.  D.  554.  The  commerce  of 
Carthagena  suffered  greatly  during  the  domina- 
tion of  the  Moors,  but  it  was  partially  restored 
by  the  exertions  of  Philip  II  of  Spain. 

CARTHAGENA,  a  sea-port  of  New  Grena- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CAS 


163 


CAS 


da,  South  America,  and  capital  of  the  province 
of  Carthagena.  It  is  situated  on  an  island,  with 
a  fine  harbor,  some  handsome  edifices,  and 
20.000  inhabitants. 

CARVER,  Jonathan,  was  born  in  Connecti- 
cut, in  1732.  He  served  in  the  expedition 
against  Canada,  and,  on  the  conclusion  of  peace 
in  1763,  set  forth  with  the  intent  of  exploring 
the  territory  acquired  by  Great  Britain,  beyond 
the  Mississippi.  He  did  not  accomplish  his 
object,  but  made  himself  acquainted  with  re- 
gions then  and  still  comparatively  unknown. 
He  went  to  England,  but  was  obliged  to  deliver 
up  his  maps  and  papers  to  the  plantation-office. 
Having  kept  copies,  however,  he  published  them 
at  Boston,  where  he  died  in  want,  17dO,  aged 
48  years. 

CAREY,  Lucius.  Viscount  Falkland,  a  young 
English  nobleman,  who  was  born  in  1610.  His 
juvenile  irregularities  were  terminated  by  an 
early  marriage  with  a  young  lady  to  whom  he 
was  sincerely  attached.  In  parliament  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  an  independent  course, 
although  lie  ultimately  espoused  the  royal  cause, 
and  perished  at  the  battle  of  Newbury,  at  the 
age  of  34.  His  private  character  endeared  him 
to  all.  He  was  fond  of  study,  and  once  observ- 
ed :  "I  pity  unlearned  gentlemen  on  a  rainy 
day."  His  literary  remains  add  to  his  general 
reputation. 

CARUS,  Marcus  Aurelius.  a  Roman  empe- 
ror, was  born  at  Narbonne,  about  the  year  230. 
He  rose  to  a  military  command  by  his  virtues, 
and  was  elected  emperor  on  the  death  of  Pro- 
bus,  in  283.  He  defeated  the  Sarmatians  and 
Persians,  and  was  killed  the  same  year,  by  light- 
ning, according  to  some  ;  but  according  to  oth- 
ers, he  perished  in  the  flames  of  his  tent,  which 
was  consumed  by  the  work  of  an  incendiary. 

CASAS,  Bartholomew  de  las,  a  Spanish  pre- 
late, the  apostle  of  the  Indians,  came  to  Ameri- 
ca with  Columbus,  but  returned,  and  having 
distinguished  himself  in  his  theological  studies, 
was  rewarded  with  preferment.  His  life  was 
passed  in  laboring  to  protect  and  improve  the 
natives  of  the  New  World,  and  he  received  the 
grateful  title  of  protector  of  the  Indians. 

CASHMERE,  a  province  of  the  Seik  con- 
federacy, in  Asia,  containing  2.000,000  inhabit- 
ants. It  is  surrounded  by  the  Himmalaya  and 
Hindoo  Koh  mountains,  and  abounds  with  the 
most  striking  and  romantic  views.  The  air  is 
temperate,  and,  from  the  profusion  of  its  flow- 
ers, the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and  the  variety  of  its 
productions,  it  is  most  justly  called  the  paradise 
of  India.  The  religion  is  that  of  Brama,  the 


inhabitants  being  Hindoos,  although  their  mas- 
ters, the  Afghans,  are  professed  Mohammedans. 
Cashmere,  the  capital,  on  the  Be  hat,  contains 
200,000  inhabitants.  The  shawls  of  Cashmere 
are  the  most  splendid  and  costly. 

CASIMIR.  The  name  of  several  kings  of 
Poland.  Casimir  the  Great,  succeeded  Ladis- 
laus  in  1333.  He  took  several  places  from  John, 
king  of  Bohemia,  successfully  opposed  the  Teu- 
tonic knights,  and  made  himself  master  of  Lit- 
tle Russia.  He  united  to  his  warlike  qualities, 
many  of  the  virtues  of  a  great  monarch,  and, 
from  his  devotion  to  their  interests,  was  called 
Peasants'  Kins.  He  died  in  1370. 

CASSANDRA,  also,  Alexandria,  daughter 
of  Hecuba  and  Priam,  king  of  Troy.  She  re- 
ceived the  gift  of  prophecy  from  Apollo,  who 
loved  her,  but  as  she  refused  to  fulfil  the  condi- 
tions upon  which  the  knowledge  was  imparted, 
the  offended  deity  deprived  her  predictions  of  the 
power  of  commanding  belief.  Thus,  when  she 
foretold  the  fall  of  Troy,  her  words  were  discre- 
dited. Troy  was  taken,  Cassandra  dishonored 
at  the  altar  by  Ajax,  and  afterwards  dragged 
away  as  the  slave  and  companion  of  Agamemnon, 
with  whom  she  was  slain  by  Clytemnestra,  but 
not  until  she  had  become  the  mother  of  the  twins 
Teledamus  and  Pelops. 

CASSIUS,  Longinus  Caius,  was  the  friend 
of  Brutus,  and  opposed  to  the  interests  of 
Caesar,  to  whom,  however,  he  surrendered  after 
the  battle  of  Pharsalia.  When  he  perceived 
that  Cffisar  aimed  at  supreme  power,  he  joined 
the  conspiracy.  "  The  lean  and  hungry  Cas- 
sius,"  as  Shakspeare  calls  him,  was  among  the 
first  to  strike  the  master  of  the  world  with  his 
dagger.  He  married  the  sister  of  Brutus,  and 
in  the  distribution  of  the  provinces,  obtained 
Africa  as  his  share.  He  was  defeated  with 
Brutus  at  Philippi,  and  killed  himself,  B.  C.  42. 

CASTILE,  a  province  of  Spain,  which  is 
subdivided  into  the  intendancies  of  Madrid, 
Guadalaxara,  Cuenca.  Toledo,  and  La  Mancha, 
whose  capitals  have  the  same  name  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  last,  of  which  Ciudad  Rodrigo 
is  the  capital.  The  climate  of  this  province  is 
temperate,  and  the  soil  is  naturally  productive, 
although  the  scattered  inhabitants  pay  but  little 
attention  to  agriculture.  Old  Castile,  another 
province  of  Spain,  is  of  the  same  length  as  New 
Castile,  220  miles,  but  only  120  broad,  while  the 
latter  is  1(30  miles  in  breadth.  It  is  subdivided 
into  the  intendancies  of  Avila,  Segovia.  Soria, 
and  Burjros.  The  united  population  of  Old  and 
New  Castile  is  2,177,800. 

CASTINE,  a  sea-port  town  of  Maine,  and 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


CAT 


164 


CAT 


capital  of  Hancock  county.     In  1840  it  had 
1,188  inhabitants.     Its  trade  is  flourishing. 

C  ATA  LINE,  Lucius  Sergius,  a  celebrated 
Roman,  descended  from  a  noble  family.  When 
he  had  squandered  away  his  fortune  by  his  de- 
baucheries and  extravagance,  and  been  refused 
the  consulship,  he  secretly  meditated  the  ruin  of 
his  country,  and  conspired  with  many  high- 
born Romans,  as  dissolute  as  himself,  to  murder 
the  Senate,  plunder  the  treasury,  and  set  Rome 
on  fire.  This  conspiracy  was  timely  discovered 
by  the  consul  Cicero,  whose  eloquence  at  this 
crisis  will  never  be  forgotten.  Cataline,  after 
he  had  declared  his  intentions  in  the  full  senate, 
and  attempted  to  vindicate  himself,  on  seeing 
five  of  his  accomplices  arrested,  fled  to  Gaul, 
where  his  friends  were  raising  a  powerful  army 
to  support  him.  The  remaining  conspirators 
were  punished.  Petreius,  at  the  head  of  the 
consular  troops,  defeated  the  rebels  in  Etruria, 
Jan.  5,  B.  C.  G2,  in  a  hotly  contested  battle 
which  cost  Cataline  his  life.  The  crimes  of 
this  man  were  of  the  blackest  dye,  murder 
and  licentiousness  marking  every  stage  of  his 
career. 

CATALONIA,  anciently  Tarraconensis,  a 
fertile  province  of  Spain,  bounded  north  by 
France,  east  and  southeast  by  the  Mediterra- 
nean, southwest  by  Valencia, "and  west  by  Ar- 
ragon.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  triangle.  Some 
idea  of  its  extent  may  be  formed  from  the 
amount  of  its  population,  which  has  been  esti- 
mated at  858,618. 

CATANIA,  anciently  Catnna,  a  city  of 
Sicily,  47  miles  southwest  of  Messina,  with  a 
population  of  50,000.  It  is  situated  at  the  foot 
of  mount  ./Etna,  and  is  subject  to  earthquakes, 
one  of  which,  occurring  in  1693  destroyed 
18,000  people,  and  by  overwhelming  the  old  city 
in  lava,  laid  the  foundation  for  the  present  city, 
which  contains  several  large  public  building's. 
The  principal  exports  are  grain,  oil,  wine,  &c. 

CATHARINE,  the  daughter  of  Charles  VI 
of  France,  was  claimed  by  the  victorious  Hen- 
ry V  of  England,  whose  hand  she  accepted. 
After  the  death  of  Henry,  she  became  the  wife 
of  Owen  Tudor,  and  had  a  son  named  Edmund, 
who  became  the  father  of  Henry  VII.  She 
died  in  1431. 

CATHARINE  of  Arragon,  youngest  daugh- 
ter of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  sovereigns  of 
Arragon  and  Castile,  was  born  in  14811  In  l.MM 
she  was  married  to  Arthur,  son  of  Heiirv  VII. 
and  on  his  death,  five  months  after,  to  Henry. 

Krince  of  Wales,  afterwards  Henry  VIII.     By 
im  she  had  several  children,  who  died  young, 


with  the  exception  of  Mary,  afterwards  queen 
of  England.  Henry  repudiated  her  on  pretence 
of  religious  scruples  grounded  on  her  former 
marriage.  She  maintained  her  rights  with  dig- 
nity, and  died  at  Kimbolton  castle,  in  1536. 

CATHARINE  De  Medici,  the  only  daughter 
of  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  duke  of  Urbino,  and  wife 
of  Henry,  duke  of  Orleans,  son  of  Francis  I. 
She  was  the  mother  of  three  successive  kings 
of  France,  and  one  Queen  of  Navarre.  In 
1559  she  became  a  widow,  and  her  son  Francis 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  during  whose  rcigii,  her 
influence  was  supplanted  by  the  Guises.  On 
the  accession  of  her  other  son,  Charles  IX,  in 
his  eleventh  year,  she  acquired  the  chief  au- 
thority, and  brought  eternal  infamy  on  her  name 
by  her  horrible  treachery  to  the  Huguenots,  and 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  day.  She 
died  in  1589.  She  was  very  extravagant,  seem- 
ingly incapable  of  setting  bounds  to  her  expen- 
ditures. When  upbraided  with  her  prodigality 
she  would  exclaim  :  "  One  must  live  !"  She 
was  stained  with  many  and  most  odious  vices. 

CATHARINE  I,  empress  of  Russia,  the  most 
noted  female  sovereign  of  modern  days.  Her 
early  history  is  involved  in  great  obscurity.  It 
is  said  that  she  was  a  peasant-girl  of  Livonia, 
born  about  1G8C,  and  that  having  lost  her  pa- 
rents at  an  early  age,  she  was  taken  under  the 
protection  of  a  respectable  clergyman  who  super- 
intended her  education  till  his  death.  She  then 
travelled  to  Marienburg  to  seek  her  fortune, 
and  there  married  a  Swfdish  dragoon,  who  was 
killed  on  the  very  day  of  their  nuptials,  at  the 
siege  of  that  place  in  i702.  From  the  hands  of 
one  of  the  Russian  officers,  she  passed  into  those 
of  prince  MeazikofT.  who  found  it  useful  to  his 
political  designs  to  introduce  her  to  the  Czar 
Peter.  She  first  became  his  mistress,  and  after- 
wards his  wife,  and  although  she  was  suspected 
of  infidelity,  she  was  left,  at  his  death,  possessor 
of  the  throne,  and  was  declared  empress  in  1725. 
She  cnrried  into  execution  the  great  designs 
which  had  been  left  unfinished  by  her  husband, 
and  died  in  1727,  being  then  but  forty -two 
years  old  :  intemperance,  however,  is  supposed 
to  have  shortened  her  days. 

CATHARINE  II,  empress  of  Russia,  boni 
in  17'<>!».  was  the  daughter  of  the  prince  of  An- 
halt-Zerbst,  and  originally  named  Sophia  Au- 
irust.il.  Her  wlenta  were  of  the  highest  order. 
Soon  after  her  marriage  with  the  grand  duke  of 
Russia,  in  1745.  that  prince  suspecting  her  of 
infidelity,  formed  an  attachment  to  the  daugh- 
ter of  Count  WoronzofT.  and,  on  his  accession 
to  the  throne  in  17G1,  discovered  liis  intention 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CAT 


165 


CAT 


of  divorcing  Catharine,  and  marrying  the  ob- 
ject of  his  illicit  passion.  At  this  juncture  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  between  Catharine  and 
the  army  ;  Peter  was  surprised,  compelled  to 
sign  a  renunciation  of  the  throne,  kept  as  a 
prisoner,  and  soon  after  strangled.  History 
evidently  clears  Catharine  of  a  direct  participa- 
tion in  this  crime,  though  the  impunity  of  the 
murderers  proves  that  she  did  not  regret  its 
commission.  She,  however,  countenanced  the 
friends  of  Peter,  and  pardoned  the  countess  of 
Woronzoff. 

At  the  commencement  of  her  reign  she  con- 
ciliated the  affections  of  her  subjects,  and  cul- 
tivated the  arts  of  peace;  in  1764,  her  favorite, 
Poniatowski,  was  crowned  king  of  Poland,  and 
Ivan,  who  had  been  IS  years  in  a  state  of  mental 
imbecility,  died  in  prison.  In  17G8,  she  enter- 
ed into  war  with  the  Porte,  which  she  termin- 
ated with  reputation  and  advantage  in  1774; 
and  having  quelled  a  revolt  under  the  cossack 
PugatscheiF,  devoted  herself  to  the  improve- 
ment and  prosperity  of  her  kingdom.  In  1780 
she  engaged  in  the  armed  neutrality  to  protect 
the  trade  in  the  Baltic.  In  1733  she  seized  on  the 
Crimea,  and  having  formed  a  league  with  Ger- 
many, intimidated  the  Porte  from  making  re- 
prisals. At  length,  however,  war  was  declared, 
Oczakow  was  ^stormed,  Ismael  taken  after  a 
sanguinary  struggle,  the  Turkish  force  in  the 
Black  Sea  destroyed,  and  a  peace  concluded 
which  guaranteed  Oczakow  to  the  empress. 
Her  last  great  measure  was  the  reducing  and 
dismemberment  of  Poland,  in  consequence  of 
a  revolt.  She  was  a  woman  the  brilliancy  of 
whose  talents  was  obscured  by  the  indulgence 
of  many  cross  propensities.  She  died  ot  apo- 
plexy. Nov..  17%. 

CATO.  Marcus  Portiua.  commonly  called  the 
Censor,  was  born  at  Tusculum,  23'2  B.  C.  He  dis- 
tinoruished  himself  in  the  army  at  the  age  of  17, 
and  was  remarkable  for  his  temperance  and 
abstinence.  In  Sicily  and  Africa,  as  military 
tribune  and  qurestor,  he  was  noted  for  the  fidel- 
ity with  which  he  discharged  his  duties.  Being 
chosen  censor,  he  opposed  Valerius  Flaccus,  his 
colleague,  in  his  attempt  to  repeal  the  Oppian 
law,  which  was  once  passed  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  luxury.  He  conducted  the  war  in  fur- 
ther Spain  with  great  success,  and  took  no  part 
of  the  spoils  to  his  own  share.  On  his  ar- 
rival at  Rome  he  was  honored  with  a  triumph. 

As  consul  he  manifested  his  dislike  to  luxury, 
in  whatever  shape  it  was  presented.  He  also 
distinguished  himself  by  his  hatred  to  Car- 
thage, always  concluding  his  speeches  in  the 


senate  with  the  expression.  "  Preterea  censeo 
Carthaginem  esse  ddendam."  (Besides  I  think 
it  necessary  to  destroy  Carthage.)  He  died  B. 
C.  147.  In  his  old  age  he  gave  himself  up  to 
social  enjo3rments. 

CATO,  Marcus  Portius,  surnamed  of  Utica 
( Uticcnsis)  from  the  place  of  his  death,  was  the 
great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  born 
about  93  B.  C.  The  virtues  he  displayed  in  his 
early  childhood  seemed  to  prognosticate  his 
future  greatness.  At  the  age  of  fourteen,  he 
earnestly  asked  his  preceptor  for  a  sword  to  stab 
the  tyrant  Sylla.  He  served  in  the  army  against 
the  insurgent  gladiator  Spartacus,  and  though 
his  services  entitled  him  to  the  office  of  tribune, 
he  never  applied  for  it,  till  he  saw  it  in  danger 
of  being  filled  unworthily.  He  was  very  jealous 
of  the  safety  and  liberty  of  the  republic,  and 
watched  carefully  over  the  conduct  of  Pompey, 
whose  power  and  influence  were  great.  In  the 
conspiracy  of  Cataline  he  supported  Cicero,  and 
was  instrumental  in  procuring  the  capital  pun- 
ishment of  the  conspirators. 

When  the  provinces  of  Gaul  were  decreed  for 
five  years  to  Csesar,  Cato  observed  to  the  sen- 
ators, that  they  had  introduced  a  tyrant  into  the 
capital.  Being  sent  to  Cyprus  against  Ptolemy, 
by  the  influence  of  his  enemies,  who  hoped  to 
injure  his  reputation,  his  prudence  extricated 
him  from  every  danger.  That  prince  submitted 
to  him,  and,  after  a  successful  campaign,  Cato 
was  received  at  Rome  with  the  most  distin- 
guished honors,  which  he,  however,  modestly 
declined.  He  strenuously  opposed  the  first  tri- 
umvirate between  CfBsar,  Pompey.  and  Cras- 
sus.  and  foretold  to  the  Roman  people  all  the 
misfortunes  that  soon  after  followed.  After  re- 
peated applications  he  was  made  pretor.  but  un- 
successfully applied  for  the  office  of  consul. 

When  Caesar  had  passed  the  Rubicon,  Cato 
advised  the  Roman  senate  to  deliver  the  care 
of  the  republic  into  the  hands  of  Pompey,  and 
when  his  advice  had  been  complied  with,  fol- 
lowed him.  with  his  son  to  Dyrrachium,  where, 
after  some  inconsiderable  success  there,  he  was 
entrusted  with  the  care  of  the  ammunition,  and 
the  command  of  15  cohorts.  After  the  battle 
of  Pharsalia,  Cato  took  command  of  the  fleet, 
and  when  he  heard  of  Pompey 's  death  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  he  traversed  the  deserts  of 
Libya,  to  join  himself  to  Scipio.  He,  however, 
refused  to  take  the  command  in  Africa,  but 
when  he  heard  of  Scipio's  defeat,  fortified  him- 
self in  Utica.  Ciesar  approached  the  city,  but 
Cato  disdained  to  fly,  and  strengthening  his 
resolution  by  reading  Plato's  treatise  on  the 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


CEC 


166 


CEL 


immortality  of  the  soul,  gave  himself  the  fatal 
wound,  B.  C.  44.  Caasar,  on  hearing  of  his  fate, 
exclaimed  :  "  I  envy  thee  thy  death,  since  thou 
couldst  begrudge  me  the  pleasure  of  saving  thy 
life."  Lucari  mentions  this  virtuous  Roman  in 
the  following  line: 

Victrix  causa  displacuit,  sed  victa  Catoni : 
which  is  thus  literally  rendered  in  prose — 
The  successful  cause  pleased  the  gods,  but  the  un- 
successful Cato. 

A  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  Utica. 

CAUCASUS,  a  vast  chain  of  mountains  in 
Western  Asia,  inhabited  by  a  great  variety  of 
tribes.  It  is  of  immense  extent,  lying  between 
the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  and  covering  127,140 
square  mik's,  being  644  miles  long,  and,  at  the 
widest,  1S4  miles  broad. 

CAVENDISH,  William,  the  first  duke  of  De- 
vonshire, was  born  in  1640.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  house  of  commons  against  the 
court,  and  was  a  witness  in  favor  of  Lord  Rus- 
sell, with  whom  he  offered  to  exchange  clothes 
to  enable  him  to  effect  his  escape.  In  1684  he 
succeeded  to  the  title  of  earl  of  Devonshire, 
and  about  the  same  time  was  fined  £30,000  and 
imprisoned  in  the  king's  bench  for  assaulting 
Col.  Culpepper,  who  "had  insulted  him,  and 
whom  he  dragged  by  the  nose  from  the  pres- 
ence chamber,  lie  gave  bond  for  the  payment 
of  the  fine,  which,  however,  he  saved  by  the 
arrival  of  the  prince  of  Orange.  In  1689  he 
was  made  a  privy-counsellor,  and  at  the  coro- 
nation of  William  lie  served  as  lord-high-stew- 
ard. He  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  duke 
of  Devonshire,  and  during  the  king's  absence, 
after  the  death  of  the  queen,  was  appointed  one 
of  the  regency.  He  died  in  1707. 

CAXTON,  William,  an  Englishman  who 
introduced  the  art  of  printing  into  his  native 
country  in  1474.  He  died  in  1492. 

CAYENNE,  or  French  Guiana,  a  French 
colony  in  South  America.  It  is  bounded  as 
follows ;  north  and  northeast  by  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  east  and  south  by  Brazil,  and  west  by 
Dutch  Guiana.  Population  18,400.  Beside  the 
main  production,  Cayenne  pepper ,  this  province 
yields  sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  cocoa,  indigo,  maize, 
cassia,  and  vanilla.  The  French  colonized  Cay- 
enne in  1635. 

After  having1  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  the  Dutch,  it  revolted  to  its  original 
possessors  in  1677. 

CECIL,  William,  Lord  Burlcigh,  a  celebrat- 
ed statesman,  born  in  1521.  He  was  dismissed 
from  the  office  which  he  held  under  Henry 


VIII,  upon  the  accession  of  Mary,  but  held 
several  appointments  under  Elizabeth.  After 
being  privy-counsellor,  secretary  of  state,  and 
master  of  the  court  of  wards,  he  was  chosen 
chancellor  of  Cambridge,  and  raised  to  the  peer- 
age. He  died  in  1598 

CECIL,  Robert,  earl  of  Salisbury,  son  of  the- 
preceding,  on  account  of  lu's  deformity,  and 
weak  constitution,  received  the  rudiments  of 
his  education  at  home.  In  1588  he  served  in 
the  fleet  against  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  in 
1591  was  knighted,  and  sworn  of  the  privy  - 
council.  In  1596  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state,  to  the  great  disgust  of  the  earl  -of 
Essex.  The  year  following  he  was  ambassador 
in  France,  and  in  1599  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  court  of  wards.  He  kept  up  a  secret  cor- 
respondence with  kin jr  Jrmif.s.  whom  he  pro- 
claimed on  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  became  the  favorite  of  that 
monarch.  On  the  death  of  earl  Dorset,  in  1608, 
lie  became  lord  high  treasurer,  discharging  the 
duties  of  the  office  with  fidelity,  arid  dying  from 
excessive  exertion  in  1612. 

CECILIA.  One  of  the  Romish  saints  of  this 
name  is  considered  the  inventor  of  the  organ. 
and  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  A  I). 
22(1. 

CECROPS,a  native  of  Sais,  in  Egypt,  came 
to  Attica  1550  B.  C.  founded  the  city  of  Athens, 
instructed  the  uncivilized  Greeks,  introduced 
the  worship  of  Minerva,  and  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  future  prosperity  of  Greece.  He  died 
after  a  reign  of  50  years. 

CELEBES,  an  island  in  the  East  Indian 
Ocean,  500  miles  long,  and  200  broad,  contain- 
ing several  separate  states.  The  fruits  and 
flowers  of  this  island  are  abundant,  and  num- 
bers of  wild  animals  are  found  here.  The 
Dutch  who  possess  a  part  of  the  island,  obtain 
here  gold,  ivory,  sandal  wood,  rice,  cotton, 
camphor,  ginger,  long  pepper,  and  pearls. 

CELLINI.  Bcnvenuto,  united  the  talents  and 
skill  of  a  sculptor,  engraver,  and  goldsmith.  He- 
was  born  in  Florence  in  1500.  and  enriched  his 
native  city  with  his  works.  Wild,  fiery,  and 
impetuous,  although  honest,  he  was  frequently 
involved  in  quarrels  in  which  he  entirely  dis- 
regarded the  rank  and  strength  of  his  oppo- 
m:nts.  At  the  siogo  of  Rome,  according  to  his 
own  account,  he  killed  the  constable  of  Bour- 
bon. Although  he  behaved  with  gallantry  dur- 
ing the  siege,  he  was  accused  of  secreting  the 
Roman  crown  jewels,  and  imprisoned.  Francis. 
1,  having  procured  bwtelease,  invited  him  to  the 
French  court,  but  Florence  was  not  to  be  'orgot- 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CER 


167 


CER 


ten  by  the  sculptor,  and  thither  he  returned, 
and  died  in  1570. 

CELSUS,  a  Roman  medical  writer  and  prac- 
titioner, who  flourished  in  the  Augustan  age. 

CELT^E,  one  of  the  ancient  nations  or  Gal- 
lia,  whose  country  extended  from  Brittany  to 
the  Alps  and  Rhine.  Their  government  was 
aristocratical,  and  their  aptitude  for  warlike 
pursuits  great. 

CELTiBERIA,  an  ancient  country  in  the  N. 
E.  part  of  Spain  along  the  Iberus.  The  Celti- 
berians  were  completely  subdued  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  the  Sertorian  war. 

CENTAURS,  an  ancient  people  of  Thessaly 
on  Mount  Pelion.  As  little  was  known  with  re- 
gard to  their  actual  history,  they  formed  the 
favorite  theme  of  writers  of  fable,  and  tradition- 
ary tales,  being  represented  as  half  horse  and 
half  man,  and  being,  according  to  some,  the 
offspring  of  an  intermixture  of  the  human  and 
brute  races,  or,  according  to  others,  the  child- 
ren of  Ixion  and  the  Cloud.  They  were  prob- 
ably young  men  who,  having  learned  to  break 
and  ride  horses,  hunted  the  wild  bulls  that  rav- 
aged the  neighborhood  of  Mt.  Pelion,  during 
the  reign  of  Ixion.  Hence  they  were  called 
Centaurs.  In  fables,  Hercules,  Theseus,  and 
Pirithous,  are  said  to  have  contended  against 

CENTRAL  AMERICA,  formerly  the  king- 
dom of  Guatimala,  is  bounded  N.  by  Mexico 
and  the  bay  of  Honduras,  E.  by  the  Carribbean 
sea,  and  the  province  of  Veragna,  and  S.  W.  by 
the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  has  a  population  of 
2,000,000.  The  country  is  mountainous,  con- 
taining numerous  volcanic  summits,  the  soil 
fertile,  and  the  products  various.  The  republic 
is  a  confederacy  consisting  of  the  states  of  Gua- 
timala, Salvador,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and 
Costa  Rica,  and  declared  itself  independent  in 
1821,  after  some  sanguinary  struggles.  The 
original  inhabitants  were  the  Tolteoas  Indians 
from  Mexico,  whom  it  was  found  no  easy  task 
by  the  Spaniards  to  expel.  These  people,  like 
the  Mexicans,  had  made  considerable  advances 
in  the  arts,  as  their  buildings  of  various  des- 
criptions proved. 

CERBERUS,  a  three-headed  dog,  with  snaky 
hair,  the  offspring  of  Echidna,  and  the  giant 
Typhon,  and  the  untamed  guardian  of  the  gate 
of  hell.  Hercules  subdued  him,  although  the 
furies  could  not. 

CERIGO,  a  small  island  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, near  the  Morea,  and  belonging   to  the 
Ionian  republic,  it  was  anciently  called  Cythera, 
and  was  sacred  to  Venus. 
15 


CERVANTES  SAAVEDRA,  Michael,  was 
born  of  a  noble  family,  at  Alcala  de  Henares, 
in  New  Castile,  in  1547.  He  early  cultivated 
poetry,  and  preserved,  throughout  his  life,  a 
strong  inclination  for  the  muses.  In  1561), 
Cervantes,  in  the  flower  of  his  age,  went  to 
seek  in  Italy,  glory  or  fortune.  He  first  enter- 
ed the  service  of  Cardinal  Acquaviva,  in  the 
capacity  of  page.  The  war  between  the  grand 
seignior  and  the  Venetians,  offered  him  a  field 
more  worthy  of  his  birth  and  courage.  He  was 
enrolled  beneath  the  banners  of  "the  duke  of 
Paliano,  Mark  Antony  Colonna,  general  of  the 
naval  force  sent  to  succor  the  island  of  Cyprus. 
This  expedition  was  unfortunate  ;  but,  in  the 
following  year,  the  victory  of  Lepanto  reestab- 
lished the  naval  honor  of  Christendom,  and 
Cervantes  lost  his  left  hand  in  this  engagement 
whose  glory  he  shared.  In  1575  he  was  taken 
by  a  corsair  and  carried  to  Algiers,  where  he 
suffered  the  evils  of  slavery  for  six  years.  The 
tale  of  The  Captive,  inserted  in  his  novel  of  Don 
Quixotte  describes  vividly  the  scenes  through 
which  he  passed.  His  marriage  followed  close 
upon  the  publication  of  Galatea,  in  1584.  This 
novel  celebrates  his  mistress  Catharine  Salazer 
y  Palacios.  His  pen  then  became  the  only  sup- 
port of  Cervantes.  The  gloomy  reign  of  Philip 
II,  and  that  of  his  successor  Philip  III,  were 
unfavorable  to  the  efforts  of  genius,  but  while 
the  latter  of  these  monarchs  filled  the  throne, 
the  inimitable  novel  of  Don  Quixotte  made  its 
appearance.  The  first  part  appeared  at  Madrid, 
in  1605,  and  the  second  in  1615.  The  other 
works  of  Cervantes  are  forgotten  in  the  contem- 
plation of  this. 

The  history  of  the  knight  of  La  Mancha  still 
excites  the  interest  of  people  of  all  countries, 
of  all  ranks,  and  of  all  ages.  Who  delights 
not  to  recall  his  principal  adventures — the  at- 
tack on  the  windmills — the  affair  of  the  puppets 
— the  affray  with  the  wine-skins — the  vigil  of 
arms — the  scene  of  his  studies  ?  This  celebrat- 
ed work  was  written  in  prison,  Cervantes  hav- 
ing become  obnoxious  to  the  authorities  of  La 
Mancha,  who  procured  his  imprisonment  by 
the  employment  of  one  of  the  thousand  arts 
known  to  the  civil  functionaries  of  Spain.  He 
revenged  himself  by  making  his  hero  a  towns- 
man of  his  judges,  and  in  choosing  their  coun- 
try for  the  theatre  of  his  exploits.  Cervantes 
died  at  Madrid,  on  the  23d  of  April,  1616,  in 
his  69th  vear.  He  was  interred  pursuant  to  his 
own  directions,  in  the  church  of  the  fraternity 
of  the  trinity  in  that  city.  His  intimate  friends 
mourned  for  the  virtuous  citizen,  and  the  man 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY 


CHA 


168 


CHA 


of  worth.  The  wits  of  his  day,  who  had  decri- 
ed his  talents,  did  not  consider  his  loss  an  irre- 
parable one,  and  were  far  enough  from  believ- 
ing that  Spain  would  one  day  have  only  the 
romance  of  Don  Quixotic  to  oppose  to  the  mas- 
ter-works of  other  nations. 

CEUTA,  anciently  Septa,  a  town  of  Fez,  on 
the  African  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  with 
8.000  inhabitants.  It  is  opposite  to  Gibraltar, 
and  belongs  to  Spain,  although  gained  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1415. 

CEVENNES,  or  Sevennes,a  chain  of  moun- 
tains in  the  south  of  France,  forming  a  branch 
of  the  Alps ;  the  highest  summits  are  somewhat 
more  than  6,200  feet  high. 

CEYLON,  or  Seilan,  an  island  on  the  Coro- 
mandel  coast.  The  climate  is  generally  healthy, 
the  soil  fertile,  and  the  variety  of  its  productions 
surprising.  In  the  bosom  of  the  earth  are  found 
precious  metals,  the  rocks  are  enriched  with 
valuable  gems,  and  the  tropical  fruits  grow 
wild  here.  About  340,000  pounds  of  cinnamon 
are  annually  exported  to  England.  In  the  re- 
cesses of  the  forests  are  found  elephants,  leop- 
ards, jackalls,  monkeys,  &c.  The  number  of 
inhabitants  exceeds  1,000,000.  The  Cinga- 
lese, who  form  a  portion,  are  divided  into  castes 
like  the  Hindoos,  and  profess  the  religion  of 
Buddha.  "  Ceylon,"  says  bishop  Heber  "  might 
be  one  of  the  happiest,  as  it  is  one  of  the  loveli- 
est, spots  in  the  universe,  if  some  of  the  old 
Dutch  laws  were  done  away,  among  which,  in 
my  judgment,  the  most  obnoxious  are  the  mo- 
nopoly of  Cinnamon,  and  the  compulsory  labor 
of  the  peasants  on  the  high  roads,  and  other 
species  of  corcies." 

The  Portuguese,  who  early  settled  here,  so 
exasperated  the  natives,  that  the  Cingalese 
took  part  with  the  Dutch,  who  succeeded  in 
expelling  them  in  IGoli.  The  Dutch,  being 
regarded  in  the  light  of  benefactors,  were  re- 
warded with  lavish  grants  of  territory,  but 
repaid  kindness  by  ingratitude,  and  bloody  wars 
arose,  in  which  the  Europeans  were  invariably 
victorious.  In  1795,  the  English  took  posses- 
sion of  this  island,  which  was  formerly  ceded 
to  them  in  IcUfi,  and  completely  subjected  in 
181 5. 

CIIALD./EA,  an  ancient  country  of  Asia, 
near  the  junction  of  the  Tigris ;md  Euphrates; 
it  was  the  southerly  part  oi'Bahylonia,  and  was 
extremely  fertile.  The  Chaldeans  were  ;.u 
Asiatic  tribe  originally,  and  possessed  great 
astronomical  knowledge.  It  was  they  'who 
founded  the  mighty  empires  of  Babylon  and 
Asyria.  The  knowledge,  of  which  they  boasted, 


was  eventually  confined  to  the  priests,  who 
added  to  their  sciences  the  arts  of  prophecy, 
magic,  &c. 

CHALONS.  The  name  of  two  considerable 
cities  in  France,  Chalons-sur-Saone,  and  Cha- 
lons-sur-Marne,  situated  on  the  Saone  and 
Marne.  The  last  mentioned  and  most  import- 
ant, contains  12.413  inhabitants,  and  was  an- 
ciently called  Catalaunum. 

CHAMPAGNE,  formerly  a  province  of 
France,  now  forming  several  departments.  It 
is  highly  fertile  and  produces  fine  wines;  it 
contains  1.200,000  inhabitants,  and  is  11)5  miles 
long,  and  135  broad. 

CH AMPE,  John,  a  native  of  Loudon  county 
(Va.).  At  the  age  of  24,  in  the  year  177(5,  he 
entered  the  revolutionary  army  with  the  rank 
of  sergeant-major,  in  Lee's  cavalry.  His  repu- 
tation for  resolution  and  address  was  such,  that 
he  was  selected  to  attempt  the  seizure  of  Ar- 
nold, that  the  execution  of  the  traitor  might 
save  the  life  of  Andre.  His  orders  were  given 
him,  he  left  the  American  camp  as  a  deserter, 
arrived  at  New  York  after  a  perilous  journey, 
and,  after  being  closely  examined  by  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  was  admitted  to  serve  under  him.  He 
failed  in  the  attempt  to  accomplish  his  object, 
and  went  to  Virginia  with  the  royal  troops. 
Escaping,  he  rejoined  his  friends,  after  many 
hardships.  When  Washington  took  command 
of  the  army,  during  the  administration  of  Pre- 
sident Adams,  it  was  his  intention  to  bring 
Chainpe  into  the  field  at  the  head  of  a  company, 
but  he  learned  to  his  grief,  that  the  gallant  fej- 
low  had  died  in  Kentucky. 

CHAMPLAIN,  Samuel  de  ;  a  French  naval 
officer,  who  founded  Quebec  and  Montreal  in 
Canada,  of  which  he  was  governor-general, 
He  died  in  Ki:'>4. 

CHAMPLAIN,  a  lake  of  the  United  States, 
lying  between  New  York  and  Vermont,  I'M 
miles  long,  and  from  1  to  10  miles  broad.  The 
Richelieu  or  Sorellc  forms  the  outlet  by  which 
its  waters  are  discharged  into  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Here,  on  the  1  Hh  of  September,  1»]4,  Com. 
Macdonough,  the  commander  of  an  American 
fleet,  crained  a  complete  victorv  over  the  British. 

CI1AMPOLL10N  (the  yoUnger),  a  French- 
Hum,  who  has  done  more  than  any  other  man 
of  science  towards  explaining  'Hieroglyphics  of 
Egypt.  His  death,  in  ltv.2.  in  the  midst  of  his 
triumphant  researches,  was  regri-ttecl  as  an 
almost,  irrepnrnble  loss'. 

CHANTREY,  Francis,  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish sculptor,  whose  peculiar  talent  was  devel- 
oped at  an  early  age.  His  works  are  numerous ; 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


CHA 


169 


CHA 


one  of  them,  a  statue  of  Washington,  is  placed 
in  the  State-house  at  Boston. 

CHAPEL  HILL,  a  town  of  Orange  county, 
North  Carolina,  the  seat  of  the  university  of 
North  Carolina,  a  well-endowed  and  respecta- 
ble institution. 

CUARLEROI,  or  Charles  sur  Sombre,  a 
town  in  the  Belgian  province  of  Hainau,  for- 
merly Charnoy  ;  contains  3,744  inhabitants.  It 
was  founded  by  Charles,  king  of  Spain,  in  16G(i. 
After  passing  successively  from  Spain  to  France, 
and  Austria,  it  remained  in  the  hands  of  France, 
after  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  until  1814.  In  1815, 
Bonaparte  chose  this  place  as  the  first  point  of 
attack  on  the  Prussians,  who  were  driven  from 
it,  June  15,  and  compelled  to  retreat  to  Fleu- 
rus. 

CHARLES  I,  called  Charlemagne,  a  com- 
pound word,  signifying  Charles  the,  Great,  king 
of  France,  emperor  of  the  East,  was  born  in 
742,  at  the  chateau  of  Saltzburg,  in  Upper  Ba- 
varia. He  was  the  son  of  queen  Bertrade  and 
Pepin  the  Short,  on  the  death  of  whom,  in  7G8, 
he  was  crowned  king,  sharing  France  with 
Carloman,  his  younger  brother;  but  the  condi- 
tions of  the  partition  were  frequently  changed 
without  ever  giving  mutual  satisfaction,  and 
the  nobles,  who  had  long  sought  to  weaken  the 
royal  authority,  would,  without  doubt,  have 
profited  by  the  animosity  which  existed  between 
these  two  princes,  if  the  death  of  Carloman, 
which  took  place  in  771 ,  had  not  given  Charle- 
magne an  opportunity  of  becoming  sole  king 
of  France,  by  preventing  the  succession  of  his 
nephews.  Their  mother  fled  with  them  to 
Italy,  and  found  a  protector  in  Desiderius, 
king  of  the  Lombards.  *They  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Charlemagne,  on  the  taking  of  Verona, 
and  of  their  future  fate,  history  says  nothing. 
If  Pepin  had  need  of  courage,  activity  and 
extreme  prudence  to  found  a  new  dominion, 
Charlemagne  found  it  necessary  to  enchain  the 
minds  of  men  by  fear  and  admiration,  for  the 
means  employed  to  effect  usurpation,  had  en- 
feebled the  sovereign  power. 

The  people  of  Aquitania  were  the  first  who 
tried  to  aim  at  independence.  Charlemagne 
marched  against  them  with  a  small  force,  but 
he  relied  upon  Carloman,  his  brother,  to  whom 
a  part  of  Aquitania  belonged,  and  who,  in  con- 
sequence, was  compelled  to  unite  with  him. 
Carloman  found  him  at  the  appointed  spot,  at 
the  head  of  his  troops,  but  fearing  to  fall  before 
the  power  of  his  brother,  Carloman  hastily 
retraced  his  steps.  Abandoned  thus,  unexpect- 
edly, in  a  manner  which  could  not  fail  to  en- 


courajre  the  rebels,  Charlemagne  did  not  hesi- 
tate for  a  moment :  without  considering  the 
number  of  his  followers,  nor  that  of  his  enemies, 
he  pursued  his  way,  gained  a  brilliant  victory 
(770),  arranged  the  affairs  of  Aquitania  with  a 
promptitude  and  foresight  which  displayed  the 
energy  of  a  great  man,  and  the  skill  of  a  politi- 
cian, and  disconcerted  the  tributary  princes  of 
France,  who  thought  to  profit  by  the  youth  of 
the  monarch.  When  Charlemagne  found  him- 
self sole  master  of  France,  he  formed  the  pro- 
ject of  subjugating  the  Saxons.  These  people, 
who  were  still  pagans,  occupied  a  large  portion 
of  Germany  ;  like  all  barbarous  nations,  they 
preferred  plunder  to  fixed  establishments,  and 
they  were  divided  into  many  tribes,  whom  it 
was  difficult  to  unite  in  the  same  interest. 
Charlemagne  began  to  wage  war  upon  them  in 
772,  and  did  not  complete  Iheir  subjugation 
until  804 ;  so  obstinately  did  they  resist,  for  32 
years,  the  conqueror  who,  sometimes  indulgent 
to  imprudence,  and  often  severe  to  cruelty,  as 
eager  to  convert  as  to  conquer  them,  was  in  re- 
ality master  of  their  country  only,  when  he  had 
reduced  it  to  a  desert.  The  two  most  cele- 
brated chiefs  of  the  Saxons  were  Witikind  and 
Alboin,  who  finally  embraced  Christianity  in 
783.  The  cruelties  of  Charlemagne  to  the 
Saxons,  resembles  despair;  and  his  indulgence 
to  them  proves  that,  pressed  by  other  affairs, 
he  was  willing  to  make  any  concession  which 
could  bring  him  off  with  honor. 

While  he  was  fighting  on  the  banks  of  the 
Weser,  pope  Adrian  implored  his  succors 
against  Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lombards,  who 
sought  to  possess  himself  of  Ravenna,  and  urged 
the  pope  to  crown  the  sons  of  Carloman,  in 
order  to  display  Charlemagne  in  the  light  of  an 
usurper  of  the  throne  of  his  nephews,  and  thus 
stir  up  a  large  portion  of  France  against  him. 
Flying  to  the  scene  of  action  with  the  rapidity 
which  the  danger  rendered  necessary,  Charle- 
magne seized  the  person  of  Desiderius,  sent 
him  to  end  his  days  in  a  monastery,  and  caused 
himself  to  be  crowned  king  of  Lombardy,  in 
774.  Thus  ended  that  kingdom  which  shortly 
afterwards  took  its  ancient  name  of  Italy,  but 
which  preserved  the  laws  it  had  received  from 
the  Lombards. 

Charlemagne  passed  into  Spain  in  778,  be- 
sieged and  took  Pampeluna,  and  made  himself 
master  of  the  country  of  Barcelona ;  but  his 
troops,  on  their  return,  were  defeated  in  the 
pass  of  Roncesvalles,  by  a  part  of  the  Saracens, 
and  the  mountain  Gascons,  the  unruly  tributa- 
ries of  Charlemagne,  who  were  so  intractable, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


CHA 


CHA 


Iliat  more  than  thirty  years  afterwards,  strong 
forces  were  required  to  oppose  them.  At  this 
battle,  fell  the  famous  Roland,  whose  fate 
has  been  celebrated  by  romance  writers  and 
poets.  The  disaffection  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Aquitania  having  induced  Charlemagne  to  give 
them  a  separate  monarch,  he  chose  the  youngest 
of  his  sons,  Louis,  well  known  as  Louis  the 
Mild,  778.  At  the  same  time  the  continual 
efforts  of  the  Lombards  and  Greeks  to  recon- 
quer Italy,  and  the  want  of  fidelity  in  his  nobles, 
made  him  feel  the  necessity  of  rallying  them 
about  the  throne,  and  he  gave  them  for  a  king, 
Pepin.  the  second  of  his  sons ;  the  eldest,  who 
bore  the  name  of  Charles,  remained  with  him 
to  assist  him  in  his  expeditions.  He  had 
another  son,  Pepin,  whose  mother  he  had  repu- 
diated. This  son,  having  been  convicted  of 
taking  part  in  a  conspiracy  against  him,  was 
devoted  to  the  monastic  life. 

On  his  return  from  Spain,  Charlemagne 
found  himself  obliged  to  march  against  the 
Saxons,  and  each  year  renewed  the  necessity 
of  a  warlike  expedition.  He  caused  4,500  of 
them  to  be  put  to  death ;  a  ferocious  revenge 
which  only  served  to  prolong  and  invigorate 
their  resistance.  Thence  he  went  to  Rome  to 
have  his  two  sons,  Pepin  and  Louis,  crowned 
by  the  pope,  thus  confirming  the  people  in  the 
belief  that  the  head  of  religion  could  alone  ren- 
der the  royal  power  legitimate  and  sacred. 
The  year  7!)0,  the  27th  of  his  reign,  was  the 
first  which  he  passed  without  taking  up  arms, 
and  this  peace  lasted  only  until  the  spring  of 
the  following  year.  Charlemagne  had  formed 
the  project  of  re-establishing  the  empire  of  the 
west.  The  empress  Irene,  who  reigned  at 
Constantinople,  in  order  to  prevent  the  dis- 
memberment of  the  empire,  proposed  to  Charle- 
magne to  unite  their  children,  which  would 
have  placed  Europe  under  one  government. 
Her  proposal  was  accepted,  but  ambition  im- 
pelled Irene  to  dethrone  her  own  son  in  order 
to  seize  the  power  herself,  and  she  offered  her 
hand  to  Charlemagne.  This  singular  union, 
which  ambition  alone  could  suggest  and  carry 
into  effect,  would  have  presented  a  new  spec- 
tacle to  the  world,  had  not  the  empress  been 
herself  hurled  from  her  throne.  Charlemagne 
was  crowned  emperor  of  the  west,  by  pope 
Leo  III,  in  the  year  800;  and,  although  his 
journey  to  Rome  had  no  other  object,  he  af- 
fected to  be  much  surprised  at  the  honors  which 
were  heaped  upon  him.  He  was  declared  Ccr.- 
*tar  and  Augustus  ',  the  ornaments  of  the  ancient 
Roman  emperors  were  decreed  to  him ;  all  the 


consecrated  forms  were  followed  ;  nothing  was 
forgotten  but  the  fact  that  it  was  impossible  that 
an  empire  should  subsist,  the  power  of  which 
was  shared  by  the  children  of  the  deceased 
monarch.  Charlemagne,  after  having  made 
one  of  his  sons  a  monk,  had  the  misfortune  to 
lose,  in  810,  Pepin,  whom  he  had  created  king 
of  Italy;  the  year  following,  Charles,  the  eld- 
est followed  his  brother  to  the  grave ;  there 
only  remained,  of  his  legitimate  children,  Louis, 
king  of  Aquitania,  whom  he  associated  with 
him  in  the  empire  in  813,  his  great  age  and 
his  infirmities  making  him  feel  that  he  was 
approaching  the  termination  of  his  career.  Pie 
died  the  28th  of  January,  814,  in  the  71st  year 
of  his  age,  and  the  47th  of  his  reign.  By  his 
will,  made  in  806,  confirmed  by  the  French 
lords,  assembled  at  Thionville,  and  signed  by 
Pope  Leo,  Charlemagne  divided  his  estates 
among  his  three  sons.  He  left  his  subjects  the 
power  of  choosing  a  successor,  after  the  death 
of  the  princes,  provided  he  was  of  the  blood 
royal.  He  provided  that  they  should  not  have 
recourse  to  the  trial  by  battle,  in  the  case  of 
dispute,  but  to  that  of  the  cross.  This  judg- 
ment consisted,  in  doubtful  circumstances,  in 
conducting  to  church  two  men,  who  stood 
upright  with  their  elevated  arms  crossed,  during 
the  celebration  of  divine  service,  and  ihe  vic- 
tory was  gained  by  the  party  whose  champion 
remained  motionless  in  this  attitude  the  long- 
est This  is  still  called  the  judgment  of  God. 
Charlemagne  was  buried  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
His  body  is  said  to  have  been  disposed  in  the 
following  manner.  He  was  sealed  upon  a  throne 
of  gold,  clad  in  his  imperial  habits.  He  had  a 
crown  upon  his  head,  and  was  girt  with  his 
sword.  He  held  a  chalice  in  his  hand,  the  book 
of  the  Evangelists  upon  his  knees,  his  sceptre 
and  gold  buckler  at  his  feet.  The  sepulchre 
was  filled  with  pieces  of  gold,  perfumed  and 
sealed,  and  above  a  superb  triumphal  arch  was 
raised,  with  this  epitaph  :  "  Here  rests  the  body 
of  Charles,  the  great  and  orthodox  emperor, 


who  gloriously  enlarged   the  kingdom  of  the 
French, and  goverr 
years."     Charlema_ 
and  of  learned  men. 


rned  it  ha 
Charlemagne  was 


ppily  for  forty -seven 
s  a  friend  of  letters 


CHARLES  1,  king  of  England,  an  unfor- 
tunate monarch,  whose  disasters  were  prepared 
for  him  by  his  predecessors,  and  by  the  increas- 
ing spirit  of  liberty,  precipitated  and  increased 
by  the  alternate  obstinacy  and  fickleness  of  his 
disposition.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  1(525, 
and  found  that  his  reign  was  likely  to  be  troub- 
led by  a  strong  opposition  ;  but  he  could  not 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CHA 


171 


CHA 


find  courage  to  make  those  concessions  which 
the  people  were  disposed  to  demand  of  royalty. 
The  friends  of  liberty,  and  the  puritans,  were 
disposed  to  view  with  a  stern  eye,  the  stand 
which  the  king  took.  They  had  already  im- 
peached his  favorite  minister,  and  his  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  relieve  Rochelle  in  1627, 
increased  their  enmity.  Charles,  blinded  by 
the  monarchial  doctrines  of  his  father  James, 
although  he  saw  that  his  popularity  was  daily 
declining,  took  no  steps  to  gain  the  affections 
and  confidence  of  his  people.  The  parliament 
refused  to  sanction  the  wishes  of  the  monarch, 
and  passed  the  famous  bill  of  rights,  which  he 
was  obliged  to  confirm. 

Having  made  peace  with  France  and  Spain, 
Charles  determined  to  rely  on  his  own  resour- 
ces, but  resorted  to  the  desperate  expedient  of 
levying  ship  money.  This,  and  the  king's 
attempt  to  force  the  liturgy  on  the  Scotch, 
brought  upon  him  the  opposition  of  Hampden 
and  the  covenanters,  to  both  of  whom  he  was 
forced  to  submit.  After  several  parliaments 
had  been  called  and  dissolved,  Charles  called 
the  long  parliament  of  1040.  The  earl  of 
Straftbrd  and  archbishop  Laud  were  impeached, 
and  the  fury  of  the  puritans  was  excited  against 
the  church  and  the  bishops.  The  signal  for 
insurrection  was  given  by  the  king  going  him- 
self to  the  house  and  demanding  the  persons  of 
five  members  whom  he  accused  of  treason. 
Civil  war  broke  out ;  many  engagements  took 
place,  with  various  success,  but  on  the  king's 
defeat  at  Naseby,  he  retired  to  Oxford,  and  on 
the  approach  of  Fairfax,  the  parliamentary  gen- 
eral, threw  himself  on  the  protection  of  the 
Scots,  who  sold  him  to  the  parliament.  The 
army,  now  divided  from  the  parliament,  con> 
veyed  him  to  Hampton  court,  whence  he  es- 
caped with  the  intention  of  quitting  the  king- 
dom, but  was  retaken  and  brought  back. 
Charles  now  professed  himself  ready  to  grant 
all  the  terms  demanded  for  his  release,  except 
the  abolition  of  episcopacy.  He  was  in  conse- 
quence arraigned  for  high  treason,  tried,  and 
condemned.  His  conduct  during  his  trial  was 
a  noble  pattern  of  Christian  meekness  and  firm- 
ness, and  this  he  retained  to  his  death.  He  was 
beheaded  at  Whitehall,  on  the  30th  of  January, 
1648. 

CHARLES  II.  king  of  England,  son  of 
Charles  1,  and  Henrietta  Maria  of  France,  was 
horn  in  1630,  and  was  at  the  Hague  when  his 
father  was  executed.  The  Scots,  who  had 
betrayed  the  father,  sent  an  invitation  to  the 
son.  which  he  accepted,  and  was  crowned  at 
15* 


Scone,  in  1651,  when  he  was  obliged  to  take 
the  covenant.  But  he  had  no  mean  opponent 
in  Cromwell,  who  defeated  the  Scotch  at  Dun- 
bar,  and  Charles  at  Worcester.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  two  armies  was  strikingly  con- 
trasted. The  parliamentarians  were  remarkable 
for  the  plainness  of  their  dress  and  equipments, 
their  hair  being  cropped  close  (whence  their 
appellation  of  round  heads),  and  nothing  merely 
ornamental  appearing  on  their  persons.  The 
cavaliers,  on  the  contrary,  despising  the  aus- 
terity of  their  antagonists,  were  distinguished 
by  their  long  curling  locks,  the  finish  of  their 
equipments,  and  the  reckless  gayefy  of  their 
bearing.  From  the  battle  of  Worcester,  Charles 
made  his  escape,  and  lay  hidden  in  the  thick 
branches  of  an  oak  in  Boscobel  wood,  while  his 
pursuers  actually  seated  themselves  under  the 
tree.  After  many  journeyings,  in  various  dis- 
guises, he  escaped  to  France. 

In  1660,  by  the  management  of  general  Monk, 
he  was  restored ;  and  with  him  licentiousness 
and  infidelity  returned  in  a  full  tide.  In  1662, 
he  married  the  princess  of  Portugal,  by  whom 
he  had  no  children,  although  his  illegitimate 
offspring  were  numerous.  With  the  exception 
of  the  sale  of  Dunkirk  to  supply  his  extrava- 
gances, the  acts  of  Charles's  reign  can  scarcely 
be  considered  as  his  own,  and  belong  rather  to 
the  history  of  his  country.  He  lived  in  the 
unbridled  indulgence  of  his  appetites,  interfer- 
ing little  in  matters  of  state  policy.  The  few 
he  meddled  with  were  of  an  odious  nature. 
Charles  died  of  an  apoplectic  fit,  February  6, 
1685,  and  by  receiving,  in  his  last  moments,  the 
sacrament  from  a  popish  priest,  proved  that  he 
lived  a  hypocrite  as  well  as  a  libertine. 

By  affability  and  wit,  by  going  abroad  without 
ostentation,  and  mixing  with  the  lowest  of  his 
subjects,  Charles  obtained  a  certain  degree  of 
popularity,  and  the  name  of  the  Merry  Monarch 
distinguished  him  during  his  life.  His  wit  was 
ready  and  pleasant,  as  Rochester,  whose  dispo- 
sition much  resembled  the  monarch's,  happily 
expressed  in  the  epigram,  in  which  he  speaks 
of  Charles  as  one 

"  Who  never  said  a  foolish  thing, 
And  never  did  a  wise  one." 

Chailes  and  his  courtiers  being  one  day 
present  at  the  exhibition  of  a  man  who  daringly 
climbed  to  the  point  of  Salisbury  cathedral, 
and  planted  a  flag  there,  the  king  said  to  his 
favorite,  "  Faith  !  Rochester,  this  man  shall 
have  a  patent,  that  no  one  may  do  this  but 
himself!" 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


CHA 


172 


CHA 


CHARLES,  Edward,  of  the  Stuart  family, 
commonly  called  The  Pretender,  was  the  grand- 
son of  James  II,  and  was  born  at  Rome  in  1720. 
In  1745,  he  landed  in  Scotland,  and  published 
a  manifesto,  exhibiting  the  claims  of  his  father 
to  the  English  throne.  He  was  joined  by  seve- 
ral Highland  chiefs,  and  entering  Edinburgh, 
caused  his  father  to  be  proclaimed.  Charles 
Edward  was  passing  the  night  in  the  village  of 
Stateford,  and  had  thrown  himself  upon  his 
couch  in  a  state  of  agitation,  which  prevented  his 
sleeping  for  more  than  two  hours.  As  soon  as 
he  learned  that  Edinburgh  was  occupied  by  the 
Highlanders  of  Lochiel,  Keppoch,  Arlshied,  and 
O'Sullivan,  he  mounted  his  horse,  and  on  the 
given  signal,  the  army  was  in  readiness  to  enter 
the  city.  The  Castle  still  held  out  for  the  house 
of  Hanover.  To  avoid  the  balls  of  the  enemy 
who  commanded  the  most  direct  road,  the  prince 
and  his  followers,  diverging  from  the  main 
loute,  came  by  the  way  of  Duddingston  to  the 
royal  park  which  they  entered  through  a  breach 
in  the  wall.  The  royal  park,  the  favorite  pro- 
menade of  James  VII,  when  he  was  at  Edin- 
burgh, being  then  duke  of  York,  comprises 
Arthur's  Seat,  which  seems  to  shelter  Holy- 
rood-House  at  its  feet,  the  basaltic  rocks  of 
Salisbury  crags,  the  hermitage  of  St.  Anthony, 
and  the  valley  of  St.  Leonard,  spots  to  whi<:h 
poetry  and  romance  have  given  an  interest  that 
history  has  failed  to  confer. 

From  an  eminence  near  the  hermitage, 
Charles  could  contemplate,  for  the  first  time, 
the  palace  of  his  ancestors,  with  its  quadrangu- 
lar court,  and  the  round  towers  of  the  principal 
facade.  No  .alteration  had  taken  place  since 
the  time  of  James  VII.  The  entire  building 
was  standing,  and  the  standard  of  the  Stuarts 
waved  proudly  in  the  wind  that  swept  over  the 
majestic  pile.  The  Gothic  Chapel  only  was  in 
ruins,  as  if  to  remind  the  prince  that,  in  the 
revolution  of  1088,  the  war  was  particularly 
directed  against  the  faith  of  his  grandfather, 
who  decorated  this  place  with  such  pornp. 
Charles  dismounted.  Already  the  park  and  the 
surrounding  gardens  were  filled  with  a  dense 
crowd  of  all  ranks,  ages,  and  parties.  They 
were  many  merely  curious  spectators,  but  more 
mere  Jacobites,  and  th'-  latter  hastened  to  con- 
gratulate the  prince,  who  received  them  with 
ease,  and  that  smiling  look  of  pleasure,,  which 
is  so  seductive  to  all.  The  historian  Hume 
confessed,  that  the  presence  of  Charles  moved 
more  than  one  whig. 

His  youth,  his  fine  form,  his  light  locks,  his 
delicate  complexion,  so  different  from  the  bil- 


ious hue  that  characterized  the  countenances 
of  his  ancestry,  the  perfect  oval  of  his  face,  his 
intelligent  blue  eyes,  the  correct  arch  of  his 
eyebrows,  his  regular  nose  and  mouth  of  aris- 
tocratic diminutiveness,  were  all  curiously  an- 
alyzed by  the  spectators.  Some  troubled  whigs 
declared  that  there  was  in  the  countenance  of 
the  prince  an  air  of  melancholy,  which  was  a 
presage  of  disaster  in  the  midst  of  his  triumph  ; 
>ut  the  Jacobites,  and  particularly  the  ladies  of 


Edinburgh  and  Perth,  were  in  raptures  at  the 
graces  of  their  Charlie,  as  he  was  familiarly 
and  popularly  termed.  They  delighted  to  dwell 
upon  his  picturesque  costume.  Upon  his  vest 
of  tartan  plaid,  glittered  the  national  star  of  the 
order  of  St.  Andrew  ;  a  scarf  of  gold  and  azure 
served  him  as  a  baldrick.  and  to  his  neat  blue 
velvet  cap  was  attached  the  white  cockade, 
which  called  to  mind  the  rose  of  Lancaster. 

When  he  mounted  the  splendid  bay  charger 
which  had  been  presented  to  him  by'  the  duke 
of  Perth,  the  acclamations  of  the  spectators 
redoubled,  for  the  prince  was,  in  fact,  a  most 
accomplished  cavalier.  "Our  hero  looks  like 
Robert  Bruce,"  cried  the  Jacobites,  arid  they 
were  not  deceiving  themselves,  for  the  portrait 
of  Bruce  at  Holyrood  served  to  verify  the 
resemblance. 

In  the  midst  of  an  enthusiasm,  which  might 
almost  be  called  general.  Charles  could  well 
forgot,  in  this  concourse  of  his  father's  subjects, 
the  hostile  terms  of  ichig  and  tory,  and  saw 
around  him  only  Scotchmen,  interested,  like 
himself,  in  severing  the  bonds  imposed  upon 
Scotland,  under  the  specious  namo  of  the  Union. 
In  all  the  manifestoes  of  the  Stuait  family, 
since  1715,  they  appealed  as  frequently  to  the 
tnemory  of  national  independence,  as  to  the 
claims  of  their  house.  Thus,  when  Charles 
Edward  was  approaching  the  irate  of  the  palace, 
he  was  suddenly  met  by  a  hoary-headed  irentle- 


man.  James  Hepburn  of  Keith,  who  was  known 
to  be  opposed  from  principle  to  the  •'  right  divine 
of  kings,"  and  who  had  more  than  once  haugh- 
tily blamed  the  government  of  James  VII. 
This  gentleman,  who  was  esteemed  by  all  par- 
ties, was  the  first  to  show  himself  the  partisan 
of  Charles  Edward,  whom  he  regarded  as  the 
champion  of  the  deliverance  of  Scotland.  Hep- 
burn wished  to  be,  in  a  manner,  his  herald  into 
the  palace  of  his  fathers,  and  drawing  his  sword, 
he  marshaled  tin-  prince  with  dignity  to  the 
apartment  destined  lor  his  reception. 

Still,  at  intervals,  the  hostile  cannon  of  the 
castle,  growled  upon  the  city,  as  if  to  still  the 
exulting  shouts  of  the  people.  A  ball,  directed 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CHA 


173 


CHA 


at  the  palace  shattered  a  tower,  to  the  indigna- 
tion of  the  populace  who  knew  that  the  Eng- 
lish soldiery  would  dishonor,  without  remorse, 
the  most  precious  monument  of  their  ancient 
city. 

With  what  emotions  must  Charles  Edward 
have  explored  the  royal  halls  of  Holyrood,  con- 
demned for  GO  years,  to  a  kind  of  solitary  wid- 
owhood, by  the  exile  of  his  family.  In  the 
first  gallery  he  beheld  that  long  range  of  royal 
portraits,  which  the  pride  of  Edinburgh  holds 
so  dear.  In  adjacent  apartments  he  found  the 
first  traces  of  that  beautiful  queen,  whose  tragic 
fate  alone  occupies  the  inind,  even  among  the 
multitude  of  historical  and  fabulous  images. 
Here  were  her  bed  and  curtains,  the  chairs 
where  she  was  seated,  those  which  she  herself 
embroidered — and  alas  !  was  there  not  the  im- 
perishable stain  of  Rizzio's  blood  ? 

Tiie  shouts  of  the  people,  eager  to  behold 
their  prince,  more  than  once  banished  the  re- 
flections in  which  Charles  Edward  was  indulg- 
ing, and  forced  him  to  appear  at  the  windows 
•and  show  himself  to  the  citizens  of  Edinburgh. 
A  part  of  the  crowd  was  called  off  to  assist  at 
the  ceremony  at  the  Cross  of  the  High-street, 
now  destroyed — a  place  where  the  proclama- 
tion of  public  acts  had  taken  place  from  time 
immemorial.  The  gallery  in  which  the  heralds 
and  pursuivant  at  arms,  clad  in  their  official 
costume,  appeared,  was  decorated  with  tapes- 
try. A  troop  of  Highlanders  were  formed  in  lines 
two  deep  on  each  side  of  the  street,  the  trumpets 
sounded  a  flourish,  the  bagpipes  played  their 
pibrochs,  and  when  the  crowd  was  silenced, 
James  VIII  was  proclaimed,  the  commission 
appointing  Charles  Edward  regent  read,  as  well 
as  the  manifesto  of  the  prince,  dated  Paris,  May 
16,  1745.  The  innumerable  windows  of  the 
houses  in  the  High-street,  some  of  which  were 
more  than  ten  stories  high,  \vere  filled  with  la- 
dies, who  waved  their  white  handkerchiefs,  to 
excite  the  shouts  of.  the  people  ;  the  attach- 
ment to  the  legitimate  monarch  appeared  univer- 
sal, as  if  the  faults  of  the  dynasty  had  been  ex- 
piated by  its  misfortunes.  While  the  heralds 
were  proclaiming  James  and  his  son,  at  the  foot 
of  the  gallery,  the  lady  Broughton  of  Murray,  a 
woman  of  uncommon  beauty  j  appeared  upon  a 
splendid  horse,  with  a  drawn  sword  in  her 
hand,  like  a  heroine  of  Ariosto  or  Tasso,  while 
other  ladies  distributed  white  ribbons  to  their 
brothers  and  admirers. 

Charles  Edward  was  at  first  successful — de- 
feating general  Cope  at  Preston  Pans,  but  he 
returned  to  Edinburgh  and  wasted  his  time  in 


idle  parades.  Being,  however,  joined  by  seve- 
ral discontented  chiefs,  he  marched  as  far  as 
Manchester,  but  hearing  that  the  king  was 
about  to  take  the  field,  he  returned  to  Scotland, 
and  defeated  the  English  forces  under  Hawley, 
at  Falkirk.  In  the  mean  time  the  duke  of  Cum- 
berland advanced  to  Edinburgh,  and  thence  to 
Aberdeen,  the  pretender  retreating  before  him. 
At  length  the  two  armies  met  alCulloden,  when, 
after  an  obstinate  conflict,  in  which  the  High- 
landers displayed  signal  courage,  the  royal  army 
was  successful,  and  the  rebels  fled,  leaving 
3,000  of  their  number  dead  upon  the  field. 

A  well-authenticated  anecdote  of  this  battle 
strikingly  displays  the  simplicity  and  ferocity 
of  the  Highlanders.  An  English  officer,  hav- 
ing fallen  into  the  hands  of  a  muscular  adver- 
sary, who  had  thrown  away  his  musket,  and 
was  brandishing  a  broadsword,  supplicated  for 
quarter.  "  Quarter  !  quarter  !"  cried  the  irri- 
tated Highlander,  "  I  hae  nae  the  time  to  quar- 
ter ye,  sae  ye  must  een  be  contentit  to  be  cuttit 
in  twa", — suiting  the  action  to  the  word. 

Charles  Edward  wandered  for  a  long  time  in 
disguise,  chiefly  among  the  Hebrides,  and  final- 
ly "effected  his  escape  to  France,  Nothing 
throws  a  clearer  light  on  the  fidelity  and  honor 
of  the  Scotch,  than  the  fact,  that,  although 
Charles  was  frequently  at  the  mercy  of  some  of 
the  poorest  mountaineers,  the  high  price  which 
was  set  upon  his  head,  could  not  tempt  them  to 
betray  him.  One  time,  after  having  been  with- 
out food  for  days,  his  dress  torn  to  tatters,  by 
his  briery  hiding-places,  Charles,  finding  him- 
self near  the  house  of  a  whig  gentleman,  sought 
shelter  in  it.  "  I  am  your  political  opponent," 
said  the  high-minded  whig  ;  "  but  I  am  also 
your  fellow  man.  I  scorn  to  take  advantage  of 
your  distress,  and  will  protect  you  as  long  as 
you  choose  to  remain  beneath  my  roof."  He 
kept  his  word,  and  even  furnished  the  unhappy 
prince  with  a  disguise  which  facilitated  his  es- 
cape. This  feeling  of  forbearance  to  Charles, 
after  his  defeat,  was  manifested  in  a  higher 
quarter.  King  George  being  at  a  ball,  a  lady, 
who  did  not  know  him,  asked  him  to  drink  to 
the  health  of  the  pretender.  "  Willingly,"  re- 
plied the  king ;  "  I  cannot  refuse  to  drink  to 
the  health  of  every  unfortunate  prince." 

With  the  defeat  of  the  pretender  ended  all 
the  hopes  of  the  unfortunate  Stuart  family. 
Charles  Edward  died  at  Florence,  in  1788. 

CHARLES  X,  Gustavus,  king  of  Sweden, 
ascended  the  throne  on  the  abdication  of  Chris- 
tiana, in  1654.  He  obtained  over  the  Poles  the 
famous  victory  of  Warsaw,  besides  taking  a 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY, 


CHA 


174 


CHA 


number  of  important  places.  The  Poles,  call- 
ing to  their  assistance  Muscovy,  England,  and 
Denmark,  obliged  the  king  of  Sweden  to  con- 
clude a  peace  ;  but  the  war  breaking  out  again, 
Charles  took  Cronenburgh,  and  laid  siege  to 
Copenhagen}  his  navy  having  been  defeated, 
he  was  obliged  to  return  home,  and  died  in 
1660. 

CHARLES  XI,  of  Sweden,  was  born  in 
1665.  On  his  accession  a  peace  was  concluded 
with  Denmark,  but  in  1674,  in  the  war  with 
that  power,  he  lost  several  places,  which  were 
restored  at  the  peace  of  Nimeguen.  He  mar- 
ried the  sister  of  the  king  of  Denmark,  and  died 
in  1697. 

CHARLES  XII,  of  Sweden,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1682.  He 
came  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  15.  and,  at  his 
coronation,  snatched  the  crown  from  the  hands 
of  the  archbishop  of  Upsal,  and  placed  it  on  his 
own  head.  He  was  well  educated,  and  very 
fond  of  bodily  exercises.  The  commencement 
of  his  reign,  however,  gave  no  splendid  proof 
of  genius  or  talent.  But,  on  the  formation  of  a 
confederacy  against  him  by  Russia,  Denmark, 
and  Holland,  he  seemed  to  arouse  from  his 
slumber.  He  himself  gave  the  casting  voice  in 
the  council  for  the  most  vigorous  measures,  and 
immediately  prepared  to  carry  them  into  effect. 


He  renounced  at  once  even  limited  enjoyments, 
support  the  charac- 
ter he  had  marked  out  for  himself.     Of  the  con- 


and  bent  all  his  energies  to  i 


federated  powers,  he  attacked  each  in  turn, 
beginning  with  Denmark,  which  produced  a 
peace  with  that  power. 

In  1700  he  obtained  a  brilliant  victory  over 
the  Russians  at  Narva ;  although  his  force  con- 
sisted of  only  8,000  men,  he  attacked  them  in 
their  intrenchments,  slew  30,000  and  took 
20,000  prisoners.  His  next  enterprise  was  against 
Poland,  and  after  several  battles,  he  dethroned 
Augustus,  and  placed  Stanislaus  upcn  the 
throne,  lie  obtained  some  signal  advantages 
over  Peter  the  Great,  but  at  length  experienced 
a  terrible  defeat  at  Pultowa,  in  1709.  Almost 
all  his  troops  were  either  slain  or  taken  prison- 
ers ;  he  himself  was  wounded  in  the  leg,  and 
carried  off  in  a  litter. 

Charles  sought  an  asylum  in  Turkey,  where 
he  was  hospitably  received  by" the  grand  seign- 
ior, who  provided  for  him  a  residence  at  Ben- 
der. He  availed  himself  of  his  asylum  to  per- 
suade the  grand  seignior  to  enter  into  a  war 
with  Russia,  and  employed  much  money,  much 
time,  and  many  menaces  to  induce  it.  His  con- 
duct was,  at  length,  so  violent,  that  he  was  or- 


dered to  leave  the  Turkish  territories.  This  he 
refused  to  obey.  The  sultan  then  directed  that 
he  should  be  forced  away  ;  but  Charles,  with 
his  retinue,  resisted  the  attack  of  the  Janizaries, 
till  superiority  of  numbers  obliged  him  to  take 
shelter  in  his  house,  which  he  defended  with 
great  spirit,  and  did  not  yield  till  the  premises 
were  in  flames.  He  then  sallied  out,  sword  in 
hand,  but  being  entangled  by  his  long  spurs,  he 
fell  and  was  taken  prisoner.  After  having  been 
confined  as  a  prisoner  six  months,  he  finally  set 
out  on  his  return  to  his  own  dominions. 

In  1716  he  invaded  Norway,  but  after  pene- 
trating to  Christiana,  was  obliged  to  return  to 
Sweden.  He  resumed  the  attack  in  the  winter 
of  1718,  but  was  killed  by  a  cannon-shot  at  the 
siege  of  Frederiekshall,  December  11,  aged  36 
years,  having  reigned  21 . 

Charles  was  liberal,  active  and  firm,  but  rash, 
obstinate,  and  cruel.  At  the  battle  of  Narva,  he 
had  several  horses  shot  under  him,  and  as  he 
was  mounting  upon  a  fresh  one,  he  said, "  These 
people  find  me  exercise." 

When  he  was  besieged  at  Stralsund,  a  bomb 
fell  into  the  house  while  he  was  dictating  to  his 
secretary,  who  immediately  dropped  his  pen, 
and  started  up  in  a  fright.  "  What  is  the  mat- 
ter?" said  the  king,  calmly.  "  The  bomb  !  the 
bomb  !  sire,"  said  the  agitated  secretary.  "  Well, 
sir,"  resumed  Charles,  "  what  has  the  bomb  to 
do  with  what  I  was  dictating  to  you?  Goon." 
When  struck  by  the  ball  that  caused  his  death  ; 
he  instinctively  grasped  his  sword-hilt  as  if 
seeking  for  revenge.  Charles  was  exceeding 
temperate,  abjuring  wine,  and  living  frequently 
upon  the  coarsest  bread.  No  woman  ever  ex- 
erted any  influence  over  him.  His  dress  con- 
sisted of  an  old  cloak,  a  blue  coat  with  brass 
buttons,  a  plain  waistcoat  and  breeches  of  leath- 
er, high  boots  with  spurs,  and  long  leather 
gloves. 

CHARLES  XIV,  of  Sweden,  originally  Jean 
Baptiste  Jules  Bcrnndotte,-$eTVcd  with  distinction 
in  the  armies  of  Napoleon,  and  was  chosen  to 
fill  the  throne  of  Sweden.  But  from  the  mo- 
ment of  his  elevation  by  the  Swedes,  he  ceased 
to  live  for  any  thing  but  the  good  of  the  nation, 
which  had  adopted  him. 

CHARLES  I,  king  of  Sicily  and  Naples, 
born  in  1220,  was  the  son  of  Louis  VIII,  of 
France.  Having  married  the  daughter  of  the 
count  of  Provence,  he  thereby  became  his  suc- 
cessor, and  added  to  his  dominions  the  coun- 
ties of  Anjou  and  Maine.  He  was  taken  pris- 
oner, with  his  brother  Louis,  in  Egypt,  in  1248. 
On  his  return  he  defeated  Manfred,  the  usurp- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CHA 


175 


CHA 


er  of  the  Sicilian  crown,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  king  of  Naples.  He  also  defeated  his  rival, 
Conradin,  duke  of  Suabia.  and  took  him  and 
the  duke  of  Austria  prisoners.  Charles,  on  this 
occasion,  brought  infamy  on  his  name,  by  caus- 
ing his  royal  captives  to  be  put  to  death,  at 
Naples,  on  a  public  scaffold.  After  this  he  laid 
the  prince  of  Tunis  under  tribute,  and  quelled 
the  Ghibellines.  In  1276,  he  gained  the  title  of 
king  of  Jerusalem,  and  meditated  an  expedition 
against  Constantinople.  But  his  arbitrary  con- 
duct occasioned  a  general  insurrection  in  Sicily, 
where  8,000  of  the  French  were  massacred  on 
Easter-Monday,  12^2.  This  massacre  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  "  Sicilian  vespers,"  the  bell 
for  evening  prayers  being  the  signal  of  revolt. 
The  Sicilians  then  chose  Peter  of  Arragon  for 
their  king.  Charles  died  in  1235. 

CHARLES  MARTEL,  son  of  Pepin  Heris- 
tel,  and  mayor  of  the  palace  under  Chilperic 
and  Thierry  IV,  kings  of  France.  He  gained 
many  victories,  the  principal  of  which  was  over 
the  Saracen  general,  Abdalrahman,  in  732.  On 
the  death  of  Thierry,  in  737,  no  successor  was 
appointed,  and  Charles  conducted  the  govern- 
ment as  duke  of  the  Franks.  He  died  in  741, 
and  left  his  dominions  between  his  sons  Carlo- 
man  and  Pepin  ;  the  latter  of  whom  became 
the  first  king  of  France  of  the  Carlovingian 
race,  which  name  was  taken  from  the  founder, 
Charles  Martel. 

CHARLES  IV,  emperor  of  Germany,  was 


the  son  of  John  of  Luxemburg,  and  grandson 
of  the  emperor  Henry  VII.  He  ascended  the 
throne  in  1347.  In  his  reign  the  golden  bull 


was  given  at  the  diet  of  Nuremburg,  in  1  35G, 
which  established  the  Germanic  constitution. 
Charles  died  in  1378.  He  was  a  learned  man 
and  a  great  patron  of  letters. 

CHARLES  V,  emperor  of  Germany,  and 
king  of  Spain  (in  the  latter  capacity,  Charles 
I),  was  born  at  Ghent,  in  1500.  He  succeeded 
to  the  kingdom  of  Spain  in  1516,  and  to  the 
empire  on  the  death  of  Maximilian,  in  151!'. 
Francis  I.  of  France,  disputed  with  him  the 
latter  title,  and  their  rivalry  occasioned  a  vio- 
lent war  in  1521.  Charles  was  joined  by  Henry 
VIII  of  England,  and  after  several  important 
actions,  took  Francis  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Pavia.  A  peace  having  been  concluded  in 
1529,  Charles  turned  his  arms  against  Africa, 
where  he  defeated  Barbarossa,  entered  Tunis, 
and  re-established  Muley-Hassan  on  the  throne. 
Soon  after  this  he  renewed  hostilities  against 
France,  ravaging  Champagne  and  Picardy,  till 
he  was  at  length  obliged  to  retire,  and  peace 


was  restored  in  1538.  In  1541  he  attempted 
the  conquest  of  Algiers,  but  his  fleet  was  dis- 
persed by  a  storm,  and  the  emperor  was  obliged 
to  return  in  disgrace.  He  again  leagued  with 
England  against  France,  but  fortune  was  not  so 
favorable  to  him  as  she  had  formerly  been,  and 
he  was  glad  to  enter  into  a  treaty  in  1545.  The 
prolestant  princes  of  Germany  confederated 
against  him,  and  obtained  liberty  of  conscience 
for  those  of  their  religion.  In  1556  he  resigned 
the  crown  to  his  son  Philip,  and  retired  into  a 
monastery  in  Estremadura,  where  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  days  in  religious  exercises, 
mechanical  pursuits,  and  gardening.  He  died  in 
1558.  He  encouraged  artists,  and  once  picked 
up  a  pencil  which  Titian  had  diopped.  and  pre- 
sented it  to  him,  saying  :  "  That  Titian  was 
worthy  of  being  served  by  an  emperor."  As  a 
pious  penance, he  caused  himself  to  be  wrapped 
in  a  shroud,  and  placed  in  a  coffin,  and  thus 
celebrated  his  own  obsequies.  This  ceremony 
hastened  his  death. 

CHARLES  THE  BOLD,  duke  of  Burgun- 
dy, the  son  of  Philip  the  Good,  was  born  in 
1433.  There  were  constant  wars  between  him 
and  Louis  XI,  king  of  France,  who  instigated 
Charles's  subjects,  the  Liegois,  to  revolt  against 
him.  Charles  seized  on  Guelderland  and  Zut- 
phen.  and  afterwards  invaded  Switzerland,  but 
his  army  was  put  to  the  rout  and  his  baggage 
taken  by  the  Swiss.  He  collected  another  army, 
but  was  again  defeated,  and  slain  while  besieging 
Nancy,  in  1477.  As  he  was  that  day  puttingon  his 
helmet,  the  golden  lion  which  formed  the  crest, 
fell  to  the  ground,  and  he  exclaimed,  "  Ecce 
iiiaynmn  signum  Dei .'"  Bekold  the  sign  of 
God! 

CHARLES  IX,  of  France,  son  of  Henry  II 
and  Catharine  of  Medici,  was  born  in  1550,  and 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1560 ;  his  mother 
conducted  the  government ;  but  she  so  abused 
her  trust  that  the  protestants  revolted,  and  a 
civil  war  ensued,  in  which  the  insurgents  were 
unsuccessful.  The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's ensued.  It  is  said  that  Charles  repented 
of  this  horrid  crime  on  his  death-bed,  in  1574. 

CHARLES  X,  Philip,  king  of  France  and 
Navarre,  ascended  the  throne,  which  had  been 
filled  by  his  brothers,  the  unfortunate  Louis 
XVI  and  Louis  XVIII,  in  September,  1824. 
He  bore  for  some  time  the  title  of  count  qfJlrtois, 
and  afterwards  that  of  monsieur.  He  was  fond 
of  expensive  pleasures,  and  distinguished  for 
the  mildness  of  his  manners.  Charles  was 
crowned  at  Rheims.  being  anointed  with  the 
holy  oil,  which  it  was  absurdly  pretended  had 


CYCLOPEDIA    OP   HISTORY. 


CHA 


176 


CHA 


\>ecn  brought  from  heaven  by  a  dove.  He  swore 
to  maintain  the  charter,  but  he  had  not  been  long 
seated  on  the  throne,  before  he  began  to  play 
those  "  fantastic  tricks,"  which  seems  to  belong 
peculiarly  to  the  province  of  legitimacy.  The 
press,  that  vast  moral  engine  at  which  tyrants 
tremble,  became  obnoxious  to  the  monarch,  and 
a  censorship  was  established  in  1827.  The  king, 
however,  showed  himself  rather  favorably  dis- 
posed to  the  Greeks,  which  produced  him  a 
temporary  popularity.  The  ministry  of  prince 
Polignac,  however,  caused  great  indignation,  on 
account  of  the  arbitrary  tone  of  the  measures 
adopted  ;  and  the  unwarrantable  prosecution  of 
the  liberal  press,  hastened  the  revolution  of 
1830,  when  the  Parisians  overcame  the  royal 
troops,  and  the  French  legislature  exiled  Charles 
X,  imprisoned  the  ministers  for  life,  and  seated 
Louis  Philippe  on  the  throne. 

CHARLES  EMANUEL  I,  duke  of  Savoy, 
surnamed  the  Great,  was  born  in  15G2.  Though 
of  a  week  constitution,  he  was  of  an  enterpris- 
ing spirit,  and,  taking  advantage  of  the  internal 
commotions  of  France,  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
III,  he  seized  part  of  Dauphiny  and  Provence ; 
on  the  death  of  that  monarch,  he  aspired  to  the 
crown,  but  was  disappointed.  A  war  broke  out, 
and  the  French  troops  took  possession  of  -part 
of  Savoy.  By  the  mediation  of  the  pope,  how- 
ever, peace  was  concluded.  The  duke  made  a 
treacherous  attempt  to  seize  Geneva,  but  bis 
troops  were  repulsed,  and  the  prisoners  that 
were  taken,  were  hung  up  by  the  Genevans  as 
robbers.  On  the  death  of  Francis,  duke  of 
Mantua,  in  1613,  this  restless  prince  laid  claim 
to  the  succession,  but  was  obliged  to  relinquish 
it.  The  French  persuaded  him  to  turn  his  urms 
against  Genoa,  and  he  gained  some  advantages, 
but  the  interference  of  Spain  effected  a  peace. 
He  aspired  to  the  imperial  crown,  and  made  an 
attempt  on  the  duchy  of  Montserrat,  which  in- 
volved him  in  a  war  with  Franc*  and  Spain. 
He  died  in  Ki30,  it  is  supposed  of  grief  for  the 
loss  of  Pignerol. 

CHARLESTON,  a  city  ajid  sea-port  of  South 
Carolina,  with  29,261  inhabitants,  a  large  pro- 
portion of  whom  are  slaves.  It  is  the  largest 
town  in  South  Carolina,  and  the  emporium,  not 
only  of  that  state,  but  of  a  considerable  part  of 
North  Carolina.  It  is  situated  on  a  tongue  of 
land  formed  by  the  confluence  of  Cooper  and 
Ashley  rivers,  at  a  distance  of  about  seven  miles 
from  the  ocean.  .Much  taste  is  evinced  in  its 
public  buildings,  and  an  idea  of  elegance  and 
comfort  is  conveyed  b'y  the  appearance  of  its 
private  houses,  which  are  mostly  of  brick,  and 


generally  furnished  with  piazzas.     It  is  a  place 
of  much  wealth  and  commerce. 

CHARLESTOWN,  a  town  of  Middlesex 
county,  Massachusetts,  with  10,872  inhabitants, 
is  separated  by  Charles  River  from  Boston,  from 
the  centre  of  which  it  is  one  mile  distant.  The 
Navy  Yard  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  United 
States.  On  Bunker  Hill,  in  this  town,  was 
fought  a  memorable  battle,  June  17,  1775.  On 
the  evening  of  June  16th.  Col.  Prescott  re- 
ceived orders  to  fortify  Bunker  Hill,  but  Gen. 
Putnam,  who  had  the  command  of  the  expedi- 
tion, finding  Breed's  Hill  more  suitable,  the 
requisite  fortifications  were  rapidly  thrown  up 
on  that  height.  We  must  now  give  a  glance  at 
the  respective  forces  of  the  contending  parties. 
The  British  troops  were  well  equipped  and  offi- 
cered, possessed  all  the  advantages  of  strict  dis- 
cipline, and  were  by  no  means  distrustful  of  the 
issue  of  the  contest.  The  American  army,  on 
the  other  hand,  had  been  hastily  called  togeth- 
er, was  composed  of  men,  who  had  few  ideas 
of  military  combinations,  and  whose  weapons 
were  generally  fowling-pieces  without  bayonets, 
but  who  were  all  animated  by  one  spirit.  Their 
leaders  were  beloved  and  respected  by  them,  and 
were  men  of  tried  truth  and  nerve — Putnam, 
Stark,  Pomeroy,  Warren,  and  Prescott — men 
whose  names  yet  call  a  glow  into  the  bosom  of 
every  patriot. 

The  British  weie  not  aware  of  the  existence 
of  the  redoubts  until  the  morning  of  the  ]7th, 
when  their  ships-of-war,  floating  batteries,  and 
the  guns  of  Copps  Hill,  opened  a  severe  fire  on 
the  Americans.  At  one  o'clock,  the  troops  un- 
der Howe  landed  in  Charlestown,  and  were 
soon  after  reinforced,  which  swelled  their  num- 
ber to  about  5,000  men,  with  six  field-pieces. 
The  provincial  troops  amounted  to  perhaps  2,000 
men  with  two  field-pieces.  "  Don't  fire,"  said 
Putnam  to  his  men,  "  till  you  can  see  the  whites 
of  their  eyes."  The  British  approached  unmolest- 
ed till  they  came  within  close  gun-shot,  when 
the  tremendous  fire  of  the  provincials  drove 
them  back  with  great,  slaughter.  In  the  second 
attack,  Charlcslown  was  set  on  fire  and  burned 
to  the  ground,  adding  its  raging  flames  to  the 
other  horrors  of  the  battle  scene.  As  the  ammu- 
nition of  the  Americans  was  nearly  exhausted, 
the  third  attack  carried  the  redoubt,  although 
the  provincials  resisted  the  British  with  the 
butt-ends  of  their  muskets,  and  slowly  retreat- 
ed from  the  hill.  The  Americana  lost  L15 killed, 
(among  them  general  Warren),  305  wounded, 
arid  30  made  prisoners.  The  British  lost  1054 
in  killed  and  wounded.  On  the  17th  of  June, 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CHA 


177 


CHA 


]  825,  the  corner-stone  of  a  monument  was  laid 
with  great  ceremony,  and  the  work  bids  fair  to 
be  speedily  completed,  in  a  style  worthy  of  the 
great  event  which  it  commemorates. 

CHARLOTTE,  Augustus,  daughter  of  queen 
Caroline  and  George  IV,  a  beautiful,  amiable, 
and  accomplished  lady,  became,  at  the  age  of 
20,  the  wife  of  prince  Leopold  of  Coburg,  May 
a,  1816.  They  were  tenderly  attached  to  each 
other.  November  5, 1817.  the  unfortunate  prin- 
cess, in  becoming  the  mother  of  a  child  that  did 
not  survive  her.  lost  her  life.  The  physician 
who  had  attended  her,  shot  himself.  The  prin- 
cess was  beloved  by  the  English  nation,  and  her 
death  deeply  lamented. 

CHARON,  in  mythology,  the  son  of  Erebus 
and  Nox.  He  was  the  ferryman  of  hell,  being 
supposed  to  carry  the  dead  across  the  waves  of 
Acheron,  Cocytus.  and  the  Styx,  receiving  an 
oboius  in  pay.  This  coin  was  placed  in  the 
mouth  of  the  dead,  as,  without  it,  it  was  thought 
that  the  deceased  would  be  condemned  to  long 
arid  restless  wanderings  on  the  dreary  banks  of 
Acheron.  Charon  was  represented  as  an  old 
man,  of  a  forbidding  aspect,  dressed  in  rao-s. 

CHARYBDIS,  the  rapacious  daughter  of 
Neptune  and  Terra,  whom  Jupiter  changed  into 
a  whirlpool.  The  whirlpool  in  the  Sicilian  Sea, 
whose  origin  was  thus  related  in  mythology,  is 
no  longer  dreaded  by  mariners,  who  formerly 
were  frequently  wrecked  upon  the  opposite 
rock,  Scylla,  in  attempting  to  escape  from  Cha- 
rybdis  ;  the  latter  is  now  called  Calofaro  and 
La  Rema. 

CHASE,  Samuel,  a  distinguished  American, 
who  was  born  in  Maryland,  April  17,  1741,  and 
was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of  in- 
dependence. In  1796,  he  was  made  by  Wash- 
ington an  associate  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of'the  United  States.  Having  been  impeached 
by  the  House  of  Representatives,  he  was  ac- 
quitted by  the  Senate.  He  died  June  9,  1811, 
with  a  hio-h  reputation. 

CHATHAM,  William  Pitt,  earl  of,  was  the 
son  of  Robert  Pitt,  Esq.,  of  Boconock,  in  Corn- 
wall, and  born  November  15, 1708.  On  quit- 
ting the  university,  he  went  into  the  army  as 
cornet,  but  soon  left  the  military  life.  and.  in 
1735,  obtained  a  seat  in  parliament  for  Old  Sa- 
rum.  His  eloquence  was  first  displayed  on  the 
Spanish  convention,  in  1738,  and,  in  a  short 
time,  Sir  Robert  Walpole  found  him  the  most 
powerful  opponent  he  had  ever  encountered. 
The  dowager  duchess  of  Marlborough,  left  Mr. 
Pitt  a  legacy  of  10.000L  for  his  conduct  at  this 
period.  In  1746.  he  was  made  vice-treasurer 


of  Ireland,  and  the  same  year  paymaster  gen- 
eral of  the  army.  In  1755,  he  resigned  his 
places  ;  but  the  year  following,  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  for  the  southern  department. 
In  this  post,  however,  he  did  not  remain  long, 
on  account  of  some  difference  with  the  king ; 
but  such  was  his  popularity,  that  his  majesty 
found  it  necessary  to  recall  him.  In  1757,  he 
became  prime  minister,  in  which  situation  he 
gave  a  new  turn  to  affairs,  and  by  the  vigor  of 
his  measures,  subverted  the  power  of  France  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America. 

In  the  midst  of  his  glory,  George  II  died,  and 
Mr.  Pitt  resigned  the  helm  to  lord  Bute  ;  when 
his  lady  was  created  a  peeress,  and  he  himself 
rewarded  with  a  pension.  In  1766,  he  was 
created  a  peer,  by  the  title  of  earl  of  Chatham, 
and  at  the  same  time  was  made  lord-privy-seal, 
which  place  he  resigned  two  years  afterwards. 
During  the  war  of  our  revolution,  he  opposed 
the  ministers,  and  in  a  speech  on  the  subject  of 
the  independence  of  the  colonies,  April  7, 1778, 
exerted  himself  so  energetically,  as  to  fall  ex- 
hausted into  the  arms  of  those  around  him.  He 
died  on  the  llth  of  the  following  month.  A 
public  funeral  and  monument  were  voted  by 
parliament ;  an  annuity  of  4000Z.  was  annexed 
to  the  earldom  of  Chatham,  and  his  debts  were 
discharged. 

CHATTERTON,  Thomas,  a  youth  whose 
early  talents  and  fate  have  excited  great  inter- 
est, was  born  at  Bristol,  in  1752,  of  poor  parents. 
In  his  twelfth  year  he  wrote  a  poem  of  some 
merit,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  successfully 
imitated  the  style  of  antique  English  writers, 
and  introduced  to  the  world  as  works  of  great 
antiquity,  the  fruits  of  his  own  mind.  The 
reception  he  met  with  in  London,  led  him  to 
form  the  most  extravagant  hopes,  which  were, 
however,  never  realized,  for  the  wretchedness 
of  his  situation  induced  him  to  commit  suicide 
by  poison  at  the  age  of  18,  in  1770.  The  poems 
which  he  wrote  at  15,  he  published  under  the 
name  of  Rowley.  His  works  form  a  collection 
in  three  volumes,  and  have  gone  through  many 
editions. 

CHAUCER.  Geoffrey  a  celebrated  English 
poet,  was  the  son  of  a  merchant,  and  was  born 
in  London,  in  1328.  At  the  age  of  18,  his  Court 
of  Love  gained  him  celebrity.  He  was  high  in 
favor  with  Edward  III,  and  married  the  sister 
of  lady  Catharine  Swynford,  afterwards  the  wife 
of  the  duke  of  Lancaster.  He  filled  several 
responsible  offices,  and  was  sent  abroad  as  am- 
bassador. His  fortunes  varied  with  those  of 
the  party  to  which  he  was  attached,  but  he 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


CHA 


178 


CHE 


finally  lived  in  the  pleasant  retirement  of  Don- 
nington  castle,  where  he  died  in  1400.  His 
Canterbury  Tales  are  his  most  celebrated  pro- 
duction. 

CHAUNCY,  Charles,  a  minister  of  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  was  the  son  of  the  erudite  and 
excellent  president  Chauncy,  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, where  he  was  educated.  He  was  born 
Jan.  1,  1705,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
first  church  in  Boston,  in  1727.  He  died  in  his 
83d  year,  Feb.  10th,  1787.  His  learning,  inde- 
pendence, and  patriotism  were  constantly  and 
clearly  displayed.  The  works  which  he  has 
left  behind,  bear  incontrovertible  proofs  of  his 
talents.  He  was  the  particular  friend  of  Doctor 
Cooper,  of  Boston,  and  an  anecdote  which  re- 
gards the  two  gentlemen,  is  worthy  of  preserva- 
tion. It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  Doctor 
Chauncy  was  habitually  absent  like  many  liter- 
ary men,  and  that  Dr.  Cooper  was  famous  for 
inviting  brother  clergymen  to  officiate  for  him ; 
so  much  so,  that  it  was  currently  reported  that 
lie  used  to  walk  out  upon  Boston  neck  every 
Saturday  afternoon,  and  invite  the  first  gentle- 
man with  a  black  coat  whom  he  saw  coming  into 
town,  to  preach  for  him.  Knowing  these  facts, 
a  negro  servant  of  Dr.  Chauncy  determined  to 
turn  them  to  his  own  account.  This  fellow 
was  in  want  of  a  coat,  but  as  he  had  high  ideas 
of  his  own  importance,  he  wished,  if  possible, 
to  obtain  a  new  garment,  instead  of  being  habit- 
ed in  the  dark,  discarded  vestments  of  his  wor- 
thy master.  After  having,  one  morninor,  brought 
the  usual  supply  of  wood  into  Dr.  Chauncy's 
study,  he  remained  standing,  and  the  doctor, 
although  rather  busy,  was  not  long  noticing 
him.  The  following  conversation  then  took 
place. 

"  Well,  Sambo,  what  do  you  want  ?" 

"  Want  a  coat,  sar.  De  old  one  so  patched 
to  pieces,  I  Traid  to  go  nowheres." 

"Very  well,  Sambo,  go  to  Mrs.  Chauncy, 
and  tell  her  to  give  you  one  of  mine." 

The  doctor  resumed  his  studies,  but  Sambo 
retained  his  position.  His  master  observing 
him  a  second  time,  but  forgetting  what  had  just 
passed  between  them,  again  asked  ; 

"  What  do  you  want,  Sambo?" 

"  O  !  just  a  coat,  sar.    Old  coat  full  of  holes." 

"  Very  well ;  go  to  Mrs.  Chauncy,  and  she 
will  give  you  one  of  mine." 

A  second  time  the  doctor  resumed  his  book, 
but  finding  the  black  still  stationary,  he  began 
to  recall  what  had  passed,  and  exclaimed,  with 
some  asperity ;  "  Well  sir,  why  don 't  you 
go>" 


"  'Canse  I  Traid,  Massa  Chauncy." 
-  "Afraid?  of  what?" 

"Why,  sar,  I  'fraid  to  wear  a  black  coat, 
'cause — no — no — it  won  't  do— I  can 't  tell  you. 
sar." 

"  I  insist  upon  it." 

"  Well  then,  if  I  must — sir,  Traid,  'cause — 
oh  no  !  massa,  you  '11  be  so  angry.'' 

"  I  wish  I  had  my  cane  here  !"  exclaimed  the 
doctor. 

Sambo,  finding,  from  his  impatient  glance  at- 
the  tongs,  that  there  was  a  possibility  of  his 
finding  a  substitute,  cried  out;  "Oh!  sar! 
nebber  mind  de  cane,  I  '11  tell  you  why  I  'fraid 
to  wear  one  of  your  coats — /  'fraid  if  I  had 
annoder  black  coat — that  doctor  Cooper  icill  ask 
me  to  preach,  for  him." 

The  doctor  burst  into  laughter.  "  Go,  go. 
Sarnbo,  and  ask  Mrs.  Chauncy  to  buy  a  coat 
of  whatever  color  you  fancy  !" 

Sambo  hastened  off",  grinning  with  delight, 
to  get  a  scarlet  coat,  and  Dr.  Chauncy  ran  to 
Dr.  Cooper  to  tell  him  of  the  whole  affair. 

CHERBOURG,  or  Cherburg,  a  French  sea- 
port, on  the  Channel,  containing  18,443  inhab- 
itants. In  1418,  it  was  taken  by  Henry  V,  and 
near  it  took  place  the  famous  naval  battle  of  La 
Hogue,  between  the  French  and  English  in 
1G92.  Cherburg  is  remarkable  for  Its  vast 
breakwater,  and  its  extensive  basin  and  docks, 
constructed  by  the  French  government. 

CHERSON,  a  Russian  city,  capital  of  the 
government  of  Chesson,  on  "the  Dnieper,  til) 
miles  from  its  mouth.  It  was  founded  in  1778, 
and  contains  12.0UO  inhabitants. 

CHESAPEAKE  BAY  is  from  7  to  20  miles 
broad,  and  190  miles  long,  extending  northerly 
through  Virginia  and  Maryland,  two  of  the 
United  States. 

CHESTERFIELD,  Philip  Dormer  Stan- 
hope, earl  of.  a  distinguished  statesman,  orator, 
and  author,  born  in  London,  1694,  died  in  1773. 
In  private  life  he  was  distinguished  by  his 
grace  and  wit,  and  also  notorious  for  his  irregu- 
larities. In  parliament  and  in  the  house  of 
lords,  as  ambassador  to  Holland,  and  lord-lieu 
tenant  to  Ireland,  he  was  successful  and  popu- 
lar. His  letters  to  his  son  have  been  censured 
for  their  immoral  tone,  although  et-lt-brutcd  for 
their  elegance.  Johnson  called  Chesterfield  a 
wit  among  lords,  and  a  lord  among  wits.  Of 
the  conduct  of  the  earl  as  lord-lieutenant,  we 
have  favorable  accounts. 

When  the  advocates  of  intolerance  preached 
persecution,  he  answered  their  counsels  by  an 
apothegm  and  a  ban  mot — he  quoted  Cicero, 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CHI 


179 


CHI 


when  they  quoted  Nassau — he  §ave  them  par- 
ties for  their  politics — suppers  tor  their  sophis- 
try— he  forced  them  to  swallow  his  measures 
with  his  claret — and  he  stopped  the  mouths  of 
many  with  good  dinners,  on -whom  good  argu- 
ments would  have  been  thrown  away. 

When  Lord  Chesterfield  arrived  in  Ireland, 
all  the  Catholic  places  of  worship  were  closed. 
A  Mr.  Fitzgerald  saying  mass  in  the  obscure 
garret  of  a  condemned  house,  an  immense 
crowd  had  assembled,  and  the  floor  giving 
way,  the  officiating  priest,  with  many  of  his 
flock,  were  buried  in  the  ruins,  and  the  greater 
number  were  maimed  and  wounded.  Lord 
Chesterfield,  horror-struck  at  the  event,  ordered 
that  all  the  chapels  in  the  capital  should  be 
opened  on  St.  Patrick's  day,  and  they  have 
never  since  been  closed. 

A  zealous  protestant,  thinking  to  pay  his 
court  to  the  lord-lieutenant,  came  to  inform  him 
that  one  of  his  coachmen  was  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic, and  went  privately  to  mass.  "  Does  he, 
indeed?"  said  his  lordship,  "then  I  shall  take 
care  that  he  never  drives  me  there  !" 

The  bishop  of  Waterford  relates  that  the 
vice-treasurer,  Mr.  Gardiner,  a  man  of  good 
character,  and  considerable  fortune,  waited 
upon  lord  Chesterfield  one  morning,  and  in  a 
great  fright  told  him  that  he  was  assured  upon 
good  authority  that  the  people  in  the  province 
of  Connaught  were  actually  rising;  upon  which 
the  viceroy  looked  at  his  watch,  and  with  great 
composure  answered  him,  "  It  is  nine  o'clock 
and  time  for  them  to  rise  ;  I  believe,  therefore, 
that  your  news  is  true."  Lord  Chesterfield 
preserved  a  Catholic  population  in  the  most 
perfect  peace  and  obedience,  during  the  whole 
of  that  rebellion,  which  in  Protestant  England 
and  Presbyterian  Scotland,  had  nearly  restored 
the  Stuarts  to  the  throne  they  had  forfeited  by 
their  blind  and  bigoted  attachment  to  papal 
institutions. 

CHILI,  a  republic  of  South  America,  which 
is  divided  into  eight  provinces.  The  eastern 
part  of  Chili  is  mountainous,  and  14  volcanic 
summits  here  elevate  themselves  from  the 
lofty  chain  of  the  Andes.  Innumerable  small 
and  rapid  rivers  irrigate  the  rich  soil,  and  the 
serene  climate  is  remarkable  for  its  healthiness. 
The  mineral  and  vegetable  productions  are 
valuable  and  abundant.  Exclusive  of  the  in- 
dependent Indians,  the  population  has  been 
estimated  at  1,200,000.  The  Roman  Catholic 
is  the  established  religion. 

Pedro  de  Valdivia,  who  was  sent  thither  by 
Pizarro,  overcame  the  opposition  of  the  abori- 
16 


ginees,  and  founded  several  cities  in  the  north 
and  south,  but  the  Araucanians  defeated  the 
Spaniards,  and  having  taken  their  leader  pris- 
oner, put  him  to  death.  It  was  many  years 
before  the  Spaniards  were  permitted  by  the 
Indians  and  Dutch  to  enjoy  quiet  possession  of 
Chili.  In  1809,  a  revolutionary  movement  took 
place,  and  the  party  which  espoused  the  cause 
of 'independence  was,  at  first,  successful ;  but 
in  1814,  nearly  the  whole  country  was  subdued 
by  a  royalist  army  from  Peru.  Chili  remained 
under  the  control  of  the  royalists  until  1817, 
when  General  San  Martin,  with  a  body  of 
troops  from  Buenos  Ayres,  entered  the  country, 
and  being  joined  by  the  people  generally,  de- 
feated the  royalists  in  several  engagements. 
The  independence  of  the  country  was  finally 
achieved  at  the  battle  of  Maypu,  April  5,  1817. 
The  government  has  since  experienced  many 
changes,  and  even  now  remains  in  an  unsettled 
state. 

CHILLINGWORTH,  William,  a  celebrated 
protestant  divine  and  controversial  writer.  He 
was  born  at  Oxford,  1G02,  and  died  in  1C44, 
having  been  appointed  chancellor  of  Salisbury, 
in  July,  1638. 

CHIMBORAZO,  a  mountain  in  the  republic 
of  the  Equator,  one  of  the  highest  summits  of 
the  Andes,  its  elevation  being  21,440  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

CHIMERA,  a  monster  said  to  have  ravaged 
Lycia,  and  to  have  been  killed  by  Bellerophon. 
Her  form  was  a  mixture  of  incongruous  parts. 

CHINA  is  a  vast  country  of  Asia,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Chinese  Tartary.  from  which 
the  famous  Chinese  wall  separates  it ;  on  the 
east,  by  the  Eastern  Sea ;  on  the  south  by  the 
Chinese  Sea,  and  Further  India ;  and  on  the 
west  by  an  extensive  and  sandy  desert,  and 
long  ridges  of  mountains,  which  divide  it  from 
Western  Tartary  and  Thibet. 

Inclusive  of  the  tributary  countries,  and  those 
states  which  have  voluntarily  placed  themselves 
under  the  protection  of  China,  the  population 
amounts  to  nearly  200  million  inhabitants, 
which  are  scattered  over  a  surface  of  about 
5.250.000  square  miles.  The  subjected  coun- 
tries are  Mantchouria,  Mongolia,  and  Tourfan ; 
the  protected  ones,  Thibet,  Bcotan,  Corea,  and 
Loo-choo.  China  Proper  is  divided  into  18 
provinces.  The  Kiau-Ku,or  Yang-tse,  and  the 
Hoang-Ho,  or  Yellow  River,  are  the  two  prin- 
cipal rivers  of  China.  The  former  is  more  than 
2,500  miles  long.  The  face  of  the  country  is 
greatly  diversified ;  the  northern  and  western 
parts  being  the  most  broken.  The  climate,  in 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


CHI 


180 


CHI 


general,  is  healthy,  although  the  northern  part 
is  cold,  and  the  southern  hot. 

The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  prevalent  crop,  at 
least  in  the  south,  is  rice.  Besides  this,  tea, 
barley,  and  other  grain,  are  abundantly  raised. 
The  commerce  is  very  extensive  ;  the  principal 
articles  of  export  being  tea,  silk,  nankins,  porce- 
lain, and  the  valuable  vegetable  productions  of 
the  east.  The  imperial  canal,  and  the  Chinese 
wall,  are  monuments  of  Chinese  skill  and  in- 
dustry. The  religion  of  China  is  Buddhism,  or 
the  religion  of  Fo.  "The  language  of  the  Chi- 
nese is  peculiar,  the  number  of  characters  being 
40,000.  The  Chinese  are,  to  a  certain  degree, 
well  educated,  but  revengeful,  timid,  vain,  and 
artful.  Polygamy  is  permitted,  and  the  condi- 
tion of  females  wretched  in  the  extreme.  Poor 
parents  are  permitted  to  drown  their  female 
children,  and  this  is  done  without  remorse. 

The  Chinese  is,  on  the  whole,  by  far  the 
best  Asiatic  government  of  Asia.  It  is  better, 
far,  than  any  of  the  Mohammedan  despotisms  ; 
it  is  better  than  any  government  that  the  Hin- 
doos ever  possessed,  and  it  is  far  preferable  to 
the  Theocracies  of  the  Birmans,  Siamese,  and 
other  Chinese  nations.  The  absence  of  a  pow- 
erful and  influential  priesthood,  and  of  an  hered- 
itary and  privileged  aristocracy,  as  well  as  of 
petty  principalities  with  delegated  and  heredi- 
tary authority,  may  be  stated  as  among  the 
leading  causes  of  the  prosperity  of  the  Chinese 
empire. 

The  government  of  China  is  patriarchal  ;  the 
emperor  has  the  title  of"  Holy  Son  of  Heaven, 
sole  Governor  of  the  earth,  and  Great  Father 
of  his  people."  But  it  is  patriarchal  on  the 
largest  scale  of  which  there  is  any  record,  for  the 
family  consists  of  nearly  two  hundred  million 
members.  China  may  be  considered  as  a  huge 
school-house,  the  master  having  the  birch  con- 
stantly in  his  hand,  frequently  using  it,  and 


delegating  his  authority  to  thousands  of  ushers, 

e  equally  liberal  in  i 
the  rod,  although  the   chief,  is    not  the  only 


, 
who  are  equally  liberal  in  its  application.     But 


instrument  of  government  There  is  the  unique, 
or  wooden  ruff,  a  kind  of  portable  stocks  or 
pillory,  very  convenient  to  the  executors  of  the 
law,  but  exceedingly  inconvenient  to  the  wear- 
er, who  can  neither  sleep  nor  lie  down  fur  it. 
Then  there  is  imprisonment  in  cages  ;  further- 
more decapitation,  not  however  very  frequent  ; 
and  in  extreme  cases  their  crucifixion,  or  as  it 
is  technically  called,  the  death  by  painful  and 
slow  means. 

The  grand  panacea,  however,  after  all,  is  the 
•od.    The  general  application  of  this  vigorous 


instrument  of  administration,  is  hy  no  means 
confined  to  China,  but  embraces  the  other  coun- 
tries of  the  east,  from  Japan  to  Bengal,  includ- 
ing about  300,000.000  of  people,  or  nearly  one 
half  the  human  race.  There  the  rod.  under  its 
various  appellations  of  bamboo,  cane,  cudgel,  or 
birch,  is  actively  at  work  from  morning  till 
night,  and  afterwards,  from  night  till  morning. 
The  Grand  Patriarch  canes  his  first  ministers ; 
the  prime  minister  canes  his  secretary  of  slate ; 
the  secretaries  of  state  admonish  the  lords  of 
the  treasury,  by  belaboring  their  backs;  these 
enforce  their  orders  to  the  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty  by  applying  what  is  equal  to  the  cat 
OT  nine  tails.  Generals  cane  field  officers,  and 
field  officers  the  captains  and  subalterns.  Of 
course  the  common  soldiers  of  the  celestial  em- 
pire are  caned  by  every  body.  The  husbands 
cane  their  wives,  and  the  "wives  cane  their 
children.  Of  course  the  Chinese  and  their 
neighbors  may  be  truly  described  as  well-flogged 
nations. 

Without  going  back  to  that  remote  antiquity, 
to  which  the  Chinese  historians  pretend,  it  will 
be  sufficient  to  credit  records  of  this  empire 
from  2,000  years  B.  C.  Prior  to  that  period, 
five  dynasties  are  computed,  at  the  head  of  the 
first  of  which  was  Y  u-Ta.  Ching-tang  was  the 
founder  of  the  second  dynasty,  named  Chang, 
B.  C.  17(57,  and  was  celebrated  for  his  wisdom, 
moderation,  and  singular  merit.  This  dynasty, 
after  the  reign  of  '-fcTemperors,  was  terminated, 
like  the  former,  bv  the  vices  of  him  who  last 
filled  the  throne.  "  The  third  dynasty,  named 
Chew,  or  Cheva,  B.  C.  1 1:2:2.  consisted  of  35 
emperors,  some  of  whom  exhibited  virtues  de- 
serving of  high  applause,  while  the  faults  and 
vices  of  others  excited  the  vengeance  of  the 
people. 

During  the  reign  of  Ching,  the  second  em 
peror  of  the  4lh  dynasty,  called  Tsin,  B.  C. 
25f>,  the  great  wall  was  built.  Elated  with  his 
own  exploits,  he  formed  the  design  of  making 
posterity  believe  that  he  was  the  first  omperor 
that  filled  the  Chinese  throne;  and  for  this 
purpose,  ordered  all  the  historical  books,  which 
enninined  the  fundamental  records  and  laws  of 
the  ancient  governments,  to  lie  burned,  and  400 
of  the  learned  to  be  put  to  death,  for  having  at- 
tempted to  save  some  of  the  proscribed  vc" 
umes. 

The,    chieflian  of  banditti,    Lieu-pang, 
troyed  the  last  emperor  of  the  fourth  dynasty, 
atjd   founded  the    fifth,   called    Ham_r,    in    hi 
own   person.,  B.  C.  207.     He  proved  himsel 
worthy  of  the  throne  by  his  moderation 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


CHI 


181 


CHI 


clemency,  and  was  one  of  the  few  emperors 
who  governed  for  themselves.  Under  the  rest, 
factions  were  formed,  one  of  which,  known  by 
the  appellation  of  the  yellow-caps,  made  itself 
master  of  the  empire,  which  ended  in  its  dismem- 
berment. The  sixth  dynasty  was  begun  by  a 
prince  descended  from  Lieu-pang,  A.  D.  220, 
and  ended  with  his  grandson,  who,  ardent  and 
courageous,  sustained  for  sometime  his  father's 
tottering  throne,  which  was  attacked  from  every 
quarter.  At  length,  seeing  affairs  tend  to  a  most 
fatal  crisis,  the  emperor,  deficient  in  courage, 
still  refused  to  fight ;  and  the  young  prince,  af- 
flicted at  his  cowardice,  retired  to  the  hall  of 
his  ancestors,  slew  his  wife,  and  then  himself. 
The  emperor  tamely  surrendered  to  Song-chau, 
his  rival,  who  granted  him  a  petty  sovereignty. 

Shi-tsu-vu-ti,  the  son  of  the  rebel  Song-ch.au, 
was  the  founder  of  the  seventh  dynasty,  and 
preserved  by  his  arms  the  ernpire  they  had  ac- 
quired for  him.  After  a  series  of  fifteen  empe- 
rors, during  whose  reign  Nankin  became  the 
capital  of  the  empire,  this  dynasty  terminated 
in  Nagan-Ti,  an  indolent  prince,  unworthy  of  a 
crown.  In  his  reign,  a  man  named  Lyen-Hu, 
whose  employment  was  that  of  selling  shoes, 
enlisted  as  a  soldier,  became  a  general,  and  at 
last  usurped  the  throne.  His  race  consisted  of 
eight  emperors.  Kanti,  the  founder  of  the  ninth 
dynasty,  obtained  the  throne  by  the  murder  of 
two  princes,  A.  D.  479,  but  did  not  long  enjoy 
the  fruits  of  his  wickedness.  He  was  more 
remarkable  for  his  learning  than  his  military 
exploits.  His  son  enacted  the  famous  law 
which  prohibited  the  mandarins  remaining  more 
than  three  years  in  the  same  place.  This  dy- 
nasty did  not  produce  more  than  five  emperors. 

The  tenth  dynasty  comprehends  only  four 
sovereigns  beginning  with  Syau-gwen,  the 
prime  minister  and  assassin  of  the  last  prince, 
A.  D.  502.  He  was  active,  industrious,  and 
vigilant.  The  last  emperor  but  one  attached 
himself  to  the  religion  of  Fo,  and  while  his  at- 
tention was  absorbed  in  the  mysteries  taught  by 
the  disciples,  his  prime  minister  attacked  him  in 
his  capital.  At  length  the  sovereign  awoke 
from  his  religious  reveries,  took  up  arms,  march- 
ed round  the  ramparts,  examined  the  position 
of  the  enemy,  and  exclaimed,  "  All  is  lost,  it  is 
all  over  with  the  sciences  !"  He  then  set  fire 
to  his  library,  which  consisted  of  140.000  vol- 
umes, and  surrendered  to  the  conqueror,  who 
put  to  death  both  him  and  his  son.  Like  his 
predecessor,  the  founder  of  the]  1th  dynasty, 
A.  D.  557,  was  extremely  attached  to  the  bon- 
ses.  His  race  produced  only  five  emperors,  the 


last  of  whom  was  dethroned  by  the  prime  min- 
ister of  the  western  empire. 

The  three  emperors  who  composed  the  12th 
dynasty,  commencing  A.  D.  589,  performed 
great  actions,  and  are  renowned  in  history.  The 
first,  ivho  had  no  pretensions  to  learning,  was 
endowed  with  a  solid  and  penetrating  mind. 
He  loved  his  people,  and  Uuilt  public  granaries, 
which  were  annually  filled  with  rice  and  corn 
by  the  opulent,  to  be  distributed  to  the  poor  in 
times  of  scarcity.  Kong-ti  was  dethroned  by 
Si-gwen,  A.  D.  017,  the  same  year  in  which  he 
was  crowned.  The  son  of  this  man,  on  arriv- 
ing at  the  emperor's  palace  was  astonished  at 
its  magnificence,  and  said,  "  No  :  such  a  stately 
edifice  must  not  be  suffered  to  stand  any  longer, 
as  it  is  good  for  nothing  but  to  corrupt  the  heart 
of  a  prince,  and  render  him  effeminate."  After 
this  reflection,  he  ordered  the  whole  build- 
ing to  be  set  on  fire  and  reduced  to  ashes. 

Tai-tsong,  his  son,  was  one  of  the  greatest 
and  wisest  princes  that  ever  graced  the  Chinese 
throne.  Tai-tfu,  the  assassin  and  successor  of 
the  20th  sovereign  of  this  race,  established  the 
14th  dynasty,  A.  D.  907,  but  did  not  live  long 
to  enjoy  the  fruit  of  his  crime.  He  was  slain 
by  his  eldest  son,  who  was  himself  killed  by 
his  brother  Moti.  Anarchy  raging  in  the  em- 
pire, an  able  general,  supported  by  a  powerful 
party,  attacked  Moti,  who,  being  vanquished, 
committed  suicide,  and  his  family  became  ex- 
tinct. Chwang-tsong,  the  victorious  general, 


assumed  the  character  of  emperor,  and  founded 
the  loth  dynasty,  A.  D.<'23.  During  his  reign, 
block-printing  was  invented  among   the 
is  d 


ign, 
Chi- 


nese. This  dynasty  produced  four  emperors, 
the  last  of  whom,  being  pursued  by  the  mur- 
derers of  his  father,  burned  himself,  together 
with  his  family.  Of  the  emperors  of  the  two 


succeeding  dynasties,  commencing  A.  D. 

u  >fimporta 
who  narrate  little  more  than  the  accession  to 


nothing  of 


tance  is  recorded  by  historians, 


the  throne,  and  death  of  the  several  sovereigns. 
Tai-tou  was  the  founder  of  the  18th  dynasty, 
A.  D.  951,  and  had  a  profound  veneration  for 
Confucius,  to  whose  tomb  he  paid  a  visit.  His 
son,  Chi-tsong,  imitated  all  his  virtues,  and, 
when  at  the  very  summit  of  human  grandeur, 
still  retained  a  modest  deportment.  Tay-tou, 
the  founder  of  the  19th  dynasty,  A.  D.  960, 
was  worthy  of  his  exaltation,  and  possessed  all 
the  qualities  to  render  a  state  happy  and  flourish- 
ing. Under  Ching-tsong,  the  third  emperor  of 
the  dynasty,  the  number  of  persons  employed 
in  cultivating  the  land  was  computed  to  be 
about  22,000,000 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


CHI 


182 


CHI 


go 
Ch 


Under  Li-tsou,  the  14th  emperor,  who  was 
himself  by  no  means  warlike,  his  generals  ex- 
pelled the  eastern  Tartars,  who  retreated  nearly 
into  their  own  territories,  but  returned  and  con- 
quered CH.na,  which  they  still  possess.  Shi- 
tsu,  the  founder  of  the  20th  dynasty,  A.  D. 
1279,  though  a  Tartar,  and  the  first  foreign 
prince  that  reigned  over  the  Chinese,  effectual- 
ly reconciled  them  to  his  government,  and  even 
endeared  himself  to  them,  by  observing  their 
ancient  laws  and  customs,  by  his  equity  and 
justice.  His  successors,  till  the  ninth,  in  whom 
terminated  the  race,  established  the  religion  of 
Fo  in  China.  One  of  them  invited  the  grand 
lama  from  Thibet,  whom  he  received  with  the 
most  extraordinary  ceremonies:  and  with  the 
lamas  entered  also  magic,  dancing  girls,  and  de- 
bauchery, which  in  the  end  perverted  the  wise 

vernment.  A  servant  of  the  bonses,  named 
u,  headed  a  revolt,  and  compelled  the  emperor 
Shunti  to  flee,  with  whom  ended  the  Tartar 
dynasty  of  Ywen,  which  was  succeded  by  that 
of  Ming,  founded  by  Chu,  who,  ascending  the 
throne,  took  the  name  of  Tay-tsu,  A.  D.  1368. 
The  piety  of  the  new  emperor  equaled  his  wis- 
dom and  penelration.  The  catastrophe  of  this 
race,  which  ended  with  the  13th  emperor,  was 
announced  and  preceded  by  continual  commo- 
tions during  several  reigns.  .The  nobles  of  the 
empire  called  in  against  the  insurgents  the  Man- 
chew  or  eastern  Tartars,  who  again  possessed 
themselves  of  the  Chinese  throne.  This  memo- 
rable revolution  happened  in  the  year  1644. 
The  nobility  had  imagined  that  they  should  find 
the  Tartars'  merely  auxiliaries,  who  would  assist 
them  in  placing  a  Chinese  emperor  on  the 
throne  ;  but  when  these  allies  had  compelled 
the  rebels  to  lay  down  their  arms,  they  consid- 
ered the  empire  as  a  fair  reward  for  their  labor. 
However,  the  Chinese  princes  of  the  blood  did 
not  tamely  submit  to  this  usurpation.  Several 
competitors  arose  against  Shun-chi,  the  first 
Manchew  emperor;  but,  though  hostilities  weie 
carried  on  with  gieat  obstinacy  by  sea  and  land, 
the  vigor  of  the  Tartars  completely  prevailed 
over  every  adversary. 

Shun-chi  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Kang-hi, 
A.  D.  10(51.  This  prince  was  not  only  endow- 
ed with  all  the  qualifications  requisite  to  render 
him  worthy  of  the  imperial  diadem,  hut  was 
also  very  happy  in  the  choice  that  his  1'itln  r 
had  made  of  iour  noble  guardians,  who  studied 
to  preserve  the  empire  in  a  nourishing  and 
peaceable  condition.  Kang-hi  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Yong-shing,  A.  D.  1722,  who  as- 
cended the  throne  at  the  age  of  forty-five,  and 


who  reigned  with  absolute  power,  and  was 
greatly  dreaded  by  his  subjects.  The  death  of 
this  emperor  took  place,  A.  D.  1735.  This 
prince  was  succeeded  by  Kieu-hong,  who,  after 
a  happy,  peaceable,  and  long  reign  of  sixty- 
three  years,  died  on  the  llth  of  February,  1799. 
On  his  death,  Kia-king,  the  fifth  of  the  Tartan 
dynasty,  ascended  the  throne.  He  died  in  1820, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  emperor,  hia 
second  son,  Taia-Kwang. 

CHINA,  Dynasties  of. 

The  Ilia  Dynasty,  2207  to  1767,  B.  C. 

The  Shang'Dy  nasty,  17G7  to  1122. 

The  Tchuen  Dynasty.  1122  to  256. 

The  Tasin  Dynasty,  256  to  257,  B.  C. 

The  Hang  Dynasty,  207,  B.  C.  to  220,  A.  D. 

From  220  to  260,  China  was  divided  into 
three  kingdoms,  the  Shohang  dynasty,  220  to 
263;  that  of  the  Goei  in  the  north,  220  to  265, 
and  that  of  the  El  in  the  south,  220  to  280. 

The  Tsin  Dynasty,  265  to  420. 

The  U-ta  Dynasties,  420  to  589. 

The  Sui  Dynasty,  589  to  617. 

The  Tang  Dynasty,  617  to  907. 

The  Hehu-u-ta  Dynasty,  907  to  960. 

The  Song  Dynasty,  960  to  1279. 

The  Mogul  Khans,  1279  to  1368. 

The  Ming  Dynasty,  1368  to  1644. 

The  Tsin<T  Dynasty, 

Shiin-tchi,  1644  to  1661. 
Kan<r-hi.  1661  to  1722. 
Yono-.tchimr.  1722  to  1735. 
Kien-lon<r,  1735  to  1799. 
Kia-king,  1799  to  1^20. 
Tara-kwang,  1820. 

CHIPPEWAY;  a  town  in  Upper  Canada, 
on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  two  miles  north- 
west of  Niagara  Falls,  where  the  British  troops 
were  signally  defeated  by  the  Americans,  July 
5, 1814 

CHIVALRY.  The  institution  and  spirit  of 
chivalry,  forming  a  prominent  and  important 
feature  of  history,  has  been  regarded  by  writers 
and  men  of  erudition,  in  various  points  of  view, 
and,  while  some  have  condemned  it  as  alto- 
gether injurious  and  absurd,  others  have  digni- 
fied it  w'ith  the  title  of  sublime.  There  have 
been  found  men  of  modern  days,  and  those  the 
fortunale  possessors  of  more  than  common  abili- 
ties, who  could  sigh  over  the  degeneracy  of  the 
times,  and  lament  that  the  age  of  chivalry  is 
gone.  But  if  the  material  and  least  \vorthy 
part  of  it  has  passed  away,  its  spirit  still  re- 
mains, still  invites  men  to  high  and  honorable 
deeds,  and  is  indeed  imperishable  and  immor- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CHI 


183 


CHI 


tal.  The  vows  of  knighthood,  the  ceremonials 
of  installations,  the  pomp  and  cereinony  of 
knightly  feats  have  gone,  but  the  devotion  of  the 
patriot,  the  ardor  of  the  warrior,  the  warmth 
of  the  lover,  the  fidelity  of  the  friend,  the  loy- 
alty and  truth  of  the  man  of  honor,  do  not 
sleep  in  the  graves  of  Chailemagne,  Roland, 
and  Bayard. 

In  seeking  for  the  origin  of  Chivalry  ,we  are  led 
back  to  the  feudal  ages,  and  the  consideration  of 
the  condition  of  the  Geomanic  tribes,  when  its 
peculiar  spirit  first  began  to  display  itself.  The 
tribes  were  composed  not  of  superiors  and  infe- 
riors, but  of  masters  and  slaves  ;  of  men  whose 
birthright  was  ease  and  honor,  and  of  others, 
who  inherited  the  bond  of  ceaseless  toil.  By 
the  noble-born  labor  of  any  kind  was  consider- 
ed degrading,  and  the  profession  of  arms  alone 
worthy  of  being  followed,  so  that  the  lords  of 
the  soil  were  a  race  of  independent  warriors, 
whose  thirst  for  fame  was  a  continual  excite- 
ment. The  different  feudal  sovereigns  were 
nominally  subject  to  a  legitimate  prince,  and 
were  bound  to  follow  his  banner  into  battle,  at 
the  head  of  their  vassals,  and  to  respond  to  his 
call  by  bringing,  at  a  moment's  warning,  an 
armed  force  to  his  support.  Still,  when  re-* 
moved  from  the  presence  of  his  sovereign,  the 
feudal  lord  was  a  petty  despot,  whose  vassals 
felt  that  he  possessed  absolute  power  of  life  and 
death  over  them. 

Unlimited  authority  gave  rise  to  various 
abuses,  and  it  was  well  that  chivalry,  with  its 
high  tone  of  honor  and  morality,  sprang  up  in 
ages  of  general  darkness,  fraud,  and  oppression. 
Great  enterprises  contributed  to  bind  numbers 
of  knights  together,  and  led  to  the  formation 
of  various  societies  and  orders,  and  when  these 
military  adventurers  were  not  leagued  together 
in  any'of  the  Holy  Wars,  a  reciprocity  of  prin- 
ciple, and  an  identity  of  religion,  held  them  in 
a  common  chain.  Animated  by  a  love  of  jus- 
tice, a  veneration  for  the  fair-sex,  a  high-mind- 
ed regard  for  truth,  a  thirst  for  military  glory, 
and  a  contempt  for  danger,  the  knights  went 
forth  to  brave  peril,  to  rescue  the  unfortunate, 
and  to  crush  the  oppressor.  Numerous  indi- 
viduals set  forth  with  no  fixed  purpose  but  that 
of  discovering  some  wrong  and  righting  it,  and 
these  wandering  champions  were  called  Kniglits 
Errant,  and  their  exploits  sang  in  camp  and 
court  by  the  minstrels  whose  lays  immortalized 
the  sons  of  chivalry.  Chivalry  degenerated, 
but  not  rapidly.  After  the  lapse  of  many  years 
from  its  foundation,. the  number  of  its  ceremo- 
nials increased,  its  pageantry  was  disgraced  by 


frippery  and  folly,  its  vows  were  unobserved  ; 
a  devotion  to  the  sex  was  succeeded  by  bound- 
less licentiousness,  and  the  wandering  spirit  of 
knight-errantry  was  displaced  by  an  affectation 
of  eccentricity. 

In  the  14th  century  the  honors  of  knighthood 
were  restricted  to  the  nubility,  and  then  arose 
the  various  forms  and  ceremonies,  which  at 
length  concealed  the  original  design  of  chival- 
ry, and  brought  on  a  premature  decline.  The 
knightly  education  of  a  youth  generally  com- 
menced with  his  12th  year,  when  he  was  sent 
to  the  court  of  some  noble  pattern  of  chivalry, 
to  learn  dancing,  riding,  the  use  of  his  weapon, 
&c.,  and  where  his  chief  duty  was  assiduous 
attention  to  the  ladies  in  the  quality  of  page. 
According  to  his  progress  in  years  and  accom- 
plishments, he  became  squire  to  some  knight, 
and  when  he  fairly  merited  the  distinction,  he 
was  himself  knighted.  This  honor  was  not 
conferred  upon  a  youth  before  his  21st  year, 
unless  high  birth,  or  extraordinary  valor  and 
address  seemed  to  warrant  the  setlmg  aside  of 
the  usual  regulation.  Sometimes  the  honor  was 
won  by  many  a  field  of  bloody  toil,  with  many 
drops  of  sweat  and  gore,  and  not  unfrequently, 
one  daring  achievement,  artfully  planned,  and 
gallantly  carried  into  execution,  procured  the 
wished-for  spurs,  and  the  anticipated  accolade. 
The  ceremony  of  conferring  knighthood  was 
often  performed  on  the  field  of  battle  where  the 
honor  had  been  earned ;  often  it  required  and 
received  the  most  imposing  preparations  and 
ceremonies.  The  young  candidate  guarded  his 
arms  for  a  night,  and  this  was  called  the  vigil 
of  arms.  In  the  morning  he  bathed  in  water, 
which  was  the  emblem  of  the  truth  and  purity 
which  he  swore  to  preserve  sacred.  Clad  in 
spotless  garments,  he  kneeled  before  the  altar 
of  the  nearest  church,  and,  having  presented 
his  sword  to  the  officiating  priest,  received  it 
again  with  the  benediction  of  the  reverend 
man.  After  taking  the  oaths  of  allegiance,  he 
knelt  before  his  sovereign,  who  gave  him  the 
accolade,  or  blow  upon  the  neck,  with  the  flat  of 
his  sword,  saluted  the  young  warrior,  and  said  : 
"  In  the  name  of  God  and  St.  Michael,  (or,  in  the 
name  of  the  Father.  Son.  and  Holy  Ghost).  I  dub 
thee  a  knight.  Be  loyal,  brave  and  fortunate." 

It  was  customary  for  two  knights  of  the  same 
age  and  congenial  tempers  to  form  a  friendship, 
and  this  brotherhood  in  arms  lasted  generally 
until  one  of  the  two  was  laid  in  the  grave.  The 
courtesy  of  chivalry  softened  the  asperity  of 
war,  gave  charms  to  victory,  and  assuaged  to 
the  vanquished,  the  pain  of  a  defeat.  All  that 


•1 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


CHI 


184 


CHR 


ingenuity  could  plan,  and  wealth  produce,  to 
give  splendor  to  knighthood  was  displayed  in 
the  age  of  chivalry.  Magnificent  tournaments 
were  held,  where  even  kings  entered  the  lists 
and  contended  for  the  prize  of  valor  before  the 
eyes  of  thousands  of  spectators,  among  whom 
beautiful  ladies  appeared  the  most  deeply  inter- 
ested. In  fact  the  knights  often  contended  about 
the  charms  of  their  lady-loves,  and  wore  their 
favors  in  their  helmets,  if  the  ladies  of  Rome 
attended  gladiatorial  shows  in  throngs,  we  can- 
not wonder  that  the  beauties  of  the  age  of  chiv- 
alry looked  forward  to  a  tournament  with  great 
impatience,  and  eagerly  strove  for  the  honor  of 
filling  the  post  of  temporary  queen  and  distribu- 
ter of  the  prizes. 

Chivaly  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  poet- 
ry, and  formed  the  subjects  of  the  p'jenis  of  the 
troubadours  of  the  south  of  France,  as  well  as 
supplied  themes  for  the  poetical  controversies 
of  the  itmgnts,  which  were  decided  at  the 
Cours  'd  Amour  (courts  of  love),  first  establish- 
ed in  Provence.  Even  after  chivalry  had  died 
away,  its  influence  was  not  unfelt  by  poetry, 
which  retained  the  tone  it  had  imparted  for 
many  centuries.  The  songs  of  the  troubadours 
were  divided  into  amatory  songs,  duets,  pasto- 
rals, serenades,  ballads,  poetical  colloquies,  &c. 
In  the  romances  of  chivalry  we  behold  paladins 
and  peers,  sorcerers,  fairies,  winged  and  intelli- 
gent horses,  invisible  or  invulnerable  men,  magi- 
cians who  are  interested  in  the  birth  and  educa- 
tion of  knights,  enchanted  palaces ;  in  a  word 
the  creation  of  a  new  world  which  leaves  our 
vulgar  planet  far  beneath  it.  Paladins  never 
without  arms,  in  a  country  bristling  with  for- 
tresses, find  their  delight  and  honor  in  punish- 
ing injustice  and  deiending  weakness.  The 
chivalric  romances  may  be  div-ided  into  three 
classes,  those  of  the  Round  Table.  Those 
of  Charlemagne,  and  lastly  those  of  Amadis, 
which  belong  to  a  later  century.  It  will  suf- 
fice to  speak  of  the  former.  The  romances 
of  the  Round  Table  recount  tales  of  the 
cup  from  which  Jesus  Christ  drank  with  Jo- 
seph of  Arithmathia.  This  cup  had  performed 
such  prodigies,  that  we  are  not  astonished  that 
those  valorous  knights  of  the  Round  Tabl.', 
Lancelot,  Perceval,  and  Perceforest,  are  united 
with  the  determination  to  recover  it.  These 
preux  chevaliers  are  the  perpetual  heroes  of 
these  romances.  Lancelot  is  attached  to  Gen- 
icore,  the  wife  of  king  Arthur,  and  his  marvel- 
lous exploits  excited  the  admiration  of  contempo- 
raries. Three  centuries  after,  lords  and  ladies 
were  still  delighted  at  the  recital  of  "  the  very 


elegant,  delicious,  mellifluous,  and  very  pleasant 
historic  of  the  very  noble  and  very  victorious 
Perceforest."  Amidst  many  pages  of  weari- 
some insipidity,  we  find  some  happy  descriptions 
and  situations,  detailed,  and  graphic  portraits 
of  feudal  men  and  manners. 

The  absurdities  of  chivalry  afforded  scope  for 
the  satirical  and  comic  powers  of  Cervantes, 
and  the  adventures  of  the  unfortunate  Don 
Quixote  are  read  with  an  interest  which  few 
works  of  similar  character  inspire.  Every  feature 
of  chivalry  is  happily  burlesqued,  and  the  Don 
goes  through  all  the  ceremonials  with  a  ludicrous 
gravity  which  is  perfectly  irresistible.  The 
pertinacity  with  which  the  knights  maintained 
the  pre-eminence  of  the  ladies  of  their  affec- 
tions is  finely  satirised  in  the  election  which 
Don  Quixote  makes  of  a  hideous  country 
wench,  whose  charms  he  celebrates  after  the 
most  approved  fashion  and  with  unceasing  de- 
votion. Few  ladies  of  chivalric  romance  have 
attained  a  degree  of  reputation  comparable  to 
that  of  the  immortal  Dulcinea  del  Toboso. 

CHRIST.     (See  Jesus.*) 

CHRISTIANA,  queen  of  Sweden,  daughter 
of  Gnstavns  Adolphus,  was  born  in  1026,  and 
died  April  19. 1G8!>.  She  was  remarkable  for 
acts  and  habits  foreign  to  her  sex,  viz.  learning, 
murder,  mid  apostasy.  Her  conduct  was  so 
flagrant,  that  she  found  it  difficult  to  procure  ai\ 
asyhnn  in  any  state,  after  having  been  exclud- 
ed from  her  own.  She  died  at  Koine. 

CHRISTOKIIK,  Henri,  king  of  Hayti,  was 
born  October  G,  17G7.  In  early  life  he  was  a 
slave  and  passed  from  ihe  hands  of  one  master 
to  another,  being  successively  a  cook,  and  an 
overseer.  The  French  were  conquered  by  the 
exertions  of  Dessalines  and  Christophe,  the 
latter  of  whom  was  general-in-chief  of  the  ar- 
my duiing  the  short-lived  imperial  government 
of  the  former.  In  JHOG.  an  insurrection  broke 
out  in  Hayti,  in  which  Dessalines,  the  emperor, 
was  killed  by  the  negroes  whom  he  had  provok- 
ed by  his  cruelty  and  oppression.  His  succes- 
sor, Christophe,  assumed  the  humbler  title  of 
chief  of  the  government,  and  in  that  capacity 
opened  the  commerce  of  his  dominions  to  neu- 
tral nations,  by  a  proclamation  distinguished  for 
its  liberal  spirit  and  enlightened  views. 

In  1811  Christophe  changed  the  republic  into 
a  monarchy,  and  proclaimed  himself  king  of 
Hayti.  A 'short  time  before  his  coronation  he 
created  a  nobility  consisting  of  princes,  dukes, 
counts,  and  barons,  to  give  greater  splendor  to 
the  ceremony.  He  created  a  legion  of  honor, 
called  the  order  of  St.  Henri,  and  altered  the 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CIC 


185 


C1D 


name  of  his  capital  from  Cape  Francois  to  Cape 
Henri.  His  troops,  at  this  time,  amounted  to 
about  10,000  men,  all  negroes,  and  his  fleet  con- 
sisted of  one  forty -four-gun  frigate,  nine  sloops 
of  war,  and  a  number  ot  schooners.  On  the  12th 
December,  1820,  Christophe,  hearing  that  his 
troops  had  abandoned  him.  shot  himself  through 
the  head,  and  the  opposite  party  immediately 
proclaimed  a  republican  government. 

CHRISTOPHER,  ST.,  commonly  called  St. 
Kitts,  a  West  India  island,  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus in  1493.  Its  length  is  15  miles.  It  is  a 
valuable  possession  of  Great  Britain,  and  con- 
tains 2:?,!)00  inhabitants. 

CHRYSOSTOM,  ST.,  one  of  the  fathers  of 
the  church,  an  eloquent  and  pious  man,  who 
died  407. 

CHURCH.  States  of  the,  the  dominions  of 
the  Pope,  are  situated  in  the  centre  of  Italy, 
between  Naples,  and  Lombardy,  and  Tuscany, 
and  the  Tuscan  and  Adriatic  Seas,  and  con- 
tains 17,185  square  miles,  occupied  by  2,460,000 
inhabitants. 

CHURCH,  Benjamin,  a  native  of  Duxbury, 
Massachusetts,  was  born  in  1639,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  address  and  daring  in 
the  Indian  wars.  His  services  during  king 
Philip's  war  were  great,  and  he  commanded  the 
party  that  killed  the  sachem  of  Mount  Hope, 
in  August,  1676.  He  died  in  his  78th  year, 
Jan.  17,  1718. 

CHURCHILL,  Charles,  a  famous  English 
poet,  born  1731,  died  in  1764.  His  political  sa- 
tires were  received  with  great  applause,  and  his 
Prophecy  of  Famine,  a  Scotch  pastoral,  contain- 
ing a  severe  satire  upon  the  Scots,  was  read 
with  eagerness,  and  procured  notoriety  for  its 
author. 

CIBBER,  Colley,  an  English  actnr  and  dra- 
matist, was  born  in  London  in  1671.  and  died 
in  1757,  seven  years  after  he  quitted  the  theatre. 
His  comedy  of  the  Careless  Husband  received 
even  the  approbation  of  the  bitter  Pope. 

CICERO,  Marcus  Tullius,  the  celebrated 
orator,  born  at  Arpinum  106  B.  C.,  was  the  son 
of  a  Roman  knight.  In  Sicily  he  exercised 
the  qusestorship  with  equity  and  moderation,  and 
freed  the  Sicilians  from  the  tyranny  and  avarice 
of  Verres.  He  discharged  the  offices  of  edile 
and  prcetor,  and  stood  for  the  consulship,  at  a 
time  when  Catiline  was  making  the  most  vigor- 
ous efforts  to  oppose  him.  Catiline,  with  many 
dissolute  and  desperate  Romans,  had  conspired 

t  against  his  country,  and  planned  the  murder  of 
Cicero  himself.  The  plot  being  discovered  chiefly 
by  the  efforts  of  Cicero,  he  commanded  Catiline 


to  leave  the  city,  and  the  desperate  traitor  march- 
ed forth  to  meet  the  20.000  men  that  were  assent 
bled  to  support  his  cause.  The  rebels  were  de- 
feated, and  the  conspirators  capitally  punished. 
After  this  memorable  deliverance,  Cicero  receiv- 
ed the  thanks  of  the  people,  and  the  title  of  father 
of  Ids  country  and  second  founder  of  Rome. 

The  vehemence  with  which  he  attacked  Clo- 
dius,  proved  injurious  to  him;  and  when  his 
enemy  was  made  tribune,  Cicero  was  banished 
from  Rome,  though  20,000  young  men  were 
ready  to  attest  his  innocence."  After  an  absence 
of  16  months,  during  which  he  had  been  favor- 
ably received  wherever  he  presented  himself, 
he  was  recalled,  and  entered  Rome  to  the  uni- 
versal satisfaction.  When  he  was  sent,  with  the 
power  of  proconsul  to  Cilicia,  his  integrity  and 
prudence  made  him  successful  against  the 
enemy,  and  on  his  return  he  was  honored  with 
a  triumph,  which,  however,  the  factions  pre 
vented  him  from  enjoying. 

During  the  civil  wars  between  Caesar  and 
Pompey,  he  joined  the  latter,  and  followed  him 
to  Greece.  When  victory  had  declared  in  fa 
vor  of  Cocsar,  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  Cicero 
went  to  Brundusiuni,  and  was  reconciled  to  the 
conqueror,  who  treated  him  with  great  humani- 
ty. From  this  time  Cicero  retired  into  the 
country,  and  seldom  visited  Rome.  After  the 
assassination  of  Caesar,  Cicero  recommended  a 
general  amnesty,  and  was  strongly  in  favor  of 
having  the  provinces  decreed  to  Brutus  and 
Cassius,  but  finding  the  interest  of  the  republi- 
cans decrease,  and  Antony  come  into  power,  he 
retired  to  Athens.  He  soon  after  returned, 
but  lived  in  perpetual  fear  of  assassination. 
The  enmity  of  Antony  finally  proved  fatal  to 
him  ;  and  Augustus,  Antony,  and  Lepidus,  to 
destroy  all  causes  of  quarrel,  and  each  to  des- 
patch his  enemies,  produced  their  lists  of  pro- 
scription. Cicero  was  among  the  proscribed. 
He  fled  but  was  pursued,  and  put  to  death  in 
his  64th  year,  B.  C.  43.  Cicero  was  a  sincere 
patriot,  and  was  unquestionably  one  of  the 
brightest  ornaments  of  the  age  in  which  he 
lived.  His  eloquence  was  winning,  and  his  pen 
possessed  the  power  of  his  tongue.  His  ora- 
tions and  philosophical  works  are  models  of 
style.  Cicero  possessed  a  sparkling  wit,  and 
many  of  his  Ion-mots  have  descended  to  pos- 
terity. 

CID,  Don  Rodrigo  Dias,  count  of  Bivar,  sur- 
named  the  Cid  (a  Moorish  word,  signifying 
lord),  one  of  the  most  renowned  knights  of 
Spain,  was  born  in  1026  and  signalized  himself 
against  the  Moors,  winning  the  esteem  of  his 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


CIN 


186 


CLA 


countrymen  who  bestowed  upon  him  the  title 
of  Campcador  (incomparable).  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Sancho  to  the  throne  of  Castile,  the 
knight  of  Bivar  accompanied  him  to  the  siege 
of  Zamora,  whence  he  brought  back  the  troops 
and  the  dead  body  of  the  warrior  monarch, 
who  fell  by  treachery.  Alfonso,  the  brother 
of  Sancho,  was  then  placed  on  the  throne,  after 
swearing  that  he  had  no  participation  in  the 
murder  of  Sancho.  His  last  exploit  was  the 
capture  of  Saguntum,  and  he  died  at  Valencia, 
101(9.  He  was  buried  at  Castile,  and  near  him 
lies  interred  his  beloved  and  faithful  charger, 
Babieca. 

CILK^'IA,  a  country  of  antiquity,  south  of 
Mount  Taurus,  between  Pamphylia  and  Syria, 
the  coast  of  \vhich  was  inhabited  by  a  piratical 
race.  The  Macedonians,  Syrians,  and  Romans 
successively  possessed  it,  and  it  was  a  province 
of  the  Roman  empire  from  the  time  of  Vespa- 
sian till  the  fall  of  Rome. 

CIMBRI,or  Cimmerians,  an  ancient  tribe  of 
the  Germans,  the  first  of  that  people  with  whom 
the  Greeks  became  acquainted.  Their  origin  is 
doubtful ;  they  were  warlike,  and  made  them- 
selves formidable  to  other  nations. 

CIMON,  an  Athenian,  son  of  Miltiades  and 
Hegesipul,  famous  for  his  debaucheries  in  his 
youth,  and  the  reformation  of  his  morals  when 
he  arrived  at  years  of  discretion.  He  behaved 
with  great  courage  at  the  battle  of  Salamis,  and 
rendered  himself  popular,  by  his  munificence 
and  valor.  He  defeated  the  Persian  fleet,  took 
200  ships,  and  totally  routed  their  land-army, 
on  the  same  day.  Cimon  afterward  lost  his 
popularity,  and  was  banished  by  the  Athenians, 
who  declared  war  against  the  Lacedsemonians; 
but  having  been  recalled  from  his  exile,  recon- 
ciled LacedaRmon  and  his  country.  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  to  carry  on  the  war  against 
Persia;  gave  battle  to  the  enemy  on  the  coast 
of  Asia,  and  totally  destroyed  their  fleet.  He 
died  as  he  was  besieging  the  town  of  Citium, 
in  Cyprus,  B.  C.  441),  in  the  51st  year  of  his 
age. 

CINCINNATI,  a  flourishing  city  in  the  stale 
of  Ohio,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Ohio,  con- 
taining, in  1840,  46,382  inhabitants.  It  was 
founded  in  178'J,  and  its  growth  has  been  aston- 
ishingly rapid.  It  contains  very  extensive 
manufacturing  establishments.  Its  population 
at  present  exceeds  30,000. 

CINC1NNATUS,  Lucius  Quintus,  a  cele- 
brated Roman.  Having  been  informed,  as  he 
ploughed  his  field,  that  the  senate  had  chosen 
him  dictator,  he  left  his  farm  with  regret,  and 


repaired  to  the  assistance  of  his  countrymen, 
whom  he  found  hard  pressed  by  the  Volsci  and 
jEqui.  He  conquered  the  enemy  and  returned 
to  Rome  in  triumph;  and,  sixteen  days  after 
his  appointment,  laid  down  his  office,  and  re- 
turned to  his  agricultural  employments.  In  his 
80th  year  he  was  again  summoned  against 
Pra»neste,  as  dictator,  and  after  a  successful 
campaign,  resigned  the  unlimited  power,  which 
had  been  reposed  in  him.  He  flourished  about 
400  years  B.  C. 

CINNA,  Lucius  Cornelius,  a  Roman  consul 
who  leagued  with  Marius  to  deluge  Rome  with 
blood.  He  was  stoned  to  death. 

CIRCASSIA,  a  country  of  Asia,  lying  be- 
tween the  Black  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  The 
Circassians  are  Mohammedans,  and  are  under 
the  protection  of  Russia.  They  are  a  warlike 
race.  The  females  are  celebrated  for  their  beau- 
ty, and  are  esteemed  the  brightest  ornaments 
of  an  eastern  seraglio.  Circassia  contains 
about  550,000  inhabitants. 

CISALPINE  REPUBLIC.  This  name  was 
given  by  Bonaparte  to  a  republic  which  receiv- 
ed its  constitution  in  1797,  and  which  finally 
included  a  territory  of  more  than  ](>,337  square 
miles,  inhabited  by  three  and  a  half  millions  of 
inhabitants.  It  included,  among  other  districts, 
Austrian  Lombardy,  the  Mantua  and  Vene- 
tian provinces,  Bergamo,  Brescia,  Crema,  Ve- 
rona, and  Rovigo,  the  duchy  of  Modena,  the 
Principality  of  Massa  and  Carrara,  Bologna, 
'errara,  Messola,  and  Romagna. 

CLAPPERTON,  Captain  Hugh,  an  officer 
in  the  English  navy,  born  at  Annan,  in  Scot- 
land, in  1788.  Having  served  with  distinction, 
he  was  anxious  to  join  doctor  Oudney ,  and  Uen- 
ham,  in  their  expedition  to  Africa.  After  ac- 
quiring a  vast  fund  of  information  in  regard  to 
the  interior  of  Africa,  he  returned  to  England, 
but  died  in  the  vicinity  of  Soccatoo,  while  on  a 
second  expedition  of  discovery,  April  13th,  1S27. 
Richard  Lander  was  his  servant. 

CLARE,  John,  a  peasant  of  Northampton- 
shire, England,  was  born  at  Helpstone,  July 
13th,  1793.  His  talents  displayed  themselves 
as  early  as  his  13th  year.  A  collection  of  his 
poems  wns  published  in  J 819,  and  their  recep- 
tion bv  the  public  was  highly  flattering.  Rais- 
ed by  "his  pen  from  abject  poverty,  Clare  soon 
saw  himself  in  possession  of  a  comfortable 
property. 

CLARENDON,  Edward  Hyde,  earl  of,  lord 
high  chancellor  of  England,  was  born  1008,  and^ 
educated  at  Oxford.    'He  became  chancellor  o«C 
exchequer  and  member  of  the   privy  council 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CLA 


187 


CLE 


under  Charles  I,  and  was  loaded  with  honors 
by  Charles  II.  Having,  however,  lost  the  royal 
favor,  he  was  deprived  of  his  offices ;  threatened 
with  impeachment,  and  compelled  to  fly  to 
France,  where  he  died,  at  Rouen,  in  1674. 

CLARKE,  George  Rogers,  an  American 
officer,  who  was  engaged  against  the  Indians, 
throughout  the  revolutionary  war,  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Virginia.  In  1778,  he  was  appointed  to 
command  a  force  for  the  protection  of  Illinois. 
He  built  fort  Jefferson  on  the  eastern  bank  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  in  1781,  received  a  gener- 
ral's  commission.  He  died  in  1817,  near  Louis- 
ville, Kentucky.  The  following  anecdote  is 
related  of  him  in  an  authentic  work. 

The  Indians  came  in  to  the  treaty  of  fort 
Washington  in  the  most  friendly  manner,  ex- 
cept the  Shawalianees,  the  most  conceited  and 
warlike  of  the  aborigines,  the  first  in  at  a  battle, 
the  last  at  a  treaty.  Three  hundred  of  their 
finest  warriors  set  off  in  all  their  paint  and 
feathers,  and  filled  the  council-house.  Their 
number  and  demeanor,  so  unusual  at  an  occa- 
sion of  this  sort,  was  altogether  unexpected  and 
suspicious.  The  United  States'  stockade  mus- 
tered 70  men.  In  the  centre  of  the  hall,  at,  a 
little  table,  sat  the  commissary-general,  Clarke, 
the  indefatigable  scourge  of  these  very  wander- 
ers, General  Richard  Butler,  and  Mr.  Parsons. 
There  was  also  present  a  Captain  Denny,  who, 
I  believe,  is  still  alive,  and  can  attest  this  story. 
On  the  part  of  the  Indians,  an  old  council- 
sachem  and  a  war-chief  took  the  lead.  The 
latter,  a  tall,  raw-boned  fellow,  with  an  impu- 
dent and  villanous  look,  made  a  boisterous 
and  threatening  speech,  which  operated  effectu- 
ally on  the  passions  of  the  Indians,  who  set 
up  a  prodigious  whoop  at  every  pause.  He 
concluded  by  presenting  a  black  and  white 
wampum,  to  signify  they  were  prepared  for 
either  events,  peace  or  war.  Clarke  exhibited 
the  same  unaltered  and  careless  countenance 
he  had  shown  during  the  whole  scene,  his  head 
leaning  on  his  left  hand,  and  his  elbow  resting 
on  the  lable.  He  raised  his  little  cane,  and 
pushed  the  sacred  wampum  off  the  table,  with 
very  little  ceremony.  Every  Indian,  at  the 
same  time,  started  from  his  seat  with  one  of 
those  sudden,  simultaneous,  and  peculiarly  sav- 
age sounds,  which  startle  and  disconcert  the 
stoutest  heart,  and  can  neither  be  described  nor 
forgotten.'  At  this  juncture,  Clarke  arose. 
The  scrutinizing  eye  cowered  at  his  glance. 
.He  stamped  his  foot  on  the  prostrate  and  in- 
Suited  symbol,  and  ordered  them  to  leave  the 
hall.  They  did  so  apparently  involuntarily. 


They  were  heard  all  that  night,  debating  in  the 
bushes  near  the  fort.  The  raw-boned  chief  was 
for  war,  the  old  sachem  for  peace.  The  latter 

C  vailed,  and  the  next  morning  they  came 
k  and  sued  for  peace. 

CLAUDIUS  I,  emperor  of  Rome,  the  son  of 
Drusus,  and  the  successor  of  the  infamous  Ca- 
ligula. He  made  some  conquests  in  Britain, 
and  built  several  noble  structures  in  Rome.  He 
was  poisoned  by  his  wife  Agrippina,  who  wish- 
ed to  place  her  son,  Nero,  on  the  throne,  A.  D. 
54.  He  was  then  03  years  of  age. 

CLEMENT.  This  name  has  been  borne  by 
several  popes.  Clement  XIV,  suppressed  the 
order  of  the  Jesuits,  and  gave  many  proofs  of 
great  liberality  in  religious  matters.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  real  name,  Gauganelli.  He  died 
in  1775. 

CLEMENT,  Jacques,  a  weak-headed  enthu- 
siast, who  assassinated  king  Henry  III,  of 
France. 

CLEOMBROTUS,  king  of  Sparta,  killed  in 
a  battle  fought  with  Eparninondas  at  Leuctra, 
B.C.  371.  ° 

CLEOMENES.  This  name  was  borne  by 
three  kings  of  Sparta.  The  first  delivered 
Athens  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Pisistratido3, 
but  killed  himself  in  a  fit  of  insanity,  B.  C.  491. 

The  reign  of  the  second  was  distinguished 
for  nothing  but  an  uninterrupted  tranquillity. 

Cleomenes  III,  was  the  son  and  successor  of 
Leonidas,  and  began  to  reign,  B.  C.  ~J30.  En- 
gaging in  a  war  with  the  Achaans,  he  was 
defeated,  and  obliged  to  fly  into  Egypt,  where 
he  destroyed  himself  in  prison,  B.  C.  219. 

CLEOPATRA,  queen  of  Egypt,  and  one  of 
the  most  famous  and  fascinating  female  sove- 
reigns of  antiquity,  was  the  daughter  of  Ptole- 
my Auletes,  and  the  sister  and  wife  of  Ptolemy 
Dionysius,  who  deprived  her  of  her  share  in 
the  kingdom,  and  drove  her  to  seek  protection 
of  the  Romans.  She  exerted  all  the  influence 
of  her  beauty  to  win  the  heart  and  gain  the 
favor  of  Csesar,  and  she  was  successful.  Ptole- 
my was  defeated  and  drowned.  He  left  the 
throne  to  his  sister,  who  removed  her  younger 
brother  by  poison.  Cleopatra  visited  Rome 
during  the  lifetime  of  Csesar,  but  was  forced  to 
quit  it  by  the  clamors  of  the  populace.  After 
the  battle  of  Philippi,  she  was  summoned  by 
Antony  to  appear  before  him  to  answer  to  the 
charge  brought  against  her  of  having  assisted 
Brutus.  When  she  made  her  appearance  be- 
fore Antony,  the  charms  of  her  person  and 
mind  ensnared  him.  and  made  him  forget  the 
attractions  of  his  wife.  At  the  battle  of  Acti- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


CLI 


188 


CLI 


um  she  fled,  and  her  paramour  was  defeated. 
He  afterwards  committed  suicide,  and  died  in 
her  arms.  Cleopatra,  to  avoid  gracing  the  tri- 
umph of  the  conqueror,  applied  an  asp  to  her 
breast,  and  died  of  the  wound,  B.  C.  30.  .She 
was  a  woman  of  great  talents,  but  of  a  most 
ambitious  and  extravagant  spirit.  In  a  convi- 
vial contest  with  Antony,  to  see  which  of  them 
could  expend  the  most  money  on  an  entertain- 
ment, she  snatched  one  of  her  pearl  ornaments, 
valued  at  10,00(M.  and  dissolving  it  in  a  cup  of 
vinegar,  swallowed  the  contents.  Few  scenes 
of  antiquity  can  have  surpassed  the  splendor  of 
her  appointments,  when  she  floated  over  the 
waves  of  the  river  Cydnus,  to  meet  Antony. 
She  came  to  judgment,  but,  she  came  in  the 
pride  of  beauty,  and  anticipated  triumph.  Her 
galley  glowed  with  gold ;  odors  filled  its  silken 
sails,  and  the  loveliest  girls  of  Egypt,  performed 
the  part  of  mariners.  Beneath  an  awning  on 
the  deck,  lay  the  queen,  in  th'e  slight  drapery 
with  which  painters  and  sculptors  sometimes 
invest  the  goddess  of  beauty.  Silver  oars 
struck  the  water  to  the  dulcet  sound  of  music, 
and  beneath  and  about  them  sported  the  fair 
representatives  of  marine  deities. 

CLERFAYT,  Francis  Sebastian  Charles  Jo- 
seph de  Croix,  count  of,  an  Austrian  general. 
In  1792,  he  commanded  the  Austrian  troops 
against  France,  and  after  taking  Longwy  and 
Stenay,  retired  into  the  Low  Countries.  Here 
he  lost  the  famous  battle  of  Jemappes  ;  but  his 
retreat  across  the  Rhine  was  a  masterpiece 
of  skill.  Under  the  command  of  the  prince 
of  Coburg,  he  gained  considerable  advantages 
at  Altenhaven,  Quievrain,  Hausen,  and  Far- 
mars,  and  decided  the  victory  of  Nerwinden. 
With  General  Richegru,  he  disputed  every  foot 
of  ground,  till  the  inferiority  of  his  forces 
obliged  him  to  abandon  the  country.  In  1795, 
he  took  the  command  of  the  army  of  Mayence, 
forced  the  French  camp,  and  took  a  number  of 
prisoners.  He  was  following  the  victory  with 
ardor,  when  he  received  at  Manheim,  an  order 
to  desist.  On  this  he  gave  in  his  resignation, 
and  retired  to  Vienna,  where  he  died  in  1798. 

CLIFFORD,  George,  the  third  earl  of  Cum- 
berland, a  nobleman  distinguished  by  his  naval 
enterprises  in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth. 
He  did  groat  damage  to  the  Spanish  settle- 
ments and  trade.  He  died  in  1605. 

CLIFTON,  William,  a  young  poet  of  great 
promise,  who  died  enrly.  He  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1772,  and  died  in  1799. 

CLINTON,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  general, 
who  came  to  America  in  1773.  He  was  en- 


gaged, during  the  revolutionary  war,  both  in 
the  northern  and  southern  states.  Being  super- 
seded, he  returned  to  England  in  17ti2,  and 
died  in  1795. 

CLINTON,  James,  the  fourth  son  of  Charles 
Clinton,  was  born  in  Ulster  county,  New  York, 
Aug.  9,  1736.  His  education  was  excellent, 
and  he  served  with  distinction  in  the  English 
and  French  war  of  1756,  and  in  the  revolution- 
ary war.  After  the  close  of  the  war,  he  became 
a  senator  of  the  United  States.  He  died  in 
1812. 

CLINTON,  George,  youngest  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  July  15,  1739.  In  the 
old  French  war.  and  the  war  of  independence 
he  displayed  great  gallantry.  Having  studied 
law,  he  was  admitted  to  practice  in  due  time, 
and  was  chosen  governor  of  New  York,  in  1777, 
and  he  continued  in  office  18  years,  and  could 
have  served  a  much  longer  time,  but  declined 
re-election.  He  was  chosen  vice  president  of 
the  United  States,  and  held  the  office  till  the 
time  of  his  death  in  1812. 

CLINTON,  De  Witt,  was  born  at  Little 
Britain,  Orange  county,  New  York,  in  1769. 
He  studied  law,  was  elected,  successively,  mem- 
ber of  the  state  legislature,  of  the  senate  of  the 
union,  and  mayor  of  New  York,  being  obliged 
to  retire  from  the  office,  after  filling  it  many 
years,  by  the  violence  of  party  spirit.  In  1817, 
he  was  chosen  governor  of  New  York,  on  which 
occasion  his  previous  opponents  gave  him  their 
votes,  from  a  sense  of  his  merit ;  he  was  re- 
elected  in  1820.  Clinton  was  one  of  the  prime 
movers  of  the  canal  scheme,  and  having  satis- 
fied himself  that  there  was  no  danger  of  that 
being  defeated,  in  1822,  he  declined  again  en 
tering  the  elective  lists.  Having  been  deprived 
of  his  seat  in  the  board  of  canal  commissioners, 
by  the  animosity  of  his  political  opponents,  a 
revolution  in  public  feeling  took  place  which 
enabled  his  friends  to  elect  him  governor  over 
Colonel  Young,  by  an  overwhelming  majority. 
In  1826,  he  was  again  elected,  but  died  in 
1828. 

CLTVE,  Robert,  lord,  was  born  in  1725,  in 
Shropshire.  Lord  Clive  became  eminent  for 
his  successes  in  India,  but  was  originally  merely 
a  writer  in  the  company's  service.  He  assisted 
in  the  Tanjore  war,  in  1747.  and  in  17.~>1,  took 
A  root  by  a  coup  de  main,  and  relieved  Tritch- 
inopoly.  He  afterwards  took  ForWPFilliam  in 
I'diiral,  defeated  Surajah  Dowlah.  and  placed 
Jaffier  AH  Cawn  upon  the  throne.  Honors 
were  heaped  upon  him  in  consequence  of  thes|'* 
achievements,  and  he  was  made  president  oi  ** 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL'. 


COB 


189 


COL 


Bengal.  After  defending  himself  with  spirit 
against  the  charge  of  abusing  his  power,  he 
gave  way  to  depression,  and  destroyed  himself, 
in  1774. 

CLOTILDE  DE  VALLON  CHALIS,  Mar- 
guerite Elenore,  a  talented  poetess  and  amiable 
woman,  who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  15th 
century.  In  1421  she  married  Berenger  de 
Surville,  a  young  knight  in  the  service  of 
Charles  VII,  who  was  killed  before  Orleans,  10 
years  after.  The  date  of  her  death  is  uncer- 
tain. 

CLOUD,  St.  a  village  six  miled  east  of  Paris, 
and  a  royal  residence,  the  palace  having  been 
improved  and  embellished  by  Napoleon. 

CLOVIS,  king  of  the  Franks,  born  4(>5,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Childeric  in  481.  He  em- 
braced Christianity  and  was  publicly  baptized. 
He  defeated  the  Goths,  subdued  several  provin- 
ces, and  fixed  the  royal  residence  at  Paris,  lie 
died  in  511,  after  a  reign  of  30  years. 

CLYMER,  George,  a  patriotic  and  talented 
American  gentleman,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
declaration  of  independence,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1739.  Mr.  Clyiner  was  one  of  the 
projectors  of  the  bank  established  for  the  soie 
purpose  of  conveying  rations  to  the  army.  Per- 
ceiving the  good  effects  of  a  national  bank,  in 
1760,  when  elected  a  second  time  to  Congress, 
he  strenuously  advocated  its  establishment.  In 
1734  he  filled  a  seat  in  the  legislature  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  as  a  member  of  the  convention, 
he  assisted  in  framing  the  present  federal  consti- 
tution. When,  in  1791,  the  famous  bill  imposing 
a  duty  on  spirits  distilled  within  the  United 
States,  was  passed,  Clymer  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  Pennsylvania  excise.  He  was  en- 
gaged, with  others,  to  negotiate  a  treaty  with" 
the  Indians  in  17!iG.  He  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  academy  of  arts,  and 
of  the  Philadelphia  bank.  He  died  in  1813. 

CLYTEMNESTRA.  a  daughter  of  Tynda- 
rus,  king  of  Sparta,  by  Heda,  and  twin-sister 
of  Helen.  In  the  absence  of  her  husband, 
Agamemnon,  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  ^Egisthus 
made  his  court  to  her,  and  publicly  lived  with 
her.  Her  infidelity  reached  the  ears  of  Aga- 
memnon, but  he  was  prevented  from  carrying 
his  schemes  of  vengeance  into  execution,  being 
murdered  by  the  traitress  and  her  paramour  on 
his  return  home.  After  this  crime, Clytemnes- 
tra  publicly  married  ^gisthus.  who  ascended 
the  throne  of  Argos.  She  was  killed  by  her 
son  Orestes. 

COBURG,  a  Saxon  principality  in  central 
Germany. 


COCHIN-CHINA,  composed  of  the  king- 
doms of  Cambodia,  Cochin-China  Proper,  and 
Tonquin,  is  1000  miles  long,  and  from  70  to  220 
miles  broad.  It  is  governed  by  a  king.  The 
inhabitants  are  hardy,  but  treacherous,  and  the 
country  is  fertile.  Little  attention  is  paid  to  re- 
ligion, although  that  of  Fo  is  professed  by  the 
lower  orders.  The  commerce  of  the  country  is 
great  and  increasing.  A  portion  of  the  country 
was  conquered  and  colonized  by  the  Chinese 
B.  C.  214.  After  the  Chinese  yoke  had  been 
thrown  off,  and  various  commotions  had  taken 
place,  three  brothers  of  low  rank,  (the  Tay- 
sons),  having  defeated  and  killed  the  king  of 
the  country,  found  a  powerful  opponent  in  his 
son  Gialong,  who  eventually  re-cr.nquered  the 
country  after  a  prolonged  struggle,  and  left  it 
in  its  present  state,  to  Meng-mencr. 

COURUS,  the  son  of  Melanthus.  and  last 
king  of  Athens,  who,  learning  that  the  Oracle 
had  assured  the  Heraclidse  that  their  good  for- 
tune depended  on  sparing  his  life,  rushed  into 
the  midst  of  the  hostile  array  in  disguise,  and 
was  slain. 

COKE,  Sir  Edward,  a  famous  English  law- 
yet  who  flourished  in  the  ICth  century. 

COLBERG,  a  fortress  and  sea-port  of  Prus- 
sian Pomerania".  frequently  besieged,  and  mem- 
orable for  its  gallant  defence  against  the  French 
in  1807. 

COLCHESTER,  a  town  cf  England,  in  Es- 
sex, on  the  river  Colne,  the  Colonia  of  the  an- 
cients, containing  16.000  inhabitants.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  the  birth-place  of  Helena,  the 
mother  of  Constantine.  In  the  reign  of  Mary, 
many  persons  were  put  to  death  here  on  account 
of  their  religious  principles  ;  and.  in  1648,  the 
town  was  besieged  by  the  forces  of  the  parlia- 
ment, and  so  reduced,  that  730  horses  were  de- 
livered up  for  provisions,  and  dogs  'and  cats 
were  sold  at  an  enormous  price.  The  town  at 
length  surrendered. 

COLIGNY,  Gaspard  de,  admiral  of  France, 
born  in  1516.  He  served  with  distinction  un- 
der the  gallant  Francis  1  and  Henrv  II,  by  both 
of  whom  he  was  honored  and  rewarded.  He 
was  chief  of  the  Calvinists  against  the  Guises, 
to  whom  he  continued  formidable  even  after  re- 
peated defeats.  Ooligny  was  the  first  who 
fell  in  the  atrocious  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's day,  in  1572.  His  head  was  sent  by 
Catharine  of  Medicis  to  the  pope. 

COLLING  WOOD,  Cuthbert.bnron,  an  Eng- 
lish admiral,  was  born  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
in  1748.  In  1761,  he  entered  the  naval  service, 
in  which  he  passed  through  all  the  regular  steps 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


COL 


190 


COL 


of  promotion,  till  he  was  made  post  captain,  and 
commanded  the  Prince,  admiral  Boyer's  flag- 
ship, on  the  1st  of  June,  1794.  After  this  he  bore 
a  part  with  Nelson,  in  the  action  off  Cape  St. 
Vincent,  February  14th,  1797.  In  1804  he  was 
made  vice-admiral  of  the  blue,  and  served  with 
Cornwallis  in  the  tedious  but  important  block- 
ade of  Brest.  At  length,  after  many  and  va- 
rious services.  Collingwood  became  second  to 
Nelson,  in  the  battle  of  Trafalgar.  On  this  oc- 
casion, his  ship,  the  Royal  Sovereign,  com- 
menced the  fight  in  such  a  manner  as  to  draw 
from  the  commander  these  expressions  :  "  Look 
at  that  noble  fellow  !  observe  the  style  in  which 
he  carries  his  ship  into  action  !" 

After  the  loss  of  Nelson,  the  command  de- 
volved upon  Collingwood  at  a  critical  period, 
und  how  well  he  secured  by  his  prudence  what 
had  been  so  gloriously  won,  needs  not  here  be 
related.  He  "was  now  advanced  to  be  vice-ad- 
miral of  the  red.  confirmed  in  the  command  of 
the  Mediterranean  fleet,  and  created  a  peer  of 
Great  Britain,  by  the  title  of  baron  Collingwood. 
He  died  oft'  Minorca,  on  board  the  Ville  de  Paris, 
March  7,  1810;  and  his  body  was  carried  to 
England,  and  interred  in  St.  Paul's  cathedral. 

COLLINS,  William,  an  English  poet,  was 
the  son  of  a  hatter  of  Chichester,  where  he  was 
born  about  17'20.  Aller  completing  his  college 
course,  he  published  his  Oriental  Eclogues,  and 
went  to  London  in  1744.  His  fortunes  having 
driven  him  to  the  bottle,  he  died  in  17,>G. 

COLLOT  D'  HERBOIS,  Jean  Marie,  an 
actor  who  was  hissed  from  the  stage,  mnde  him- 
self infamous  during  the  French  revolution  by 
conducting  the  massacres  at  Lyons.  He  was 
banished  to  Guinea  atler  the  fall  of  Robespierre, 
and  died  inl7';)6. 

COLMAN,  GEORGE,  a  dramatic  writer, 
was  born  at  Florence,  where  his  father  was  an 
English  envoy,  in  1733.  He  was  a  fine  scholar 
ana  writer.  His  death  took  place  in  1794. 

COLOGNE,  an  ancient  city,  capitol  of  the 
Prussian  government  of  Cologne,  contains 
G4,000  inhabitants.  It  possesses  many  attrac- 
tions for  the  antiquarian,  and  is  of  great  com- 
mercial importance. 

COLOMBIA,  late  a  republic  of  S  America, 
comprising  a  surface  of  1,100,000  square  miles, 
embraced  all  the  countries  formerly  known 
by  the  names  of  New  Grenada,  and  Venezuela, 
or  Caraccas,  and  Quito.  The  republic  of  Co- 
lombia was  subdivided  into  the  departments  of 
the  Isthmus,  Magdalena,  Zulia,  Venezuela,  Ori- 
noco, Cauca,  Cundinamarca,  Boyaca,  A  pure, 
The  Equator,  Guayaquil,  Assuay.  Population 


is  about  2,700,000.  The  Orinoco  and  Magdale- 
na, the  latter  of  which  is  1,000  miles  long,  are 
the  principal  rivers.  The  face  of  the  country 
is  greatly  diversified,  the  elevated  portions  of  it 
being  healthy,  while  in  the  low  parts,  the  climate 
is  hot  and  noxious.  The  soil  of  the  low  valleys 
is  rich,  and  produces  abundantly,  cotton ,  tobac- 
co, corn,  coffee,  and  tropical  fruits  The  precious 
metals  and  stones  are  found  in  the  mountains. 
The  Andes,  in  some  parts,  reach  an  elevation 
of  21,000  feet.  After  a  fierce  contest  the  royal 
party  was  subdued,  and  a  junction  of  the  three 
provinces  abovementioned.  effected  under  a 
federal  constitution.  But  in  18'29,  the  confede- 
ration fell  to  pieces,  and  three  new  states,  an- 
swering to  the  old  Spanish  colonial  divisions, 
have  be^n  formed  of  the  fragments,  viz. :  New 
Grenada,  comprising  the  five  departments  of 
The  Isthmus,  Magdalena.  Cauca.  Cundin.-.mar- 
ca,  and  Boyaca  ;  The  Equator,  composed  of  the 
three  departments  of  The  Equator,  Guayaquil, 
and  Assuay  ;  and  Venezuela,  including  the  other 
four  departments. 

COLOSSUS  of  Rhodes.  There  are  many 
contradictory  accounts  of  this  gigantic  bronze 
statue  of  Apollo,  which  was  of  such  extraordi- 
nary height,  that  the  ancients  assure  us  that 
vessels,  with  all  their  sails  set  went  between  its 
legs.  It  was  about  100  feet  high,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  modelled  by  Chares  of  Lindus,  a  dis- 
ciple of  the  famous  Lysippus,  who  was  occupied 
12  years  upon  the  work.  B.  C.  223, it  was  over- 
thrown by  an  earthquake,  which  committed 
great  ravages,  particularly  in  Caria,  and  the 
isle  of  Rhodes. 

COLUMBIA,  the  seat  of  Government  of 
South  Carolina,  situated  on  the  Congaree,  con- 
taining 4,295  inhabitants.  Many  ot  its  public 
edifices  are  very  handsome. 

COLUMBIA.  District  of,  10  miles  square,  is 
situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Potomac.  "Whole 
population,  in  1840,43,712.  It  contains  Alex- 
andria, Washington,  and  Georgetown,  and  be- 
came the  seat  of  government  of  the  Union,  in 
1890. 

COLUMBUS,  Christopher.  Some  account 
of  this  celebrated  navigator  will  be  found  in 
another  portion  of  this  work.  (See  .-Inn  //,-,,•). 

He  was  a  native  of  Genoa,  born  about  1435, 
of  poor  parents,  who  educated  him  with  care. 
At  the  age  of  14  lie  went  to  sea.  having  evinc- 
ed an  early  attachment  to  a  sailor's  life.  A  :r.;inst 
the  Mohammedans  and  Venetians  he  fought 
with  great  bravery  and  skill.  Having  conceiv- 
ed the  design  of  a  western  passage  to  India,  he 
for  a  long  time  sought  for  patronage  without 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


COM 


191 


CON 


avail ;  but  after  struggling  18  years,  was  at 
length  aided  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and 
sailed  with  three  small  vessels,  the  Pinta,  J\"ina, 
and  Pinzon,  August  3,  14!i2.  Land  was  discov- 
ered on  the  llth  of  October,  which  proved  to 
be  the  island  of  Guanahani,  named  by  Colum- 
bus, St.  Salvador.  Cuba  was  discovered  on  the 
28th  of  October.  Columbus  was  the  first  to 
announce  liis  own  discovery,  and  was  received 
in  Spain  with  signal  favor.  He  was  created  a 
grandee  of  the  realm  and  loaded  with  other 
honors.  September  25,  1493,  he  sailed  from 
Cadiz,  on  his  second  voyage,  with  a  fleet  of  17 
sail.  He  built  a  town  called  Isabella  at  Hispa- 
niola,  but  encountered  man}1  obstacles  and  diffi- 
culties in  his  new  voyage  of  discovery.  Mean- 
while that  envy,  winch  never  fails  to  pursue 
true  merit,  stirred  up  clamors  against  Columbus, 
which  were  stifled,  however,  by  his  return  to 
Spain  in  1496,  with  valuable  treasures.  In  14PW 
he  departed  on  his  third  voyage.  Arrived  in 
the  new  world,  he  found  his  enemies  still  exas- 
perated against  him,  and  they  scrupled  not  to 
represent  him  to  his  sovereigns  as  endeavoring 
to  make  himself  independent.  Their  stories 
were  believed,  Francis  de  Bobadilla  was  sent 
to  Hispaniola,  and  the  admiral  and  his  brothers 
put  in  irons,  and  sent  to  Spain.  There  the 
honor  and  fidelity  of  Columbus  became  appa- 
rent, nnd  he  was  nominally  reinstated  in  his 
dignities.  But  the  disposition  of  the  sovereigns 
towards  him  was  altered.  Nicolo  de  Ovando  y 
Lares,  was  sent  to  Hispaniola  as  governor,  and 
Columbus,  now  sought  only  to  obtain  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  royal  promises  with  regard  to  the 
furtherance  of  his  expedition,  imagining  that 
the  continent  he  had  discovered  was  Asia,  and 
hoping  to  find  a  way  to  the  East  Indies  by  the 
isthmus  of  Darien.  His  fourth  voyage,  com- 
menced March  !),  1502,  with  few  iacilities, 
proved,  on  the  whole,  disastrous,  and  Columbus, 
after  being  wrecked,  and  surrounded  by  dangers, 
returned  to  Spain.  Neglected  by  his  former 
patrons,  his  spirits  sank,  and  he  died  atVallado- 
lid,  May  20th,  150fi,in  the  70th  year  of  his  oge. 
He  was  buried  in  the  city  of  St.  Domingo,  but 
his  remains  were  afterward  removed  to  the  ca- 
thedral of  Havana,  in  Cuba.  Columbus  had  a 
noble  and  pleasing  countenance  and  form,  and 
was  eloquent,  amiable,  and  pious. 

COMMODUS  ANTOMUS,  Lucius  JElius 
Aurelius,  emperor  of  Rome,  son  of  Marcus  Au- 
relius,  was  born  A.  D.  1(51.  At  16  years  of  age 
he  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the  govern- 
ment, and  in  A.  D.  180,  ascended  the  'throne. 
He  surpassed  in  profligacy  and  cruelty  all  his 


wicked  predecessors.  He  maimed  and  disem- 
bowelled his  subjects  for  pleasure.  From  his 
great  strength  he  bore  a  strikmg  resemblance  to 
the  statues  of  Hercules,  in  tlie  dress  of  whom 
he  appeared.  He  debauched  his  own  sisters, 
and  mixed  with  the  vilest  and  most  degraded 
of  the  human  race.  Having  exhausted  the 
treasury  by  his  extravagance,  he  replenished  i 
by  imposing  enormous  taxes  on  the  people 
Habited  like  a  slave,  he  drove  his  own  chariot 
and  fought  as  a  gladiator,  735  times.  He  was 
strangled  by  his  favorite  gladiator,  Narcissus,  in 

CONCORD,  the  seat  of  government  of  New 
Hampshire,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
Merrimack,  63  miles  northwest  from  Boston, 
containing  4,898  inhabitants. 

CONCORD,  a  village  of  Middlesex  county, 
Massachusetts,  13  miles  north  of  Boston.  At 
Concord  and  Lexington  the  first  armed  resist- 
ance was  made  to  the  troops  of  Great  Britain, 
April  19th,  1775. 

CONDE,  Louis  de  Bourbon,  prince  of,  was 
the  son  of  Charles  of  Bourbon,  duke  of  Ven- 
dome,  and  was  born  in  1530.  He  signalized 
himself  at  the  battle  of  St.  Quintin,  and  became 
leader  of  the  discontented  Huguenots.  He  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Dreux,  in  1562,  and 
slain  in  that  of  larnac,  in  15C9. 

CONDE,  Louis,  prince  of,  commonly  called 
tne  great,  was  born  at  Paris  in  ]  621 .  At  the 
age  of  22  he  gained  the  battle  of  Rocroi  against 
the  Spaniards,  and  captured  Thionville  and 
other  places.  He  next  entered  Germany  where 
he  gained  innumerable  laurels.  Being  recalled 
thence,  he  was  sent  into  Catalonia,  but  failed  in 
his  attempt  to  take  Lerida.  In  1648,  he  defeated 
the  Imperialists  in  Flanders  with  prodigious 
slaughter.  In  the  civil  war  Conde  at  first  ad- 
hered to  the  court,  but  afterwards  opposed  it 
without  success.  He  refused  to  accede  to  the 
peace,  and  entered  into  the  service  of  the  Span- 
iards in  the  Low  Countries,  where  his  military 
exploits  were  uncommonly  splendid.  At  the 
peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  in  1659,  he  obtained  his 
pardon,  and  served  his  country  with  his  wonted 
activity  and  success.  He  contended  with  the 
prince  of  Orange  in  the  Netherlands,  and  was 
wounded  in  the  memorable  passage  of  the 
Rhine.  The  conquest  of  Tranche  Compte  was 
also  chiefly  owing  to  him.  After  the  death  of 
Turenno.  he  carried  on  the  war  against  Germany 
with  advantage.  He  died  in  16d7  at  Fontaine- 
bleau. 

CONFEDERATION  OF  THE  RHINE. 
In  1806,  the  emperor  Napoleon,  having  deter- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


CON 


192 


CON 


mined  that  there  should  not  exist,  on  the  conti- 
nent, any  power  capable  of  opposing  his  designs, 
contrived  to  dismember  the  German  empire, 
and  induce  the  emperor  to  abandon  his  title  of 
emperor  of  Germany.  In  pursuance  of  these 
views,  a  new  union  was  formed  by  several  of 
the  German  princes,  under  the  naine  of  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine.  The  kings  of  Ba- 
varia and  Wirtemburg,  the  arch-chancellor,  the 
elector  of  Baden,  the  Duke  of  Berg,  the  land- 
grave of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  the  princes  of 
Nassau- Weilbourg,  of  Nassau- Usingen,  of  Ho- 
henzollcrn,  Heckingen,  Siegmaringen.  Saim- 
Sahn,  Salm-Kysburif,  Isenburg,  Birstein.  and 
Lichtenstein,  the  duke  of  Aremberg,  and  the 
count  of  Leyen,  published  at  Ratisbon,  a  decla- 
ration, purporting  that  as  the  Germanic  con- 
stitution then  existing,  could  afford  no  guaran- 
tee for  the  public  tranquillity,  the  contracting 
parties  had  agreed,  that  their  states  should  be 
for  ever  separated  from  the  Germanic  body,  and 
united  by  a  particular  confederation,  under  the 
title  of  •'  The  Confederate  States,"  of  which  the 
emperor  of  the  French  was  constituted  the  head 
and  protector. 

The  treaty  of  confederation  was  projected  and 
drawn  up  at  Paris,  and  ratified  at  Munich,  on 
the  2T)th  of  July,  1806  :  it  contained  40  articles 
relative  to  the  territories,  which  each  of  the 
contracting  parties  was  to  possess,  and  other 
important  particulars.  Every  continental  war, 
in  which  either  France  or  any  of  the  confede- 
rate states  should  be  engaged,  was  to  be  com- 
mon to  all ;  the  contingent  to  be  furnished  by 
each  of  the  members,  was  determined  in  the 
following  proportion  ;  France,  200,000  men, 
Bavaria  30,000,  Wirtemburg  12.000,  Baden 
8.000,  Berg  5,000,  Darmstadt  4,000,  Nassau  and 
the  other  states  4,000. 

By  this  confederation,  the  Germanic  body 
was  completely  dissolved,  and  a  very  consider- 
able part  of  its  members  ranged  themselves  un- 
der the  banners  of  V ranee.  The  emperor,  t  rin- 
cis  II,  in  consequence  of  this  organization, 
resigned  his  title  of  Emperor  of  Germany,  and 
tofck  that  of  Emperor  of  Austria.  Thus  was 
dissolved,  the  German,  or  as  it  was  styled  in 
diplomatic  language,  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  ; 
1006  years  after  Charlemagne  received  the  im- 
perial title  and  crown,  from  the  hands  of  the 
pope  of  Rome. 

CONGO,  a  kingdom  of  Africa,  in  Lower 
Guinea,  whicli  is  under  the  sway  of  the  Portu- 
guese. It  is  rich  and  fertile.  It  was  discover- 
ed in  1  lr-'7  by  Diego  Cam,  a  Portuguese.  The 
native  government  is  despotic. 


CONGREVE,  William,.a  celebrated  English 
dramatist  and  poet,  born  in  1(170  and  died  in 
172!).  His  plays  are  replete  with  wit  and  hu- 
mor. 

CONNECTICUT,  one  of  the  United  States; 
bounded  north  by  Massachusetts,  cast  by  Rhode 
Island,  south  by  Long  Island  Sound  and  west 
by  New  York,  and  containing  309,948  inhabit- 
ants. Among  the  manufactures  of  Connecti- 
cut, may  be  mentioned  tin  ware,  cotton  goods, 
clocks,  nails,  glass,  hats,  buttons,'  and  firearms. 
The  seat  of  government  is  alternately  at  Hart- 
ford and  New  Haven.  Yale  College  i-i  New 
Haven  is  one  of  the  most  flourishing  institu- 
tions in  the  United  States.  Connecticut  colony 
and  New  Haven  colony,  originally  under  sepa- 
rate governments,  were  united  in  llilio.  The 
present  state  constitution  was  formed  in  1818. 

CONSTANTINE  THE  GREAT,  (Caius 
Flavius  Valerius  Aurelius  Claudius  Constan- 
tine),son  of  the  emperor  Constantius  Chlorus, 
by  Helena,  was  born  about  the  year  'J74.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  300,  he  was  proclaim- 
ed emperor  by  the  army.  He  defeated  the 
Franks,  atler  which  he  crossed  the  Rhino,  and 
committed  great  ravages  in  Belgium.  Constari- 
tine  married  Fausta,  the  daughter  of  Mnximian, 
in  306.  His  father-in-law,  taking  advantage  of 
his  absence  from  Aries,  where  he  held  his  court, 
seized  the  treasury,  and  assumed  the  imperial 
title,  but  being  taken  prisoner  by  Constantine. 
strangled  himself.  A  war  now  broke  out  be- 
tween Constantino  r.iid  Maxentius,  the  son  of 
Maximum,  the  former  reduced  Italy,  and  de- 
feated Alaxentins,  who  was  drowned  in  the 
Tiber.  At  this  period  the  era  of  Constaiitine's 
conversion  to  Christianity  is  fixed.  As  he  was 
riding  at  the  head  cf  his  troops,  an  immense 
cross  of  exceeding  brightness  is  said  to  have 
appeared  above  the  horizon,  bearing  this  inscrip- 
tion :  "  IN  THIS  CONQUEU."  Constantine  was 
no  lender  nn  infidel. 

lie  now  entered  Rome  in  triumph,  and  re- 
ceived from  the  senate  the  title  of  Augustus,  in 
conduction  with  Licinius  and  Maximin.  the  fnr- 
mer  of  whom  married  his  sister,  Constantia. 
A  civil  war  shortly  after  broke  out  between  Li 
cinius  and  Maximin,  in  which  the  latter  was 
slain.  Licinius  then  formed  a  conspiracy  against 
Constantine,  whicli  U'iiiir  disr.ivered.  war  en- 
sued between  them,  in  which  Constantine  was 
successful,  and  peace  was  concluded.  A  second 
war  broke  out  in  323,  and  terminated  in  the  de- 
feat of  Licinius,  and  his  resignation  of  the  im- 
perial dignity.  Not  l;mg  afterwards  he  wa 
strangled! 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


CON 


193 


CON 


Constantine  now  began  to  show  his  regard 
for  the  religion  he  had  adopted,  by  building  nu- 
merous churches,  and  journeying  1o  Jerusalem 
to  visit  the  Holy  Land,  where  he  erected  a  mag- 
nificent church  at  Bethlehem.  With  this  zeal 
for  religion  he  blended  courage  and  justice.  He 
conquered  the  Goths,  founded  Constantinople, 
and  performed  many  actions  that  entitle  him  to 
the  name  of  Great.  But  he  sullied  his  charac- 
ter by  putting  to  death  his  son  Crispus.  He 
died  in  337. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  called,  by  the  Turks, 
Istambol,  and  by  other  Oriental  nations,  Con- 
stantino, the  capital  of  the  Turkish  empire,  is 
situated  on  the  European  side  of  the  Bosphorus. 
Its  circuit,  including  the  suburbs,  is  about  35 
miles,  and  the  number  of  inhabitants,  by  the  most 
moderate  computation,  630,000  Greeks,  Arme- 
nians, Jews,  and  Turks.  It  was  built  upon  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  Byzantium  by  Constantine 
the  Great.  It  became  afterwards  the  capital  of 
the  Greek  empire  ;  and,  having  escaped  the  de- 
structive rage  of  the  barbarous  nations,  it  was 
the  greatest  as  well  as  the  most  beautiful  city  in 
Europe,  and  the  only  one.  during  the  Gothic 
ages,  in  which  there  remained  any  image  of  the 
ancient  elegance  in  manners  and  arts.  It  de- 
rived great  advantages  from  its  being  the  ren- 
dezvous of  the  Crusaders  ;  and,  being  then  in, 
the  zenith  of  its. glory,  the  European  writers,  in 
that  age.  speak  of  it  with  astonishment.  Dur- 
ing the  third  Crusade,  a  revolution  happened  at 
Constantinople,  which  divided  the  eastern  em- 
pire for  58  years.  Alexius  Angclus,  surnamed 
the  tyrant,  having  dethroned  Isaac  II,  placed 
himself  upon  the  throne  of  Constantinople,  in 
1195;  and  Alexius,  son  of  Isaac,  applied  to  the 
French  and  Venetians,  who  passed  that  way  to 
the  Holy  Wars,  to  assist  him  in  the  recovery  of  his 
father's  empire.  They  accordingly ,  in  1203,  re- 
duced Constantinople,  after  a  siege  of  eight 
days,  and  replaced  Isaac  on  the  throne.  The 
next  year,  Alexius  Dacus  Murzoufle  assassinat- 
ed the  emperor,  whom  the  Crusaders  had  re- 
established, and  seized  the  crown.  On  hearing 
this,  the  French  returned,  attacked  the  city,  re- 
duced it  in  three  days,  deposed  Murzoufle.  and 
chose  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  emperor. 

He  had  four  successors,  the  last  of  whom, 
Baldwin  II,  was  deposed  in  1262,  by  Michael 
Paleologus.  In  the  mean  time  Theodore  Las- 
caris,  who  had  been  charged  by  the  clergy  to 
take  arms  against  the  tyrant  Murzoufle.  finding 
Constantinople  in  the  power  of  the  French,  re- 
tired with  his  wife  and  family  to  Nice,  where, 
in  1204,  he  was  crowned  emperor,  and  formed  a 


small  empire  out  of  that  of  Constantinople.  He 
had  but  three  successors,  the  last  of  whom,  John 
Ducas,  was  deprived  of  his  sight  in  1255,  by 
order  of  Michael  Paleologus,  his  preceptor,  who 
usurped  the  throne  in  125!),  and  in  12b'2  made 
himself  master  of  Constantinople,  so  that  the 
empire  was  re-united.  He  continued  till  1453, 
when  Constantinople  was  taken  by  Mohammed 
II,  sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  ;  since  which 
it  has  remained  the  seat  of  their  empire. 

Constantinople  is  at  this  day  one  of  the  finest 
cities  in  the  world,  from  its  situation  and  pon. 
It  is  frequently  called  the  Porte  by  way  of  emi- 
nence. The  city  has  met  with  many  disasters 
from  convulsions,  earthquakes,  and  the  plague. 

CONSTITUTION,  the  English,  which  owes 
its  foundation  to  the  era  of  the  conquest,  has 
been  made  the  model  of  most  of  the  constitu- 
tions enjoyed  by  republican  states.  The  Bill  of 
Rights,  which  was  the  basis  of  the  English  con- 
stitution, was  passed  in  the  time  of  their  revo- 
lution. and  contained  the  following  provisions: 

1.  The  pretended  power  of  suspending  laws, 
or  the  execution  of  laws  by  regal  authority, 
without  the  consent  of  Parliament,  is  illegal  :  — 
2.  That  the  pretended  power  of  dispensing 
with  laws,  or  the  execution  of  laws  by  regal  au- 
thority, as  it  hath  been  assumed  and  exercised 
of  late,  is  illegal  :—  3.  That  the  commission  for 
erecting  the  late  court  of  commissioners  for 
ecclesiastical  causes,  and  all  other  commissions 
and  courts  of  like  nature,  are  illegal  and  perni- 
cious :  —  4.  That  levying  money  for,  or  to  the 
use  of  the  crown,  by  pretence  of  prerogative, 
without  grant  of  Parliament,  for  longer  time,  or 
in  all  other  manner  than  the  same  is,  and  shall 


be  granted,  is  illegal  :  —  5.  That  it  is  the  right 
of  the  subjects  to  petition  the  king,  and  that  all 
commitments  and  prosecutions  for  such  peti- 


tioning, are  illegal  :  —  6.  That  the  raising  or 
keeping  a  standing  army  within  the  kingdom 
in  time  of  peace,  unless  it  be  with  consent  of 
parliament,  is  against  law  :  —  7.  That  the  sub- 
jects which  are  Protestants,  may  have  arms  for 
their  defence,  suitable  for  their  conditions,  and 
as  allowed  by  law  :  —  8.  That  election  of  mem- 
bers of  Parliament  ought  to  be  free  :—  1).  That 
the  freedom  of  speech,  and  debates  or  proceed- 
ings in  Parliament,  ought  not  to  be  impeached 
or  questioned  in  any  court  or  place  out  of  par- 
liament :  —  10.  That  excessive  bail  ought  not  to 
be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted  :  —  11. 
That  jurors  ought  to  be  duly  empannelled  and 
returned  ;  and  that  jurors  which  pass  upon  men 
in  trials  for  high  treason,  ought  to  be  free-hold- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


CON 


194 


CON 


ere  — 12.  That  all  grants  and  promises  of  fines 
and  forfeitures  of  particular  persons,  before 
conviction,  are  illegal  and  void  : — 13.  And  that 
for  the  redress  of  ail  grievances,  and  for  the 
amending,  strengthening,  and  preserving  of 
laws,  parliaments  ought  to  be  held  frequently. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  as  proposed  to  the  Convention  held  at 
Philadelphia,  \7th  September,  1787,  and  since 
ratified  bij  the  several  States  with  amendments. 

ARTICLE  I.  Section  1.  All  legislative  powers 
herein  granted,  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress  of 
the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  oFa  Sen- 
ate and  House  of  Representatives. 

Sec.  2.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be 
composed  of  members  chosen  every  second  year 
by  the  people  of  the  several  States ;  and  the 
electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifica- 
tions requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numer- 
ous branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall 
not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty-five 
years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected, 
be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall 
be  chosen. 

Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  ap- 
portioned among  the  several  States  which  may 
be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their 
respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined 
by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons, 
including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of 
years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three- 
fifths  of  all  other  persons.  The  actual  enume- 
ration shall  be  made  within  three  years  after 
the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  often 
years,  in  such  a  manner  as  they  shall  by  law 
direct.  The  number  of  Representatives  shall 
not  exceed  one  for  every  30,000,  but  each  State 
shall  have  at  least  one  representative. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representa- 
tion from  any  State,  the  Executive  Authority 
thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose 
their  Speaker  and  other  officers  ;  and  shall  have 
the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Sec.  3.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  composed  of  two  Senators  from  eacli  State, 
chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for  six  years  : 
and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in 
consequence  of  the  first  election,  they  sball  be 
divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  classes. 
The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall 


be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year, 
of  the  second  class  at  the  expiration  of  the 
fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at  the  expi- 
ration of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one  third  may 
be  chosen  every  second  year  ;  and  if  vacancies 
happen  by  resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the 
recesa  of  the  Legislature  of  any  state,  the  Exec- 
utive thereof  may  make  temporary  appoint- 
ments until  the  next  meeting  of  the  Legisla- 
ture, which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not 
have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty  years,  and 
been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabi- 
tant of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

The  V ice-President  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  President  of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no 
vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers, 
and  also  a  President  pro  ttmpore,  in  tiie  absence 
of  the  Vice-President.  or  when  he  shall  exercise 
the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  fill 
impeachments.  When  sitting  for  that  purpose, 
they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When 
the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the 
chief  justice  shall  preside  :  And  no  person  shall 
be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  members  present. 

Judgment,  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall 
not  extend  further  than  to  remsval  from  office, 
and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office 
of  honor,  trust  or  prefit  under  the  United  States  ; 
but  the  party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be 
liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment 
and  punishment  according  to  law. 

Sec.  4.  The  times,  places  and  manner  of 
holding  elections  for  Senators  and  Representa- 
tives, slnill  be  prescribed  in  each  state  by  the 
Legislature  thereof:  But  the  Congress  may  at 
any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such  regula- 
tions, except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  Sen- 
ators. 

The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in 
every  year,  and  such  meeting  shiill  he  on  the 
first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by 
law  appoint  a  different,  <1  -:v. 

Sec.  5.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the 
elections,  returns  and  qualifications  of  its  own 
members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  consti- 
tute a  quorum  to  do  business  ;  but  a  smaller 
number  may  adjourn  from  d;sy  to  day.  and  may 
be  authorised  to  compel  the  attendance  of  ab- 
sent members,  in  such  manner,  and  under  such 
penalties  as  each  House  may  provide. 

Each  House  may  determine  the  rules  of  its 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CON 


195 


CON 


proceedings,  punish  its  members  for  disorderly 
behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two- 
thirds,  expel  a  member. 

Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  pro- 
ceedings, and  from  time  to  time  publish  the 
same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may,  in  their 
judgment,  require  secrecy ;  and  the  yeas  and 
nays  of  the  members  of  either  House  on  any 
question,  shall,  at  the  dosire  of  one-fifth  of  those 
present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress, 
shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn 
for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place 
than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be 
sitting. 

Sec.  6.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall 
receive  a  compensation  for  their  services,  to  be 
ascertained  by  law.  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury 
of  the  United  States.  They  shall,  in  all  cases, 
except  treason,  felony  and  breach  of  the  peace, 
be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attend- 
ance at  the  session  of  their  respective  Houses, 
and  in  going  to  or  returning  from  the  same  ; 
and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  House, 
they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during 
the  time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be  appointed 
to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created, 
or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been 
increased  during  such  time  ;  and  no  person 
holding  any  office  under  the  United  States, 
sh'ill  be  a  member  of  either  House  during  his 
continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  7.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall 
originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives ;  but 
the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amend- 
ments as  on  oilier  bills. 

Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House 
of  Representatives  and  the  Senate,  shall,  before 
it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States  :  if  he  approve,  he  shall 
sign  it ;  but  if  not.  ho  shall  return  it,  with  his 
objections,  to  that  House  in  whicli  it  shall  have 
originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at 
large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider 
it.  If,  after  such  reconsideration,  two-thirds  of 
that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall 
be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the 
other  House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  re- 
considered, and  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of 
that  House,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all 
such  cases,  the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be 
determined  by  yeas  and  nays ;  and  the  names 
of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill, 
shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  House 
17* 


respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned 
by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays  ex- 
cepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to 
him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as 
if  he  had  signed  it.  unless  the  Congress  by  their 
adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case 
it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

Every  order,  resolution  or  vote  to  which  the 
concurrence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  ques- 
tion of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States;  and  before  the 
same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him, 
or  being  disapproved  by  htm,  shall  be  repassed 
by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, according  to  the  rules  and  limita- 
tions prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Sec.  8.  The  Congress  shall  have  power — To 
lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts  and  ex- 
cises, to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  com- 
mon defence  and  general  welfare  of  the  United 
States ;  but  all  duties,  imposts  and  excises 
shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  Stales: 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United 
States : 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations, 
and  among  the  several  States,  and  with  the 
Indian  tribes  : 

To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization, 
and  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bankrupt- 
cies throughout  the  United  States  : 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof, 
and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of 
weights  and  measures : 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counter- 
feiting the  securities  and  current  coin  of  the 
United  States: 

To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads  : 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful 
arts,  by  securing,  for  limited  times,  to  authors 
and  inventors,  the  exclusive  right  to,  their  re- 
spective writings  and  discoveries: 

To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme 
court : 

To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies 
committed  on  the  high  seas,  and  offences  against 
the  law  of  nations  : 

To  declare  war.  grant  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning  captures  on 
land  and  water : 

To  raise  and  support  armies ;  but  no  appro- 
priation of  money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a 
longer  term  than  two  years : 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy  : 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regu 
lalion  of  the  land  and  naval  forces  • 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


CON 


196 


CON 


.alhng  forth 
execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insur- 
rections, and  repel  invasions : 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming  and  disci- 
plining the  militia,  and  for  governing  such  part 
of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of 
the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  re- 
spectively the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and 
the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to 
the  discipline  prescribe'd  by  Congress  : 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases 
whatsoever,  over  such  district  (not  exceeding 
ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  partic- 
ular States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress, 
become  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all 
places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  legisla- 
ture of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be, 
for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,, 
dock-yards,  and  other  needful  buildings :  — 
And 

To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary 
and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the 
foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested 
by  this  Constitution  in  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer 
thereof 

Sec.  9.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such 
persons  as  any  of  the  Stales  now  existing  shall 
think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited 
by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eight ;  but  a  tax  or  duty  may 
be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding 
ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when  in  cases  of 
rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  re- 
quire it. 

No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall 
be  passed. 

No  capitation,  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be 
laid,  unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or  enu- 
meration herein  before  directed  to  be  taken. 

No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  export- 
ed from  any  State. 

No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regula- 
tion of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one 
State,  over  those  of  another  :  Nor  shall  vessels, 
bound  to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter, 
clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury, 
but  in  consequence  of  appropriations  made  by 
law  ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of 
the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public 
money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the 


United  States :  And  no  person  holding  any 
office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any 
present,  emolument,  office,  or  title  of  any  kind 
whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign 
state. 

Sec.  10.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treat}', 
alliance  or  confederation  ;  grant  letters  oi'marque 
and  reprisal ;  coin  money  ;  emit  bills  of  credit ; 
make  any  thing  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  ten- 
der in  payment  of  debts  ;  pass  any  bill  of  attain- 
der, ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the 
obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of 
nobility. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
Congress,  lay  any  imposts  or  duties  on  imports, 
or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  ne- 
cessary for  executing  its  inspection  laws ;  and 
the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by 
any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the 
use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States;  and  all 
such  laws  shall  be  subject,  to  the  revision  and  con- 
trol of  the  Congress.  iN'o  State  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  ton- 
nage, keep  troops,  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of 
peace,  enter  into  tiny  agreement  or  compact 
with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or 
engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in 
such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of 
delay. 

ARTICLE  II.  Sec.  1.  The  Executive  power 
shall  be  vested  in  the  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office 
during  the  terns  of  four  years,  and,  together 
with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same 
term,  be  elected  as  follows  : 

Each  state  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  a.s 
the  legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of 
Electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators 
and  Representatives  t:>  which  the  State  may  be 
entitled  in  the  Congress  ;  but  no  Senator  or 
Representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of 
trust  or  profit  under  the  United  Stales,  shall  be 
appointed  an  Elector.  The  Electors  shall  meet 
in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for 
two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  slidl  not  be 
an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves. 
And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons 
voted  for,  arid  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each; 
which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  trans- 
mit, sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the 
Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in 
the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes 
shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CON 


197 


CON 


f^rcatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President, 
if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  num- 
ber of  Electors  appointed;  and  if  there  be  more 
than  one  who  have  such  majority  and  have  an 
equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot 
one  of  them  for  President ;  and  if  no  person 
have  a  majority,  then  from  the  five  highest  on  the 
list,  the  said  House  shall  in  like  manner  choose 
the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President, 
the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  represen- 
tation from  each  State  having  one  vote  :  a  quo- 
rum for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member 
or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States  ;  and 
a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to 
a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the 
President,  the  person  having  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice- 
President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or 
more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall 
choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice-President. 
(See  12l.h  Amendment.) 

The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of 
choosing  the  Electors,  and  the  day  on  which 
they  shall  give  their  votes  ;  which  day  shall  be 
the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

No  person,  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  at  the  time  of  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible 
to  the  office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  per- 
son be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  age  of  thirty -five  years,  and  been 
fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the  United 
States. 

In  the  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President 
from  office,  or  of  his  death,  resignation,  or  ina- 
bility to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the 
said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  t!>e  Vice- 
President  ;  and  the  Congress  may  bv  law  pro- 
vide for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation, 
or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice- 
President."  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act 
as  President ;  and  such  officer  shall  act  accord- 
ingly, until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  Pre- 
sident shall  be  elected. 

The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive 
for  his  services,  a  compensation,  which  shall 
neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the 
period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected ; 
and  he  shall  not  receive,  within  that  period,  any 
other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any 
of  them. 

Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office, 
he  shall  take  the  following  oath  or  affirmation  : 

"  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm),  that  I  will 
faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President  of  the 


United  States  ;  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  abil- 
ity, preserve,  protect  and  defend  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  Stales." 

Sc-c.  2.  The  President  shall  be  commander 
in  chief  of  the  army  and  navy  pf  the  United 
States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States, 
when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United 
States  ;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writinir, 
of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive 
departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the 
duties  of  their  respective  offices ;  and  he  shall 
have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for 
offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in 
cases  of  impeachment. 

He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate,  to  make  treaties,  pro- 
vided two-thirds  of  the  Senators  present  concur ; 
and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint 
ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  con- 
suls, judrres  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other 
officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appoint- 
ments are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for, 
and  which  shall  be  established  by  law.  But  the 
Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of 
such  inferior  officers  as  they  shall  think  pro- 
per in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law, 
or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all 
vacancies  that  may  happen  during  the  recess 
of  the  Senate  by  granting  commissions  which 
shall  expire  at  tiie  end  of  their  next  session. 

Sec.  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the 
Congress  information  of  the  state  of  the  Union, 
and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such 
measures  as  lie  shall  judge  necessary  and  expe- 
dient :  He  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them  ;  and  in 
case  of  disagreement  between  them,  with  re- 
spect to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  ad- 
journ them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper : 
He  shall  receive  Ambassadors  and  other  public 
Ministers :  He  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be 
faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all 
the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  4.  The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all 
civil  officers  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  re- 
moved from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and 
conviction  of,  treason,  bribery  or  other  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III.  Section  1.  The  Judicial  power 
of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one  Su- 
preme Court,  and  in  such  Inferior  Courts  as  the 
Congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  es- 
tablish. The  Judges,  both  of,  the  Supreme  and 
Inferior  Court,  shall  hold  their  offices  during 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


CON 


198 


CON 


good  behavior ;  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  re- 
ceive for  their  services  a  compensation,  which 
shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continu- 
ance in  office. 

Sec.  2.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all 
cases,  in  law  and  equity,  arising  under  this  Con- 
stitution, the  laws  of  the  United  States  and 
treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under 
their  authority;  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors, 
other  public  ministers  and  consuls  ;  to  all  cases 
of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction  ;  to  con- 
troversies to  which  the  United  States  shall  be 
party ;  to  controversies  between  two  or  more 
States,  beticeen  a  State  and  citizens  of  another 
State,  between  citizens  of  different  Slates,  be- 
tween citizens  of  the  same  State,  claiming  lands 
under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a 
State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states, 
citizens  or  subjects. 

In  all  cases,  affecting  ambassadors,  other  pub- 
lic ministers  and  consuls,  and  those  in  which  a 
State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall 
have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases 
beforementioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have 
appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact, 
with  such  exceptions,  and  under  such  regula- 
tions, as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  im- 
peachment, shall  be  by  jury;  and  such  trial 
shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes 
shall  have  been  committed  ;  but  when  notcom- 
milled  within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such 
place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have 
directed. 

Sec.  3.  Treason  against  the  United  States 
shall  consist  only  in  levying  war  against  them, 
or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid 
and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of 
treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witness- 
es to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in 
open  court. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare 
the  punishment  of  treason  ;  but  no  attainder  of 
treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  for- 
feiture, excepting  during  the  life  of  the  person 
attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV.  Section  1.  Full  faith  and  cred- 
it shall  be  given,  in  each  State,  to  the  public 
acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every 
other  State.  And  the  Congress  may, by  general 
laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts, 
records  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and 
the  effect  thereof 

Sec.  2.  The  citizens  of  each  Slate  shall  be  en- 
titled to  all  privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens 
in  the  several  States. 


A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason, 
felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from  jus- 
tice, and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall,  on 
demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the  Stale 
from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  re- 
moved to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the 
crime. 

No  person,  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one 
Stale,  under  the  laws  Ihereof.  escaping  into  anoth. 
er,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regula- 
tion therein.be  discharged  from  such  service  or 
labor  ;  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the 
party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be 
due. 

Sec.  3.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the 
Congress  into  this  Union ;  but  no  new  State 
shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  any  other  State  ;  nor  any  State  he  formed 
by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States  or  parts 
of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  Legislature 
of  the  States  concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  Con. 
gress. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of, 
and  make  a'll  needful  rules  and  regulations  re. 
specting  the  territory  or  other  property  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States  :  And  nothing  in  this 
Constitution  shall  be  so  construed,  as  to  preju- 
dice any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any 
particular  State. 

Sec.  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to 
every  State  in  this  Union,  a  republican  form  of 
government ;  and  shall  protect  each  of  them 
against  imasion  ;  and  on  application  of  the  Le- 
gislature, or  of  the  Executive  (when  the  Legis- 
lature cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic 
violence. 

ARTICLE  V.  The. Congress,  whenever  two- 
thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it  necessary, 
shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution, 
or,  on  the  application  of  the  Legislatures  of 
two-thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  con- 
vention for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in 
either  case,  shall  be  valid,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when 
ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three-fourths  of 
the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three- 
fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of 
ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress; 
provided,  that  no  amendment,  which  may  be 
made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  cirlit  hun- 
dred and  eight,  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the 
first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of 
the  first  article  ;  and  that  no  Slat,-,  without  its 
consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage 
in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI.     All  debts  contracted,  and  en 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CON 


199 


CON 


tered  into,  before  the  adoption  of  this  Constitu- 
tion, shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States, 
under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the  Confede- 
ration. 

This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  which  shall  be  made  in  pursuance  there- 
of, and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made, 
under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall 
be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land  ;  and  the  judg- 
es, in  every  state,  shall  be  bound  thereby,  any 
thing  in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State 
to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

The  senators  and  representatives  before  men- 
tioned, and  the  members  of  the  several  State  Le- 
gislatures, and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers, 
both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several 
States,  shall  be  bound,  by  oath  or  affirmation,  to 
support  this  Constitution ;  but  no  religious  test 
shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any 
office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII.  The  ratification  of  the  Con- 
ventions of  nine  States,  shall  be  sufficient  for 
the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between 
the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 

AMENDMENTS.  Article  the  first.  Congress 
shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment 
of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise 
thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  or 
of  the  press  ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peace- 
ably to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  govern- 
ment for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

Article  the  second.  A  well-regulated  militia 
being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms 
shall  not  be  infringed. 

Article  the  third.  No  soldier  shall  in  time  of 
peace  be  quartered  in  any  house  without  the 
consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war.  but 
in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

Article  the  fourth.  The  right  of  the  people 
to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers, 
and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and 
seizures,  shall  not  be  violated,  and  no  warrants 
shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported 
by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describ- 
ing the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or 
things  to  be  seized. 

Article  the  fifth.  No  person  shall  be  held  to 
answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment 
by  a  grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the 
land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia  when  in 
actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger ; 
nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  tho  same 
offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or 
limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal  case 


to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  depriv- 
ed of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  pro- 
cess of  law  ;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken 
for  public  use,  without  just  compensation. 

Article  the  sixth.  In  all  criminal  prosecutions, 
the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  t»  a  speedy 
and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the 
State  or  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have 
been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been 
previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  in- 
formed of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusa- 
tion; to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses 
against  him ;  to  have  compulsory  process  for 
obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have 
the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defence. 

Article  the  seventh.  In  suits  at  common  law, 
where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be 
preserved,  and  no  fact,  tried  by  a  jury,  shall  be 
otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  com- 
mon law. 

Article  the  eighth.  Excessive  bail  shall  not  be 
required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, nor  cruel 
and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

Article  the  ninth.  The  enumeration  in  the 
Constitution,  cf  certain  rights,  shall  not  be  con- 
strued to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by 
the  people. 

Article  the  tenth.  The  powers  not  delegated 
to  the  United  Slates  by  the  Constitution,  nor 
prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to 
the  States  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

Article  the  eleventh.  The  judicial  power  of 
the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  ex- 
tend to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced 
or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States 
by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or 
subjects  of  any  foreign  State. 

Article  the  twelfth.  The  Electors  shall  meet 
in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for 
President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at 
least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same 
State  with  themselves  ;  they  shall  name  in  their 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in 
distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice- 
President  ;  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of 
all  persons  voted  ibr  as  President,  and  of  all 
persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the 
number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall 
sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat 
of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed 
to  the  President  of  the  Senate  ;  the  President  of 
the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  cer- 
tificates, and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted  :  the 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


COO 


200 


COR 


person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for 
President,  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  num- 
ber be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Elec- 
tors appointed  ;  and  if  no  person  have  such  ma- 
jority, then  from  the  persons  having  the  high- 
est numbers,  not  exceeding  three,  on  the  list  of 
those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot, 
the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President, 
the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  Repre- 
sentation from  each  state  having  one  vote  ;  a 
quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  mem- 
ber or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States, 
and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessa- 
ry to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever 
the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them, 
before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following, 
then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional 
disability  of  the  President. 

The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  as  Vice-President,  shall'be  the  Vice-Pres- 
ident, if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  Electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no 
person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two  high- 
est numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose 
the  Vice-President :  a  quorum  for  the  purpose 
shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number 
of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  num- 
ber shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 

But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to 
the  office  of  President,  shall  be  eligible"  to  that 
of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

CONTI,  Armand  de  Bourbon,  first  an  eccle- 
siastic, then  a  soldier,  opposed  his  brother  the 
great  Conde.  After  being  successively  govern- 
or of  Guienne,  general  of  the  armies  in  Catalo- 
nia, and  governor  of  Languedoc.  he  died,  in 
1G66. 

COOK,  James,  a  famous  English  navigator, 
born  in  a  village  of  Yorkshire,  in  1728,  "early 
went  to  sea.  In  the  Mercury,  of  which  he  was 
master,  he  was  present  at  the  taking  of  Quebec. 
He  was  employed  in  several  important  services, 
and  explored  the  South  Sea  Islands  in  17G9. 
From  New  Zealand,  he  sailed  to  New  Holland, 
New  Guinea,  and  Batavia,  returning  home  in 
1771.  His  next  voyage  to  the  southern  hemis- 
phere was  commenced  in  1772.  in  two  ships, 
the  Resolution  and  Adventure,  the  latter  being 
commanded  by  Captain  Furneaux.  On  this 
voyage  Cook  discovered  the  island  of  New 
Georgia,  and  returning,  July  30, 1775,  was  well 
received  and  rewarded  for  his  services. 

In  July,  1770,  he  sailed  to  determine  the  long 


agitated  question  of  a  northern -passage  to  the 
Pacific  ocean,  but  the  attempt  was  abandoned 
as  impracticable,  and  the  Resolution  and  Dis- 
covery anchored  at  the  Sandwich  islands,  on 
their  return,  November  20,  1773.  Their  recep- 
tion was  at  first  favorable,  but  when  Cook  went 
on  shore  to  seize  the  king  of  Owyhee,  with  the 
intention  of  keeping  him  as  a  hostage,  till  one 
of  the  B>nglish  boats,  stolen  by  the  savages  was 
restored,  he  was  attacked  by  the  natives,  one 
of  whom  felled  him  by  a  club,  and  then  des- 
patched him  with  a  dag'ger.  This  event  occur- 
red on  the  14th  of  February,  1779. 

COOPER,  Anthony  Ashley,  first  earl  of 
Shaftesbury,  and  an  eminent  statesman,  was 
born  1621 .  Although  a  royalist  he  accepted  a 
commission  from  parliament,  but  contributed  to 
the  restoration  of  the  king,  and  was  according- 
ly rewarded.  Having  been  acquitted  on  his 
trial  for  high  treason  in  1681.  he  died  in  Hol- 
land in  16*8. 

COOPER.  Samuel,  a  clergyman  of  Bost6*n, 
who  died  in  1783  in  the  59th  year  of  his  age. 
He  was  patriotic  and  talented.  (See  Chauncey.) 

COPENHAGEN,  the  capital  of  Denmark, 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  island  of  Zealand,  one 
of  the  finest  cities  in  Europe,  has  a  good  har- 
bor, an  extensive  commerce,  and  110.000  in- 
habitants, although  formerly  but  a  poor  fishing 
village.  It  was  threatened  by  Charles  XII,  who, 
however,  gave  up  the  idea  of  besieging  it.  The 
city  has  suffered  severely  from  several  confla- 
gration^.  In  1801  it  was  bombarded  by  the 
British  under  Lord  Nelson.  A  flag  of  truce 
alone  saved  it  from  destruction.  It  was  again 
attacked  in  1807  by  the  English  under  admiral 
Gambler.  After  severe  firing,  which  commenc- 
ed on  the  2d  of  September,  a  capitulation  was 
settled  on  the  8th,  and  the  citadel,  dock-yards, 
batteries,  vessels,  and  naval  stores,  taken  pos- 
session of  by  the  British 

COPLEY,  John  Singleton,  a  self-taught  paint- 
er, a  native  of  Boston,  where  he  was  born  in 
17.38.  He  went  to  England  in  1776.  where  he 
met  with  great  encouragement,  and  died  in 
London  in  1815.  The  death  of  Lord  Chatham 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  after  his  immortal  speech 
in  favor  of  America,  is  one  of  his  best  perform- 
ances. 

COPLEY.  John  Singleton,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton. Mass.,  May  21,  1772,  went  to  England  in 
]77"»,  and  became  Lord  Lyndhurst,  and  Lord 
High  Chancellor  of  England. 

CORD  AY  D'  ARMANS,  Marie  Anne  Char- 
lotte, a  beautiful  and  courageous  young  l;idy, 
belonging  to  an  ancient  and  respectable  family 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


COR 


201 


COR 


of  Caen  in  Normandy,  who  assassinated  the  in- 
famous Marat  on  the  llth  of  July,  1793.  She 
gained  admittance  to  him  in  the  bath,  and  while 
he  was  listening  to  the  pretended  details  of  a 
conspiracy,  she  stabbed  him  to  the  heart.  When 
she  was  guillotined  a  few  days  afterwards,  a 
voice  from  the  crowd  exclaimed  :  "  She  is  great- 
er than  Brutus  !" 

CORDOVA,  the  name  of  a  province  and 
town  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  latter  contains 
about  10,000  inhabitants. 

COREA,  a  kingdom  of  China,  500  miles  long, 
and  150  broad.  The  government  is  royal  but 
the  king  pays  a  tribute  to  China.  The  religion 
is  that  of  Fo.  Population  from  six  to  eight 
millions 

CORFU,  anciently  called  Drepanum,  and 
Corcyra,  an  island  near  the  coast  of  Albania,  in 
the  Mediterranean,  45  miles  long,.containing 
U0,000  inhabitants.  It  is  fruitful  and  healthy. 
It  is  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Ionian  republic. 

CORLNNA,  a  famous  poetess  of  Tanagra,  in 
Bostia.  contemporary  with  Pindar. 

CORINTH,  a  famous  city  of  Achaia,  situated 
on  the  isthmus  of  the  same  name.  The  popu- 
lation is  at  present  about  2,000.  It  was  founded 
by  Sisyphus,  son  of  JEolva,  B.  C.  2610.  Co- 
rinthus.  son  of  Pelops,  gave  his  name  to  the 
city.  The  inhabitants  were  once  famed  for 
their  power,  wealth  and  intelligence,  and  found- 
ed Syracuse  in  Sicily,  which  they  afterward  de- 
livered from  oppression.  Corinth  was  destroyed 
by  the  Roman  consul,  Mummius,  14(>  B.  C. 
The  consul,  who  was  no  judge  of  the  fine  arts, 
assured  the  soldiers,  who  had  charge  of  the  in- 
comparable  paintings  sent  from  Corinth,  to 
Rome,  that  if  they  injured  them,  he  should 
make  them  furnish  new  ones.  Julius  Ca'sar 
vainly  attempted  to  restore  the  city  to  its  for- 
mer importance.  The  government,  at  fust 
monarchical,  was  changed  779  B.  C.,  and  it  be- 
came the  head  of  the  Achtean  league.  In  1453 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks. 

CORIOLANUS,  the  surname  of  Caius  Mar- 
cius,  given  him  for  his  victory  over  Corioli.  Af- 
ter having  served  his  country  faithfully,  and 
received  many  wounds  in  her  service,  he  was 
refused  the  consulship,  and,  indignant  at  the 
ingratitude  of  his  countrymen,  who  afterwards 
banished  him,  he  joined  the  Volsci.  a  warlike 
nation,  hostile  to  the  Remans.  Coriolanus  ter- 
rified the  Romans  by  approaching  their  capital 
at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army  of  Volscians. 
The  offended  Roman  refused  to  listen  to  pro- 
posals made  in  the  ho*pe  of  inducing  him  to 
withdraw,  and  pitched  his  camp  within  five 


miles  of  the  city.  His  enmity  against  his 
country  would  have  been  fatal,  had  not  his  wife, 
Volumnia.  and  his  mother,  Veturia,  aided  by  the 
presence  of  his  children,  prevailed  upon  him  to 
withdraw  his"  army.  Coriolanus,  in  yielding  to 
his  mother,  and  raising  her  from  her  suppliant 
posture,  pronounced  a  sentence  which  was  pro- 
phetic of  his  fate  :  "Oh!  my  mother, you  have 
saved  Rome,  but  you  have  destroyed  your  son." 
The  Volscians,  indignant  at  the  treachery  of 
Coriolanus,  put  him  to  death  in  the  place  ap- 
pointed for  his  trial,  B.  C.  488. 

CORK,  a  city  of  Ireland,  capital  of  Cork 
county,  situated  on  the  Lee,  with  a  population 
of  107,058.  It  is  a  large  and  flourishing  place, 
and  was  built  by  the  Danes  in  the  (5th  century. 
After  the  revolution  of  1GS8,  it  was  occupied  by 
James  II,  but  taken  by  the  earl  of  Marl  borough, 
in  1690. 

CORNEILLE  Peter,  a  French  author  who 
flourished  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV,  and  was 
the  founder  of  French  tragedy. 

CORNELIA,  mother  of  the  Gracchi,  a  Ro- 
man matron  who  lived  about  130  years  B.  C.  A 
lady  of  Campania  having  shown  her  jewels  to 
Cornelia,  in  paying  a  visit  to  the  latter  request- 
ed to  see  her  jewels  in  return.  •  At  that  mo- 
ment her  boys  entered  the  room,  and  the  noble 
Cornelia,  pointing  them  out  to  her  visiters,  ex- 
claimed :  "  these  are  my  jewels  !"  At  her  death 
the  Romans,  mindful  of  her  worth,  erected  a 
monument  to  her  memory. 

CORN WALLIS,  Charles,  marquis  of,  born 
in  1738,  entered  the  English  army  at  an  early 
age.  and  rose  rapidly.  Although  not  unfavora- 
bly disposed  to  America,  he  accepted  a  com- 
mand in  the  royal  army,  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  bravery.  On  his  return,  being 
appointed  governor-general  of  Bengal  he  fought 
with  success  and  defeated  Tippoo  Saib.  He 
was  again  made  governor  of  India,  but  died  in 
1805.  at  Ghazopore,  soon  after  his  arrival. 

CORSICA,  the  third  Italian  island  in  point 
of  size,  lies  north  of  Sardinia,  about  50  miles 
north  from  Tuscany,  and  contains  195,000  in- 
habitants. It  is  generally  mountainous,  but  the 
numerous  valleys  are  "extremely  fertile.  The 
Corsicans  know  not  how  to  develope  the  various 
resources  of  their  island.  They  are  in  an  almost 
barbarous  state,  recklessly  brave,  jevengeful, 
fond  of  freedom,  and  indolent.  Corsica  has 
been  successively  occupied  by  the  Carthage- 
nians.the  Romans,  the  Goths,  the  Saracens,  the 
Franks,  the  Pope,  the  Pisanese,  the  Genoese, 
the  French,  and  the  English,  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  last  in  1794.  The  English,  how 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


COT 


202 


CRA 


ever,  did  not  long  retain  possession  of  the  island, 
and  it  was  again  restored  to  France. 

CORTEZ,  Fernando,  the  conqueror  of  Mex- 
ico, was  born  in  1485,  in  Estreniadura.  He 
came  to  the  West  Indies  in  high  hopes,  and  Ve- 
lasquez, governor  of  Cuba,  gave  him  the  com- 
mand of  an  expedition  designed  for  the  reduc- 
tion of  Mexico,  which  consisted  of  10  ships, 
COO  men,  10  small  field-pieces,  and  18  horses. 
With  this  small  armament  he  accomplished  his 
enterprise,  in  1519,  and  added  the  empire  of 
Mexico  to  that  of  Spain.  He  took  Montezuma 
prisoner,  although  received  with  hospitality,  and 
the  unfortunate  king  was  killed  by  his  own  sub- 
jects in  an  attack  on  the  Spaniards.  The  con- 
duct of  the  conquerors  so  exasperated  the  In- 
dians that  they  compelled  Cortez  to  quit  the 
city  with  great  loss,  but  he  regained  it  after  some 
hard  fighting.  On  the  capture  of  Guatimczin, 
son  of  Montezuma,  the  city  surrendered,  and 
the  empire  of  Mexico  was  at  an  end.  At  this 
juncture  another  commission  arrived  to  deprive 
Cortez  of  his  command,  and  he,  having  return- 
ed to  Spain  to  procure  redress,  died  in  obscurity, 
in  1554. 

CORUNNA,  a  seaport  of  Spain,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Galicia,  with  two  fine  harbors,  and  a 
population  of  4,000.  Here  the  British,  on  the 
eve  of  embarking,  were  attacked  by  the  French 
under  Soult,  and  general  Sir  John  Moore  was 
killed. 

COSSACKS,  the  name  of  several  warlike 
tribes  that  inhabit  the  southern  provinces  of 
Russia,  and  form  an  effective  portion  of  the 
Russian  cavalry.  Their  horses  are  small  hut 
hardy,  and  will  travel  for  a  whole  campaign 
from  50  to  70  miles  a,  day.  They  fight  in  little 
bands,  and  their  arms  are  long  lances,  bows  and- 
arrows,  sabres,  and  pistols  or  guns.  The  regi- 
ments or  pullts  are  from  500  to  3,000  strong. 
The  chief  is  called  a  litthnan.  A  large  body  of 
thenxwho  had  previously  been  in  the  service  of 
the  czar,  joined  Charles  XII,  in  1708. 

COTOPAXI,a  famous  volcanic  mountain  of 
the  Andes,  in  Quito,  the  height  of  which  is 
18,898  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  "  At  the 
port  of  Guayaquil,  52  leagues  distant,  in  a 
straight  line,  from  the  crater,  we  heard,  day  and 
night,  the  noise  of  this  volcano,  like  continued 
discharges  of  a  battery ;  and  we  distinguished 
these  tremendous  sounds  even  on  the  Pacific 
ocean." — Hninlioldt. 

COTTIN,  Sophia,  whose  maiden  name  was 
Ristand,  was  born  in  France,  in  177:5,  and  mar- 
ried at  the  age  of  17,  soon  after  which  her  hus- 
band died,  and  she  devoted  herself  to  literature 


to  soften  her  grief.  Among  her  works  Elizabeth, 
cr  the  Exiles  of  Siberia,  is  the  most  popular  and 
pleasing.  The  talented  author  died  in  1807. 

COURLAND,  formerly  an  independent 
duchy,  now  belonging  to  Russia.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Baltic,  and  contains  581 ,300  inhabit- 
ants. 

COURTRAY  or  Cortrijk,  anciently  Corto- 
rirfcum,  a  town  of  Belgium.  22  miles  southwest 
of  Ghent,  famous  for'the  battle  fought  in  its 
vincinity.  in  1302,  between  the  Flemings  and 
French.  The  latter  were  defeated  with  great 
loss,  and,  from  the  fact  that  4COO  gilt  spurs  were 
found  upon  the  field,  the  engagement  was  call- 
ed the  BATTLE  or  THE  STUKS. 

COWLEY,  Abraham,  an  English  poet,  the 
son  of  a  grocer,  born  in  1018,  died  in  1GC7.  He 
was  nn  easv  writer,  and  patronized  by  royalty. 

COWPEX  William,  the  poet,  son  of  the 
Rev.  John  Cowper.  was  born  at  Berkhamstead, 
Herts.  IVovember  2(3,  1731.  'His  education  was 
acquired  at.  a  public  school,  where  the  girlish 
timidity  and  delicacy  of  the  poet  subjected  him 
to  i-.onst.ant  ugony  from  the  tyranny  and  rough- 
ness of  his  school-fellows  He  studied  law,  and 
obtained  the  place  of  clerk  of  the  Hnu.se  of 
Lords,  but  when  the  time  approached  for  him 
to  enter  upon  the  duties  of  his  oflice,  his  terror 
at  presenting  himself  before  the  peerage.  n<,t 
only  induced  him  to  relinquish  the  place,  but 
produced  a  fit  of  sickness.  About  this  time  his 
religious  fears  brought  on  a  temporary  derange- 
ment. He  published  several  volumes  of  poems, 
with  various  success.  His  death  took  place  in 
April.  'M!0.  Of  nil  his  poems  the  humorous 
ballad  of  John  Gilpin,  and  the  Task,  are  the 
best. 

CRABBE,  George,  a  popular  British  poet, 
was  born  Dec.  21,  1754,  at  Aldborough  in  Suf- 
folk. He  was  intended  for  a  surgeon  and  actu- 
ally opened  a  shop  to  which  luTconnned  him- 
self for  some  time,  although  barely  making  his 
expenses.  In  1778,  he  went  to  London  as  a 
literary  adventurer,  but  was  for  a  long  time 
unsuccessful.  When  a  prison  was  in  near  view, 
and  ruin  appeared  to  threaten  him,  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  writing  to  Edmund  Burke,  for  assist- 
ance and  advice.  That  great  man  nt  once  be- 
came his  friend  and  patron,  urged  him  to  per- 
severe, and  induced  him  to  study  divinity  and 
take  orders.  Thenceforth  his  circumstances 
were  comfortable.  He  married  the  object  of  his 
earlv  alTer.tions,  devoied  himself  to  literature, 
received  the  applause  due  to  a  genius  of  the 
highest  order,  and  continued  to  use  his  pen  till 
his  death  in  1833.  His  Borough  and  Talcs  of 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CRI 


203 


CRO 


the  Hall  are  justly  celebrated.     Another  poet 
has  truly  called  Crabbe 

"  Nature's  sternest  painter,  but  her  best." 

CRANMER,  Thomas,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, who  aided  the  progress  of  the  reformation 
in  England.  But  he  was  the  slave  of  the  king, 
and  never  permitted  conscience  to  interfere 
with  the  wishes  of  the  crowned  tyrant.  He 
joined  the  partisans  of  lady  Jane  Grey,  and 
was  accordingly  sent  to  the  Tower  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Mary.  Having  been  accused  of 
blasphemy,  perjury,  incontinence,  and  heresy, 
he  was  executed  March  "21,  1556. 

CRASSUS,  Marcus  Licinius,  a  Roman  con- 
sul, distinguished  for  some  gallant  actions,  and 
active  in  crushing. the  gladiatorial  revolt  which 
was  headed  by  Sparticus.  He  was  slain  by  the 
Parthians.  B.  C.  53. 

CRECY,  or  Cressy  en  Ponthieu,  a  town  of 
France,  10  miles  north  of  Abbeville,  where  was 
fought  a  famous  battle  between  the  French  and 
English,  in  which  the  latter,  led  by  Edward  III, 
and  his  son,  the  brave  Black  Prince,  were  com- 
pletely victorious,  August  26.  1346. 

CREEKS,  or  Muskogees,  a  tribe  of  Indians 
who  lately  inhabited  the  eastern  part  of  Alaba- 
ma, but  have  no\y  mostly  removed  beyond  the 
Mississippi.  They  have  made  some  progress  in 
agriculture,  and  the  arts  of  civilization. 

CRICHTOiN,  James,  a  Scotch  gentleman, 
born  in  1550,  of  a  good  family,  who,  from  his  pro- 
ficiency in  the  arts  and  sciences,  particularly 
music  and  manly  '.'jcercises,  was  stiled  the  Ad- 
mirable. He  travelled  in  France  and  Italy, 
and  in  Mantua,  having  pleased  the  duke, 
was  appointed  preceptor  to  his  son.  During 
the  carnival  of  1583,  Crichton,  while  playing 
upon  his  guitar,  was  attacked  in  the  streets  by 
i  masked  band,  against  which  he  defended 
himself  with  his  customary  spirit,  until  he  re- 
cognised his  pupil  in  the  leader.  Throwing 
iiimself  upon  his  knees,  he  presented  his  sword 
to  the  young  nobleman,  who  stabbed  his  pre- 
ceptor to  the  heart.  The  motives  which  im- 
pelled him  are  unknown. 

CRILLON,  Louis  de  Balbe,  surnamcd  the 
Fearless,  a  celebrated  French  commander,  born 
of  a  noble  family,  in  Provence,  in  1541.  He 
was  the  friend  of  Henry  IV.  He  distin;niif,hed 
himself  at  the  sie^e  of  Calais,  and  against  the 
Huguenots,  and  the  Turks.  ';  Pcnds-toi,  Irate 
Crillon  nous  azims  comb/tKu  a  .Iryues,  ct  tu  ny 
6tais  pas ;"  "  Hang  thyself,  brave  Crillon, 
we  have  fought  at  Arques,  and  thou  wast  ab- 
sent," was  Henry's  laconic  announcement  of 
18 


one  of  his  most  brilliant  victories  to  his  favored 
friend. 

In  1592,  he  successfully  defended  Villebceuf, 
with  an  inferior  force  against  Marshal  Villars, 
and  when  called  upon  to  surrender,  gallantly 
ansv.-ered  ;  "  Crillon  is  within,  and  Villars  with- 
out." The  assailants  were  unsuccessful.  One 
day,  hearing  a  sermon  in  which  the  sufferings 
of  Christ  were  forcibly  described,  he  seized  the 
handle  of  his  sword  and  cried,  "  Where  weri 
thou,  Crillon  ?"  He  died  in  1G16. 

CROATIA,  an  Austrian  kingdom,  contain- 
ing 9,000  square  miles,  and  850,W)0  inhabitants. 
The  Croats  have  made  but  little  progress  in  the 
arts.  Their  country  is  fruitful  and  productive. 

CRCESUS,  king  of  Lydia.  famed  for  his 
immense  wealth.  Being  defeated  by  Cyrus, 
king  of  Persia,  B.  C.  548,  he  was  conducted  to 
the  stake,  but  saved  his  life  by  repeating,  in 
the  hearing  of  Cyrus,  the  words  of  Solon,  thaf 
"  no  man  could  be  pronounced  happy  till  his 
death." 

CROMWELL,  Oliver,  a  distinguished  char- 
acter in  English  history,  was  born  of  a  good 
family  at  Huntingdon,  April  25,  1599,  and  re- 
ceived a  careful  education.  He  met  with  sev- 
eral narrow  escapes  when  a  child.  Among 
other  occurrences,  a  huge  ape  seized  the  infant 
and  carried  it  to  the  house-top,  refusing,  for  a 
long  time,  to  relinquish  his  prey.  He  always 
retained  a  vivid  recollection  of  a  gigantic  female 
figure  which  appeared  at  his  bedside  and  foretold 
his  future  greatness.  The  excesses  in  which 
Cromwell  indulged  on  quitting  the  university, 
were  ended  by  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth 
Bouchier,  daughter  of  a  baronet  of  Essex,  at 
the  age  of  twenty -one. 

In  1625,  he  was  chosen  to  a  seat  in  parlia- 
ment, and  then,  as  well  as  in  1628,  gained  dis- 
tinction by  the  energy  with  which  he  opposed 
the  measures  of  the  royalists  and  the  bishops. 
In  1640,  after  a  temporary  retirement,  he  was  re- 
turned from  Cambridge,  and  became  a  frequent 
speaker,  always  opposing  the  court,  and  attack- 
ing the  church.  In  1G42,  when  hostilities 
were  determined  upon,  Cromwell  raised  a  troop 
of  horse,  and  seized  the  plate  of  the  university 
at  Cambridge  to  defrav  the  expenses  of  the 
war.  He  soon  acquired  the  rank  of  Colonel, 
and  the  .superior  courage  of  his  troops,  procured 
for  them  at  Marston  Moor  the  name  of  Iron- 
sides. He  alsa  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  JVewbury  (1643).  He  had  now  gained 
so  great  an  influence,  that  when  the  famous 
self-denying  ordinance  was  passed,  by  which  all 
members  of  either  house,  were  excluded  from 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


CRO 


204 


CRU 


command  in  the  army,  Cromwell  was  particu- 
larly excepted.  He  was  constituted  lieutenant- 
general,  and  by  his  skill  and  courage  the  battle 
of  Naseby  was  won  in  1645,  and  decided  the 
fate  of  the  royalists.  This  victory  was  followed 
by  a  series  of  successes  for  which  he  was  voted 
a  pension  of  2,50(H.  per  annum,  and  the  thanks 
of  the  house.  Charles  I  was  betrayed  by  the 
Scotch  to  the  parliament.  Cromwell  contrived 
to  get  him  into  his  power  ;  he  then  turned  out 
of  the  house  those  members  who  were  not  likely 
to  be  gained  over  to  his  purpose,  so  that  no  ob- 
stacle remained  to  the  trial  of  the  king.  He  acted 
in  this  with  great  address,  was  present  at  the 


scene  by  gazing  sternly  at  the  body  of  Ch 


ragc 
arles 


trial  and  execution,  and  concluded  the  tragic 

gaz 
in  his  coffin. 

After  suppressing  a  mutiny  in  the  army, 
Cromwell,  in  1040,  went  to  Ireland,  which  he 
subdued,  and  leaving  Ireton  as  deputy,  returned 
to  England  in  1650.  Being  appointed  corn- 
mander-in-chief  against  the  Scots,  who  had 
arrived  to  restore  Charles  II,  he  gained  the 
battle  of  D  unbar.  Sept.  3,  1650,  and  that  day, 
twelvemonth,  defeated  the  royal  forces  at  Wor- 
cester. He  now  began  to  carry  into  execution 
his  favorite  project,  by  moulding  the  army  to 
his  will  ;  and  I.  ;n,  at  one  stroke,  entering  with 
300  soldiers,  Ire  dismissed  the  parliament,  and 
dissolved  the  Council  of  State  ;  afterwards  he 
called  one  composed  of  his  own  officers.  He 
next  convened  a  mock  representation  of  the 
nation,  composed  of  123  persons,  who,  being 
his  own  creatures,  agreed  to  resign  their  au- 
thority. On  this,  the  council  of  officers  declared 
him  Lord  Protector  of  the  commonwealth  of 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  The  follow- 
ing year  he  called  a  parliament,  but  finding  the 
members  refractory,  he  made  each  member  take 
an  oath  of  allegiance  to  him.  and  dissolved  them 
after  a  session  of  five  months.  In  1(556,  another 
parliament  confirmed  his  title,  and  sanctioned 
his  proceedings.  He  was  inaugurated  with 
great  pomp.  In  1058.  he  convened  the  two 
houses,  and  addressed  them  in  the  form  ordina- 
rily employed  by  the  kings  of  England.  He 
dissolved  this  assembly,  and  in  the  August  of 
the  same  year,  his  favorite  daughter,  Mrs. 
Claypolo,  bitterly  reproached  him  for  his  con- 
duct. He  now  experienced  all  the  dread  which 
tyrants  feel,  went  constantly  armed,  and  was 
horror-struck  at  the  publication  of  a  pamphlet 
by  Colonel  Titus,  entitled  Killing  JVo  Murdt:r, 
in  which  the  author  endeavored  to  prove  his 
assassination  a  public  duty. 

These  circumstances  are  supposed  to  have 


produced  a  slow  fever,  of  which  he  died  Sep- 
tember 3,  1 658,  in  the  59lh  year  of  his  age. 
His  body  was  interred  in  Westminister  abbey, 
from  which  it  was  taken  at  the  Restoration, 
and  hanged  on  the  gibbet  and  afterwards  buried 
beneath  it. 

CROMWELL,  Thomas,  earl  of  Essex,  son 
of  a  blacksmith  at  Putney,  in  Surrey,  was  born 
about  the  year  14!)0.  Early  in  life  he  became 
clerk  to  the  English  factory  at  Antwep,  which 
he  left  to  serve  in  Italy,  where  he  fought  be- 
neath the  banners  of  the  constable  of  Bourbon. 
Returning  home,  he  was  taken  into  the  service 
of  Cardinal  Wolsey,  who  procured  him  a  seat 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  When  Wolsey  fell, 
Cromwell  became  a  servant  of  the  king,  was 
raised  to  the  office  of  Chancellor  of  the  exche- 
quer, and,  in  1534,  made  secretary  of  state,  and 
master  of  the  rolls.  About  this  time  he  was 
also  elected  Chancellor  of  Cambridge.  The 
next  year  he  was  appointed  visitor-general  of 
the  monasteries.  In  153G,  he  was  made  lord 
keeper  of  the  privy-seal,  and  the  same  year 
advanced  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Lord 
Cromwell ;  and  the  papal  supremacy  being 
abolished,  he  was  nominated  the  king's  vicar- 
general  in  Ihe  convocation.  In  1537,  he  was 
appointed  chief-justice  itinerant  of  all  the  for- 
ests beyond  Trent,  elected  knight  of  the  gartar, 
and  made  dean  of  Wells.  To  these  honors  was 
added  the  gran!  of  many  manors  after  the  dissy- 
lution  of  the  monasteries,  and,  in  1539.  be  was 
created  earl  of  Essex.  Soon  after,  his  fortune 
declined  as  fast,  as  it  had  jisen.  His  ruin  was 
hastened  by  the  marriiige  winch  he  projected 
between  Henry  and  Anne  of  Cloven,  and  he 
was  sent  to  the  Tower,  where  he  was  deserted 
by  all  his  friends  except  Cranmer,  who,  how- 
ever, c<mld  not  save  him  from  the  scaffold,  and 
he  suffered  death  with  fortitude,  July  28th, 
1540. 

CRONSTADT,  a  Russian  seaport  and  for- 
tress on  an  island  in  the  gulf  of  Finland, 
founded  by  Peter II, in  1710.  Itisa  naval  depot, 
and  contains  40.0(10  inhabitants,  one-fourth  of 
whom  are  sailors. 

CROTONA,  a  Greek  republic  in  Magna 
Grecia,  the  birthplace  of  Milo.  the  famous  wrest- 
ler, and  noted  for  producing  the  best  combat- 
tan'ts  for  the  circus.  Its  ruins  are  visible  near 
Cape  Colonnn. 

CRUSADES,  or  Croisades,  the  name  given 
to  the  expeditions  fitted  out  by  the  Christian 
warriors  of  Europe,  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy 
Land,  from  the  end  of  the  llth  to  the  end  of 
the  13th  century.  The  Crusades  derived  their 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


CRU 


205 


CRU 


name  from  the  badge  of  the  cross  which  was 
wrought  upon  their  mantles,  and  appeared  in 
various  parts  of  their  equipments.  The  age 
was  one  in  which  the  people  were  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  reception  of  enthusiastic  reli- 
gious impulses.  The  Christians  could  not  bear 
to  think  that  the  places  which  they  held  so  dear, 
and  which  the  history  of  their  religion  hallowed, 
should  be  desecrated  by  the  presence  of  infidels, 
and  rendered  dangerous  to  those  pilgrims  whom 
a  sincere  feeling  of  reverence  called  to  Pales- 
tine. The  church  called  upon  the  chivalry  of 
Europe,  and  the  knights  responded  to  the  sum- 
mons. 

The  rise  of  the  Crusades  is  immediately  at- 
tributable to  the  enthusiasm  of  a  wandering 
pilgrim,  called  Peter  the  Hermit,  who,  having 
experienced  the  tyrannical  exactions  imposed  on 
the  visitors  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  represented 
them  to  pope  Urban  II,  in  such  lively  colors, 
that  the  prelate  selected  him  as  the  instrument 
of  a  grand  design  which  he  had  formed  to  over- 
throw the  Mohammedan  power,  and  Peter, 
armed  with  the  Holy  Commission,  went  from 
province  to  province,  to  kindle  up  that  enthu- 
siasm by  which  he  was  himself  consuming. 

When  the  feelings  of  the  people  and  the  po- 
tentates appeared  ripe  for  some  wild  project, 
Urban  held  a  council  in  the  open  fields  at  Pia- 
cenza,  and  proposed  his  scheme,  which  was 
•warmly  applauded,  but  not  as  warmly  embraced. 
Another  council  was  therefore  held  at  Ciermont, 
graced  by  the  presence  of  ambassadors  from  all 
nations,  and  the  result  was  as  favorable  as  he 
could  have  anticipated.  The  pope  held  out  to 
the  Crusaders  the  promise  of  spiritual  pardon, 
and  imposed  on  them  only  the  penance  of  plun- 
der for  their  sins.  Thus  excited,  the  enthusi- 
asm became  general ;  noblemen  sold  their  estates 
for  outfits ;  the  meanest  lords  of  the  manors  set 
forth  at  their  own  expense  ;  the  poor  gentle- 
men followed  them  as  esquires;  and  above 
80,000  collected  under  the  banners  of  the  cross. 
Godfrey  of  Boulogne  was  at  the  head  of  70,000 
foot,  and  10,000  horse,  splendidly  armed,  were 
under  the  command  of  many  lords  who  were 
joined  by  Hugh,  brother  to  Philip  I.  of  France, 
Raymond  of  Toulouse,  Bohemond,  king  of 
Sicily,  and  others  of  equal  and  less  note.  A 
proposal  was  made  to  the  pope  to  put  himself 
at  their  head,  but  he  refused.  This  refusal, 
however,  did  not  damp  their  ardor. 

Confiding  in  their  cause,  their  numbers,  and 
their  equipments,  they  traversed  Germany  and 
Hungary,  took  Nice,  Antioch,  and  Edessa,and 
arrived  at  Jerusalem,  in  July  1099.  The  city 


was  taken  after  five  weeks  siege.  All  but  the 
Christians  weie  massacred,  and  the  army  of 
crusaders  after  the  perpetration  of  unparal- 
leled atrocities,  went  to  shed  their  tears  at  the 
sepulchre  of  Christ.  Godfrey,  of  Boulogne, 
(not  without  opposition  from  the  priests),  was 
elected  king  of  Jerusalem,  but  died  in  1100. 
In  1102,  an°immense  army  which  departed  for 
the  Holy  Land,  was  defeated,  and  no  fewer 
than  200,000  men  lost  to  Europe  by  the  enter- 
prise. The  capture  of  Baldwin  and  the  loss  of 
Edes-sa,  occasioned  anew  crusade. 

France  again  gave  the  impulse  to  their  reli- 
gious excitement.  Pope  Eugenius  III,  induced 
St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  to  act  the1  part  of 
Peter  the  Hermit,  and  the  consequence  was 
that  Louis  the  Young,  accompanied  by  his 
wife,  Eleanor  of  Guienne,  departed  for  the 
Holy  Land,  and  Conrad  III,  in  whose  hands 
the  red  cross  was  placed,  led  a  large  army  into 
Asia.  Both  of  them,  however,  were  unsuc- 
cessful. 

The  nnfoitunate  issue  of  the  second  crusade 
was  precipitated  by  the  dissensions  of  the  Christ- 
ians, and  the  uncommon  abilities  of  the  Sultan 
Saladin,  who,  advancing  at  the  head  of  an  army 
that  placed  implicit  confidence  in  the  courage 
and  skill  of  their  leader,  animated  by  a  religious 
fury,  no  less  absorbing  than  that  which  filled 
the  breast  of  the  Crusaders,  threw  himself  upon 
Jerusalem,  which,  unable  to  hold  out  against 
him,  once  more  echoed  to  the  shouts  of  Sara- 
cen conquerors,  as  thev  again  erected  their 
crescent  on  the  ramparts  of  the  city.  The 
Christians  lost  all  their  possessions  but  Antioch, 
Tripoli,  Joppa,  and  Tyre. 

The  leaders  of  the  third  crusade  (1 189)  were 
Frederick  I,  of  Germany,  surnamed  Btirbarossa, 
the  chivalric  Philip-Augustus  of  France,  and 
the  lion-hearted  Richard  I,  of  England.  Bar- 
barossa  was  ultimately  unsuccessful,  but  the 
monarchs  of  France  and  England  took  posses- 
sion of  Ptolemais  or  Acre.  Philip-Augustus, 
from  motives  of  jealousy,  left  the  field  to  Rich- 
ard, who  proved 'himself  a  worthy  rival  of  Sal- 
adin, and  the  two  commanders  performed  won- 
derful feats  of  arms  which  were  the  admiration 
of  both  armies.  The  fourth  crusade  was  con- 
ducted by  Andrew  II,  king  of  Hungary,  and 
the  fifth  "by  Frederick  II  of  Germany."  The 
results  of  these  ought  to  have  shown  that  the 
Christians  could  not  hope  to  gain  permanent 
possession  of  the  country.  It  was  this  time 
that  St.  Louis,  king  of  France,  undertook  the 
sixth  and  last  crusade,  which,  though  well  con- 
ceived, and  vigorously  carried  on,  was  unsuc- 


, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


CUR 


CUM 


206 


cessful.  In  the  last  crusade  no  fewer  than 
150,000  persons  perished  :  add  to  this  the  num- 
bers that  died  in  former  expeditions,  and  it 
'"*  will  be  seen  that  the  east  was  the  tomb  of 
above  two  millions  of  Europeans;  and  several 
countries  were  depopulated  and  impoverished 
by  the  crusades.  Yet  the  Holy  Wars  were  not 
without  good.  They  created  an  intimate  con- 
nection and  a  constant  intercourse  between  the 
nations  of  Europe,  which,  as  it  was  favorable  to 
commercial  enterprise,  increased  the  wealth, 
unproved  the  arts,  and  contributed  to  establish 
the  civilization  of  the  Christian  world. 
^,,/CUBA  is  subject  to  the  king  of  Spain,  and 
is  the  largest  of  the  West  India  Islands.  It  is 
v  257  leagues  long,  and  38  broad.  The  island  is 
rich  and  fertile.  Its  whole  revenue  has  been 
estimated  at  $7,500,000,  and  the  government 
expenses  at  $0,500,000.  The  population,  ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  1827,  was  7G4,4b7; 
311 ,051  whites  ;  57,504  free  mulattoes ;  48.P80 
free  negroes ;  280,942  mulatto  and  negro  slaves. 

Cuba  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492. 
In  1511  it  was  conquered'by  the  Spaniards,  and 
as  little  gain  was  anticipated  from  the  mines, 
the  natives  were  cruelly  exterminated. 

In  1702  a  powerful  expedition  for  the  con- 
quest of  the  island  was  fitted  out  by  the  British, 
and  Havana  capitulated  in  August.  The  plun- 
der obtained  by  the  British  was  immense.  By 
the  treaty  of  17G3,  Cuba  was  restored  to  the 
Spaniards  in  exchange  for  the  Floridas. 

CULLODEN  MUIR;  a  heath  in  Scotland, 
where  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  defeated  the 
Pretender,  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  on  the 
27th  of  April,  174G. 

CULM  ;  a  Bohemian  village  where  the 
French  under  Vandamme  were  beaten  by  the 
allied  Russian  and  Prussians,  Aug.  30th,  1813. 

CUMA  or  Cyme,  the  largest  city  of  Eolis 
in  Asia  Minor,  (lie  birth-place  of  the  CumtGan 
sibyl. 

CUMJS  ;  a  city  of  Campania,  founded  by 
Chalcis  about  1030  B.  C.,  taken  by  the  Cam- 
panians420  B.-C.,by  the  Romans  345  B.  C., 
and  eventually  destroyed  A.  D.  1207. 

CUM  ANA,  the  name  of  a  province  and  city. 
ofVenezuela. 

CUMBERLAND,  William,  Duke  of,  second 
son  of  George  II,  was  born  in  172).  He  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Dettingen,  but  refused 
the  assistance  of  a  surgeon  until  the  latter  had 
finished  dressing  (he  wound  of  a  poor  soldier, 
who  hid  been  shot  at  the  same  time  with  him- 
self. He  commnndeil  the  British  nrmy  at  the 
battles  of  Fontenov  and  Val,  which  were  lost 


through  the  cowardice  of  the  Dutch  troops. 
In  174(5  he  defeated  the  Pretender  at  Culloden, 
but  disgraced  his  character  by  his  cruel  treat- 
ment of  the  vanquished. 

CUMBERLAND,  Richard,  an  English  dra- 
matist and  miscellaneous  -author,  son  of  the 
bishop  of  Cloufert,  was  born  in  1732,  and  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  be- 
came private  secretary  of  the  earl  of  Halifax, 
and  died  in  London,  May  7,  1811.  His  fame 
rests  altogether  on  his  comic  dramas.  He  was 
extremely  sensitive,  self-conceited  and  jealous, 
and  Sheridan,  considering  him  as  fair  game, 
held  him  up  to  ridicule  as  Sir  fretful  Plagiary. 
He  was  much  annoyed  at  the  success  of  the 
'  School  fur  Scandal,  a'nd  it  was  only  for  fear  of 
exciting  ridicule  by  refusing  to  witness  it.  that 
he  carried  two  of  'his  children  to  see  tiie  play. 
Cumberland  sat  behind  them,  the  picture  of 
jealousy  and  envy.  When  they  laughed  at 
any  criticisms,  in  common  with  the  audience, 
Cumberland  would  gravely  extend  a  finger  and 
thumb,  inflict' a  severe  pinch,  and  say  :  "  What 
are  you  laughing  at, my  dears?  I  3on't  see  any 
thing  to  laugh  at."  This  anecdote,  however, 
is  related  on  the  authority  of  KelTy,  the  com- 
poser, the  founder  of  whose  family  "  must  have 
drawn  a  long  bow  at  the  battle  of  Hastings." 

('!  NERSDORF,  a  village  on  the  Oder,  at 
no  great  distance  from  Frankfort,  where  Fred 
eric  the  Great  was  defeated  by  the  Russians  in 
1739. 

CUPID,  the  god  of  love  among  the  ancients, 
the  son  of  Mars  and  Venus. 

CURACOA,  an  island  in  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
beloriiriiia-  to  the  Netherlands.  Pop.  10,000. 

GURDS,  wandering  tribes  whose  country  lies 
partlv  in  Persia,  and  partly  in  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire, bordering  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
They  are  in  part  Mohammedans,  and  in.  part 
Christians,  and  mostly  predatory  in  their  habits. 
CURIUS  DENTATUS,  Marcus  Annius,  a 
Roman  consul,  famous  for  his  fortitude  and 
frugality.  He  gained  several  victories,  and  de- 
feated Pyrrhua,  B.  C.  272.  The  Samnite  am- 
bassadors found  him  cooking  some  vegetables 
for  his  dinner  in  an  earthen  pot,  yet  he  indig- 
nantly refused  the  vessels  of  gold  with  which 
they  attempted  to  bribe  him. 

CURT1US,  Marcus,  a  noble  Roman  youth; 
it  is  related,  that  when  a  pestilential  chasm 
opened  in  the  Roman  forum.  302  B.  C.  and 
tbe  oracle  declared  that  it  could  only  be  closed 
when  the  most  precious  thing  in  Rome  was 
thrown  into  it,  Curtius,  saying  that  arms  and 
courage  were  invaluable,  assumed  his  military 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CYR 


207 


CYR 


dress,  and  mounting  an  armed  horse,  sprang  into 
the  abyss,  which. closed  over  him  for  ever. 

CUSCO,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Peruvian 
empire,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Manco 
Capac.  It  contains  20  or  30,000  inhabitants. 

GUSHING,  Thomas,  a  patriotic  American, 
born  in  1725.  He  early  obtained  a  seat  in  the 
General  Court  of  Massachusetts,  and  was 
chosen  speaker  of  the  house  of  representatives. 
The  supposed  extent  of  his  influence  induced 
Doctor  Johnson,  in  his  pamphlet,  "  Taxation 
no  Tyranny,"  to  remark — "  One  object  of  the 
Americans  is  said  to  be,  to  adorn  the  brows 
of  Mr.  Cushing  with  a  diadem."  Mr.  C.  was  a 
member  of  the  two  first  continental  congresses, 
and  of  the  council  of  Massachusetts,  and  was 
created  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas, 
and  of  probate  in  the  county  of  Suffolk.  Hav- 
ing been  honored  with  the  post  of  lieutenant- 
governor  of  his  native  state,  he  died  1788. 

CUTLER,"  Timothy,  a  talented  American 
divine,  sometime  president  of  Yale  College.  He 
became  rector  of  Christ  Church,  in  Boston,  and 
died  in  his  fe2d  year,  Aug.  17,  1765. " 

CUVIEK,  George  Leopold  Christian  Fred- 
eric Dajobert,  baron  of,  a  celebrated  naturalist, 
born  at"Montbeliard,  Aug.  25,  1769.  His  re- 
searches are  well  known  to  the  generality  of 
readers.  He  died  1832. 

CYCLADES,  in  ancient  geography,  a  name 
given  to  certain  islands  in  the  Aegean  Sea,  par- 
ticularly those  that  surround  Delos  as  with  a 
circle.  They  were  subjected  by  Miltiades,  but 
revolted  during  the  Persian  invasion. 

CYCLOPS,  one-eyed  giants,  who  were  em- 
ployed in  forging  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupiter. 
The  name  usually  designates  the  three  assist- 
ants of  Vulcan,  but  it  was  believed  that  there 
was  a  nation  of  them. 

CYPRUS,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  famed  among  the  ancients  for  its  uncom- 
mon fertility  and  the  mildness  of  its  climate. 
It  contains  120.000  inhabitants.  Venus  was 
worshipped  here.  Its  original  colonists  are  un- 
known. The  Egyptians  took  it  in  550  B.  C. 
and  the  Romans,  58  B.  C.  It  was  occupied  for 
some  time  by  the  Arabs  on  the  decline  of  the 
Roman  empire.  They  were,  however,  driven 
from  it  during  the  crusades,  and  the  title  of 
king  of  Cyprus  was  for  some  time  held  by 
Richard  I  of  England.  In  14.SO  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Venetians,  from  whom  it  was 
wrested,  in  ..1750.  by  the  Turks. 

CYRENAICA,  now  called  in  Arabic  Djebel 
JVihdar,  or  the  Green  Highlands,  was  ancient- 
ly a  Greek  colony,  in  the  north  of  Africa.  At 


present  it  contains  about  40,000  inhabitants,  and 
exhibits  traits  of  former  cultivation. 

CYRUS  :  Concerning  this  monarch  there  are 
two  distinct  and  irreconcilable  accounts,  those 
of  Herodotus  arid  Xenophon.  The  latter  in 
his  Cyropedia,  has  rather  given  us  the  picture 
of  what  a  monarch  should  be,  than  of  what  a 
monarch  was,  and  the  account  of  Herodotus  is 
generally  adhered  to  in  historical  narratives. 
Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  was  the  son  of  Camby- 
ses  and  Maudane,  the  daughter  of  Astyages. 
From  a  belief  that  he  was  fated  to  dethro'ne  his 
grandfather,  he  was  exposed  as  soon  as  born  ; 
but  was  preserved  by  a  shepherdess  who  edu- 
cated him  as  her  own  son.  As  he  was  play- 
ing with  his  equals  in  years,  he  was  elected  a 
king  in  one  of  their  sports,  and  he  exercised  his 
power  with  such  an  independent  spirit,  that  he 
ordered  one  of  his  companions  to  be  whipped 
severely  for  disobedience.  The  father  of  the 
boy,  who  was  a  nobleman,  complained  to  the 
king  of  the  ill-treatment  which  his  son  had  re- 
ceived from  a  shepherd's  boy.  Astyages  order- 
ed Cyrus  before  him,  and  discovered  that  he 
was  Maudane's  SOD,  from  whom  he  had  so 
much  to  apprehend.  He  therefore  treat- 
ed him  with  suspicious  coldness  ;  and  Cyrus, 
unable  to  bear  his  tyranny,  escaped  from  his 
confinement  and  began  to  levy  troops  to  de- 
throne his  grandfather.  He  was  assisted  and 
encouraged  by  the  ministers  of  Astyages,  who 
were  displeased  with  his  oppression.  Cyrus 
marched  against  and  defeated  Astyages  in  a 
battle  fought  B.  C.  560.  From  this  victory  the 
empire  ofMedia  became  tributary  to  the  Per- 
sians. Cyrus  subdued  the  eastern  parts  of  Asia, 
and  made  war  against  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia, 
whom  he  conquered  B.  C.  54^.  He  invaded 
the  kingdom  of  Assyria,  and  took  the  city 
of  Babylon  by  drying  the  channels  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, and  marching  his  troops  through  the 
bed  of  the  river  while  the  people  were  cele- 
brating a  grand  festival.  He  afterwards  led 
his  troops  against  Tomyris,  the  queen  of  the 
Massagetse,  a  Scythian  nation,  but  was  defeat- 
ed in  a^bloody  battle,  B.  C.  529.  The  victorious 
queen,  who  had  lost  her  son  in  a  previous  en- 
counter, was  so  incensed  against  Cyrus,  that, 
she  cut  off  his  head,  and  threw  it  into  a  vcsseli 
filled  with  human  blood  ;  crying,  "  Satisfy  thy-j 
self  with  the  blood  for  which  thou  hast  thirsted*^ 

CYRUS,  the  Younger,  was  the  son  of  Dafius 
Nothus.  and  brother  of  Artaxeixes.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  he  attempted  the  life  of  his 
brother,  to  obtain  the  throne,  but  was  pardon- 
ed through  the  intercession  of  bis  mother  Pary- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


DAL 


208 


DAN 


satis.  He  then  obtained  the  governorship  of 
Lvdia.  whence  he  marched  against  his  brother. 
The  war  ended  with  the  death  of  Cyrus,  B.  C. 
400. 

CYTHERA,  the  ancient  name  of  an  island 
in  the  Ionian  sea,  now  Cerign,  containing  a 
population  of  8,000.  Venus  was  worshipped 
here,  and  here  was  one  of  her  most  splendid 
temples ;  hence  she  was  called  Cytherta. 

D. 

DACIER,  Anna  Lefevre;  the  wife  of  Andre 
Dacier,  a  literary  lady  of  high  reputation,  born 
in  France  in  1651.  She  edited  and  translated 
several  of  the  ancient  classics,  and  distinguished 
herself  by  her  defence  of  Homer  in  answer  to 
Lamotte.  She  died  in  1720. 

DCEDALUS,  an  artist  and  macliinist  who 
lived  three  generations  before  the  Trojan  war. 
He  was  the  builder  of  the  Cretan  Labyrinth. 
Being  imprisoned  with  his  son,  Icarus,  he  is 
said  to  have  invented  wings  cemented  with 
wax,  by  which  they  soared  high  in  the  air. 
Icarus,  neglecting  the  instructions  of  his  father, 
fell  into  the  sea,  which  was  named  from  him 
Icarian.  His  father  reached  Sicily,  and  founded 
a  town  there. 

DA  HOMY,  a  fertile  kingdom  of  western 
Africa,  the  monarch  and  people  of  which  are 
ferocious  in  the  extreme.  The  king's  sleeping- 
chamber  is  paved  with  the  skulls  and  orna- 
mented with  the  jaw-bones  of  his  vanquished 
enemies. 

DALE,  Richard,  a  captain  in  the  American 
navy,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1756,  and  com- 
manded a  merchant  vessel  in  1775.  He  served 
on  board  the  Bonne  Homme  Richard  under 
Paul  Jones,  and  was  the  first  to  spring  to  the 
deck  of  the  Serapis  in  the  bloody  engagement 
which  resulted  in  her  capture.  "He  died  Feb. 
24, 1826. 

DALLAS,  Alexander  James,  a  native  of  Ja- 
maica, an  able  lawyer,  who  came  to  this  coun- 
try, in  1783.  and  held  various  responsible  offices 
under  our  government,  being  made  secretary 
of  the  United  States  treasury  in  1801,  when  he 
resigned  the  office  of  attorney-general.  In  1815 
he  assumed  the  duties  of  secretary  at  war,  and 
on  him  devolved  the  task  of  reducing  the  armv. 
He  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  the  currency  of 
the  country  saved  by  means  of  the  United 
States  bank,  which  it  had  long  been  his  object 
to  establish.  He  d*adJa.n  16,  1817. 

DALMATIA/a  kingrtom  belonging  to  Aus- 
tria, lying  on  the  Adriatic  sea,  and  containing 


320.000  inhabitants.    It  was  conquered  by  the 
Venetians  in  the  15th  century. 

DAMASCUS,  a  city  of  Syria  in  the  fertile 
pachalic  of  Damascus,  well-built  and  of  great 
commercial  importance.  The  population  ac- 
cording to  Burckhardt,  is  250.000.  Napoloan 
threatened  the  city,  but  being  foiled  in  the  siege 
of  Acre,  relinquished  .his  design. 

DAM1ENS,  Robert  Francois,  a  crazy  fanatic, 
who  stabbed  Louis  XV,  at  Versailles,  on  the 
5th  of  January  1757.  He  had  long  meditated 
the  deed,  and  took  opium  to  prepare  himself. 
According  to  the  provisions  of  his  sentence, 
after  the  most  cruel  tortures,  he  was  torn  in 
pieces  by  horses  on  the  Place  de  Grcre  at  Paris, 
March  2r,  1757. 

DAM1ETTA,  a  spacious  city  of  Lower 
Egypt,  with  30.000  inhabitants,  anciently  called 
fhaniiatis.  It  exhibits  all  the  striking  beauties 
of  a  fine  oriental  city,  and  is  a  place  of  great 
commerce.  It  was  taken  by  the  crusaders,  but 
surrendered  again  to  the  Saracens. 

DAMON  and  PYTHIAS,  two  Syracusans, 
who  were  devotedly  attached  to  each  other. 
Dionysius,  the  tyrant,  condemned  Pythias  to 
death",  but  allowed  him  to  absent  hi'mself  in 
order  l.o  arrange  his  affairs,  on  condition  that 
Damon  should  remain  as  hostage.  The  ap- 
pointed time  having  expired,  Damon  was  led 
to  the  scaffold,  and  the  executioner  was  about 
to  raise  his  axe,  when  Pythias  arrived,  breath- 
less with  haste,  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of 
his  friend,  and  embraced  him  tenderly.  Diony- 
sius moved  by  the  scene,  in  common  with  the 
people,  restored  both  of  the  friends  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  life  and  lil  erty. 

DAMPIER,  William,  an  English  navigator, 
born  in  1652,  known  fur  his  adventures  in  both 
hemispheres.  His  journals  of  his  voyages  have 
been  printed  in  three  volumes. 

DAiNDOLO.  Henry,  a  doge  of  Venice,  filled 
the  highest  office  in  the  gift  of  the  republip  in 
1192.  being  then  t-1  yean  old.  Neither  his  age 
nor  his  defective  vision  prevented  him  from 
discharging  his  duties  with  honor.  Joining  the 
fourth  crusade,  he  was  the  first  to  spring  on 
shore  with  the'  standard  cf  St.  Mark,  at  the 
storming  of  Constantinople.  He  died  at  the 
age  ofi>7. 

DANIEL,  a  Hebrew  prophet,  a  man  of  strict 
virtue,  and  supernatural  powers,  for  whose  his- 
tory the  reader  is  referred  to  the  old  Testament. 

DANTE  or  Durantc  Jllighicri,  was  born  in 
Florence  in  1265.  As  a  scholar  and  a  soldier 
he  was  early  celebrated,  and  as  the  lover  of  Be- 
atrice Portinari  (who  died  in  12UO),  no  less  fa- 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


DAN 


209 


DAR 


nious.  He  was  married  the  year  after  the  death 
of  Beatrice,  but  he  never  forgot  her.  At  the 
time  of  the  troubles  between  the  Bianchi  and 
Neri  in  Florence,  Dante  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  former,  and  his  property  was  confiscated. 
He  went  from  place  to  place  restless,  and  un- 
happy, loathing  a  state  of  dependence,  yet  un- 
able to  retrieve  his  fortune.  He  died  at  Raven- 
na, Sept.  14,  1321.  The  fame  of  his  Divina 
Commedia  is  imperishable,  and  the  Florentines, 
who  had  persecuted  him  during  his  life-time, 
paid  him  the  highest  honors  at  his  death.  "  His 
characters  were  those  of  his  own  period,  with 
whose  history  the  public  were  acquainted,  and 
whose  families  and  descendants  were  alive,  and 
frequently  in  the  enjoyment  of  wealth  and  pow- 
er. But  the  position  in  which  he  placed  them, 
threw  an  interest  round  their  story,  stronger 
than  could  have  been  produced  by  the  adven- 
tures of  any  individual,  however  illustrious,  of 
a  more  remote  date.  The  terror  and  pity,  and 
in  some  cases  the  vengeance  of  the  Italians  was 
awakened,  when  the  shadowy  forms  of  their 
contemporaries  were  made  to  pass  in  review 
before  them,  stripped  of  those  external  advan- 
tages which  while  living  had  rendered  them 
respected,  and  had  cast  a  veil  over  their  crimes. 
The  cruel  husband  shrunk  from  the  picture  of 
his  murdered  wife,  herself  condemned  to  perdi- 
tion, yet  prophecying  that  for  him  was  destined 
the  lowest  pit  in'hell.  The  son  beheld  his  fa- 
ther plunged  in  eternal  wo,  yet  continuing  to 
feel  a  tender  interest  in  his  welfare.  The 
treacherous  assassin,  who  still  occupied  his 
place  among  the  nobles  of  the  land,  trembled 
at  seeing  himself  represented  as  in  hell,  while, 
according  to  the  bold  supposition  of  the  poet, 
a  demon  animated  his  body.  The  'mighty 
mantle'  itself  was  no  protection  to  the  wearer. 
Pope  Nicholas  III,  plunged  head  foremost  in 
the  flames,  was  represented  as  waiting  there 
for  the  arrival  of  his  guilty  successors.  The 
effect  was  indescribable.  Some,  unable  to  en- 
dure the  contempt  of  their  countrymen,  con- 
demned themselves  to  voluntary  exile ;  some, 
struck  with  terror  and  despair,  died  broken- 
hearted; and  others  fell  victims  to  the  private 
vengeance  of  the  poet's  friends." 

D ANTON,  a  French  revolutionary  leader, 
who  on  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  was  condemned 
to  the  scaffold.  His  character  was  a  singular 
mixture.  Although  talented,  brave,  and  mag- 
nanimous, he  was  also  weak,  cruel,  and  parsi- 
monious. 

DANTZIC,  a  chy  of  West  Prussia,  on  the 
Vistula,  containing  54,000  inhabitants.  It  was 


founded  in  the  12th  century.  In  1709  it  was 
ravaged  by  the  plague,  and  in  1734  taken  by 
the  Russians  and  Saxons.  May  1607  the  French 
captured  it  after  a  long  siege.  It  was  occupied 
by  a  French  garrison  until  Napoleon's  disas- 
trous campaign  in  Russia,  after  which  it  was 
blockaded,  and  bravely  defended  by  general 
Rapp.  It  surrendered,  however,  and  in  1814, 
reverted  to  Prussia. 

DARDANELLES,  the  four  castles  on  the 
European  and  Asiatic  sides  of  the  Hellespont, 
which  is  called  the  "  Strait  of  the  Dardanelles." 

DARFUR  or  DARFOOR,  the  name  of  a 
large  kingdom  between  Abyssinia  and  Bornou, 
in  central  Africa.  The  inhabitants  are  Moham- 
medans, half  barbarous,  extensively  engaged  in 
commerce,  and  living  under  a  despotic  govern- 
ment. > 

DARIEN,  a  town  of  Georgia,  which  con- 
tained in  1830.  about  500  inhabitants. 

DARIUS.  The  name  of  several  sovereigns 
of  Persia,  of  whom  the  fiist  is  the  most  celebra- 
ted. Darius  I,  a  noble  satrap  of  Persia,  was 
the  son  of  Hystaspes,  and  conspired  with  six 
other  noblemen,  to  destroy  Smerch's,  the  usurp- 
er of  the  Persian  crown.  After  the  death  of 
the  usurper,  it  was  agreed  among  the  conspira- 
tors that  he  whose  horse  first  neighed,  should 
be  appointed  king.  In  consequence  of  this 
singular  resolution,  the  groom  of  Darius  led  his 
master's  horsf  with  a  mare  to  the  place  near 
which  the  seven  noblemen  were  to  pass.  On 
the  morrow  before  sunrise,  when  they  proceed- 
ed all  together,  the  horse  of  Darius  neighed, 
and  he  was  saluted  by  his  companions  ting. 
He  soon  showed  himself  fitted  to  grace  a  throne. 
He  took  Babylon,  and  conquered  Thrace ;  was 
defeated  by  the  Scythians,  but  favored  by  for- 
tune in  his  campaign  against  the  Indians.  The 
burning  of  Sardis,  which  was  a  Grecian  colony, 
incensed  the  Athenians  and  a  war  was  kindled 
between  them  and  the  Persians,  in  which  the 
latter  were  unsuccessful.  Undismayed  at  the 
disaster  at  Marathon  and  his  immense  losses, 
Darius  resolved  to  lead  his  troops  to  Greece  in 
person,  but  died  in  the  midst  of  his  warlike  pre- 
parations, B.  C.  485. 

DARIUS  III.  surnamed  Codomanus.  the  son 
of  Arsanes  and  Sysigambis,  was  descended 
from  Darius  Nothus.  He  was  no  sooner  seated 
on  the  throne  than  Alexander  of  Macedon  inva- 
ded his  kingdom.  The  Persians  were  defeated 
in  the  battles  of  the  Granicus  and  Issus,  in  the 
last  of  which,  Darius,  leaving-  his  wife,  children , 
and  mother,  fled  in  disguise  on  the  horse  of  his 
armour-bearer,  and  was  saved  by  the  darkness 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY, 


DAV 


210 


DEA 


of  the  night.  Being  again  defeated  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Arbcla,  Darius  in  despair  fled  to  Media, 
where  he  was  killed  by  Bessus,  the  perfidious 
governor  of  Bactria,  and  was  found  by  the 
Macedonians  in  his  chariot,  expiring  of  his 
wounds,  B.  C.  331. 

DARWIN,  Erasmus,  an  English  physician 
and  poet,  born  in  1721,  at  Elton,  was  the  au- 
thor of  the  Botanic  Garden,  and  other  celebrated 
works.  He  died  in  1802. 

DAVENAiNT,  Sir  William,  an  English  poet 
of  the  17th  century,  the  author  of  Gondibcrt,  a 
heroic  poem,  and  a  theatrical  writer  and  man- 
ager under  Charles  II. 

DAVID,  king  of  Israel,  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable characters  in  Jewish  History.  The 
occurrences  of  his  life  are  detailed  in  scripture. 
DA VI D,  Jacques  Louis,  a  French  painter,  bnrn 
at  Paris  in  1 750,  died  at  Brussels  in  1 825.  Da- 
vid, though  an  uncompromising  democrat,voting 
for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI,  was  the  first  painter 
of  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  and  was  exiled  on  his 
fall.  Among  his  finest  works  are  Paris  and 
Helen,  the  Rape  of  the  Sabine  women,  and 
Napoleon  crossing  the  Alps.  His  best  perform- 
ances in  portrait  painting  are  the  numerous 
likenesses  of  his  imperial  patron.  The  original 
sketch  for  one  of  these,  which  indeed  was  never 
afterwards  finished,  was  taken  during  the  last 
few  hours  of  unlimited  power  possessed  by  Napo- 
leon in  Paris.  The  greater  part  of  the  preced- 
ing day  and  night  had  been  spent  in  arrang- 
ing the  final  operations  of  the  campaign  which 
terminated  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  When 
now  past  midnight,  instead  of  retiring  to  repose, 
the  emperor  sent  for  David,  to  whom  he  had 
promised  to  sit,  and  who  was  in  waiting  in  an 
apartment  of  the  Tuileries.  "  My  friend,"  said 
Napoleon,  to  the  artist ;  "  there  are  yet  some 
hours  till  four,  when  we  are  finally  to  review 
the  defences  of  the  capital ;  in  the  mean  time, 
faitts  votre  possible  (do  your  utmost),  while  I 
read  these  despatches."  But  exhausted  nature 
could  hold  out  no  longer ;  the  paper  dropped 
from  the  nerveless  hand,  and  Napoleon  sank  to 
sleep.  In  this  attitude  the  painter  has  represent- 
ed him  : — the  pale  and  lofty  forehead,  the  care- 
worn features,  the  relaxed  expression,  the  very 
accompaniments  bear  an  impress  inexpressibly 
tender  and  melancholy.  With  the  dawn  Na- 
poleon awoke,  and  springing  to  his  feet,  was 
about  to  address  David,  when  a  taperjust  expir- 
ing in  its  socket,  arrested  his  eye.  Folding  his 
arms  on  his  breast,  an  usual  posture  of  thought, 
he  contemplated  its  dying  struggles,  when, 
with  the  last  gleam,  the  rays  of  the  morning 


sun  penetrated  through  the  half-closed  window- 
curtains.  "  Were  I  superstitious."  said  Napo- 
leon, a  faint  smile  playing  about  his  beautiful 
mouth,  "  the  first  object  on  which  my  sight  has 
rested  this  day,  might  be  deemed  ominous; 
but,"  pointing"  to  the  rising  sun,  "  the  augury 
is  doubtful — at  least  the  prayer  of  the  Grecian 
hero  will  be  recorded — we  shall  perish  in 
light." 

DAVIDSON,  Lucretia  Maria,  a  young  Amer- 
ican girl,  who  displayed  great  talents  tor  com- 
position at  the  age  of  4  years.  She  died  of 
incessant  application,  August  27,  1825.  She 
was  born  at  Plattsburg,  on  Lake  Champlain, 
September  27th,  1808.  Her  Amir  Kkan  and 
other  poems,  were  published  in  a  volume. 

DA  VIE,  William  Richardson,  a  distinguished 
character  in  the  American  revolution.  He  held 
the  rank  of  general,  and  was  afterwards  gov- 
ernor of  North  Carolina,  and  envoy  to  France. 
He  was  born  in  England,  1756,  and  died  at 
Camden  (S.  C.),  in  1820. 

DAVILS,  Samuel,  a  distinguished  American 
divine,  president  of  Nassau  Hall,  born  in  Dela- 
ware, Nov.  3,  1724,  died  in  17C2. 

DAVIS,  John,  an  English  navigator,  who 
gave  his  name  to  the  Straits  which  lie  between 
Greenland  and  New  Britain,  which  he  entered 
in  endeavoring  to  discover  the  northwest  pas 
sage.  He  was  killed  t>y  the  Japanese  in  1605. 

DAVOUST,  Louis  Nicholas;  duke  of  Aner- 
stadt  and  prince  of  Eckrnuhl,  marshal  and  peer 
of  France,  born  in  1770,  died  in  ]823.  He 
studied  with  Bonaparte,  and  served  under  him 
in  his  most  brilliant  campaigns.  He  only  sub- 
mitted to  Louis  XVII,  when  the  hopes  of  Na- 
poleon were  destroyed. 

DAVY,  Sir  Humphrey,  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish chemist,  born  in  1779,  at  Penzance,  Corn- 
wall, died  at  Geneva,  1819.  His  experiments  on 
the  nature  of  explosive  gas,  to  which  his  atten- 
tion was  directed  by  the  frequent  accidents  oc- 
curing  to  mines  from  fire  damps,  resulted  in  the 
invention  of  the  safety-lamp.  Other  important 
discoveries  were  made  by  this  distinguished 
man. 

DEAD  SEA,  or  Asphaltites  (the  hike  of 
Bitumen),  a  piece  of  water  in  Palestine,  180 
miles  in  circuit,  which  occupies  the  space 
whereon  the  condemned  cities  of  the  vale  of 
Siddim  stood.  The  following  account  of  it  is 
from  the  pen  of  a  late  traveller.  "  After  the  pil- 
grims had  bathed  in  the  Jordan,  we  left  them 
and  turned  down  to  the  south,  in  company  with 
three  or  four  other  English  travellers,  and  a 
guard  from  the  governor,  to  visit  the  Dead  Sea 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


DEC 


211 


DEL 


We  rode  across  plains  of  barren  sand  for  an 
hour  and  a  half,  when  we  stood  upon  the  banks 
of  this  memorable  lake.  Without  any  refer- 
ence to  what  others  have  said,  I  can  testify  to 
the  following  facts.  The  water  is  perfectly 
clear  and  transparent.  The  taste  is  bitter,  and 
salt  far  beyond  that  of  the  ocean.  It  acts  upon 
the  tongue  and  mouth  like  alum,  and  smarts  in 


the  eye  like  camphor,  and  produces  a  burning 
pricking  sensation  over  the  whole  body,  ft 
stiffened  the  hair  of  the  head  much  like  poma- 


tum. The  water  has  a  much  greater  specific 
gravity  than  the  human  body,  and  hence,  no 
efforts  cause  us  to  sink  below  the  surface  ;  and 
standing  perpendicularly,  you  would  not  de- 
scend lower  than  the  arms.  Although  there 
was  evidence  in  the  sands  thrown  upon  the 
beach,  that  in  great  storms  there  were  waves, 
yet  there  appeared  to  be  some  foundation  for 
ihe  reports  of  its  immobility.  Notwithstanding 
there  was  a  considerable  breeze,  the  water  lay 
perfectly  lifeless.  Historians  say  that  large 
quantities  of  bitumen  were  gathered  from  the 
surface  of  this  lake  ;  and  is  it  not  quite  possi- 
ble, to  say  the  least,  that  it  formerly  existed  in 
such  quantities  as  to  spread  over  the  whole  face 
of  the  sea.  and  thus  effectually  prevent  the 
wind  from  interrupting  its  death-like  quietude  ? 
Modern  travellers  state  that  there  is  very  little 
of  this  substance  now  to  be  found,  and  certainly 
we  saw  nothing  like  it.  We  saw  no  fish  or  liv- 
ing animals  in  the  water,  though  birds  were 
flying  over  it  in  various  directions  unharmed. 
We  all  noticed  an  unnatural  gloom  hanging 
not  merely  over  the  sea.  but  also  over  the  whole 
plain  below  Jericho.  This  is  mentioned  also 
by  ancient  historians.  It  had  the  appearance 
of  the  Indian  summer  of  the  valley.  Like  a 
vast  funeral  pall  let  down  from  heaven,  it  com- 
pletely shuts  out  all  prospect,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance down  the  sea. 

DECATUK,  Stephen,  an  American  naval 
commander,  born  in  Maryland,  January  5th, 
1779.  Soon  after  his  entrance  into  the  navy 
(1793),  he  received  a  first  lieutenancv,  and  for 
his  gallant  conduct  in  recovering  the  frigate 
Philadelphia,  in  the  harbor  of  Tripoli,  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  Captain.  He  successively 
commanded  the  Constitution,  the  Congress, 
the  Chesapeake,  and  the  United  States.  'With 
the  latter  he  captured  the  Macedonian,  October 
25th,  1812.  In  the  war  with  Algiers  (1815), 
Decatur  terrified  the  regency  into  submission 
in  48  hours  ;  was  equally  successful  at  Tripoli  ; 
and  procured  the  renunciation  of  tribute,  and 
an  agreement  on  the  part  of  the  Barbary  pow- 


ers, to  regard  captives  as  prisoners  of  war  and 
not  slaves.  Decatur  was  killed  in  a  duel  by 
Commodore  Barron,  March  22,  1820. 

DECIUS,  the  name  of  a  Roman  Consul  who 
devoted  himself  to  death  in  battle,  to  save  his 
country,  B.  C.  340.  Also  a  Roman  emperor, 
who  reigned  from  A.  D.  249,  till  Dec.  251.  He 
persecuted  the  Christians. 

DEFOE,  Daniel,  an  English  author  of  great 
celebrity,  born  at  London  in  1663.  His  politi- 
cal and  commercial  speculations  having  prov- 
ed unfortunate,  he  turned  his  entire  attention 
to  literature.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enumerate 
here  the  various  works  which  he  produced — it 
will  be  sufficient  to  mention  his  most  popular 
production,  the  Life  and  Surprising  Adventures 
of  Robinson  Crusoe,  which  he  is  falsely  said  to 
have  stolen  from  the  papers  of  Alexander  Sel- 
kirk, a  Scottish  mariner,  long  the  solitary  in- 
habitant of  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez.  He 
died  in  April,  1731. 

DEJANIRA,  daughter  of  ^Eneus,  king  of 
Calydon,  an  ^Etolian  city  ;  the  wife  of  Hercules, 
and  the  innocent  cause  of  his  death.  The 
Centaur,  Nessus.  whom  Hercules  killed  for 
insulting  Dejanira,  in  dying,  gave  her  a  tunic 
dipped  in  his  blood,  which  he  said  would  restore 
to  her  the  affections  of  her  husband  if  he  put  it 
on.  When  she  considered  herself  in  danger 
from  his  inconstancy,  she  sent  Hercules  the 
garment,  which  he  no  sooner  put  on  than  a  mor- 
tal poison  penetrated  to  his  vitals,  and  he  died 

10 DELAWARE ;  one  of  the  United  Statea, 
bounded  north  by  Pennsylvania ;  east  by  Dela- 
ware bay,  and  river ;  south  and  west  by  Mary- 
land. Its  three  counties  are  subdivided  into  25 
hundreds.  The  Legislature  consists  of  a  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives.  The  surface 
is.  with  few  exceptions,  level.  Articles  of  pro- 
duce, wheat,  Indian  corn,  rye,  barley,  oats,  flax, 
buckwheat,  and  potatoes  Its  first  settlers  were 
the  Swedes  and  Fins,  in  1G27.  The  Dutch 
gained  possession  of  it,  but  the  English  in  1664 
became  the  masters  of  it.  It  was  granted  to 
William  Penn,  and  remained  a  separate  estab- 
lishment until  the  revolution.  Its  constitution 
was  adopted  in  17'J2,  and  amended  in  1831. 
Population  78,085  including  2,605  slaves. 

DELHI,  a  province  and  city  of  Hindoston, 
containing  about  5,000.000  inhabitants,  Hin- 
doos, Mohammedans,  and  Seiks.  It  is  very  fer- 
tile, and  a  large  and  valuable  portion  of  it 
belongs  to  the  British.  The  city  contains  many 
splendid  edifices.  It  was  taken  by  the  Moham- 
medans in  IIL'3,  and  sacked  by  .Nadir  Shall, 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


DFM 


212 


DEM 


in  1739,  since  which  the  inhabitants  have  been 
the  victims  of  rapine  and  slaughter,  among  the 
contending  parties. 

DELOS,  the  central  island  of  the  Cyclades, 
famed  in  ancient  times  for  the  number  and 
skill  of  its  artists,  and  for  the  splendid  temple 
and  oracle  of  Apollo.  It  was  the  birth-place  of 
Apollo,  and  his  sister  Diana,  and  according  to 
fable,  raised  as  an  asylum  to  the  mother,  Lato- 
na,  when  she  was  pursued  from  place  to  place 
by  the  implacable  Juno. 

DELPHI,  the  seat  of  the  oracle  of  Apollo, 
situated  in  Phocis,  on  the  southern  side  of  Par- 
nassus. The  fount  of  inspiration  was  said  to 
be  a  chasm  from  which  issued  an  intoxicating 
vapor.  This  was  discovered  by  a  shepherd. 
A  temple  was  built  over  the  cave,  and  the  tri- 
pod of  the  goddess  (sometimes  called  Pythoness 
from  Pythius  the  surname  of  Apollo)  was 
placed  where  she  could  breathe  the  ascending 
vapor.  She  was  agitated  with  extreme  fury  ; 
she  howled  and  vowed,  her  eyes  sparkled,  and 
she  gave  every  evidence  of  being  inspired  by 
divinity.  The  Pythian  games  were  celebrated 
in  the  vicinity  of  Delphi,  which  is  now  the 
village  of  Castri.  Under  the  head  of  JEsop 
(which  see),  some  remarks  have  been  made 
upon  the  nature  of  the  responses  of  the  oracles. 

DELUGE,  the  flood,  or  inundation  of  waters 
by  which  God  destroyed  mankind  and  animals 
in  the  time  of  Noah,  and  in  which,  as  St.  Peter 
says,  only  eight  persons  were  saved.  Accord- 
ing to  M.  Basuage,  this  took  place  in  1650th 
year  of  the  world  ;  the  rain  commenced  on  the 
17th  of  November,  and  the  waters  reached  their 
height  on  the  27th  of  March.  Almost  all  savage 
nations,  even  those  sunk  the  deepest  in  barba- 
rism, have  a  tradition  of  an  universal  deluge. 
A  traveller  among  the  Indians  of  the  northwest 
coast  of  A  rnerica  learned  this  from  one  of  the 
eavages,  and  asked  him  how  long  ago  it  occur- 
red ?  The  savage  scooped  up  from  the  floor  of 
his  cabin  a  handful  of  sand,  and  promptly  re- 
plied ;  "  as  many  moons  ago  as  there  are  grains 
of  sand  in  this  heap." 

DEMETRIUS,  surnamed  Soter,  son  of  Sel- 
eucus  Philopater,  the  son  of  Antiochus  the 
Great,  king  of  Syria.  His  father  gave  him  as 
a  hostage  to  the  Romans.  After  the  death  of 
Seleucus,  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  deceased 
monarch's  brother,  usurped  the  kingdom  of 
Syria,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Antiochus 
Eupater.  This  usurpation  displeased  Deme- 
trius, who  was  detained  at  Rome  ;  he  therefore 
procured  his  liberty  on  pretence  of  going  to 
hunt,  and  fled  to  Syria,  where  the  troops  re- 


ceived him  as  their  lawful  sovereign,  B.  C. 
1(52.     He  put  to  death  Eupater,  and   Lysias, 


and  established  himself  on  his  throne  by  cruelty 
and  oppression.  Alexander  Balas,  the  son  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  laid  claim  to  the  crown 
of  Syria,  and  defeated  Demetrius  in  battle  in 
the  12th  year  of  his  reign. 

DEMETRIUS,  a  Macedonian,  son  of  Antigo- 
nus  and  Stratonica,  surnamed  from  his  suc- 
' cesses,  Poliorcetes,  or  the  destroyer  of  towns. ' 
At  the  age  of  22,  he  was  sent  by  his  father 
against  Ptolemy,  who  had  invaded  Syria.  He 
was  defeated  near  Gaza,  but  soon  repaired  his 
loss  bv  a  victory  over  one  of  the  generals  of  the 
enemy.  He  afterwards  sailed  with  a  fleet  of 
250  ships  to  Athens,  and  restored  the  Athenians 
to  liberty,  by  freeing  them  from  the  power  of 
Cassander  and  Ptolemy,  and  expelled  the  gar- 
rison, which  was  stationed  there  under  Deme- 
trius Phalereus.  After  this  successful  expedi- 
tion, he  besieged  and  took  Munychia,  and 
defeated  Cassander  at  Thermopylae.  This  un- 
common success  raised  the  jealousy  of  the  suc- 
cessors of  Alexander  ;  and  Seleucus,  Cassander, 
and  Lysimachu'/,  united  to  destroy  Antigonus 
and  his  son.  Their  hostile  armies  met  at  Ipsus, 
B.  C.  3D1.  Antigonus  was  killed  in  the  battle  ; 
and  Demetrius,  after  a  severe  loss,  retired  to 
Ephesus.  His  ill  success  raised  him  many 
enemies  ;  and  the  Athenians,  who  lately  adored 
him  as  a  god.  refused  to  admit  him  into  their 
city.  He  soon  after  ravaged  the  territories  of 
Lysimachus,  and  reconciled  himself  to  Seleu- 
cus to  whom  he  gave  his  daughter,  Stratonice, 
in  marriage.  Athens  now  labored  under  tyran- 
ny ;  and  Demetrius  relieved  it  and  pardoned  its 
inhabitants. 

The  loss  of  his  Asiatic  possessions  recalled 
him  from  Greece,  and  he  established  himself 
on  the  throne  of  Macedonia,  294  B.  C.  Here 
he  was  continually  at  war  with  the  neighboring 
states  ;  and  the  superior  power  of  his  adversa- 
ries obliged-  him  to  leave  Macedonia,  after  he 
had  filled  the  throne  seven  years.  He  passed 
into  Asia  and  attacked  some  of  the  provinces 
of  Lysimachus  with  various  success  ;  but  fam- 
irio  and  pestilence  destroyed  the  greatest  part 
of  his  army,  and  he  retired  to  the  court  of 
Seleucus  for  support  and  assistance.  He  met 
with  a  kind  reception,  but  hostilities  between 
them  soon  began  ;  and  after  he  had  gained 
some  advantages  over  his  son-in-law,  Deme- 
trius was  totally  forsaken  by  his  troops  in  battle, 
and  became  an  easy  prey  to'the  enemy.  Though 
ho  was  kept  in  confinement  by  his  son-in-law, 
yet  he  lived  like  a  prince,  ana  passed  his  time 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


DEN 


213 


DES 


Jn  hunting,  and  in  every  laborious  exercise. 
His  son  Anttgonus  offered  Seleucus  all  his  pos- 
sessions, and  even  his  person,  to  procure  his 
father's  liberty  ;  but  all  proved  unavailing,  and 
Demetrius  died  in  the  54th  year  of  his  ao-e.  B. 
C.  JW4. 

DEMOCRITUS.  a  philosopher  of  Abdera, 
who  was  born  about  494,  B.  C.  He  is  com- 
monly called  the  laughing  philosopher,  because 
he  was  said  to  have  been  in  the  habit  of  amus- 
ing himself  with  the  follies  of  mankind,  while 
Heraclitus  (the  weeping  philosopher)  wept  at 
them.  He  placed  the  chief  good  in  a  tranquil 
mind. 

DEMOSTHENES,  an  Athenian  orator,  son 
of  a  sword  cutler,  born  about  331,  B.  C.,  famous 
to  have  risen  to  the  highest  reputation  by  per- 
severance in  overcoming  the  apparently  insur- 
mountable obstacles  which  opposed  him.  (See 
Miens.)  He  was  the  determined  opponent  of 
Philip  of  Macedon.  continually  urging  the  Athe- 
nians to  resist  him.  The  orations  which  he 
delivered  on  these  occasions  were  termed  Phi- 
lippics, a  name  since  applied  to  all  satirical 
orations.  Finding  the  cause  of  liberty  prostra- 
ted, he  took  poison  and  died  319,  B.  C.,  at  the 
age  of  00  years. 

DENHAM,  Dixon,  lieutenant-colonel  in  the 
British  army,  associated  with  Captain  Clapper- 
ton,  and  Doctor -Oudnev,  for  the  purpose  of 
exploring  Central  Africa.  Soon  after  being 
appointed  lieutenant-governor  of  Sierra  Leone! 
he  died,  in  1825. 

DENMARK,  the  larger  part  of  which  is  a 
peninsula,  is  generally  level  and  fertile.  The 
climate  is  temperate.  Among  the  vegetable 
productions  are  oats,  barley,  beans,  pease,  and 
potatoes.  The  commercial  exports  are  princi- 
pally grain,  horses,  cattle,  beef,  pork,  butter, 
and  cheese.  The  population  of  the  kingdom 
is  about  2.000.000.  The  Danes  are  a  brave  peo- 

Ele,  but  addicted  to  self-indulgence.  The  early 
istory  is  obscure  and  uninterestinc-,  contain- 
ing merely  the  adventures  of  predatory  war- 
riors, whose  pre-eminence  consisted  in  ferocity 
and  courage.  They  invaded  England,  and 
established  two  kingdoms  there.  Margaret. 
the  daughter  of  Waldemar,  often  called  the 
Semiramis  of  the  north,  in  1337.  united  in  her 
own  person,  the  crowns  of  Sweden,  Denmark, 
and  Norway.  This  union,  however,  did  not 
continue  longer  than  the  beginning  of  the  Kith 
century,  when  Christian  II,  was  obliged  to 
renounce  all  claims  to  Sweden.  Christian  VII 
was  unequal  to  the  labors  of  government;  and 
placed  the  whole  burden  of  government  on  his 


ministers.  The  situation  of  Denmark,  when 
the  affairs  of  Bonaparte  began  to  assume  an 
unfavorable  appearance,  was  critical,  but  Den- 
mark concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Sweden 
and  Great  Britain  in  1814.  All  the  conquests 
were  restored  with  the  exception  of  Heligoland, 
and  Swedish  Pomerania  and  the  isle  of  Rugen 
were  added,  in  consideration  of  the  stipulated 
annexation  of  Norway  to  Sweden.  In  1815, 
the  king  joined  the  German  confederacy.  The 
government  is  an  absolute  monarchy. 

DANNIES,  Joseph,  born  in  Boston  1768,  and 
educated  at  Harvard  College,  possessed  a  bril- 
liant genius  which  he  evinced  in  several  papers 
which  he  edited.  He  wanted  industry  and  dis- 
cretion, and  died  in  1812.  of  disease  produced 
by  irregularity  and  anxiety. 

DEcfAIX  DE  VOYGOUX,  Louis  Charles 
Antoine,  a  French  general,  was  born  of  a  noble 
family  at  St.  Hilare  de  Agat,  in  Bretagne,  in 
1768.  He  served  under  Pichegru  and  Moreau, 
and  commanded  under  Bonaparte  in  Upper 
Egypt,  a  division  of  troops  destined  to  pursue 
and  keep  in  awe  the  Mamelukes,  whom  he 
attacked  and  put  to  flight  near  the  pyramids  of 
Saccara,  in  Upper  Egypt.  At  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  the  success  of  which  was  the  result 
of  his  opportune  arrival  on  the  field,  he  was 
killed.  June  14.  1800. 

DESCARTES,  Rene,  born  at  La  Haye,  in 
Touraine,  in  1596,  and  died  at  Stockholm  in 
1(550.  As  a  soldier,  mathematician,  and  ori- 
ginal philosopher,  he  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self. 

DESEAD  A.,  Desirada,  or  Desiderada,  one  of 
the  small  Caribbee  islands,  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus in  1494. 

DESEZE,  Raymond,  the  talented  advocate 
who  defended  the  unfortunate  Louis  XVI.  On 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  lie  was  loaded 
with  honors. 

DESHOULIERES,  Antoinette ;  a  French 
literary  lady  of  oreat  acquirements,  who  lived 
in  Paris  from  16:18,  till  1694. 

DESMONL1NS,  Benoit  Camille,  a  French 
revolutionist,  who  was  condemned  to  death  by 
the  revolutionary  tribunal  in  June,  1794. 

DESPARD,  Edward  Marcus,  a  colonel  in 
the  English  army,  who  served  in  America  and 
elsewhere,  but  who  was  refused  p-iyment  for 
his  services  when  he  applied  for  it  in  England. 
This  induced  him  to  form  a  conspiracy  against 
the  government,  which  was  discovered  in  the 
November  of  1802,  and  punished. 

DESSAIX,  Joseph-Marie,  Count,  a  native 
of  Savoy,  where  he  was  born  in  1764,  and  dia- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


DEV 


214 


DID 


tinguished  for  his  military  services  in  the  French 
army.  At  the  siege  of  Toulon  he  bore  a  part. 
He  was  appointed  by  Napoleon  general  of  di- 
vision, and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor. 

DESSALINES,  Jean-Jacques^  emperor  of 
Ilayti,  was  originally  a  slave.  After  the  French 
had  been  expelled  from  the  island  in  1^03.  Des- 
salines  was  appointed  governor  general,  but  as- 
sumed the  title  and  state  of  emperor  ;  but  hav- 
ing been  cruilty  of  many  attrocities,  he  was 
kiRed  by  a  soldier,  Oct.  17,  18(Hi. 

DETROIT,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  capital 
of  Michigan.  It  is  situated  between  lakes  Erie 
and  St.  Clair.  on  the  west  side  of  the  river  De- 
troit. Pop.  9,102.  It  is  well  built  and  defend- 
ed by  fort  Shelby.  It  was  settled  by  Canadian 
French  in  1683,  and  in  1812,  was  taken  by  the 
British,  but  remained  only  a  short  time  in  their 
power. 

DEUX-PONTS,  in  German,  ZweibrUcken, 
anciently  Bissoiis,  a  Bavarian  city,  the  capital 
of  a  dutchy  containing  70,000  inhabitants. 

DEVEREUX,  IJ'obert,  earl  of  Essex,  born 
in  J5G7,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  intro- 
duced at  Court  at  an  early  age.  He  soon  won 
the  regard  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  on  his  re- 
turn from  a  campaign  in  the  Low  Countries, 
he  was  made  master  of  horse.  The  last  of  his 
two  expeditions  against  Cadiz  failed  from  a 
misunderstanding  between  him  and  Raleigh. 
Returning,  Essex  was  made  earl- marshal  of 
England,~and  master-general  of  the  ordnance. 
Essex  was  impetuous  and  indiscreet.  At  the 
zenith  of  royal  favor,  he  took  no  care  of  his 
actions.  At  the  council-board,  ho  contradicted 
the  queen,  who  gave  him  a  smart  box  on  the 
ear;  when  he  rose  in  extreme  wrath,  clapped 
his  hand  upon  his  sword,  and  swore  that  he 
would  not  have  taken  such  an  affront  even 
from  Henry  VIII. 

In  Ireland,  he  made  a  composition  with  the 
rebels,  and  quitted  his  government,  without 
leave  for  either  proceeding.  On  his  return  to 
London  he  was  taken,  tried,  and  beheaded,  Feb- 
ruary 25,  1601.  While  in  prison  he>is  said  to 
have  entrusted  to  the  countess  of  Nottingham  a 
ring  which  he  had  received  from  the  queen, 
when  high  in  favor,  with  the  promise  to  pardon 
any  offence  on  its  presentation.  Contrary  to 
her  pledge,  the  countess  retained  the  ring,  but 
confessed  her  guilt  upon  her  death-bed,  on 
which  Elizabeih  is  said  to  have  exclaimed, 
"  God  may  forgive  you,  but  I  never  will !"  His 
son,  after  having  served  Charles  1,  joined  the 
parliamentary  party,  but  did  not  enjoy  a  high 
degree  of  favor,  and  died  suddenly  in  1646. 


DE  WITT,  John,  grand  pensioner  of  Hol- 
land, a  famous  statesman,  was  born  in  lh'25.  He 
imbibed  from  his  father  a  hatred  for  tiie  house 
of  Orange.  Accordingly  in  the  war  between 
England  and  Holland,  he  attempted  to  abolish 
the  statholdership,  and  succeeded  in  separating 
that  office  from  that  of  captain  general.  He 
was  forced,  however,  to  make  some  conces- 
sions, and  beheld,  with  mortification.  William 
procure  the  post  of  commander-in -chief.  De 
Witt  resigned  his  employments  when  William 
was  chosen  stadtholder,  to  the  joy  of  all,  and 
being  thrown  into  prison,  was  murdered  by  the 
populace,  who  broke  in  upon  him.  Aug.  20, 1672. 

DEXTER,  Samuel,  a  distinguished  orator, 
lawyer,  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  in  1761.  and  was  educated  at  Harvard 
College.  He  studied  law.  but  was  soon  chosen 
to  the  state  legislature,  and  thence  transferred 
to  congress,  where  his  abilities  and  patriotism 
were  properly  appreciated.  L'nder  President 
Adams  he  was  at  first  secretary  at  war,  and 
then  of  the  treasury.  Declining  the  public 
offices  which  weie  afterwards  cliered  him,  he 
employed  himself  in  the  lucrative  and  honora- 
ble profession  of  the  !=iw.  being  entrusted  with 
cases  of  the  utmost  importance.  He  died  at 
Athens.  N.  Y.  Iel6,  aged  55. 

DIANA,  the  daughter  of  Latona,  and  twin 
sister  of  Apollo,  born  at  Delos.  She  was  t he- 
goddess  of  hunting  and  remained  unmarried. 
She  was  called  Lucinn.  lii/thia.  or  J»no  Prcmu- 
ba,  and  Trivia;  Trif units',  because  Luna  or  the 
moon  in  heaven,  Diana  on  earth,  and  Prosper- 
pine  or  Hecate  in  hell.  Her  other  names  were 
Argrotcta,  Ort/iia.  Taurica.  Delin.  C'yniliia.  Ari- 
ri&,  and  she  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  /*« 
of  the  Egyptians. 

DIDO, "the  founder  of  the  city  of  Carthage. 
also  called  Elisa,  was  a  daughter  of  Beius,  King 
of  Tyre,  and  married  Sichauis,  or  Sichurbas, 
her  uncle,  a  priest  of  Hercules.  Pygmalion, 
the  successor  of  Belus,  murdered  the  husband 
of  Dido,  for  the  sake  of  his  wealth,  and  with 
a  number  of  Tyrians.  the  unhappy  queen  set 
sail  to  found  a  colony  in  some  distant  land.  A 
storm  drove  them  upon  the  African  shore  and 
there  Dido  built  her  citadel,  and  soon  had  the 
satisfaction  of  finding  the  colony  in  a  thriving 
condition.  The  persecutions  of  Jarbas,  king 
of  Mauritania,  who  wished  to  marry  her,  prov- 
ed fatal  to  her.  for  having  vowed  to  her  hus- 
band, never  to  wed  a  second  lime,  she  ascend- 
ed a  funeral  pile,  and  peri.sht- d  in  the  flames. 
For  this  action  she  was  called  Didn.  or  Valiant 
Woman.  Her  connection  with  /Kiieus  was  a 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


DIG 


215 


DIO 


fable,  since  they  were  not  even  contemporaries. 
(See  Carthage  and  Africa.) 

DIEMEN,  Anthony  Van,  governor-general 
of  the  Dutch  East  India  settlements,  born  in 
1593.  He  went  to  the  Indies  as  a  clerk,  but 
rose  with  great  rapidity.  His  administration 
was  judicious  and  successful.  He  died  in  1645. 

DIEMEN'S  (VAN)  LAND,  an  island  in 
the  South  Ocean,  which  Tasnian,  the  Dutch 
navigator,  who  discovered  it  in  1633,  named 
after  the  governor  of  Batavia.  It  contains 
50,000  inhabitants.  It  is  separated  from  New 
Holland  by  Bass's  Straits,  the  width  of  which 
is  about  90  miles.  Its  productions  and  inhabit- 
ants differ  little  from  those  of  New  Holland. 

DIGBY,  Sir  Kenelm,  son  of  Sir  Everard 
Digby,  who  was  condemned  and  executed  for 
his  participation  in  the  gunpowder  plot,  was 
born  at  Gothurst,  in  Buckinghamshire,  in  1603. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  originally 
a  protestant,  but  was  converted  to  the  llomisli 
religion  in  163b'.  He  was  one  of  the  gentlemen 
of  the  bed-chamber  to  Charles  I,  commissioner 
of  the  navy,  and  governor  of  the  Trinity- 
house.  He  fought  against  the  Venetians  at 
Scuderoon. 

DIJON,  the  capital  city  of  the  former  duchy 
of  Burgundy  and  now  of  the  department  of 
Cote-de'Or.  It  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
Ouche  and  Suzon.  Pop.  25.350. 

DIOCLETIAN,  a  famous  Roman  emperor, 
born  of  an  obscure  family  of  Dalmatia,  first  a 
common  soldier,  then  general,  and  proclaimed 
emperor  234  A.  D.  He  made  Maximan,  a  com- 
rade, his  colleague,  and  created  two  subordinate 
emperors,  Galerius  and  Constantitius,  with  the, 
title  of  Caesars.  Some  of  the  acts  of  his  reign 
are  meritorious,  but  he  disgraced  himself  by  a 
persecution  of  the  Christians.  After  a  reign  of 
21  years,  he  voluntarily  and  publicly  abdicated 
the  throne  at  Nicomedia,  May  1 ,  A.  D.  305,  and 
his  colleague  shortly  after  followed  his  example. 
He  found  sufficient  pleasure  in  the  cultivation 
of  his  little  garden,  and  died  in  313. 

DIODATI,  John,  a  protestant  divine,  profes- 
sor of  theology  at  Geneva,  where  he  died  in 
1649. 

DIODORUS,  Siculus  (the  Sicilian),  a  Greek 
historian  of  the  time  of  Julius  Csesar  and  Au- 
gustus. 

DIOGENES,  of  Sinope,  who  flourished  in 
the  fourth  century.  B.  C.  was  a  famous  Cynic 
philosopher,  one  of  that  sect  that  sternly  op- 
posed luxury  and  immorality,  discarding  all 
superfluities.  Diogenes  humorously  ridiculed 
the  follies  of  his  countrymen ;  and  made  even 
19 


the  objects  of  his  satire  laugh  at  his  practical 
jests  and  lessons.  He  perambulated  the  streets 
of  Athens  in  the  garb  and  manner  of  a  sturdy 
beggar,  and  slept  in  a  tub.  He  was  rigidly  tem- 
perate, and  despised  the  forms  of  polite  society. 
While  at  Corinth  Alexander  the  Great  paid 
him  a  visit,  but  was  astonished  at  the  indiffer- 
ent air  of  the  philosopher.  He  made  an  offer  of 
service,  but  Diogenes  replied,  "  I  only  want 
you  to  stand  out  of  my  sunshine."  His  inde- 
pendence made  such  an  impression  on  the  Ma- 
cedonian that  he  cried,  "  if  I  were  not  Alexan- 
der, 1  should  wish  to  be  Diogenes."  He  once 
carried  a  lantern  about  Athens  at  mid-day,  and 
being  asked  why  he  was  doing  so,  answered, 
"  I  am  looking  for  a  man."  Being  asked  what 
was  the  most  "dangerous  animal  ?  he  answer- 
ed, "  Among  wild  ones,  the  slanderer  ;  among 
tame,  the  flatterer."  Plato  having  described 
man  as  a  two-legged  animal  without  feathers, 
and  received  applause  for  the  definition,  Dio- 
genes plucked  a  live  fowl,  and  carrying  it  to  the 
academy,  exclaimed  :  "here  is  Plato's  man!' 
He  died  at  a  great  age,  324  years  B.  C.  Had 
this  itinerant  philosopher  lived  in  these  degen- 
erate days,  he  would  have  become  obnoxious  to 
the  police  as  a  vagrant,  and  found  it  extremely 
difficult  to  avoid  the  stocks,  the  work-house,  or 
the  tread-mill. 

DIOMEDES.  1.  A  king  of  Bistones,  who  is 
fabled  to  have  fed  his  horses  upon  human  flesh, 
and  to  have  therefore  been  killed  by  Hercules. 
2.  A  Grecian  hero,  king  of  Argos,  who  led  his 
subjects  to  the  siege  of  Troy.  After  the  war 
he  went  to  Italy  where  he  is  said  to  have  lived 
to  a  good  old  age. 

DION  of  Syracuse,  was  related  to  Dionysius, 
and  often  gave  him  advice.  The  tyrant  ban- 
ished him  to  Greece,  where  he  raised  troops, 
and  entering  the  harbor  of  Syracuse  with  only 
two  ships,  reduced  it  in  three  days.  The  tyrant 
fled,  and  Dion  retained  the  power  in  his  own 
hands,  but  was  murdered  by  a  false  friend, 
Calippus  of  Athens,  B.  C.  354. 

DIONYSIUS  I,  or  the  Elder  :  from  the  rank 
of  a  common  soldier  raised  himself  to  the  throne 
of  Syracuse.  He  was  inimical  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  fought  against  them  with  various 
success.  His  tyranny  and  cruelty  rendered  him 
so  odious  to  his  subjects,  that  he  lived  in  con- 
stant dread  of  assassination,  and  never  permit- 
ted even  his  wife  and  children  to  enter  his 
presence  until  their  garments  had  been  search- 
ed for  concealed  weapons.  He  is  said  to  have 
built  a  subterraneous  cave,  called  the  ear  of 
Dionysius,  because  it  was  built  in  the  form  of  a 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


DJE 


216 


DOD 


human  ear,  concentrated  the  sound  of  voices 
within  it}  and  conveyed  them  distinctly  to  the 
ear  of  Dionysius.  The  artists  employed  upon 
the  work  were  killed  for  fear  of  their  disclosing 
the  secrets  of  its  construction,  and  the  use  to 
which  it  was  applied. 

Dionysius  was  constantly  betraying  his  un- 
happine'ss.  When  one  of  his  flatterers,  Dam- 
ocles, was  discoursing  on  his  magnificence, 
riches,  and  power,  Dionysius  said  to  him, 
"  These  things  seem  to  delight  you ;  make 
a  trial  of  my  place,  by  way  of  experiment." 
Damocles  was  instantly  arrayed  in  the  imperial 
purple,  and  surrounded. bj  the  king's  guards, 
while  every  knee  was  bent  to  do  him  homage. 
In  the  midst  of  this  show,  Dyonysius  ordered 
a  naked  sword  to  be  hung  from  the  ceiling  by 
a  horse-hair^  directly  over  the  royal  throne, 
where  Damocles  was  silting  at  a  feast.  From 
that  moment  the  courtier-king  lost  his  appetite, 
his  joy  vanished,  and  he  begged  to  be  restored 
to  the  security  of  his  former  "condition.  Diony- 
sius  thus  tacitly  acknowledged  that  his  happi- 
ness was  poisoned  by  a  dread  of  the  punish- 
ment which  was  due  his  iniquity  and  cruelty. 
He  died  of  poison  administered  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  his  son,  B.  C.  3G8.  He  was  very  vain, 
and  imagined  that  he  possessed  liternry  "talents 
of  a  high  order,  although  his  poetical  effusions 
were  lamentable  failures. 

DIONYSIUS,  the  Younger,  was  the  son  of 
Dionysius  I.  By  the  advice  of  Dion,  Plato  was 
invited  to  court,  and  the  philosopher  endea- 
voured to  instil  into  the  tyrant's  mind  some 
of  those  precepts  which  were  his  own  guide 
through  life.  The  king  neglected  his  advice,  ( 
and  after  suffering  for  his  frankness,  Plato 
quitted  him  in  disgust.  Driven  from  the 
throne  he  had  disgraced,  B.  C.  :io7,  he  again  re- 
turned to  it  after  an  absence  of  ton  years,  bit 
lost  it  a  second  time,  and  finally  went  to  Co- 
rinth, where  to  support  himself,  he  kept  a 
_  school,  that,  as  Cicero  observes,  he  might  still 
be  a  tyrant.  We  can  readily  imagine  the  suffer 
ings  of  the  wretched  urchins  upon  the  interior 
and  exterior  of  whose  heads  the  ex-king  labor- 
ed. His  pupils,  we  are  told,  were  few.  nor  can 
we  wonder  that  the  pedagogue  was  so  poorly 
patronised. 

DIONYSIUS,  one  of  the  judges  of  the  Are- 
opagus at  Athens,  was  converted  to  Christian- 
ity by  the  apostle  Paul,  and  was  first  bishop  of 
Athens.  He  was  the  author  of  some  polemical 
writings,  and  suffered  martyrdom. 

DJEZZAR,  (butcher)  Achmet,  pacha  of 
Acre,  originally  a  slave;  aided  by  the  English, 


he  checked  the  career  of  Napoleon,  in  Svria, 
and  died  in  1804. 

DODD,  William,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  1729 ;  he  was  popular  as  a  preacher, 
and  as  an  author,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the 
king's  chaplains,  which  place  he  lost  by  being 
convicted  of  offering  a  bribe  to  obtain  prefer- 
ment. He  would  have  succeeded  well  in  the 
world,  had  it  not  been  for  his  extravagant  ex- 
cesses, which  led  him  into  continual  embarrass- 
ments. In  1777  he  was  convicted  of  forging 
the  name  of  his  patron.  Lord  Chesterfield,  an!i 
was  hanged  at  Tyburn,  evincing,  in  prison,  sin- 
cere contrition  for  his  crime  :  forgery  is  no 
longer  a  capital  crime  in  England. 

DODINGTON,  George  TBubb,  (lord  Mai- 
combe  Regis.)  was  the  son  of  a  gentleman  of 
fortune,  and  was  born  in  H>!>1.  He  enjoyed 
many  posts  of  hon^r  and  emolument  under  dif- 
ferent parties,  and  he  did  not  scruple  to  avow 
opeijly  his  political  tergiversations.  He  was 
advanced  to  the  peerage  in  17G1 ,  and  died  in 
the  following  year.  liubb  Dodington  was  ec- 
centric, generous,  convivial,  and  magnificent 
in  private  life.  Many  anecdotes  are  related  of 
him.  For  the  amusement  of  the  young  prince 
of  Wales  he  used  to  suffer  himself  to  be  rolled 
up  in  blankets,  and  trundled  down  the  stairs 
Before  he  took  the  name. of  Dodington.  he  was 
one  day  lamenting  to  Lord  Chesterfield  the 
shortness  of  his  patronymic,  Bubb.  "  Yo.u  can 
easily  remedy  it."  said  his  lordship,  "call  your- 
self  Silh/btib' mid  that  will  do  very  well.""  He 
winced  under  the  whimsical  satire,  which  an 
opponent  issued  under  the  title  of  Jl  Grub  vpon 
Bubb.  When  his  fortune  increased,  he  built 
himself  a  splendid  villa,  which,  if  cost  consli- 
tuted  elegance,  would  have  been  a  model.  But 
Bubb  had  no  taste,  and  his  villa  was  a  failure. 
The  second  story  appeared  much  too  heavy  for 
the  first ;  for,  while  the  latter  was  ornamented 
in  the  lightest  style,  the  suite  of  rooms  above 
was  adorned  with  marble  fire-places,  marble 
slabs,  and  massy  wninscottin?.  The  proprietor, 
in  showing  this  to  a  friend  one  day,  said. 
"  Thev  tell  me.  sir,  that  this  is  out  of  place, 
p.nd  ought  to  be  down  stairs."  Make  yourself 
perfectly  easy."  was  the  consolatory  answer : 
'•  it  it-ill  fnon  be  there  !'' 

DODSLEY,  Robert,  an  English  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  at  Mansfield.  Notts,  in  1703. 
He  was  at  first  a  stocking-weaver,  then  a  foot- 
man, and  his  first  volume  was  a  collection  en- 
titled the  Muse  in  Lirery.  He  acquired  a  very 
handsome  fortune,  by  his  efforts  as  author  and 
bookseller,  and  retired  to  Durham,  where  he 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


DOR 


217 


DRA 


died  in  17(54.     His  Economy  of  Human  Life  is 
well  known. 

DOMINGO  St.,  now  Hayti,  an  island  of  the 
West  Indies,  390  by  60  to  150  miles ;  area  30,000 
square  miles.  Principal  towns,  Cape  Haytien, 
the  Mole,  Port  Republican  (Port  au  Prince)  and 
St.  Domingo.  Population  about  1 ,000,000.  It 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  1492,  and  here  the 
first  European  settlement  was  made.  It  bore 
the  name  of  Hayti,  among  the  natives,  and  was 
afterwards  called  ITispaniola.  It  formerly  be- 
longed to  France  anfl  Spain.  Since  1822,  it  has 
formed  an  independent  republic,  the  slaves  hav- 
ing risen  in  1 79 1 ,  and  driven  out  their  white  mas- 
ters with  dreadful  slaughter.  It  has  a  fine  cli- 
mate, good  harbors,  and  is  on  the  whole  advanc- 
ing in  wealth  and  the  improvement  of  society. 

DOMINIC  DE  GUZMAN,  St.  was  born  in 
Spain  in  1170,  and  died  at  Bologna  in  1221. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  order  of  Dominicans, 
and  converted  100,000  souls  to  the  true  faith. 

DOMINICA,  one  of  the  Caribbee  islands, 
belonging  to  Great  Britain.  Population  19,800, 
of  whon  15,400  are  slaves.  It  was  discovered 
by  Columbus  on  Sunday,  Nov.  3, 1493. 

DOMITIAN,  Titus  Flavius  Sabinus,  son 
of  Vespasian,  and  brother  of  Titus,  whom,  ac- 
cording to  some  accounts,  he  destroyed  by 
poison,  was  born  A.  D.  51,  and  ascended  the 
throne  A.  D.  81.  The  beginning  of  his  reign 
promised  tranquillity  to  his  people,  but  their 
hopes  were  soon  found  to  be  without  founda- 
tion. He  perished  by  the  hands  of  an  assassin, 
the  18th  of  September,  A.  D.  96,  in  the  45th 
year  of  his  age,  and  the  loth  of  his  reign.  He 
was  the  last  of  the  twelve  Csesars. 

DONNE,  John,  an  English  poet  and  divine 
of  some  celebrity,  was  the  son  of  a  merchant, 
and  was  born  in  London  in  1573.  His  educa- 
tion was  obtained  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
Originally  a  Catholic,  in  his  .19th  year  he  ab- 
jured the  Romish  religion,  and  was  made  secre- 
tary to  the  lord  chancellor  Ellesmere,  whose  favor 
he  lost  by  a  clandestine  marriage  with  his  niece. 
The  juvenile  pair  appear  to  have  foreseen  all  the 
consequences  of  their  union,  for  the  doctor  en- 
dorsed a  paper  in  the  following  manner : — John 
Donne,  Anne  Donne,  undone.  His  prospects, 
however,  brightened  ;  he  took  orders  and  became 
one  of  James's  chaplains,  and  died  in  March, 
1631.  His  Latin  verses  are  elegant,  but  his  prose 
compositions  are  pedantic  though  profound,  and 
his  English  versification  far  from  melodious. 

DORIA,  Andrew,  a  Genoese  commander, 
born  at  1468.  After  having  been  employed  by 
several  princes,  he  received  a  command  in 


Corsica,  which  island  he  completely  reduced. 
He  gained  wealth  and  honor  in  his  attacks  upon 
the  Barbary  States.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  revolution  in  Genoa,  he  went  into  the  ser- 
vice of  France,  and  next  into  that  of  the  pope; 
but  on  the  capture  of  Rome  he  returned  to 
Francis  I,  who  made  him  the  general  of  his  gal- 
leys, and  admiral  of  the  Levant.  The  French 
having  become  masters  of  Genoa,  in  1528,  Do- 
ria  succeeded  in  delivering  the  republic  from  a 
foreign  yoke,  received  the  office  of  doge  for  life, 
and  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  "  Father  of 
hiscoyntry."  He  next  carried  his  arms  through 
the  Mediterranean  in  the  service  of  Charles  V, 
and  died  in  1560,  full  of  years  and  honors. 

DORT,  a  commercial  town  of  Soreth  Hol- 
land, with  18,000  inhabitants,  built  upon  an  isl- 
and on  the  Meowe  and  Biesbosch,  formed  by 
an  inundation.  The  resolutions  of  the  synod 
of  Dort,  held  here  by  the  Protestants  in  1618  and 
1619,  form  the  present  code  of  the  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church. 

DOVER,  a  town  of  New  Hampshire,  capital  of 
Strafford  county,  40  miles  E.  of  Concord.  Pop. 
5,458.  The  Pjscataqua  and  Cochecho  supply 
water  for  the  manufactories.  Dover  is  the  oldest 
town  in  the  state,  having  been  settled  in  1623. 
DOVER,  a  post-town'of  Delaware,  and  seat 
of  the  state  government.  Population  3,790. 

DOVER,  a  strongly  fortified  town  of  Eng- 
land, opposite  to  Calais.  Pop.  11,924.  Dover 
is  one  of  the  Cinque  ports. 

DRACO,  arclion  and  lawgiver  of  Athens, 
flourished  about  600  years  B.  C.  The  extreme 
severity  of  his  laws  prevented  their  observance 
He  was  very  popular,  and  fell  a  victim  to  the 
favor  of  his  countrymen,  for,  being  in  the  thea- 
tre at  A'gina,  the  people  gave  him  the  cus- 
tomary token  of  approbation  by  throwing  their 
caps  and  garments  upon  him.  and  such  was  the 
number  of  these  that  he  was  smothered  under 
their  weight.  He  was  buried  under  the  theatre. 
DRAKE,  Sir  Francis,  an  English  navigator, 
born  near  Tavistock.  in  Devonshire  in  1545. 
After  having  served  under  his  relation,  Sir 
John  Hawkins,  he  obtained  the  command  of 
two  ships,  with  which  he  sailed  to  the  West 
Indies  in  1570.  He  made  another  expedition  in 
1572,  and  gained  considerable  advantages  over 
the  Spaniards.  Having  served  with  distinction 
in  Ireland,  he  was  introduced  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. In  1577  he  made  another  voyage  to  the 
Spanish  settlements  in  America,  on  the  Pacific, 
and  sailed  as  far  as  48°  north  latitude,  discover- 
ing the  country  called  New  Albion.  He  then 
went  to  the  East  Indies,  and  having  doubled  the 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


DRU 


218 


DRU 


Cape  of  Good  Hope,  returned  to  Plymouth  in 
1580,  after  an  absence  of  three  years,  and  was 
knighted  by  the  queen.  In  15b5  he  sailed 
again  for  the  West  Indies,  where  he  took  sev- 
eral places  from  the  Spaniards,  and  returned 
laden  with  wealth.  In  1587  he  made  an  attack 
on  Cadiz,  and  destroyed  a  quantity  of  shipping. 
The  year  following,  as  vice-admiral  under  lord 
Howard,  he  contributed  to  the  destruction  of  the 
armad^jf  After  this  he  went  to  the  West  Indies 
with  .Sir  John  Hawkins,  but  the  two  command- 
ers disagreeing  in  their  plans,  little  was  done, 
in  consequence  of  which  Drake  became  melan- 
choly and  died  of  a  slow  fever.  Dec.  30, 159G. 

DRAYTON,  William  Henry,  a  native  of 
South  Carolina,  was  born  in  1742.  In  1771,  when 
counsellor  for  the  province,  he  defended  the 
rights  of  his  country.  In  1775  he  was  chosen 
president  by  the  provincial  congress,  and  the 
next  year  chief  justice  of  the  colony.  In  1777 
he  was  made  president  of  South  Carolina,  and 
the  next  year  was  chosen  member  of  Congress. 
His  death  took  place  in  September,  177i).  His 
private  virtues,  powerful  political  writings,  and 
unshaken  patriotism,  entitled  him  to  the  esteem 
and  respect  of  his  countrymen. 

DRESDEN,  in  Germany,  on  the  Elbe,  con- 
tains 70,000  inhabitants.  Here,  on  the  23th 
of  August,  1813,  Napoleon  defeated  the  allies 
and  forced  them  to  retire  to  the  Bohemian  fron- 
tier. On  the  Cth  of  November,  Marshal  St. 
Cyr  was  blockaded  in  Dresden,  and  after  an 
ineffectual  negotiation  with  Schwartzenburg, 
surrendered  his  whole  force,  amounting  to 
30,000  men. 

DRUIDS,  The.  Among  the  ancient  inhabit- 
ants of  England  and  of  France,  formerly  called 
Gaul,  as  well  as  among  some  other  nations  of 
antiquity,  the  Druids  were  priests  or  ministers 
of  religion.  They  were  also  the  instructers  of 
die  young  and  were  the  only  learned  men  of 
the  nations  to  which  they  belonged.  Although 
these  men  flourished  long  after  civilization  had 
made  great  progress  among  neighboring  nations, 
yet  they  did  not  make  use  of  writing,  but  their 
scholars  were  obliged  to  get  by  heart  all  their 
lessons  from  hearing  them  repeated  by  their 
masters  the  Druids.  This  was  a  very  tedious 
way  of  {retting  forward,  and  we  are  not  at  all 
surprised  that  it  took  twenty  years  of  a  man's 
life  to  acquire  a  very  limitedistock  of  learning. 

In  general,  little  was  known  about  very  an- 
cient tribes  and  nations,  until  the  Romans  in- 
vaded their  countries,  and  conquered  them.  So 
it  is  from  the  Romans  that  we  have  derived  our 
knowledge  of  the  habits,  character  and  religion 


of  the  Druids.  The  Druids  of  Britain  were 
verv  celebrated. 

'fhere  has  been  much  dispute  about  the  de- 
rivation of  the  word  Druid,  but  it  is  most  proba- 
ble that  it  comes  from  an  old  British  word,  dru, 
meaning  oak,  because  the  Druids  held  the  oak- 
tree  almost  sacred  ;  it  was  their  favorite  tree, 
and  their  groves  contained  no  other. 

Little  is  known  concerning  them  before  the 
age  of  Julius  Crcsar,  the  Roman  who  invaded 
Britain  after  having  subdued  Gaul,  about  54 
years  B.  C.  Caesar  says  that  they  were  divid- 
ed "into  several  classes ;  the  priests,  the  sonth- 
sayers,  the  poets,  and  the  judges,  and  instruct- 
ors of  vouth. 

The"  priests,  those  Druids  who  were  called 
so  by  way  of  distinction,  had  the  charge  of  the 
religious  ceremonies.  They  worshipped  their 
gods,  and  offered  sacrifices  to  them  upon  altars. 
Their  temples  or  places  of  worship,  were  very 
singular.  They  were  generally  circles  of  vast 
standing  pillars,  over  which  they  sometimes 
laid  huge  stones  making  a  circle  in  the  air.  In 
the  middle  stood  the  altar-stone. 

Of  this  kind  was  the  celebrated  Stone-henge, 
at  Salisbury,  in  England,  of  which  our  readers 
have  doubtless  seen  pictures,  and  read  descrip- 
tions. In  the  island  of  Anglesea.  near  the 
northern  extremity  of  Wales,  there  are  Druid- 
ical  pillars  yet  remaining.  This  island  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  residence  of  the  chief, 
or  arch-Druid  of  Britain. 

The  Druids  had  a  very  wrong  idea  about  reli- 
gion. They  thought  that  the  common  people 
could  not  understand  the  simple  and  rational 
principles  of  religion,  and  so  they  invented  fool- 
ish fables  and  superstitions,  and  deluded  the 
people  to  worship  the  sun,  and  be  idolaters. 
They  had  fires  sacred  to  the  sun,  like  the 

Sriests  of  Baal,  of  whom  we  read  in  the  Holy 
tble. 

The  Druids  were  criminal  enough  to  sacrifice 
human  beings  to  their  gods,  and  this  cruelty, 
which  they  persisted  in,  notwithstanding  all 
remonstrance,  was  the  cause  of  their  destruc- 
tion. The  poets,  or  bards,  according  to  some, 
did  not  properly  belong  to  the  class  of  Druids, 
because  they  cfid  not  Inix  religion  with  their 
son^s.  They  inspired  the  people  to  warlike 
actions  and  sang  the  praise  of  patriotism  and 
bravery.  The  Druids  studied  astronomy,  and 
made  great  proficiency  in  the  science. 

We  all  know  what  terror  and  astonishment 
an  eclipse,  or  any  singular  appearance  in  the 
sky.  creates  among  an  ignorant  people  who  do 
not  know  the  causes  of  these  things,  or  the 


= 


:JJ 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


DRU 


219 


DKU 


means  of  finding  out  beforehand,  at  what  time 
they  will  happen.  Persons  among  such  peo- 
ple who  can  foretell  any  occurrence,  even  a 
change  of  the  seasons,  are  looked  upon  as  in- 
spired with  a  knowledge  more  than  human. 

By  such  arts,  the  Druids  extended  and 
strengthened  their  influence  over  the  people. 
The  soothsayers  even  pretended  to  be  acquaint- 
ed with  the  intentions  of  Divine  Providence. 
The  Roman  soothsayers,  or  fortune-tellers,  pre- 
tended to  foretell  events  by  the  appearance  of  the 
entrails  of  beasts,  that  were  sacrificed  on  their 
altars.  In  the  same  way,  but  with  much  greater 
cruelty,  the  Druidical  soothsayers,  examined 
the  bleeding  bodies  of  human  victims. 

When  the  Roman  Suetonius  determined  to 

Can  end  not  only  to  the  ceremonies  of  the 
ids,  but  to  the  priests  themselves,  they  took 
refuge  in  the  island  of  Anglesey.  Here  they 
were  determined  to  make  a  bold  resistance. 
Having  some  hopes  of  gaining  a  victory  over 
the  Romans,  they  kindled  large  fires,  in  which 
they  intended  to  consume  the  Roman  prison- 
ers, should  they  take  any.  Suetonius  landed 
near  Parthamel. 

The  Druids,  in  great  numbers,  encircled  the 
army  of  their  countrymen,  urging  them  to  be 
brave  and  praying  for  the  vengeance  of  Heaven 
upon  the  invaders.  The  scene  was  rendered 
nore  terrific  to  the  Romans,  by  the  appearance 
of  the  British  women  who  were  dressed  in 
black,  and  ran  yelling  to  and  fro,  brandishing 
torches.  However,  the  Romans  were  brave 
men,  and  they  conquered.  They  cut  down  the 
sacred  groves  of  oak ;  they  demolished  the 
temples  of  the  Druids,  and  cruelly  threw  them 
into  their  own  fires. 

The  Druids,  who  were  the  judges  in  all  cases 
which  required  a  recourse  to  lawv  settled  these 
matters  by  their  opinion,  from  which  there  was 
no  appeal  except  to  the  arch-druid.  As  the 
Druids  were  thought  to  receive  knowledge  and 
instruction  directly  from  the  gods,  they  had 
the  power  of  making,  altering  and  executing 
laws.  Any  person,  who  desired  to  possess  the 
great  power  of  the  order,  could  become  Druids, 
but  only  by  a  long  course  of  very  strict  study, 
and  a  life  of  privation  which  not  many  had 
patience  to  go  through. 

The  schools  of  the  Druids  in  Britain  were 
very  famous,  before  the  invasion  of  the  Romans. 
Even  youth  from  Gaul  came  thither  to  be  in- 
structed in  the  branches  which  they  taught. 
Scholars  took  an  oath  not  to  betray  the  secrets 
artd  learning  which  they  were  taught,  and  thus 
we  may  see  how  selfish  was  the  system  of  the 
.  19* 


Druids,  and  how  much  opposed  it  was  to  the 
extension  of  knowledge. 

Students  always  resided  with  their  teachers 
and  school-fellows,  and  were  forbidden  to  con- 
verse with  any  others.  Academies  were  numer- 
ous, one  being  attached  to  almost  every  temple 
of  note.  Instruction  was  conveyed  in  verse. 
The  whole  circle  of  the  sciences  with  which 
the  Druids  were  acquainted  was  taught  in 
20,000  verses,  which  pupils  were  20  years  in 
committing  to  memory. 

Besides  an  acquaintance  with  arithmetic, 
geometry,  astrology,  astronomy,  geography,  na- 
tural philosophy,  and  politics,  they  professed  a 
knowledge  of  the  arts  of  magic,  and  whosoever 
refused  obedience  was  declared  accursed. 

The  Druidesses  or  female  priests  were  divided 
into  classes.  The  first  class  was  composed  of 
females,  who  never  married,  and  who  pretended 
to  have  the  power  of  foretelling  events,  and 
performing  miracles.  These  were  held  in  great 
regard. 

Then  there  was  a  second  class  of  married  wo- 
men, who  spent  the  greater  part  of  their  lives 
in  the  performances  of  religious  ceremonies, 
among  the  Druids.  The  third  class  of  Druid 
esses  consisted  of  those  who  did  the  meanest 
work  about  the  temples.  The  Druids  measured 
time,  not  by  the  days  but  the  nights,  guided  by 
the  changes  of  the  moon.  They  had  so  great  a 
veneration  for  the  oak,  that  they  never  per- 
formed any  ceremony  without  being  adorned 
with  garlands  woven  of  its  leaves.  Those  who 
professed  a  knowledge  of  medicine  would  never 
betray  the  secrets  by  which  they  cured  the  sick. 
They  were,  without  doubt,  only  acquainted 
with  the  healing  powers  of  a  few  herbs.  They 
placed  great  faith  in  the  virtues  of  the  plant 
misletoe.  probably  from  its  growing  on  the  oak 
tree.  They  called  it  by  a  British  name,  mean- 
ing "  all-heal."  The  efficacy  of  this  plant  they 
thought  depended  on  certain  ceremonies  to  be 
observed  in  gathering  it.  Among  the  annual 
festivals  of  the  Gauls  and  Britons,  was  that  in 
which  the  arch-druid  cut  the  misletoe  from  the 
oak.  This  ceremony  was  conducted  with  great 
pomp.  When  they  found  an  oak,  which  had 
the  rare  plant  upon  it,  they  made  preparations 
for  a  banquet  beneath.  Two  milk-white  bulls 
were  tied  to  it  by  the  horns,  and  then  the  arch- 
druid,  dressed  in  a  snowy  robe,  ascended  the 
oak,  and  detached  the  misletoe  with  a  golden 
knife.  Sacrifice  and  feasting  followed.  On 
every  May-day  a  festival,  in  honor  of  the  sun, 
was  held.  The  sun  was  called  Bel,  Belinus, 
and  some  other  names. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


DRU 

The  existence  of  a  law,  forbidding  the  in 
structions  of  the  Druids  to  be  written,  sho1 
that  they  were  acquainted  with  the  art  of  writ- 
ing. We  are  told  that  in  writing,  they  made 
use  of  the  characters  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
with  which  they  were  acquainted,  before  the 
invasion  of  the  Romans,  getting  their  know- 
ledge from  the  Greek  merchants  of  Mar- 
seilles. The  Gauls  and  Britons  never  went 
upon  any  warlike  expedition  without  first  pray- 
ing to  some  god  for  assistance.  When  a  victory 
was  gained,  a  certain  portion  of  the  spoils  was 
set  apart  for  that  god  who  had,  as  the  people 
thought,  enabled  them  to  be  successful.  The 
priests  were,  of  course,  to  direct  to  what  use 
these  spoils  should  be  put,  and  a  large  share  of 
them  were,  without  doubt,  reserved  for  them- 
selves. The  Druids  too  often  possessed  them- 
selves of  the  offerings  made  in  the  temples  of 
the  gods.  Besides  the  money  there  received 
for  giving  instruction  in  the  sciences,  for  curing 
diseases,  and  for  giving  judgment  in  law-suits, 
the  priests  of  each  temple  claimed  every  year, 
certain  dues  from  all  the  families  in  their  dis- 
trict. They  hit  upon  a  very  cunning  method 
to  secure  the  payment  of  these  taxes.  Every 
family  on  the  last  evening  of  October  was 
obliged  by  law  to  put  out  all  its  fires,  and  to  pay 
its  yearly  dues  at  the  temple.  On  the  first  of 
November,  those  who  had  payed  punctually, 
received  some  of  the  sacred  fire  from  the  altar 
to  kindle  theirs  at  home.  Delinquents  were 
not  allowed  to  take  any  fire,  and  if  any  one  lent 
it  to  them,  or  even  conversed  with  them,  lhat 
person  was  punished  in  the  same  manner,  and 
not  allowed  to  enjoy  the  protection  of  justice 
or  the  pleasures  of  society.  The  Druids  were 
greatly  restricted  in  their  privileges  when  Brit- 
ain was  a  province  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
and  they  resented  with  great  warmth,  the  order 
which  the  emperors  of  Rome  issued,  that  no 
more  human  victims  should  be  slain  at  the 
altars.  After  the  loss  they  experienced  in  the 
isle  of  Anglesey,  Glyears  A.  C.,  they  made  no 
figure  in  Britain.  The  few  priests,  who  were 
determined  still  to  persevere  in  the  rites  of  their 
order,  fled  to  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  smaller 
British  Islands,  in  which  they  kept  up  their 
authority  some  time.  Even  after  the  Druids 
ceased  to  exist,  the  superstitions  they  had  spread 
gave  trouble  to  those  who  wished  to  make  the 
people  believe  in  the  Gospel.  In  the  reign  of 
Canute  the  Great,  during  the  eleventh  century, 
it  was  found  necessary  to  provide  by  law  against 
these  wretched  superstitions.  "  We  strictly 
forbid  all  our  subjects,"  says  the  king,  "  to  wor- 


DUD 

ship  the  gods  of  the  Gentiles;  that  is  to  say, 
the  sun,  moon,  fires,  rivers,  fountains,  hills,  bi 
trees  or  woods  of  !iny  kind." 

DRUSES,  a  warlike  geoplc  of  Syria,  100,000 
in  number,  inhabiting  mountains,  Libanus  and 
Anti-Libanus.  Their  origin  is  traced  to  abrut 
the  commencement  of  the  12lh  century.  They 
are  in  fact  a  religious  sect,  professing  Moham- 
medanism. They  reached  the  summit  of  their 
power  under  Fakardin,  who,  being  taken  pris- 
oner by  the  Turks,  was  strangled  in  1631. 
Thenceforth  they  were  the  vassals  of  the  Turks 

DRYDEN.  John,  a  voluminous  author,  born 
in  the  parish 'of  Aldwinkle-All-Saints,  in' 1631, 
and  died  May  1.  1700.  Although  many  of  his 
productions  are  exceedingly  licentious,  a  fault 
of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  in  private  life,  he 
bore  an  unblemished  character.  He  was  the 
court  poet  to  Charles  II,  and  produced  a  great 
number  of  dramas. 

DUBLIN,  the  metropolis  of  Ireland,  is  situ- 
ated on  both  sides  of  the  Liffey,  about  a  mile 
from  Dublin  Bay.  It  is  a  beautiful  city,  reck- 
oned the  second  in  the  British  dominions.  The 
public  buildings  are  of  stone,  and  few  cities 
contain  an  equal  number  of  magnificent  edifi- 
O(^.  The  University  of  Dublin,  or  Trinity 
College  is  a  well-endowed  institution.  Popula- 
tion of  Dublin  2(15,316. 

DUBO1S,  Cardinal,  the  son  of  an  apothecary^ 
was  born  at  a  smalltown  in  Limousin,  in  1G56. 
He  became  prime  minister  to  the  duke  of  Or- 
leans, regent  of  France,  by  the  basest  of  means, 
flattering  the  vices  of  his  master.  His  negotia- 
tions were  generally  advantageous.  He  died 
August  10,  1723. 

DUDLEY,  Edmund,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  1462.  He  became  an  eminent  lawyer, 
and  received  various  employments  from  Henry 
VII,  but  for  various  acts  of  oppression,  on  the 
accession  of  Henry  VIII,  he  was  sent  to  the 
tower  with  his  associate.  Sir  Richard  Emson, 
tried,  and  beheaded  in  1510. 

DUDLEY,  John,  duke  of  Northumberland, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1502,  and 
restored  in  blood  in  1511.  He  becnme  the 
favorite  of  Henry  VIII,  and  he  married  his  son 
Loid  Guilford.  to  Lady  Jane  Grey,  when  he 
found  that  Edward  VI  was  dying.  Lady  Jane 
Grey  was  prevailed  upon  to  accept  the  fatal 
crown,  but  Mary's  adherents  proved  too  pow- 
erful for  her  party,  and  the  duke  of  Noithum- 
berland  died  upon  the  scaffold,  August  22d, 
1553. 

DUDLEY,  Robert,  earl  of  Leicester,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  1532.  He  was 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


DUM 


221 


DUN 


condemned  with  his  father,  but  pardoned,  and 
afterwards  restored  in  blood  by  queen  Mary. 
In  the  reign  of  her  successor,  he  was  made 
master  of  the  horse,  knight  of  the  garter,  and  a 
member  of  the  privy  council.  In  1560,  his  lady 
died  not  without  suspicion  of  violence,  it  being 
generally  believed  that  Dudley  aspired  to  the 
hand  of  his  sovereign.  The  story  of  the  un- 
happy countess  is  beautifully  told  in  the  well- 
known  ballad  of  Cumnor  Hall.  The  following 
are  the  concluding  verses  ; 

The  death-bell  thrice  was  heard  to  ring, 
An  serial  voice  was  heard  to.  call, 

And  thrice  the  raven  flapped  his  wing 
Around  the  towers  of  Cumnor  Hall. 

The  mastiff  howled  at  village  door, 
The  oaks  were  shattered  on  the  green ; 

Woe  was  that  hour — for  never  more 
That  hapless  countess  e'er  was  seen. 

And  in  that  manor  now  no  more 
Is  cheerful  feast  and  sprightly  ball, 

For  ever  since  that  dreary  hour 

Have  spirits  haunted  Cumnor  Hall. 

The  village  maids,  with  fearful  glance, 
Avoid  the  ancient  moss-grown  wall ; 

Nor  ever  lead  the  merry  dance 

Among  the  groves  of  Cumnor  Hall. 

Full  many  a  traveller  oft  hath  sighed, 
And  pensive  wept  the  countess'  fall, 

As  wandering  onwards  they  've  espied 
The  haunted  towers  of  Cumnor  Hall ! 

Elizabeth  proposed  to  Dudley,  Mary  queen  of 
Scots,  as  a  wife,  but  that  unfortunate  princess 
indignantly  rejected  him.  In  1564,  he  was 
created  earl  of  Leicester ;  soon  after  which,  he 
was  elected  chancellor  at  Oxford.  About  1572, 
he  privately  married  lady  Douglas  Howard, 
but  he  never  acknowledged  her,  and  even 
forced  her  to  marry  another.  In  1575,  the  earl 
entertained  the  queen  magnificently  at  his 
castle  of  Kenilworth  in  Warwickshire,  but  of- 
fended her  very  much  by  marrying  the  countess 
of  Essex.  In  1585,  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  the  Protestant  Low  Countries,  but  returned 
the  same  year  by  the  queen's  command.  In 
1588,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  forces  at  Tilbury,  and  died  September 
4th,  of  the  same  year. 

DUMMER,  Jeremy,  a  powerful  political 
•writer,  was  born  at  Boston,  and  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1699.  He  then  went 


abroad,  studied  at  Utrecht,  distinguished  him- 
self in  England,  and  was  appointed  agent  for 
the  Colony  of  Massachusetts.  His  pamphlet 
in  defence  of  the  New  England  charters,  is 
admirable.  He  died  in  1739. 

DUMOURIEZ,  Charles  Francois,  was  born 
of  a  noble  family  at  Cambray,  in  1739.  Be- 
coming general  in  the  French  army,  he  gained 
the  battle  of  Jemappe  over  the  Austrians,  Nov. 
6,  1792.  He  soon  after  appeared  before  Brus- 
sels, which  opened  its  gates.  On  the  15th  of 
March,  1793.  in  a  general  engagement  with  the 
Austrians  at  Nerwinden,  he  was  totally  defeat, 
ed,  and  meeting  with  other  disasters,  incurred 
the  displeasure  of  the  convention,  which  des- 
patched four  commissioners  empowered  to  arrest 
him.  These  he  caused  to  be  delivered  up  to 
the  Austrians,  and  he  himself  fled  to  the  allies 
for  protection.  Ke  received  a  pension  from  the 
British  government,  and  died  at  Turyille  park, 
England,  March  14,  1823.  He  published  nu- 
merous political  pamphlets  in  addition  to  his 
memoirs. 

DUNCAN,  Adam,  viscount,  a  British  naval 
officer,  distinguished  for  his  courage,  was  born 
in  Scotland  in  1731.  He  entered  the  navy  at 
an  early  age,  and  obtained  a  lieutenant's  com» 
mission  in  1755.  In  1759,  he  was  made  master 
and  commander  ;  and.  in  1761,  appointed  post 
captain,  in  which  station  he  shared  in  the  hon 
ors  of  the  reduction  of  the  Havannah.  In  1779, 
he  commanded  the  Monarch  in  Rodney's  vie* 
tory  over  the  Spaniards.  In  1789,  he  was  made 
rear-admiral  of  the  blue ;  and  in  1794  being  made 
vice-admiral  of  the  white,  he  took  the  command 
of  the  North  Sea  fleet.  After  watching  the 
Dutch  fleet  in  the  Texel  for  two  years,  a  mutiny 
in  the  fleet,  compelled  him  to  return  to  England, 
and  enabled  the  enemy  to  put  to  sea.  This 
news  restored  Duncan's  men  to  a  sense  of  their 
duty,  they  engaged  the  enemy  on  the  llth  of 
October,  off  Camperdown.  and  completely  de- 
feated them,  taking  the  Dutch  admiral,  De  Win* 
ter,  and  eight  ships.  For  this  achievement  he 
was  made  a  viscount,  and  received  a  grant  of 
2000/.  a  year.  He  died  August  4,  1804. 

DUNDAS,  Henry,  viscount  Melville,  son  of 
Lord  Arniston,  was  born  in  1740,  and  educated 
at  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  In  1763,  he 
was  admitted  a  member  of  the  faculty  of  advo- 
cates ;  in  1773,  was  appointed  solicitor  general, 
and  in  1777,  joint-keeper  of  the  signet  for 
Scotland.  He  had  various  other  appointments, 
but  resigned  his  places  in  1801,  when  he  was 
created  viscount  Melville.  When  Mr.  Pitt 
came  into  power  a  second  time,  he  was  made 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


DWI 


222 


EAS 


first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  but  was  impeached 
in  1805,  for  crimes  and  misdemeanors  in  his 
former  situation  as  treasurer  of  the  navy.  He 
was,  however,  acquitted,  and  died  in  Scotland, 
May  27,  1811. 

DUNKIRK,  a  commercial  city1  in*  French 
Flanders,  with  24,900  inhabitants,  about  27 
miles  from  Calais.  It  was  taken  fjom  the  Span- 
iards by  Marshal  Turenne,  4th  of  June,  and 
transferred  to  the  English  on  the  ]7th,  in  1658. 
In  1662,  it  was  sold  by  Charles  II  to  Louis 
XIV,  for-400,OOOZ.  In  1666,  an  engagement, 
which  lasted  four  days,  took  place  between 
the  English  and  French  fleets  off  Dunkirk. 
At  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  William  III  exacted 
from  the  French  an  engagement  to  block  up 
the  harbor,  which  was  but  partially  complied 
with.  Since  the  peace  of  1783,  Dunkirk  has, 
however,  been  the  unmolested  resort  of  armed 
ships  of  war,  and  smuggling  vessels  at  all  times. 
In  1793,  the  duke  of  York  was  defeated  by 
Houchard  near  Dunkirk. 

DUQUESNE,  a  French  admiral  under  Louis 
XIV,  born  at  Dieppe,  in  1610.  He  was  iieroic, 
pious,  and  mild,  and  died  at  Paris  in  Kx-d. 

DUROC,  Michael,  a  friend  and  favorite  offi- 
cer of  Napoleon,  duke  of  Friuli,  grand-marshal 
of  the  palace,  senator,  general  of  division,  grand 
cordon  of  the  legion  of  honor,  and  other  orders, 
was  born  in  1772.  Under  Napoleon,  in  Italy, 
in  Egypt,  and  in  Germany,  he  distinguished 
himself,  being,  the  greater  part  of  the  time, 
aide-de-camp  to  the  emperor.  He  was  killed  in 
entering  the  village  of  Merkersdorf,  after  the 
battle  of  Bautren,  May  23,  1813. 

DWIGHT,  Timothy,  an  eminent  divine, 
born  at  Northampton,  in  Massachusetts,  in  1752, 
and  was  graduated  at  Yale  College,  in  which 
institution  he  was  afterwards  tutor.  He  serv- 
ed in  the  army  as  chaplain,  and  about  the 
close  of  the  revolutionary  war  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  state  legislature.  Mr.  Dwight 
then  kept  a  school  in  Greenfield,  Connecticut, 
where  he  was  ordained  minister  in  1783.  In 
1794,  he  published  the  poems  of  Greenfield  Hill, 
and  the  Conquest  of  Canaan,  both  of  which 
were  republished  in  England.  In  1795,  he  suc- 
ceeded the  Reverend  Doctor  Styles  as  Presi- 
dent of  Yale  College,  filling  also  the  office  of 
Professor  of  Theology.  He  died  January  llth, 
1817.  His  System  of  Theology  is  a  learned 
and  valuable  work 


EAST  INDIES.  The  east  was  visited  at  an 
early  period  by  the  Phosnecians,  and  Alexander 
the  Great  made  extensive  conquests  there  in 
327  B.  C.  In  modern  times  the  Portuguese 
made  discoveries  in  1497,  .and  conquests  and 
settlements  in  J506.  In  the  reign  of  queen 
Elizabeth,  1591,  an  English  vessel  arrived  at 
the  East  Indies  after  a  long  voyage  in  which 
two  consorts  perished.  The  commander,  Capt. 
Lancaster,  was  brought  home  in  another  ship, 
his  sailors  having  mutinied  and  seized  his  own. 
The  information  which  he  gave  produced  a 
mercantile  voyage,  and  the  first  East  India 
company's  charter,  on  Dec.  31, 1600.  their  stock 
consisting  of  72,OOOZ.  They  fitted  out  four  ships, 
and  meeting  with  success,  they  have  continued 
ever  since.  A  new  company  was  established 
1698;  the  old  one  re-established,  1700;  agreed 
to  give  government  400,()00i  a  year,  for  five 
years,  to  continue  unmolested,  Feb.  1769;  India 
bill  passed,  1773;  sent  judges  from  England 
thither,  1774. — Dutch  East  India  Company  es- 
tablished 1594. — East  India  Company  at  Copen- 
hagen established,  1612;  another  at  Embden, 
1750;  in  Sweden,  1731 ;  charter  of  the  English 
East  India  Company  renewed  1813  and  1833. 

The  British  possessions  in  India  are  immense 
and  have  been  acquired  in  defiance  of  justice 
and  humanity.  Edmund  Burke  accuses  the 
Britons  "  of  having  sold  every  monarch,  prince, 
and  state  in  India,  broken  every  contract,  and 
ruined  every  prince  and  every  state  who  had 
trusted  them."  There  are  three  presidencies, 
those  of  Bengal,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  contain- 
ing an  aggregate  population  of  130,000.000.  In 
taking  a  survey  of  the  modern  history  of  India, 
it  is  impossible  to  guard  against  a  feeling  of 
surprise.  This  vast  country  presents  to  the  ob- 
server a  spectacle  which  is  entirely  new  in  the 
annals  of  the  world.  Two  thousand  strangers, 
belonging  to  a  small  isle  of  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
are  distributed  among  a  people  differing  in 
every  thing  from  them.  These  strangers  draw 
from  the  country  a  revenue  of  22  millions  ster- 
ling ;  they  fill  the  highest  offices  of  state  ;  they 
have  power  over  90  millions  of  inhabitants,  and 
exercise  an  indirect  authority  over  40  millions, 
who  are  governed  by  native  princes.  Their 
300,000  soldiers  are  distributed  over  a  space 
which  is  almost  as  largo  as  all  Europe.  The 
chiefs  of  this  vast  empire  have  neither  crown 
nor  sceptre.  Subjected  in  their  own  country 
to  the  same  laws  as  other  citizens,  placed  under 
the  same  power,  their  rise  is  as  silent  as  their 


Nelson's   Pillar  — Dublin. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EDI 


223 


EDW 


fall ;  they  reign  or  die  unknown  to  their  sub- 
jects. These  masters— these  kings — are  mer- 
chants !  they  compose  the  English  East  India 
Company. 

EASTON,  a  post-town  of  Pennsylvania,  73 
miles  W.  of  New  York.  Population,  3,530. 

EASTPORT,  a  seaport  and  post-town  of 
Maine,  on  Moose  Island  on  Posamaquoddy  bay. 
Population,  2,450.  It  is  a  flourishing  place, 
and  its  exports  consist  of  lumber  and  provisions. 

EATON,  William,  was  born  at  Woodstock, 
Connecticut,  Feb.  23,  17G4.  After  serving  in 
the  army  at  an  early  age,  he  prepared  himself 
for  entrance  into  Dartmouth  college.  In  1792 
he  received  a  captain's  commission  in  the  army, 
and  in  1797  was  appointed  consul  for  the  king- 
dom of  Tunis.  He  engaged  in  the  war  with  Tri- 
poli, hoping  to  re-instate  Hamet  Bashaw  on  the 
throne,  which  had  been  usurped  by  his  brother. 
With  a  force  of  400  men  of  different  nations, 
Eaton  crossed  from  Alexandria  to  Derne,  over- 
coming serious  obstacles.  Derne  was  taken, 
the  Tripolitan  army  repulsed,  but,  in  the  midst 
of  triumph  Eaton  learned  that  peace  had  been 
concluded  between  the  United  States  and  Trip- 
oli. On  his  return  to  the  United  States,  he  was 
received  with  great  favor.  Aaron  Burr  in  vain 
endeavored  to  obtain  his  aid  in  his  conspiracy, 
and  on  his  trial  Eaton  testified  fully  against  him. 
In  181 1  he  fell  a  victim  to  habits  of  intemperance. 

ECBATANA,the  magnificent  metropolis  of 
Media,  was  built  by  Leleucus. 

ECKMUHL;  a  Bavarian  village  on  the  La- 
ber,  where  Napoleon  defeated  the  Austrians, 
April  22,  1809. 

EDGAR,  a  Saxon,  king  of  England,  son 
of  Edmund,  and  brother  of  Edwin,  h|s  immedi- 
ate successor.  He  ascended  the  throne  at  the 
age  of  16  years  in  959.  He  governed  with 
vigor  and  success,  and  secured  the  proper  ad- 
ministration of  justice  by  giving  it  his  personal 
attention. 

EDINBURGH,  the  metropolis  of  Scotland, 
was  a  town  of  some  note  in  854.  It  is  a  mile 
and  a  half  from  the  Frith  of  Forth.  Its  environs 
are  hilly.  The  houses  of 'the  old  town,  in  some 
instances,  rise  to  the  height  of  14  stories.  It  is 
famous  as  a  seat  of  learning,  containing  a  uni- 
versity and  several  courts  of  justice.  In  1437 
it  became  the  royal  residence  of  the  Scottish 
kings.  The  strong  castle  was  probably  built 
by  king  Edwin.  Leith,  though  two  miles  dis- 
tant may  be  properly  called  the  harbor  of  Ed- 
inburgh. Population  of  the  city  and  suburbs 
138,235. 

EDMUND  II,  surnamed  Ironside,  king  of 


England,  succeeded  Ethebred  his  father,  in  1016. 
He  was  defeated  by  Canute,  who  became  king 
of  England  on  his  death,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  caused  by  poison. 

.EDRED,  son  of  Edward  the  Elder,  succeed- 
ed to  the  throne  of  England  on  the  murder  of 
his  brother,  Edmund  I,  in  947.  He  quelled  the 
Danes  and  Northumbrians,  and  compelled  Mal- 
colm to  do  homage  for  the  crown  of  Scotland. 
Yet  he  was  priest-ridden,  and  a  slave  to  Dun- 
stan,  abbot  of  Glastonbury.  He  died  after  a 
reign  of  nine  years. 

EDWARD,  the  Elder,  king  of  England,  suc- 
ceeded his  father.  Alfred  the  Great,  in  90] .  He 
was  successful  against  the  Danes  and  Welsh, 
and  died  -in  925. 

EDWARD,  THE  MARTYR,  king  of  Eng- 
land, son  of  Edgar,  whom  he  succeeded  in  975. 
He  was  stabbed,  while  hunting,  by  a*|rvant  of 
Elfrida,  his  step-mother,  who  wished  to  raise 
her  own  son,  Ethelred,  to  the  throne.  ^  He 
reigned  only  four  years. 

EDWARD  I,  (of  the  Norman  line),  king  of 
England,  son  of  Henry  III,  after  signalizing 
himself  in  the  civil  wars,  and  in  Palestine,  sub- 
dued Wales  in  1284.  In  the  dispute  for  the 
Scotish  throne  in  1291 ,  he  decided  for  Baliol. 
Franco  and  Scotland  having  threatened  to  in- 
vade his  territories,  he  adopted  vigorous  meas- 
ures to  oppose  them,  and  in  12:)7,  inarched  into 
Scotland  where  he  obtained  great  success  ;  but 
tarnished  his  fame  by  condemning  to  death  Sir 
William  Wallace,  for  his  heroic  devotion  to  his 
country.  He  died  July  7,  1307,  as  he  entered 
Scotland  to  punish  the  inhabitants  for  their  re- 
volt. He  was  then  in  69th  year  of  his  age  and 
the  35th  of  his  reign. 

EDWARD  II.  king  of  England,  succeeded 
his  father  Edward  I.  in  1307,  but  was  governed 
by  unworthy  favorites.  His  queen,  Isabella  of 
France,  raised  a  rebellion,  took  him  prisoner, 
and  had  him  murdered  in  Berkley  Castle,  Sept. 
21,1327. 

EDWARD  III,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
proclaimed  king  in  1327,  being  then  only  14 
years  of  age.  He  joined  tiie  party  against  Mor- 
timer, his  mother's  paramour,  who  was  execu- 
ted, while  the  guilty  queen  was  confined  to  her 
own  house.  ,  He  invaded  France,  and  won  the 
famous  battle  of  Crecy,  while  his  son,  the  Black 
Prince,  crowned  his  fame  by  the  victory  at 
Poictiers.  The  death  of  Edward  III  happened 
on  the  21st  of  June,  1377,  about  a  year  after  that 
of  his  illustrious  son. 

EDWARD  IV  was  proclaimed  king  of  Eng- 
land in  1461.  He  was  the  son  of  Richard,  duke 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


EDW 


224 


EGY 


of  York.  In  the  year  of  his  accession,  on  the 
29th  of  March,  was  fought  the  decisive  battle  of 
Towton,  in  which  the  forces  of  Edward,  termed 
the  Yorkists,  were  victorious  over  the  Lancas- 
trians. Margaret  again  took  the  field  against 
him  unsuccessfully,  but  her  husband,  the  im- 
becile Henry  VI.  remained  a  prisoner  in  the 
tower  of  London.  In  1470  Edward  was  com- 
pelled to  fly  to  the  continent,  and  was  declared 
to  be  an  usurper  and  traitor  by  the  parliament. 
He  soon  afterwards  returned,  landed  at  Raven- 
spur,  and  marched  without  molestation,  to  Lon- 
don. He  was  readily  admitted,  and  his  rival 
Henry  again  fell  into  his  hands.  On  the  14th 
of  April,  1471,  he  defeated  the  earl  of  War- 
wick at  Barnet ;  and,  on  the  4th  of  May,  gain- 
ed a  decisive  victory  over  the  forces  of  queen 
Margaret  at  Tewksbury  ;  in  consequence  of 
which  hjfeiwas  firmly  established  on  the  throne. 

Whefraie  captive  queen  and  her  son  were  led 
into  the  royal  presence,  Edward  asked  the  young 
prince,  how  he  dared  to  invade  his  dominions. 
On  receiving  a  spirited  answer  he  struck  the 
prince  in  the  face,  and  the  royal  youth  was  im- 
mediately massacred  by  the  attendant  nobles. 
Margaret  and  her  husband  ended  their  days  in 
prison.  After  opposing  France  without  much 
advantage,  Edward  died  April  9,  1483,  having 
reigned  23  years,  in  the  42d  year  of  his  age. 

EDWARD  V,  son  of  the  preceding,  suc- 
ceeded him  in  his  14th  year,  in  1483.  His  un- 
cle, the  duke  of  Gloucester,  regent,  caused  the 
young  king  and  his  brother  to  be  smothered  in 


ing  king  and 
"the  Tower. 


EDWARD  VI,  kin*  of  England,  the  son  of 
Henry  VIII  by  lady  Jane  Seymour,  was  born 
in  1538.  He  imbibed  a  zeal  for  the  reformation 
from  his  maternal  uncle,  the  great  duke  of  Som- 
erset, and  he  furthered  its  cause  with  firmness 
during  his  reign,  which,  however,  was  too  short 
to  be  of  much  benefit  to  the  nation.  He  died 
of  a  consumption  at  Greenwich.  July  (>,  1553, 
having  settled  the  crown  upon  lady  Jane  Grey. 

EDWARDS,  Jonathan,  an  American  cler- 
gyman, and  distinguished  metaphysician,  was 
born  in  East  Windsor,  Connecticut.  Oct.  5, 
1703,  and  was  educated  at  Yale  College.  In 
1751  ho  was  chosen  president  of  the  college  at 
Princeton,  New  Jersey,  where  he  died,- in  Jan- 
uary, 1758.  He  had  previously  preached  at 
New  York,  and  Northampton,  and  filled  the 
office  of  missionary  among  the  Indians  at  Stock- 
bridge,  Massachusetts.  His  Treatise  on  Reli- 
gious Ji/ections,  and  his  works  On  Free  Will, 
and  Original  Sin,  have  gained  him  a  permanent 
reputation. 


EGBERT,  the  last  king  of  the  Saxon  Hep- 
tarchy, and  the  first  monarch  of  England,  was 
the  eighteenth  king  of  the  West  Saxons.  He 
was  harassed  by  repeated  invasions  of  the 
Danes,  and  died  in  838. 

EGEDE,  John,  a  celebrated  missionary,  born 
in  Denmark  in  1686  and  died  in  1758,  having 
devoted  himself  to  the  sacred  task  of  spreading 
the  light  of  revealed  religion  among  the  Green- 
landers.  The  dictates  of  duty  frequently  led 
him  to  peril  his  life,  but  the  consciousness  of 
rectitude,  and  the  triumphs  of  success,  sweet- 
ened his  toil,  and  shed  joy  upon  his  earthly  pil- 
grimage. 

EGYPT.  This  country  is  called  by  the 
Arabs  Mezr,  by  the  Turks  £3  Kabit,  and  by  the 
Copts  Kfitmi.  It  was  formerly  one  of  the 
mightiest  empires  on  the  face  of  the  globe,  and 
the  birth-place  of  learning  and  many  of  the  arts. 
A  large  portion  of  the  article  on  Africa  (which 
see)  is  devoted  to  a  sketch  of  the  ancient  history 
of  Egypt. 

Egypt  is  now  a  Turkish  viceroyalty,  and  its 
ruler  bears  the  title  of  pacha  or  viceroy,  but  is 
in  fact,  entirely  independent  of  the  Sultan.  A 
large  portion  of  the  country  which  he  governs 
is  unpeopled,  and  derives  its  interest  from  the 
past  alone.  Yet  Egypt  with  the  surprising  fer 
tility  of  some  portions  and  vast  natural  re 
sources,  might,  under  a  liberal,  enlightened,  and 
enterprising  government,  attain  a  high  degree 
of  wealth  and  prosperity.  An  iron  despotism 
now  prostrates  the  energy  of  the  people,  and 
the  possessors  of  a  country  which  is  capable  of 
every  improvement,  sit  down  contented  with  a 
beggar's  lot. 

Egypt  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Mediterranean, 
E.  by  the  Red  Sea  and  Arabia,  S.  by  IS'ubia, 
and  W.  by  Barca  and  the  desert.  It  comprises 
200,000  square  miles  which  are  peopled  by  about 
3,000,000  of  inhabitants.  It  is  divided  into 
three  parts,  Upper  Egypt  (Said),  Middle  Egypt 
(Vostmd),  and  Lower  Egypt  (Eahari) i  including 
the  Delta.  The  only  valuable  portion  of  the 
land  is  that  which  is 'watered  by  the  Nile  and 
its  brandies.  The  cultivated  part  of  Upper 
Egypt  is  a  nnrrow  strip  inclosed  by  ridgea  of 
mountains.  The  Nile  annually  overflows  its 
banks,  leaving  a  fertilizing  mud  or  slime.  The 
inundation  commences  about  the  middle  of 
June,  and  increases  until  the  latter  part  of 
August.  The  productions  of  the  country  are 
maize,  rice,  wheat,  barley,  sugar  -*ane,  indigo, 
cotton,  flax,  dates,  &c.  The  inhabitants  are 
Copts,  descendants  of  the  original  iice,  Arabs. 
Turks  and  Jews. 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EGY 


225 


EGY 


Egypt  is  one  of  the  oldest  kingdoms  in  the 
world.  Here  the  children  of  Israel  were  held 
in  slavery  from  the  death  of  Joseph  in  1(535  B. 
C.,  to  14U1  B.  C.  In  1445  Lower  Egypt  was 
conquered  by  the  Canaanites,  who  lied  from 
Joshua  when  he  dispossessed  them  of  their  own 
country.  Upper  Egypt  was  divided  at  this  time 
into  a  great  number  of  kingdoms  which  were 
united  about  1157;  and  the  shepherd  kings 
were  driven  out  of  Egypt  by  Anosis  in  1070. 
About  1000,  Lesac  or  Sesostris,  king  of  Egypt, 
made  rapid  and  extensive  conquests.  The 
Ethiopians  conquered  Egypt,  and  retained  pos- 
session of  it  for  40  years.  The  Assyrians  also 
conquered  it,  but  the  whole  of  it  was  regained 
by  Psaumetichua. 

It  again  became  the  prey  of  a  foreign  con- 
queror, when  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon, 
entered  it.  The  dynasty  of  the  Ptolemies  held 
it  for  a  long  time,  Cleopatra  gave  her  kingdom 
brilliancy,  but  the  Romans  mastered  it  30  B.  C. 
When  the  hold  of  Rome  was  relinquished,  the 
Saracens,  under  Omar,  seized  it,  040.  The 
Fatiinites  gave  place  to  the  Mamelukes  in  1250. 
These  last  were  foreign  soldiers,  employed  by 
the  Fatimite  princes,  and  they  held  the  kingdom 
until  it  was  wrested  from  them  by  belim  I, 
emperor  of  the  Turks,  in  1517.  In  17:16,  the 
French,  having  resolved  to  attack  the  British 
possessions  in  India,  it  was  determined  to  seize 
upon  Egypt  that,  by  carrying  on  the  commerce 
of  the  East  through  the  lied  Sea,  the  new 
French  Colony  should  become  the  grand  mart 
where  all  Europe  might  be  supplied  with  Indian 
articles,  cheaper  than  they  could  be  rendered  by 
the  British,  while,  as  a  military  post,  it  could, 
at  all  times,  transport  auxiliaries  to  the  coast  of 
Coromandel.  On  the  20th  of  May ,  1 798,  Bona- 
parte put  to  sea  on  board  the  1'Orient  of  120 
guns,  bearing  the  flag  of  admiral  Brueys,  who 
was  to  take  command  of  the  fleet  then  assemb- 
ling from  the  different  ports  of  France,  and 
which  was  to  consist  often  74's,  2  ships  of  80 
guns,  2  Venetian  vessels  of  G4  guns,  14  frigates, 
72  Corvettes,  &c.,  and  400  transports  from  Tou- 
lon, Genoa,  Ajaccio,  Civita  Vecchia — an  arma- 
ment containing  40,000  soldiers,  and  10,000 
sailors. 

On  the  evening  of  the  1st  of  July,  Bonaparte 
made  arrangements  for  landing  at  Marabout. 
They  were  at  a  distance  of  about  three  leagues 
from  the  shore  ;  the  wind  was  northerly,  and 
blew  with  violence,  and  the  debarkation  peril- 
ous and  difficult ;  the  sea  was  covered  with  boats 
which  stemmed  the  impetuous  waves  and  cur- 
rents. Early  in  the  morning  (July  2),  the  gen- 


eral-in-chief  landed  at  the  head  of  the  foremost 
troops,  who  formed,  with  the  greatest  prompti- 
tude in  the  desert,  about  three  leagues  from 
Alexandria.  Afler  some  slight  skirmishes,  he 
advanced  and  invested  Alexandria,  where  he 
established  himself  on  the  5th,  by  a  capitulation 
of  the  city  and  fortress.  Having  garrisoned 
Alexandria,  which  was  left  in  the  command  of 
general  Kleber,  the  army  marched  to  Gizeh. 
Rosetta  and  other  places,  having  been  garrisoned 
by  the  French.  Near  the  pyramids  Bonaparte 
found  that  Murad  Bey  had  assembled  all  his 
forces  to  oppose  the  further  progress  of  the 
French.  The  Mamelukes,  amounting  to  10,000, 
fought  with  desperate  but  unavailing  courage. 
Part  of  them  were  put  to  the  sword  or  drowned 
in  the  Nile,  while  the  remnant,  under  the  con- 
duct of  Murad  Bey,  retreated  to  Upper  Egypt. 
The  Battle  of  the  Pyramids  was  a  hard-fought 
conflict.  Bonaparte  entered  Cairo  in  triumph. 
and  was  waited  upon  by  the  magistrates  and 
chief  men.  The  French  troops  were  now 
finned  into  3  divisions,  one  of  which,  under 
General  Dessaix,  was  sent  to  pursue  the  fugi- 
tive Mamelukes  ;  the  second  was  left  at  Cairo, 
and  the  third  followed  Ibrahim  Bey,  who  had 
fled,  and  so  precipitately,  that  he  could  not  be 
overtaken.  Returning  to  Cairo,  Bonaparte  em- 
ployed himself  in  arranging  the  details  of  the 
government  of  Lower  Egypt,  sending  garri- 
sons, establishing  lazarettos,  &c. 

Soon  after  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  an  insurrec 
tion  broke  out  in  Cairo  which  Bonaparte  has- 
tened to  quell.  When  the  French  gained  their 
victory  at  Aboukir,  and  took  the  fort  from  the 
enemy,  their  power  in  Egypt  appeared  to  be 
firmly  established.  Soon  after  this,  the  losses 
of  the  French  in  Italy,  and  the  dangers  which 
appeared  to  threaten  France,  induced  Bona- 
parte to  return  home,  a  privilege  which  was 
granted  him  in  the  commencement,  and  the 
chief  command  was  committed  to  Kleber  in 
a  general  order,  dated  Aug.  22, 1799.  One  day 
Massena.  haying  asked  what  sort  of  a  man  gen- 
eral Kleber,  of  whom  such  various  accounts  had 
been  given,  in  reality  was,  the  first  consul  re- 
plied :  "  Picture  to  yourself  a  man  of  lofty  stat- 
ure, of  an  imposing  figure — the  finest  military 
man  you  ever  saw;  talented,  well-instructed, 
and  capable  of  forming  a  correct  judgment  of 
any  thing  at  a  glance ;  a  man  who.  like  you, 
has  commenced  his  career  in  a  good  school — the 
infantry — and  who  is  a  good  manoeuverer,  al- 
though educated  in  Austria ;  but  indolent,  ex- 
cessively proud,  and  sarcastic.  He  is  a  man, 
who,  in  time  of  war,  by  trifling  and  joking,  and 


CYCLOPEDIAOF  HISTORY. 


EGY 


226 


EGY 


heaping  ridicule  on  all  with  whom  he  deals, 
suffers  himself  to  go  to  the  very  edge  of  the 
ditch;  when,  generally,  his  self-love  comes  to 
the  rescue,  his  talent  rallies,  and  he  sometimes 
does  very  fine  things,  as  you  have  been  told." 

The  condition  of  the  French  troops  becoming 
every  moment  more  critical,  after  various  con- 
ferences with  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  it  was  agreed 
that  after  a  truce  of  three  months,  the  French 
should  evacuate  Egypt,  and  accordingly  the 
treaty  was  signed  at  El-Arish,  Jan.  24,  1800. 
Kleber  wrote  a  letter  to  the  French  directory, 
stating  the  miserable  condition  of  the  French 
army,  and  urging  the  ratification  of  the  treaty 
of  E'1-Arish.  This  letter,  however,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  English  admiral  Keith,  and  having 
been  transmitted  to  the  British  government, 
they  refused  to  allow  the  French  any  means  of 
saving  themselves,  except  by  surrendering  as 
prisoners  of  war.  Sir' Sidney  Smith  hastened 
to  inform  the  French  of  the  views  of  his  gov- 
ernment. A  few  days  after,  the  lieutenant  of 
the  Tiger  (an  English  vessel),  sent  ^general 
Kleber  a  letter,  written  by  admiral  Keith,  un- 
der date  of  Minorca,  Jan.  8,  notifying  to  him 
the  onlv  conditions  on  which  the  British  gov- 
ernment, would  recognise  the  capitulation. 

General  Kleber,  shortly  before  this,  enslaved 
by  a  secret  spirit  of  jealousy,  which  perhaps, 
he  dared  not  confess  to  himself,  had  been  fol- 
lowing blindly  a  fatal  path,  in  which  his  fame 
was  threatened.  A  better  day  arose  ;  the  hon- 
or of  his  nation  was  menaced,  and  the  French 
troops  were  perfidiously  commanded  to  lay 
down  their  arms.  The  "discontented  Kleber — 
Kleber,  the  humorist — instantly  became  another 
man.  The  patriotic  Frenchman,  the  able  and 
heroic  leader,  re-appeared.  The  order  of  the 
day  was  conveyed  by  the  letter  of  admiral 
Keith,  and  Kleber  contented  himself  with  add- 
ing these  words:  "  Soldiers  !  the  only  reply  to 
insolence  like  this  is  victory  !  Prepare  to  fight." 
And  never  were  soldiers  better  prepared.  In- 
dignation ran  through  every  rank.  The  Turks 
should  pay  dearly  for  the  bad  faith  of  their  al- 
lies. Kleber  declared  that  he  should  regard  the 
least  advance  on  the  part  of  the  Turks  as  a  hos- 
tile movement.  Disregarding  this  warning, 
Youssef-Pacha,  the  grand  vizier,  repaired  to  El- 
Hancka  with  his  whole  army.  His  van-guard 
was  within  two  leagues  of  Cairo.  Finnans  cir- 
culated in  the  provinces  and  even  in  Cairo  it- 
self, excited  the  people  to  insurrection.  Civil 
and  religious  influences  increased  the  danger  of 
the  French.  Time  pressed,  the  troops  sum- 
moned by  Kleber,  appeared  in  small  detach- 


ments, but  still  they  were  animated  by  one 
spirit.  10,000  men  did  not  hesitate  to  attack 
an  army  which  the  Turks  and  English  them- 
selves have  estimated  at  from  40  to  ()0,000.  At 
the  ancient  Heliopolis,  Kleber  prepared  for 
combat.  How  well  he  was  seconded  may  be 
inferred  from  the  names  of  the  officers  next  in 
command  to  him,  viz.  Rcgnier,  Friant.  Le- 
clerc,  Belliard,  Donzelot,  and  La  Grange. 
With  a  trifling 'loss  on  their  part,  the  French 
routed  the  enemy,  arid  killed  and  wounded 
6,000.  The  French  were  again  in  firm  posses- 
sion of  a  reconquered  country,  and  Murad  Bey 
became  their  faithful  ally. 

Writers  who  think  to  honor  Kleber,  by  rep- 
resenting him  as  the  enemy  of  Bonaparte,  affect 
to  say,  that  he  conceived  the  resolution  of  keep- 
ing Lgypt,  "  out  of  hatred  to  the  man  who  had 
usurped  the  sovereignty  in  France."  To  ob- 
scure the  glory  of  him  whom  they  accuse,  they 
darken  the  character  of  the  man  they  would 
eulogize.  They  say  also,  with  very  little  truth, 
that""  the  talents  of  Kleber  had  excited  the  jeal- 
ousy of  Bonaparte."  But  what  points  of  com- 
parison could  i>e  established  between  them? 
What  victories  had  Kleber  gained  to  rank  them 
with  the  two  campaigns  of  Italy,  or  the  single 
one  of  Egypt?  Kleber  had  never  commanded 
in  chief.  Often  had  the  chief  command  been 
offered  him,  and  as  often  had  he  refused — a  sin- 
gular trait  of  that  pride  which  disdains  to  com- 
mand, and  yet  will  not  bend  to  obedience.  Em- 
ployed in  a  secondary  rank  by  preference,  he 
revenged  himself  for  this  voluntary  inferiority 
by  epigrams  upon  the  officer  above  him,  whe- 
ther Beurnonville,  Jourdan,  or  Moreau  himself. 
In  Egypt  liis  powers  of  sarcasm  were  employed 
in  vain  against  a  man  who  feared  them  not.  If, 
at  a  later  period,  he  denounced  Bonaparte  to  the 
executive  Directory,  lieliad  before,  in  a  frank 
and  bold  letter,  denounced,  if  we  may  use  the 
expression,  the  Directory  to  general  Bonaparte, 
and  this  was  the  political  confidence  of  a  clear- 
sighted man,  who,  beholding  in  the  General, 
the  future  fortunate  leader  of  a  party,  predicted 
the  fate  which  awaited  him.  On  his  part,  the 
General,  appreciating  Kleber,  made  use  of  him 
without  fear,  and  pardoned  his  faults  in  consid- 
eration of  his  good  qualities  He  feared  not  to 
debase  himself  in  making  advances.  ^Some  re- 
proaches, addressi  d  to  Kleber  on  the  subject  of 
Iris  administration  in  Egypt  having  wounded  his 
feelings  to  such  a  degree  that  he  was  about  to 
leave  the  army,  Bonaparte  wrote  ;  <:  On  the  soil 
of  Egypt,  the  clouds  pass  away  in  six  hours  : 
were. they  on  my  side,  they  should  dissipate  in 


Interior  of  the  Palr.ce  at  Dresden. 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EGY 


227 


EHR 


three."  This  was  the  conduct  of  Bonaparte 
towards  the  man  whose  rivalry  he  was  accused 
of  fearing. 

Kleber  made  many  wise  regulations  to 
strengthen  his  administration.  Meanwhile 
Europe  had  heard  the  news  of  the  battle  of 
Heliopolis  and  its  results.  The  violation  of 
national  rights  had  yielded  to  the  British  gov- 
ernment but  unsavory  and  bloody  fruits,  and 
they  could  not  but  regard  with  regret  the  de- 
struction of  a  fine  Ottoman  army  40,000  strong. 
General  Kleber,  having  gained,  by  chance,  mi- 
nute information  of  the  views  of  the  English, 
was  taking  a  course  which  gave  general  satis- 
faction, when  the  dagger  of  a  Mussulman  assas- 
sin deprived  the  army  of  a  leader,  and  France 
of  the  possession  of  Egypt.  The  fatal  news 
circulated  with  rapidity  ;  grief  and  indignation 
were  general,  and  at  the  end  of  some  hours  the 
criminal  was  seized,  and  it  was  proved  that  the 
murderer,  Suliman  El-Alepi,  who  was  sent  from 
Gazah  to  Cairo,  was  only  a  fanatic  subaltern, 
who,  intoxicated  with  temporal  and  spiritual 
promises,  and  maddened  by  the  incendiary  fir- 
mans of  the  Turkish  government,  pretended  to 
punish,  in  the  person  of  Kleber,  the  enemy  of 
the  prophet,  and  the  conqueror  of  the  grand 
vizier. 

After  the  revolt  of  Cairo  in  1798,  the  Scheiks 
having  come  to  implore  the  pardon  of  Bonaparte, 
the  latter  treated  with  peculiar  respect  an  old 
man  of  the  parly,  the  Scheik  Sada.  He  raised 
him,  kissed,  and  embraced  him.  When  they 
had  retired,  he  said  to  Kleber  ;  "  Do  you  know 
that  old  fellow  whom*  I  honored  so?"  "No," 
— answered  Kleber,  "  He  is  the  ring-leader  of 
the  insurrection."  "  The  deuce  !  I  would  have 
shot  him  "  When,  in  1800,  Kleber,  having  re- 
taken Cairo  with  an  armed  force,  exacted  as  a 
punishment  an  extraordinary  contribution  of 
4,000,000  francs,  this  same  Sheick  refused  to  pay 
the  sum  which  was  assessed  upon  him.  In  the 
first  movement  of  anger,  Kleber  gave  orders  to 
have  him  bastinadoed,  but,  soon  after,  recollect- 
ing the  conduct  of  Bonaparte,  recalled  them  too 
late.  When  General  Bonaparte  heard  of  Kle- 
ber's  deatli,  his  first  words  were  :  "  This  conies 
of  the  bastinado  administered  to  the  Scheik 
Sada."  And  in  reality  the  assassin  had  been 
concealed  in  the  mosque  forty  days.  Similar 
fanatics  had  been  previously  sent  to  stab  Bona- 
parte, but  the  Scheiks  had  prevented  them. 

The  command  of  the  French  army  devolved 

on   general    Abdallah    Menon.     In    1801    the 

English,  determined  to  drive  the  French  from 

Egypt,  fitted  out  an  expedition  of  which  the 

20 


army  was  commanded  by  Sir  Ralph  Abercrom- 
bie,  and  the  fleet  by  Lord  Keith.  On  the  23d 
of  February,  1801,  the  fleet  weighed  anchor, 
and  on  March  1  was  anchored  in  Aboukir  bay. 
On  the  8th  they  landed,  and  on  the  18th  gained 
possession  of  the  fort.  On  the  521st,  general 
Menon  attacked  the  English,  but  was  complete- 
ly defeated  by  them  after  a  well-contested  en- 
gagement. During  the  charge  of  cavalry,  Sir 
Ralph  Abercrombie  was  mortally  wounded; 
after  having  despatched  his  aides-de-camp  he 
was  alone,  and  some  French  dragoons  attacked 
him,  threw  him  from  his  horse,  and  attempted 
to  cut  him  down.  The  gallant  general,  how- 
ever, sprang  up  and  wrested  the  sword  from  his 
antagonist,  who  was  bayoneted  by  a  soldier  of 
the  42d.  He  died  on  the  28th,  on  board  lord 
Keith's  ship. 

General  Hutchinson  succeeded  to  the  com- 
mand and  resolved  to  reduce  Lower  Egypt.  By 
the  19th  of  April,  fort  Sulien  and  Rosetta  were 
captured,  and  the  British  proceeded  to  Rhama- 
nich,  where  the  French  made  a  stand,  but  were 
vanquished,  and  retreated  towards  Cairo.  On 
the  llth  of  May  the  army  continued  its  march, 
and,  on  the  15th,  intelligence  being  received 
that  Belliard  was  in  full  march  from  Cairo, 
Hutchinson  resolved  to  anticipate  the  attack  ; 
and,  on  the  16th,  the  Turks  commenced  the 
onset,  the  French  took  post  in  a  wood  of  date 
trees  near  Elmenayer,  but  were  compelled  to 
retreat.  The  British  were  now  joined  by  great 
numbers  of  Arabs.  The  camp  was  placed  at 
Gizeh,  and  dispositions  were  made  for  invading 
Cairo  ;  but  the  French  garrison  offered  to  ca- 
pitulate. A  convention  was  accordingly  con- 
cluded on  the  28th  of  June,  with  certain  stipu- 
lations, but  Menon  not  acceding  to  the  surrender 
of  Alexandria,  Hutchinson  invested  that  city 
with  the  co-operation  of  lord  Keith  and  Coote, 
which  enabled  him  to  surround  it,  and  Menon 
capitulated.  Four  weeks  after  the  evacuation 
of  Egypt  by  the  French,  the  preliminaries  of  a 
treaty  of  peace  were  signed  at  London.  The 
Egyptians  were  much  attached  to  the  French, 
and  regretted  them  extremely,  for  both  Bona- 
parte and  Kleber,  did  all  in  their  power,  during 
their  brief  term  of  possession,  to  ameliorate  the 
condition  of  the  country. 

EHRENSTRCEM,  a  Swedish  officer  who 
was  concerned  in  the  conspiracy  against  the 
regency  in  1793,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  the 
young  king  to  the  throne  prematurely,  ana  was 
conducted  to  the  scaffold,  where  he  was  about 
to  bend  to  the  fatal  stroke,  when  it  was  an- 
nounced that  his  sentence  was  changed  to  per- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ELD  2 

petual  imprisonment.  He  was  released  by 
Gustavus  IV. 

ELBA  (the  ancient  llva),  a  small  island  in 
the  Mediterranean,  near  the  coast  of  Tuscany, 
to  which  it  now  belongs.  It  is  60  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  contains  iron,  silver,  load- 
stone, and  marble.  The  climate  is  mild.  This 
island  was  allotted  to  Napoleon  in  1814,  on  his 
abdication  of  the  crown  of  France.  He  quitted 
it  February  20, 1815. 

EL  DORADO.  When  the  zeal  for  travels, 
conquests,  and  discoveries  in  America,  first  be- 
gan to  develop  itself  among  the  Spaniards  and 
other  nations  of  Europe,  those  who  thirsted  for 
adventure  and  aggrandizement  were  not  con- 
tent with  the  actual  wonders  of  the  New  World, 
but  they  taxed  their  imaginations  for  the  cre- 
ation of  realms  in  which  the  splendors  of  fairy- 
land were  surpassed.  Various  circumstances 
contributed  to  add  authority  and  influence  to 
these  fables.  The  tale  that  is  oftentimes  repeat- 
ed, is  generally  regarded  as  true,  particularly 
when  the  narrators  are  skilful,  and  have  weighty 
reasons  for  disguisinor  the  truth.  These  were  not 
wanting  with  regard  to  the  fable  of  El  Dorado, 
or  the  Golden  Region.  It  was  believed,  current- 
ly, that  somewhere  in  Guiana,  there  existed  a 
kingdom  the  wealth  of  which  surpassed  that  of 
any  known  region  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 
Along  the  whole  coast  of  the  Spanish  Main,  it 
was  believed  that,  in  the  interior  of  the  country, 
there  existed  a  land  whose  importance  and 
riches  it  was  impossible  to  exaggerate.  These 
rumors  are  said  to  have  had  reference  to  the 
kingdom  of  Bogota  and  Tunja,  now  New  Gre- 
nada. What  was  rather  singular  with  regard 
to  El  Dorado,  was,  that  the  nearer  adventurers 
approached  to  it,  the  farther  off  it  appeared  to 
be.  The  Peruvians  had  accounts  of  its  exist- 
ence in  the  Nuevo  Reyno ;  the  adventurers  of 
that  country  believed  that  it  existed  in  Peru. 
In  fact  it  appeared  like  the  blessed  isle  of  Indian 
song,  which  actually  fled  from  the  footsteps  of 
pursuers. 

Imagination,  however,  soon  supplied  the  pro- 
per data.  Tired  of  profitless  wanderings,  the 
gold  hunters  fixed  upon  a  certain  region  (in 
Guiana,)  as  the  locality  of  the  kingdom  of  El 
Dorado.  Nor  was  it  a  very  difficult  matter  to 
make  maps  of  the  country,  to  crowd  it  with 
lakes  and  rivers,  to  refine  its  inhabitants,  to 
perfect  its  arts,  and  to  heighten  its  splendor. 
The  story  ran  thus.  After  the  fall  of  the  Incas, 
a  younger  brother  of  Atabalipa,  collecting  what 
treasures  he  could  lay  hands  upon,  fled  to  an 
inland  country,  and  founded  a  magnificent  em- 


28  ELD 

pire.  This  potentate  was  indifferently  styled 
the  Great  Paytiti,  the  Great  Moxo,  the  Enim  or 
Great  Paru.  From  interested  motives,  men 
of  intelligence  and  reputation  scrupled  not  to 
confirm  the  tales  of  this  empire,  and  lend  the 
sanction  of  their  names  to  the  most  absurd  and 
puerile  fictions.  Thus  Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 
aware  of  the  important  results  of  colonizing 
Guiana,  lured  adventurers  onward  by  display- 
ing before  them  the  most  enticing  pictures  of  the 
Gilded  Monarch  and  his  realm.  He  even  did 
not  hesitate  to  attempt  to  pass  upon  Queen 
Elizabeth  as  facts,  the  monstrous  fables,  which 
his  heated  mind  was  alone  capable  of  receiving. 
An  unblushing  impostor  asserted  that  he 
had  himself  been  in  Manoa,  the  capital  of  the 
imaginary  kingdom,  and  that  in  the  street,  of 
silversmiths,  no  fewer  than  three  thousand 
workmen  were  employed.  This  traveller  was 
very  minute  in  his  details,  and  produced  a  map 
which  he  had  projected,  and  which  was  marked 
";ith  the  situation  of  a  hill  of  gold,  one  of  silver, 
and  one  of  salt.  The  gorgeous  palace  of  the 
emperor  was  held  on  high  by  magnificent  and 
symmetrical  pillars  of  porphyry  and  alabaster, 
and  encircled  by  galleries  which  were  formed 
of  ebony  and  cedar,  curiously  wrought.  At 
about  the  period  of  Raleigh's  first  expedition,  it 
was  believed  at  Paraguay  that  the  court  of  the 
Great  Moxo  had  been  actually  discovered  and 
visited.  At  this  time  the  description  of  the 
interior  varied  a  little  from  that  which  we  have 
just  given  above.  A  vast  lake  of  exquisite 
transparency  and  softness  reflected  the  palace, 
which  was  built  upon  an  island  in  its  centre. 
The  material  of  the  edifice  was  snow-white 
marble  of  a  peculiar  brilliancy.  Two  towers 
guarded  the  entrance,  standing  on  each  side  of 
a  superb  column,  which  shot  up  to  the  height 
twenty-five  feet,  and  bore-  upon  its  capital  an 
immense  silver  moon,  while  two  living  lions 
were  attached  by  massy  chains  of  solid  gold  to 
its  pedestal.  These  animals,  like  the  dragons 
of  a  fairy-tale,  defended  the  entrance  to  a  place 
which  outshone  the  realms  of  fairy.  We  know 
not  whether  an  acquaintance  with  magic  was 
necessary  to  quiet  the  vigilance  of  these  wild 
guards,  or  whether  they  were  well-bred  crea- 
tures, disposed  to  make  allowances  for  the  curi- 
osity of  visiters.  and  permit  them  an  easy  en- 
trance into  the  palace  of  El  Dorudo.  Be  that  as 
it  may— having  passed  those  guards,  you  entered 
a  quadrangle,  where  you  could  not  fail  to  be  de- 
lirfhted  with  the  freshness  and  shade  of  the  green 
trees,  and  the  fragrant  coolness  and  musical 
murmur  of  a  silver  fountain,  which  gushed  and 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


ELD 


229 


ELD 


gleamed  through  four  golden  pipes.  A  small 
copper  gate,  the  bolt  of  which  shot  into  a  massy 
rock,  hid  the  interior  of  the  palace.  This  pass- 
ed, the  splendor  of  the  internal  arrangements 
dazzled  and  delighted.  A  vast  altar,  formed  of 
solid  silver,  supported  an  immense  golden  sun, 
before  which,  four  lamps  were  kept  perpetually 
burning. 

The  lord  of  this  magnificence  was  called  El 
Dorado,  literally,  The  Gilded,  from  the  savage 
splendor  of  his  costume,  his  naked  body  being 
•daily  anointed  with  costly  gum,  and  then  heap- 
ed with  gold  dust,  until  he  presented  the  appear- 
ance of  a  golden  statue.  "  But,"  Oviedo  sagely 
remarks,  "  as  this  kind  of  garment  would  be 
uneasy  to  him  while  he  slept,  the  prince  washes 
himself  every  evening,  and  is  gilded  anew  in 
the  morning,  which  proves  that  the  empire  of 
El  Dorado  is  infinitely  rich  in  mines."  This 
fable  had  its  origin  in  the  peculiar  rites  intro- 
duced by  the  worship  of  Bochica,  as  the  high 
priest  of  this  sect  was  accustomed,  every  morn- 
ing, to  anoint  his  hands  and  face  with  grease, 
and  then  heap  them  with  gold  dust.  Another 
custom,  spoken  of  by  Humboldt,  may  have 

fiven  rise  to  the  fable  of  the  gilt  man.  This 
istinguished  traveller  says,  that  in  the  wilder 
parts  of  Guiana,  where  painting  the  body  is 
used  instead  of  the  practice  of  tatooing,  the 
Indians  smear  their  bodies  with  the  fat  of  tur- 
tles, and  then  cover  them  with  pieces  of  mica 
of  a  metallic  lustre,  brilliantly  white  as  silver, 
and  red  as  copper,  so  that  they  appear  robed 
in  a  garment  covered  with  gold  and  silver 
embroidery,  when  seen  from  a  little  distance. 

Although  productive  of  much  mischief,  the 
expeditions  undertaken  in  the  hope  of  discover- 
ing El.  Dorado  did  considerable  service  to  the 
cause  of  science  ;  and  thus,  by  the  agency  of 
fiction,  many  important  truths  were  brought  to 
light.  We  shall  speak  of  the  different  expedi- 
tions fitted  out  in  search  of  El  Dorado,  the  last 
of  which,  incredible  as  it  may  seem,  was  set  on 
foot  as  lately  as  the  year  1775.  From  this  we 
may  judge  how  firm  was  the  belief  in  the  exist- 
ence of  this  fairy-land.  The  earliest  enter- 
prises of  this  nature  attempted  to  reach  the 
realm  of  the  Great  Moxo,  somewhere  in  the 
direction  of  the  eastern  back  of  the  Andes  of 
New  Granada.  The  captains  Anasco  and  Am- 
pudia,  were  despatched  by  Sebastian  de  Belal- 
cazar,  in  1535,  to  discover  the  valley  of  Dorado, 
in  consequence  of  the  flaming  descriptions 
which  an  Indian  of  Tacumga  had  given  of  the 
riches  and  splendor  of  the  Zaque,  or  the  king 
of  Cundmamarca.  Diaz  de  Pineda  (in  1530) 
gave  rise  to  the  idea  that  there  were,  to  the 


eastward  of  the  Nevados  of  Tunguragua,  Cay- 
ambe  and  Popayan,  immense  plains  where  the 
precious  metals  were  found  in  abundance,  and 
where  gold,  in  particular,  was  so  plentiful,  that 
the  inhabitants  converted  massy  plates  of  it  into 
armor. 

In  1539,  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  inflamed  by  the 
account  of  these  treasures,  set  forth  in  search 
of  them,  and  by  chance,  made  the  discovery  of 
the  American  cinnamon  trees.  Francisco  de 
Orellana  set  forth  to  reach  the  river  of  Ama- 
zons by  the  Napo.  Expeditions  were  fitted  out 
simultaneously  from  Venezuela,  New  Granada, 
Quito,  Peru,  Brazil,  and  the  Rio  de  la  Plata^ 
having,  for  their  sole  object,  the  conquest  of 
Dorado.  The  incursions  to  the  south  of  Gua- 
viare,  the  Rio  Fragua,  and  the  Caqueta,  were 
declared  to  have  procured  proof  not  only  of  the 
existence  of  the  city  of  El  Dorado,  but  of  the 
immense  riches  of  the  Manoas,  the  Omaguas, 
and  the  Guaypos.  We  discover  proofs  of  ac- 
curate knowledge  and  careful  research  in  the 
narratives  of  the  voyages  of  Orellana,  George 
von  Specier,  Hernan  Perez  de  Quesada,  and 
Philip  von  Huten,  undertaken  in  1536,  1542, 
and  1545,  although  there  is  no  lack  of  exagger- 
ation and  fable  likewise.  Those  who  sought 
the  town  of  the  Gilded  Monarch,  directed  their 
steps  to  two  points  situated  on  the  northeast  and 
southwest  of  the  Rio  Negro  ;  viz.  to  Parima,  the 
early  abode  of  the  Manoas,  who  dwelt  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Jurubesh.  There  exists  now  very 
little  doubt  that  the  whole  of  the  country  lying 
between  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco,  was  compre- 
hended under  the  general  name  of  the  Provin- 
ces of  the  Gilded  King. 

The  first  voyage  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was 
undertaken  in  1595.  That  enterprising  and 
romantic  man,  who  was  in  high  favor  with 
Queen  Elizabeth  of  England,  was  tired  of  the 
dull  realities  of  the  Old  World,  and  thirsted 
for  adventure.  He  embraced. the  idea  of  El 
Dorado  with  ardor,  as  holding  out  something 
worthy  of  his  attention.  It  is  true  that  he  had 
no  definite  ideas  about  the  situation  of  the  fabled 
kingdom,  but  he  rushed  into  the  adventure  with 
the  enthusiasm  and  ardor  which  distinguished 
him.  He  was,  of  course,  disappointed,  and  pro- 
bably found  the  affair,  Gilded  king,  lake,  city, 
palace,  lions,  gold  mountains,  and  all,  what  we, 
in  these  commonplace,  and  degenerate  days, 
should  term  a  bubble  or  a  hoax.  Sir  Wal- 
ter Raleigh  was  a  courtier,  well  versed  in  the 
ways  of  the  world,  and  he  cared  not  to  endure 
the  mortification  of  being  ridiculed  or  pitied, 
on  his  return,  for  the  failure  of  the  expedition. 
He  was  determined  to  sacrifice  truth  to  what  he 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


ELD 


230 


ELD 


considered  expediency.  Besides,  he  had  formed 
the  project  of  colonizing  Guiana,  which  he  saw 
would  produce  the  happiest  results,  and  he 
thought,  that  by  holding  out  the  golden  purse 
of  El  Doraf!n,  he  should  induce  many  to  patron- 
ise his  scheme. 

We  shall  briefly  trace  the  course  of  Sir  Wal- 
ter Raleigh,  when,  after  having  collected  from 
Antonio  de  Berrio,  whom  he  took  prisoner  in 
his  incursion  on  the  island  of  Trinidad,  in  1595, 
and  others,  the  sum  of  the  knowledge  possessed 
at  that  time  upon  the  subject  of  Guiana  and 
the  adjacent  countries,  he  set  forth  upon  his 
celebrated  expedition.  He  then  entertained  no 
doubts  of  the  existence  of  the  two  great  lakes, 
and  the  kingdom  of  the  famous  Inca,  which  was 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  near  the  sources 
of  the  river  Essequibo.  Passing  the  river  Gua- 
vapo,  and  the  plains  of  Chaymas,  Raleigh  stop- 
ped at  Morequito,  where  he  was  informed  by 
an  old  man  that  there  was  no  doubt  that  foreign 
nations  had  entered  Guiana.  The  cataracts 
of  Carony,  a.  river  which  was  supposed  to  be 
the  shortest  way  to  Macureguari  and  Manoa, 
towns  situated  on  the  banks  of  lakes  Cassipa 
and  Rupunuwini  or  Dorado,  terminated  this 
expedition. 

We  must  be  permitted  to  doubt  almost  every 
assertion  made  by  Raleigh  with  regard  to  the 
results  of  this  voyage.  He  was  determined  that 
his  cause  should  lose  nothing  from  excessive 
modesty,  and  consequently  the  style  in  which  he 
speaks  of  Manoa  is  highly  inflated.  He  heard  of 
inland  seas  which  he  compares  to  the  Caspian, 
and  of  "  the  imperial  and  golden  city  of  Ma- 
noa." He  styles  the  ruler  of  the  magnificent 
country,  "the  emperor  Inga  of  Guyana-,"  and 
says  that  he  had  erected  palaces  of  the  most  daz- 
zling magnificence,  said  to  surpass  by  far  the 
superb  palaces  of  his  Peruvian  ancestors.  Ra- 
leigh, in  his  endeavors  to  influence  the  queen, 
neglected  neither  the  arts  of  flattery,  nor  the 
embellishments  of  fiction.  He  says  that  to  the 
barbarous  nations  he  encountered,  he  showed 
the  picture  of  the  Queen,  at  which  they  exhib- 
ited "transports  of  joy."  He  asserts'that  he 
was  informed  that  at  the  time  of  the  conquest 
of  Peru,  there  were  prophecies  "  in  their  chief- 
eat  temples,"  which  foretold  the  loss  of  the 
empire  and  the  restoration  of  the  Ingas  (Incas) 
by  Englishmen.  He  tells  her  Majesty  that  the 
Inca  would  probably  pay  yearly  to  England  the 
sum  of  three  hundred  thousand  pounds  ster- 
ling, if  she  would  place  in  his  towns  garrisons 
of  three  or  four  thousand  English,  under  pre- 
tence of  defending  him  against  all  enemies. 


"  It  seemeth  to  me,"  he  adds.  "  that  this  empire 
of  Guiana  is  reserved  for  the  English  nation.' 
From  1595  to  1617,  Raleigh  made  four  succes- 
sive voyages  to  the  Lower  Orinoco.  These  at- 
tempts, which,  however  they  were  represented 
in  England,  were  well  understood  in  South 
America  to  have  been  fruitless,  damped  the 
ardor  of  adventurers  who  had  formed  projects 
for  entering  and  conquering  El  Dorado.  From 
this  time  there  appeared  none  of  those  great 
combinations,  and  important  expeditions  which 
at  first  owed  their  origin  to  warm  chimerical 
ideas;  but  at  the  same  time,  the  golden  hopes 
which  had  been  awakened  did  not  entirely  dis- 
appear, and  solitary  enterprises  were  occasion- 
ally undertaken,  under  the  sanction  of  various 
provincial  governors. 

In  1637,  and  1638,  father  Acana,  and  father 
Fritz,  severally  undertook  journeys  to  the  lands 
of  the  Manoas,  which  were  thought  to  be  rife 
with  gold,  and  by  the  magnificent  accounts 
which  they  put  in  circulation,  contrived  to  in- 
flame anew  the  imaginations  of  adventurers. 
Very  recently  it  was  believed  that  the  plains  of 
Macas,  to  the  east  of  the  Cordilleras,  contained 
the  ruins  of  Logrono,  a  town  situated  in  a  gold 
region  of  prodigious  value.  In  1740,  an  idea 
was  current  that  by  going  up  the  river  Esse- 
quibo, Dorado  might  be  reached  from  Dutch 
Guiana.  The  imagination  of  Don  Manuel  Cen- 
turion, governor  of  r»anto  Thome  del  Angostura, 
having  been  warmed  by  the  current  fables  of  the 
splendid  lake  of  Manoa.  the  very  existence  of 
which  was  apochryphal,  determined  to  set  on 
foot  some  serious  investigations.  He  used  all 
his  powers  to  awaken  in  the  minds  of  the  colo- 
nists an  ardor  equal  to  his  own.  An  Ipurucoto 
Indian,  by  name  Arimuicajpi,  descended  the 
Rio  Carony,  and,  for  reasons  of  his  own,  by  the 
most  bare-faced  impositions,  induced  the  Span- 
iards to  believe  that  the  tales  of  El  Dorado 
hardly  did  justice  to  the  splendor  of  the  coun- 
try of  the  Great  Moxo.  He  declared  that  the 
whitish  light  in  the  clouds  of  Magellan,  in  the 
southern  skv,  was  the  reflection  of  the  silvery 
rocks  around  which  the  waves  of  the  Lake  Pa- 
rima  swept  "  This  was  describing  in  a  very 
poetical  manner,"  says  Humboldt, "  the  splendor 
of  the  micaceous  and  talcky  states  of  his  coun- 
try." 

A  well-meaning  Indian  chief,  popularly  term- 
ed Captain  Jurado.  endeavored  to  check  the 
progress  of  the  delusion,  and  tried  to  undeceive 
Governor  Onturion.  The  nd venturers  em- 
barked upon  the  Caura  and  Rio  Paragua,  but 
hot  only  were  disappointed  in  their  expecta- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ELD  231  ELD 

tions.  but  encountered  the  most  dreadful  suffer-  the  belief.  Acunha  says  that  north  of  the  junc- 
ings  which  occasioned  the  death  of  several  tion  of  the  Curuputuba  and  Amazon,  the  im- 
hundred  persons.  Notwithstanding  the  disad-  mense  mountain  of  Paraguaxo,  when  the  rays 
vantageous  effects  of  these  expeditions,  they  of  the  sun  fell  upon  it,  displayed  the  most  beau- 
brought  to  light  many  important  geographical  tiful  colors,  emitting  from  time  to  time,  tre- 
facts.  In  1775-1780,  Nicholas  Rodriguez  and  mendous  bellowings.  The  Indians,  who  were 
Antonio  Santos,  two  men  noted  for  their  en-  accustomed  to  fasten  upon  their  skins  gold 
terprise,  were  employed  by  the  Spanish  gov-  spangles  and  powder,  informed  the  Spaniards, 
ernor,  and  reached  the  Uraricuera  and  Rio  that  they  obtained  it  by  tearing  up  the  grass 
Branco,  after  encountering  many  perils ;  but,  and  earth  in  a  certain  plain,  and  washing  it. 
of  course,  did  not  attain  their  objects.  But  it  is  possible  that  what  was  imagined  to  be 
The  frequent  occurrence  of  mica  in  Guiana  gold,  was  no  other  than  mica,  which  the  natives 
contributed  to  confirm  the  opinions  of  those  who  of  Rio  Caura  are  said  still  to  use  by  way  of  orna- 
believed  it  to  be  a  region  rich  with  gold,  and  menting  their  bodies,  and  heightening  the  effect 
thus,  as  in  many  other  cases,  want  of  scientific  of  their  painting. 

knowledge  led  to  the  most  absurd  ideas,  and         In  tracing  the  progress  of  the  famous  delusion 

the  most  deplorable  results.    The  peak  of  Mount  of  El  Dorado,  we  cannot  fail  to  be  surprised  at 

Calitamini  at  sunset  gleams  as  if  it  were  in-  the  credulity  of  some  adventurers,  and  the  au- 

crusted    with    precious   metal,   or   ornamented  dacity  of  others.     The  expedition  of  Sir  Walter 

with  a  coronet  of  diamonds.     The  islets  of  mica-  Raleigh^was  without  doubt,  the  most  important 

slate  in  the  Lake  Amucu,  are  fabled  by  the  na-  undertaken  ;  and  the  influence  which  it  exerted 

tives,  to  increase  the  silver  gleams  of  the  clouds  was  beneficial  in  deterring  men  from  making 

ia  the  southern  sky  by  their  powerful  reflection,  those  combined  efforts  which  could  not  have 

Raleigh  says  that  every  mountain,  and  every  failed  in  terminating  ruinously.      We  cannet 

stone  in  the  forests  of  Orinoco,  had  all  the  spark-  doubt,  that  Raleigh  was  himself  grossly  deceiv- 


ling  brilliancy  of  the  precious  metals.     Those    ed,  nor  that  he  endeavored  to  practice   upon 
irho  gave  the  most  glowing  descrip-    others  the  imposition  from  which  he  had  him- 

3  say  tha 
were  those  who,  on   other  subjects,  made   no    misrepresented  things  for  a  good  end,  and  the 


travellers  who  gave  the  most  glowing  descrip-    others  the  imposition 

tions  of  the  riches  of  Guiana  and  EL  Dorado,    self  suffered.     It  is  no  excuse  to  say  that  he 


scruple  of  violating  truth  for  the  sake  of  enhanc-  delinquency  of  this  celebrated  man  in  this  re- 
ing  the  effects  of  their  narrations.  Diego  de  spect  weakens  considerably  the  interest  which 
Ordaz,  the  famous  Conquistador  of  Mexico,  in  the  concluding  events  of  his  life  are  calculated 
1531,  undertook  a  voyage  of  discovery  along  to  awaken. 

the  banks  of  the  Orinoco.  This  gentleman  boast-  Th,e  following  is  briefly  his  own  description 
ingly  declared  that  he  had  taken  sulphur  out  of  of  Guiana.  The  empire  of  Guiana  is  directly 
the  Peak  of  Popocatepetl,  and  was  allowed  by  the  east  from  Peru  towards  the  sea,  and  lieth  under 
emperor,  Charles  V,  to  carry  a  flaming  volcano  the  equinoctial  line,  and  it  hath  more  abund- 
in  his  coat  of  arms.  He  obtained  a  commission  to  ance  of  gold  than  any  part  of  Peru,  and  as  many, 
rule  over  all  the  country  which  he  could  subdue  or  more  great  cities  than  ever  Peru  had  when  it 
by  his  arms  between  Brazil  and  the  coast  of  flourished  most.  It  is  governed  by  the  same 
Venezuela,  and  began  his  voyage  by  the  mouth  laws,  and  the  emperor  and  people  observe  the 
of  the  river  Maranon.  Here  the  natives  dis-  same  religion,  and  the  same  form  and  policies 
played  to  his  admiring  eyes,  "  emeralds  as  big  in  government  as  was  used  in  Peru,  not  differ- 
as  a  man's  fist."  These  were  doubtless  no  other  ing  in  any  part ;  and  as  I  have  been  assured  by 
than  pieces  of  compact  feldspar,  a  mineral  found  such  of  the  Spaniards  as  have  seen  Manoa,  the 
in  great  profusion  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  imperial  city  of  Guiana,  which  the  Spaniards 
Topayas.  The  Indians  informed  Ordaz  that  in  call  El  Dorado,  that  for  the  greatness,  the  riches, 
travelling  to  the  westward  he  would  find  a  and  for.  the  excellent  seat,  it  far  exceedeth  any 
mountain  of  emerald,  but  a  shipwreck  destroyed  of  the  world,  at  least  of  so  much  of  the  world 
the  hopes  of  the  party.  as  is  known  to  the  Spanish  nation.  Itisfound- 
The  Spanish  adventurers  firmly  believed  in  ed  upon  a  lake  of  salt  water  of  two  hundred 
the  existence  of  mountains  composed,  princi-  leagues  long,  like  unto  Mare  Caspium  (the  Cos- 
pally,  if  not  wholly,  of  gold,  silver,  emerald,  plan  Sea);  and  if  we  compare  it  to  that  of  Peru, 
&c.  Sometimes,  natural  appearances,  easily  and  but  read  the  report  of  Francisco  Lopez,  and 
explained,  gave  rise  to  these  illusions,  but  fre-  others,  it  will  seem  more  than  credible.  Ra- 
quently,  there  was  no  foundation  whatever  for  leigh  repeats  the  wonderful  stories  told  of 
20* 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


ELI 


232 


ELI 


Manoa  by  Martinez,  a  Spaniard  who  informed 
him  that  he  had  spent  seven  months  in  the 
empire  and  who  first  gave  it  the  name  of  El 
Dorado.  Martinez  gave  by  no  means  a  flatter- 
ing character  to  the  inhabitants  of  Guiana,  who, 
he  said  were  a  set  of  inveterate  drunkards. 
According  to  him,  at  times  of  solemn  festival, 
the  higher  officers  of  the  empire  caroused  with 
the  king.  All  who  pledged  him  were  stripped, 
and  having  their  bodies  anointed  with  a  costly 
balsam,  the  servants  of  the  emperor  blew  gold 
dust  upon  them,  making  use,  for  this  purpose  of 
certain  hollow  canes  or  reeds.  Then  glitter- 
ing from  head  to  foot,  they  sat  down  by  twen- 
ties and  hundreds,  and  drank  sometimes  for  six 
or  seven  days.  Martinez  said  that  he  named 
the  empire  El  Dorado  on  account  of  the  quan- 
tity of  gold  which  he  found  in  the  temples,  and 
throughout  the  city  ;  plates,  armor,  and  shields, 
being  formed  of  the  precious  metal. 

Raleigh  speaks  of  a  race  whose  heads  did  not 
appear  above  their  shoulders,  and  adds, "  though 
it  may  be  thought  a  mere  fable,  yet  for  mine 
own  part  I  am  resolved  it  is  true.'  "  They  are 
called  Ewaipanoma.  They  are  reported  to  have 
eyes  in  their  shoulders,  and  their  mouths  in  the 
middle  of  their  breasts,  and  that  a  long  train  of 
hair  groweth  backward  between  their  should- 
ers." These  people,  however,  were  not  pre- 
tencied  to  be  the  inhabitants  of  the  empire  of  the 
Gilded  King. 

Though  we  cannot  fail  to  regret  the  waste 
of  labor  and  life  which  the  fable  of  El  Dorado 
caused.  Yet  it  must  be  confessed  that  it  led  to 
many  scientific  discoveries :  But  while  many 
facts  were  brought  forward,  they  were  so  mixed 
up  with  fables,  defying  almost  "all  attempts  to 
separate  the  evil  from  the  good,  that  we  cannot 
be  much  surprised  at  the  erroneous  ideas  which 
prevailed  up  to  a  very  late  period.  The  pene- 
tration and  knowledge  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury have  dissipated  the  golden  clouds  whicli 
overhung  the  haunted  region  of  Guiana,  and 
the  Great  Moxo,  by  common  consent,  is  for 
ever  banished  to  the  dreamed  realms  of  fiction. 
ELEUSIS  (now  Lcpsina),  was  anciently, 
next  to  Athens,  the  principal  city  of  Attica.  It 
was  here  that  the  festivals  of  Ceres,  the  goddess 
of  Nature,  termed  the  Eleusiniun  Mysteries, were 
secretly  celebrated  in  her  temple  which  was  sur- 
rounded by  high  walls.  The  manner  of  their 
celebration  is  unknown. 

ELIJAH,  the  prophet,  who  rebuked  the  idol- 
atries of  Ah.ab,  king  of  Israel,  and  Jehosaphat, 
king  of  Judah.  He  did  not  experience  the 


a  fiery  chariot.  For  his  history  see  the  1st  and 
2d  Books  of  Kings. 

ELIO,  Francisco  Xavier.  a  Spaniard  who 
opposed  Napoleon  in  Spain,  and  the  revolution- 
ists in  South  America.  On  the  restoration  of 
Ferdinand  VII,  of  Spain,  lie  declared  himself 
in  favor  of  absolute  monarchy,  and  committed 
many  atrocities  in  putting  down  liberal  princi- 
ples. The  revival  of  the  constitution  of  Cadiz 
put  an  end  to  his  career.  He  was  tried  for  excit- 
incr  a  movement  in  favor  of  absolute  monarchy, 
and  put  to  death,  Sept  3d.  I-:;--'. 

ELIOT.  John,  a  native  of  England,  was  born 
in  1604,  and  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
came  to  America  in  1631 .  and  was  settled  as 
minister  of  the  church  in  Roxbury,  Massachu- 
setts. He  mastered  the  Indian  language,  and 
published  nn  Indian  Bible  and  grammar,  and 
was  indefatigable  in  preaching  the  gospel  to  the 
savages.  The  great  apostle  and  friend  of  the 
Indians  died  May  20,  1690.  His  works  were 
voluminous. 

EL1OTT,  George  Augustus. lord  Heathfield, 
was  born  at  Stubbs,  in  Scotland,  in  1718,  and 
educated  at  Leyden.  after  which  he  entered 
into  the  Prussian  service.  Having  returned  to 
Scotland,  he  joined,  in  1733,  the  corps  of  engi- 
neers, and  afterward  became  adjutant  to  a  corps 
of  horse-grenadiers,  in  which  capacity  he  dis 
linguished  himself  at  Dettingen  where  he  was 
wounded.  In  this  regiment  he  rose  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-colonel;  and,  in  1757.  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  a  regiment  of  light- 
horse,  which  lie  had  himself  raised.  On  his 
return  from  Germany,  he  was  sent  to  Havana, 
and,  at  the  peace,  the  king  conferred  on  his 
regiment  the  title  of"  royal."  In  1775,  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  in  Ireland,  and 
was  soon  after  made  governor  of  Gibraltar, 
which  fortress  he  bravely  defended  against  the 
combined  forces  cf  France  and  Spain.  Pie 
died  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  July  6th,  17(JO.  He 
never  indulged  in  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  his 
food  consisting  of  vegetables  and  water.  Ever 
vigilant  and  active,  he  never  slept  more  than 
four  hours  at  a  time. 

ELIS,  a  district  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  bounded  east  by  Arcadia,  south 
by  Messenia. 

ELIZABETH,  queen  of  England,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  of  female  sovereigns,  the 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII,  by  Anne  Boleyn,  was 
born  in  1533.  She  was  educated  in  the"  protes- 
tant  religion,  and,  by  the  last  will  of  her  father, 
was  nominated  third  in  the  succession.  Dur- 


pangs  of  death,  but  was  taken  up  to  heaven  in    ing  the  reign  of  Mary,  she  was  treated  with 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ELI 


233 


ELL 


great  severity,  and  attempts  were  made  to  draw 
her  into  a  snare  on  the  subject  of  religion,  so  as 
to  prosecute  her  for  heresy;  but  by  uncommon 
prudence  she  escaped  these  designs.  She  had 
received  an  admirable  education,  and  was  well 
versed  in  classical  literature  for  which  she  had 
an  unaffected  fondness.  In  1558,  on  the  death 
of  Mary,  she  succeeded  to  the  throne.  She  re- 
fused all  matrimonial  overtures,  yet  was  sup- 
posed to  be  pleased  with  such  addresses.  By  the 
vigilance  of  her  government  she  preserved  her 
dominions  in  peace,  repelled  the  attempts  of 
the  Spaniards,  and  was  considered  the  patron- 
ess of  the  reformed  church.  "With  regard  to 
the  execution  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  she  en- 
deavored to  shift  the  odium  from  herself,  and 
attributed  it  to  a  mistake  of  her  secretary  Da- 
vis»n,  by  whom  the  warrant  was  furthered. 
The  execution  of  Essex  (see  Detcrevx)  was  a 
blow  from  which  she  never  recovered.  She 
died,  March  24,  1603.  Masculine  as  her  mind 
was.  she  was  yet  enough  of  woman  to  be  fond 
of  flattery  and  dress.  Shakspeare,  whom  she 
patronized,  has  paid  her  a  compliment  in  one  of 
'.he  most  pleasing  of  his  dramas — the  Midsum- 
mer's Night's  Dream.  Elizabeth  is  the  "fair 
vestal,  throned  in  the  west,"  who  is  proof 
against  the  arrows  of  Cupid. 

"ELIZABETH  PETRO\VNA,  daughter  of 

Peter  the  Great  and  Catharine  I.  was  born  in 
17U9.  After  the  death  of  Anne,  who  appointed 
for  her  successor,  Ivan,  son  of  her  niece  Anne, 
the  wife  of  Antony  Ulrich,  duke  of  Brunswick, 
the  latter  proclaimed  herself  regent  during  the 
minority  of  her  son.  A  conspiracy  was  formed, 
the  regent  and  her  son  imprisoned,  and  Eliza- 
beth Petrowna  proclaimed  empress,  in  1741. 
Elizabeth  was  ambitious  of  being  considered  the 
most  beautiful  woman  in  her  empire,  and  en- 
gaged in  the  seven  years'  war,  in  consequence 
of  a  personal  sarcasm  of  Frederick  the  Great. 
She  did  not,  however,  gain  any  decisive  advan- 
tage, and  died  Dec.  29,  1761,  at  the  age  of  52, 
after  a  reign  of  20  years.  Her  life  was  passed 
in  licentious  indulgences. 

ELIZABETH,  Philippine  Marie  Helene  of 
France,  Madame,  the  sister  of  Louis  XVI,  was 
born  May  23d,  1764.  Although  mild,  virtuous, 
benevolent,  and  inoffensive,  she  perished  by  the 
guillotine,  May  10,  1794. 

ELIZABETHTO  WN,in  Essex  county,  New 
Jersey,  14  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  New  York,  con- 
tains 4,184  inhabitants.  It  is  a  flourishing  and 
pleasant  place,  and  the  oldest  town  in  the  state, 
having  been  settled  by  emigrants  from  Long 
Island  in  1664. 


ELLENBOROUGH,  Edward  Law,  lord,  was 
born  in  1748,  at  Great  Salkeld,  in  Cumberland. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  early  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  He  was  counsel  for  Warren 
Hastings  in  1785,  assisted  by  Plomer  and  Dal- 
las, and  his  client  was  acquitted.  His  foitune 
was  now  fixed.  In  1801  he  was  made  attorney 
general,  and  the  following  year  succeeded  lord 
Kenyon,  as  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench, 
and  was  created  baron.  He  died  Dec.  13.1818. 

ELLERY,  William,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
declaration  of  Independence,  born  at  Newport, 
R.  I.,  Dec.  22,  1727,  and  was  educated  at  Har- 
vard College,  studied  law,  became  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1776,  and  served  in  that  body  until 
1785.  when  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of 
the  Superior  Court  of  Rhode  Island.  After- 
wards he  accepted  the  office  of  Collector  of 
Customs  in  his  native  town,  and  died  at  the  age 
of  92,  Feb.  15,  1820. 

ELLIOT,  Stephen,  an  American  botanist, 
and  man  of  letters,  was  born  at  Beaufort,  S.  C., 
in  1771,  and  educated  at  Yale  College.  He 
early  devoted  his  attention  to  natural  history. 
As  a  member  of  the  State  legislature,  he  was 
distinguished  for  patriotism,  learning  and  abili- 
ty. He  was  president  of  the  State  bank,  mem- 
ber of  several  literary  and  scientific  societies, 
and  editor  of  the  Southern  Review,  and  he  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  L.L.  D.  from  Yale  College. 
He  died  in  the  earlv  part  of  1830. 

ELLSWORTH,"01iver,  was  born  at  Wind- 
sor, Connecticut,  April  29,  1745.  He  was  the, 
son  of  a  farmer,  and  devoted  his  early  years  al- 
ternately to  literature  and  agriculture.  He  was 
educated  at  Yale  and  Princeton  Colleges,  the 
former  of  which  he  entered  at  the  age  of  17,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  after  the  usual  prepa- 
ratory study, in  1771?inthe  county  of  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  and  was  appointed  state  attorney. 
An  ardent  friend  of  freedom,  he  served  in  the 
revolutionary  army,  was  a  member  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly  of  Connecticut,  and  a  delegate  to 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States.  He  was 
made  member  of  the  Council  and  judge  of  the 
Superior  Court  of  his  native  state,  assisted  in 
framing  the  federal  convention,  was  chosen 
senator  in  the  first  congress,  and  held  his  seat 
throughout  Washington's  administration.  He 
was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  United  States 
on  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Jay,  and  was  one  of 
the  envoys  sent  to  France  in  1799,  to  procure 
the  adjustment  of  the  differences  which  threat- 
ened a  very  serious  termination.  Having  re- 
turned to  his  native  state,  he  died  in  1807,  in 
the  63d  year  of  his  age. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


ENG 


234 


ENG 


ELSINORE,  ELSINEUR,  or  HELSIN- 
GOER,  a  Danish  seaport,  situated  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  island  of  Zealand,  where  vessels 
passing  up  or  down  the  Baltic  stop  to  pay  toll 
or  procure  stores.  The  annual  amount  of  toll  is 
frofn  600,000  to  700,000  dollars.  Pop.  7000. 

EMANUELTHE  GREAT,  king  of  Portu- 
gal, ascended  the  throne  in  1495.  During  his 
reign  the  discoveries  and  exploits  of  Portuguese 
navigators  and  commanders,  opened  the  wealth 
of  America  and  the  East  Indies  to  Portugal. 
Ever}7  thing  seemed  to  flourish,  and  the  period 
merited  the  title  which  was  given  it — "the 
golden  age  of  Portugal."  Etnanuel  died  Dec. 
13,  1521.  He  acquired  renown  by  his  expul- 
sion of  the  Moors,  and  his  patronage  of  men  of 
letters. 

EMMET,  Thomas  Addis,  born  in  Cork,  Ire- 
land, in  1765.  He  was  designed  for  the  medical 
profession,  but  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  a 
member  of  the  bar,  induced  him  to  turn  his  at- 
tention to  the  study  of  the  law.  He  pursued  it 
with  success  and  commenced  practice  in  Dub- 
lin. In  171)5,  Emmet  joined  the  association  of 
United  Irishmen,  and  was  arrested  March  12, 
1798.  Oliver  Bond,  doctor  Macneven,  and  oth- 
ers, were  arrested  at  the  same  time.  Emmet 
was  imprisoned  for  a  long  time  in  Fort  George, 
in  the  county  of  Nairn,  Scotland,  but  with  his 
wife,  who  had  shared  his  confinement,  having 
been  finally  liberated,  he  carne  to  New  York  in 
Nov.,  1804.  Emrnet  here  successfully  prac- 
tised law,  and  in  1812  %vas  appointed  attorney- 
general  of  the  State  of  New  York.  He  died  m 
the  03d  year  of  his  age,  Nov.  14, 1827,  during  the 
trial  of  an  important  case.  In  private  life  he  was 
beloved,  and  in  public  esteemed  and  respected. 

EMS,  a  watering  place  in  the  duchy  of  Nas- 
sau, which  is  surrounded  by  enchanting  scenery. 

ENGHIEN,  Louis  Antoine  Henri  de  Bour- 
bon, duke  of,  born  at  Chantilly,  Aug.  2.  1772, 
was  the  son  of  Louis  Henry  Joseph  Conde, 
duke  of  Bourbon,  a  descendant  of  the  great 
Condo  He  served  in  various  campaigns,  par- 
ticularly distinguished  himself  under  his  grand- 
father. In  1804  he  went  to  Ettenheim  incog., 
and  married  the  princess  Charlotte  de  Rohan 
Rochefort.  At  this  time  the  life  of  Bonaparte 
was  threatened,  and  the  English,  in  particular, 
hinted  at  his  probable  assassination.  The  duke 
D'  Enghien,  having  fallen  under  suspicion,  was 
arrested  at  Ettenheim,  in  the  neutral  territory 
of  Baden,  brought  to  Vincennes  at  midnight, 
tried  with  much  informality,  condemned  to 
death,  and  shot  the  next  morning,  the  whole 
affair  having  been  conducted,  to  say  the  least, 


with  ungenerous  haste.  No  action  of  Napole- 
on's has  excited  so  much  discussion  as  this. 
Some  writers  laid  the  whole  blame  of  the 
transaction  upon  the  emperor,  and  others  en- 
deavoring to  free  him  altogether  from  the 
charge.  An  actual  conspiracy,  supported  by 
English  money,  had  been  discovered  at  Paris, 
that  of  Georges.  By  this  conspiracy  England 
had  been  taken,  by  flagrantc  tielicto,  in  Paris  it- 
self. The  same  spirit  which  had  sent  Georges 
from  London  to  France,  was  to  be  found  in  the 
cabinet  of  all  the  British  embassies  in  Germany. 
Peculiar  circumstances  induced  M.  Real,  then 
chief  of  the  police,  to  send  a  trusty  agent  to 
find  out  whether  the  duke  of  Enghien  was  al- 
ways at  Ettenheim,  and  what  were  his  relations 
and  his  habits.  An  officer  of  the  gendarmerie 
was  entrusted  with  this  mission,  and  this  was 
the  foundation  of  all  the  evil.  On  his  wav  to 
Strasburg,  this  officer  heard  it  mentioned  as  a 
notorious  fact,  that  the  duke  d'  Enghien  was  in 
the  habit  of  attending  the  theatre  in  that  city. 
The  spy  sent  to  Ettenheim  reached  it  with  pre- 
judices which  the  least  indications  will  increase. 
He  learns  that  there  are  some  emigrants  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  duke  d'  Enghien,  that  he 
invariably  gives  them  the  warmest  reception 
when  they  visit  him,  and  that  the  duke  is  fre- 
quently absent  for  days  at  a  time.  It  appeared 
afterwards  that  from  time  to  time,  a  passion  for 
hunting  kept  the  duke  for  several  successive 
clays  in  the  mountains  of  the  Black  Forest. 
This  was  not  all.  The  imperfect  pronunciation 
of  the  Germans  gave  the  officer  to  suppose, 
then  an  obscure  person  in  the  suite  of  the  duke, 
a  M.  de  Thumery,  was  no  other  than  general 
Dumouri«r.  The  union  of  these  particulars 
alarmed  the  officer,  who,  with  more  zeal  than 
truth,  created  fearful  phantoms  out  of  innocent 
appearances.  The  judgment  of  the  first  consul 
was  obscured  by  the  rapidity  with  which  his 
imagination  moved,  causing  him  to  take  for  in- 
contestible  facts,  stories'  which  had  but  vague 
conjecture  for  their  foundation.  Thus  he  soon 
arrived  at  his  conclusions.  "  In  GO  hours  one 
can  come  from  Strasburg  to  Paris.  It  requires 
but  five  days  to  go  and  return.  The  unknown 
personage  (afterwards  proved  to  be  Pichegru), 
who  was  received  with  so  much  respect  by 
Georges,  is  the  duke  d'  Enghien.  The  duke  is 
the  prime  mover  of  the  conspiracy,  the  soul  of 
it,  at  least  one  of  the  first  accomplices."  These 
were  the  ideas  which  presented  themselves  tc 
the  first  consul,  and  it  must  be  confessed  that 
the  supposed  presence  of  Dumourier  at  Etten- 
heim was  a  circumstance  of  weight.  The  fact, 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ENG 


235 


ENG 


if  it  had  been  true,  and  the  first  consul  believed 
it  to  be  so,  would  have  added  to  the  suspicions 
of  which  the  duke  d'  Enghien  was  the  subject. 

But  here  it  may  be  objected  that  these  suspi- 
cions were  without  foundation,  that  the  first 
consul  ought  to  have  known  it,  because  the 
charg6  of  foreign  affairs  at  Carlsruhe  wrote  that 
the  duke  of  Enghien  was  leading  the  most  quiet 
and  retired  life  at  Ettenheim.  It  will  be  con- 
ceded that  his  objection  has  little  force ;  for 
might  not  the  duke  d'  Enghien  be  concerned  in 
the  conspiracies  against  Bonaparte,  have  an  un- 
derstanding with  the  emigrants  in  his  neigh- 
borhood, entertain  Dumourier  in  his  train, 
either  under  his  own  or  another  name,  and  yet 
find  no  occasion  to  change  the  external  and  reg- 
ular order  of  his  life  ? 

There  was  another  cause  which  acted  upon  the 
determination  of  the  first  consul,  and  which  has 
hitherto  been  passed  over  in  total  silence.  The 
conspiracy  against  the  first  consul  was  nurtured 
in  England,  but  its  branches  spread  in  every 
direction.  In  England  conspirators  were  pen- 
sioned ;  in  Austria,  battalions  were  raised.  On 
one  side,  were  plots ;  on  the  other,  conspira- 
cies: danger  was  everywhere,  and  perils  were 
daily  augmenting.  How  could  the  first  consul 
imagine  that  the  duke  of  Enghien,  a  prince  of 
the  house  of  France,  an  officer  of  the  English 
army,  was  ignorant  of  the  preparations  wnich 
were  on  foot?  In  the  eyes  of  Bonaparte  the 
cabinets  of  London  and  Vienna  acted  in  con- 
cert. How  could  he  persuade  himself  that  a 
Bourbon,  placed  at  Ettenheim,  should  refuse  to 
participate  in  the  association  ?  Sir  Walter  8cott 
himself  believed  that  the  duke  was  established 
at  Ettenheim  for  the  purpose  of  putting  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  royalists  in  that  quarter, 
or  of  presenting  himself,  if  affairs  required  it,  to 
those  of  Paris.  The  discussion  between  Aus- 
tria and  France  had  come  almost  to  menaces. 
On  the  9th  of  March  Bonaparte  addressed  to  the 
emperor  of  Germany  a  summons  to  explain 
himself.  On  the  10th  was  given  the  fatal  order 
relative  to  the  duke  of  Enghien.  Who  can  say 
that  these  two  ideas  were  strangers  to  each 
other?  That  the  greatness  of  the  perils  which 
surrounded  Bonaparte  did  not  contribute  to  the 
violence  of  the  means  which  he  employed  to 
oppose  them,  and  make  his  enemies  tremble  ? 
Who  would  venture  to  assert  that  Austria,  al- 
ways so  intimately  connected  with  England,  had 
no  knowledge,  not  assuredly  of  the  plots  of  as- 
sassination, but  of  the  various  hostile  plans  em- 
ployed against  the  first  consul,  and  did  not  hold 
herself  in  readiness  to  yield  to  the  current  of 


events  ?  In  the  midst  of  these  circumstances, 
the  reports  of  the  agent  sent  to  Ettenheim  were 
submitted  to  the  first  consul.  Instantly  a  fear- 
ful resolution  was  taken,  and  the  order  given  for 
the  seizure  of  the  duke. 

How  was  this  resolution  taken  ?  Was  it  the 
result  of  a  sudden  movement  on  the  part  of 
Bonaparte,  or  was  it  determined  by  the  delibe- 
rations of  a  council  ?  The  orders  for  the  min- 
ister of  war  were  dictated,  at  10  P.  M.  by  the 
first  consul  on  issuing  from  a  cabinet  confer- 
ence at  which  were  present  the  two  consuls, 
Talleyrand,  the  chief  justice,  and  Fouche,  who 
was  then  only  a  senator.  Had  they  been  as- 
sembled by  special  convocation,  or  by  chance  ! 
This  is  of  little  consequence.  But  what  passed 
at  this  conference  ?  It  is  here  the  interpreta- 
tions of  jealousy  and  hate  begin.  Is  it  true,  as 
some  memoirs  have  asserted,  that  the  minister 
of  foreign  affairs,  after  a  report  upon  the  gene- 
ral state  of  Europe,  concluded  by  counselling 
the  violation  of  a  neutral  territory  ?  Is  it  true, 
as  some  have  asserted,  that  Fouche,  in  order  to 
create  embarrassment,  and  make  himself  neces- 
sary in  the  post  which  he  had  formerly  occu- 
pied, warmly  advocated  a  measure  which  he 
would  soon  be  the  first  to  denounce  ?  Is  it  true 
that  the  opposition  of  Cambaceres  to  the  seizure 
of  the  duke  upon  a  neutral  territory,  drew  down 
upon  him  the  famous  apostrophe  of  Bonaparte  ; 
"  you  have  become  very  avaricious  of  the  blood 
of  the  Bourbons." 

Bonaparte  might  have  said :  "  The  Bourbons 
have  sworn  to  destroy  me,  they  have  devoted 
my  heart  to  the  steel  of  their  satellites,  they 
have  willed  my  assassination.  Well !  let  them 
tremble  in  turn  !  I — I  can  also  assassinate.  I 
have  only  to  stretch  forth  my  hand  to  seize  one 
of  them — I  idill  seize  him,  I  will  destroy  him, 
and  they  shall  feel  that  they  can  no  longer  at- 
tempt my  life  with  impunity."  Perhaps,  "  in 
the  very  whirlwind  of  his  passion,"  an  infernal 
spirit,  in  vofrder  to  strengthen  him,  may  have 
whispered  cool  reflections  :  "  The  divorce  be- 
tween France  and  the  eldest  branch  of  the 
Bourbons  seems  definitive.  The  state  of  inac- 
tion to  which  the  princes  of  this  branch  have 
been  condemned  has  destroyed  all  sympathy 
between  them  and  heroic  France.  The  name 
of  Conde,  on  the  contrary,  recalls  more  vividly, 
the  glory  of  arms.  It  recalls  even  the  last  wars. 
The  grandfather  and  the  grandson  have  fought 
among  the  brave,  against  the  brave.  There  is 
here  a  possibility  of  reconciliation — a  germ  of 
sympathy.  It  is  this  branch  which  I  must  de- 
stroy, even  to  the  list  shoot,  .t  will  be  a 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


ENG 


236 


EPA 


crime,  a  great  crime,  but  a  state  crime,  a  po- 
litical crime.  It  will  spread  consternation  in 
France  even  amonor  my  most  devoted  friends; 
it  will  stupify  all  Europe ;  but  only  for  a  mo- 
ment; for  to-morrow,  other  occurrences  will 
concentrate  the  attention  of  all  Europe,  to-mor- 
row it  will  be  apprised  of  the  new  crimes  of 
England,  and  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Enghien 
will  be  lost  in  the  various  events  which  fortune 
seems  to  prepare  expressly  for  the  purposes  of 
concealment  and  oblivion." 

On  the  15th  of  March  the  duke  of  Enghien 
was  seized  at  Ettenheim  and  brought  to  Stras- 
burg.  From  Strasburg  he  was,  on  the  Idth 
transferred  to  Paris,  where  he  arrived  the  20th, 
and  thence  was  sent  to  the  castle  of  Vincennes. 
The  governor  of  Paris  appointed  a  council  of 
war  which  assembled  in  the  night.  The  prince 
was  condemned  to  death,  and  the  sentence  was 
immediately  executed.  In  a  proceeding  dicta- 
ted by  policy  legal  formalities  are  rarely  observ- 
ed. They  were  not  in  the  case  of  the  duke  of 
Enghien.  The  prisoner  of  St.  Helena  contin- 
ually justified  himself  by  saying  that  the  prince 
was  tried  "  by  a  competent  tribunal."  The 
competence  of  the  tribunal  is  a  very  doubtful 
matter,  but  could  it  be  settled,  according  to  the 
wishes  of  Napoleon,  there  would  still  remain  in 
this  affair,  the  infraction  of  the  laws  which  pro- 
tect the  accused.  The  duke  had  no  defender. 
Napoleon,  it  is  true,  has  said,  "  If  guilty,  the 
commission  did  right  in  condemning  him  to 
death.  If  innocent,  it  should  have  acquitted 
him,  for  no  order  can  justify  the  conscience  of 
a  judge."  What  a  lesson  for  magistrates,  for 
commissions  or  counsels  of  war,  which  should 
be  tempted  to  make  the  scales  of  justice  move 
in  accordance  with  the  interests  or  the  passions 
of  governments. 

ENGLAND  contains  40  counties,  with  a 
population  of  13,089,338.  The  counties  are 
Northumberland,  Cumberland,  Durbaja,  York- 
shire, Westmoreland,  Lancashire^BEheshire, 
Shropshire,  Herefordshire,  Monmouthshire, 
Nottinghamshire,  Derbyshire,  Staffordshire, 
Leicestershire,  Rutlandshire,  Northampton- 
shire, Warwickshire,  Worcestershire,  Glou- 
cestershire, Oxfordshire,  Buckinghamshire, 
Bedfordshire,  Lincolnshire,  Huntingdonshire, 
Cambridgeshire,  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Essex,  Ilert- 
forshire,  Middlesex,  Surry,  Kent,  Sussex, 
Berkshire,  Wiltshire,  Hampshire,  Dorsetshire, 
Somersetshire,  Devonshire,  Cornwall.  The  as- 
pect of  the  country  is  various,  but  generally 
pleasantly  diversified  with  hills  and  verdant 
plains.  The  climate,  though  moist  and  change- 


able, is  healthy.  The  agricultural  productions 
are  grain,  wool,  horned  cattle,  arid  horses. 
Among  the  minerals  are  coal,  copper,  tin,  iron, 
and  lead.  The  inland  navigation  of  England 
is  admirable  for  the  number  and  excellence  of 
its  canals,  and  the  communication  between 
commercial  places  is  facilitated  by  the  perfect 
condition  of  the  roads.  The  commerce  of 
England  exceeds  that  of  any  other  nation  on 
the  face  of  the  globe,  and  the  English  have  in 
consequence  been  naturally  called  "  a  nation 
of  shopkeepers."  The  six  most  important 
articles  of  manufacture  are  woollens,  cotton, 
silk,  hardware,  earthenware,  and  glass.  Epis- 
copacy is  the  established  religion,  but  there  is 
a  great  number  of  dissenters,  Catholics,  inde- 
pendents, Presbyterians,  Baptists,  Methodists, 
Quakers,  Unitarians.  Swedenborgians,  and 
Jews.  Education  in  England  is  by  no  means 
neglected,  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge being  the  richest  institutions  in  the 
world.  The  exports  of  Great  Britain  amount 
annually  to  £37,000,000,  and  the  imports  to 
about  £  25,000,000.  (For  the  history  of  Eng- 
land, ttc.  See  Britain.) 

ENGLAND  NEW;  this  name  was  given 
by  Charles  I,  of  England,  to  that  part  of  N. 
America  which  now  includes  the  States  of 
Maine,  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  Massachu- 
setts, Rhode-Island,  and  Connecticut. 

ENOCH,  a  patriarch  who  lived  before  the 
deluge. 

ENOS,  the  son  of  Seth.and  father  of  Ci>  nan. 
He  lived  to  the  age  of  IHJ5  years. 

EPAMINONDAS,  a  famous  Theban  des- 
cended from  the  ancient  kings  of  Bceotia  He 
was  celebrated  for  his  private  virtues  and  mili- 
tary accomplishments.  His  love  of  truth  was 
so  great  that  he  was  never  known  to  give 
utterance  to  a  falsehood.  He  formed  a  most 
sacred  and  inviolable  friendship  with  Pelopidas 
whose  life  he  saved  in  battle.  15y  his  advice 
Pclopidas  delivered  Thebes  from  the  power  of 
Lacedasmon.  This  was  the  signal  of  war. 
Kpuininondas  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Theban  armies,  und~  defeated  the  Spartans  in 
the  celebrated  battle  of  Leuctra,  about  370  B. 
C.  Epaminondas  entered  the  territories  of 
Lacedcemon  with  50,000  men.  Here  he  gained 
many  friends  and  partisans,  but,  at  his  return 
from  Thebes,  he  was  seized  as  a  traitor  for 
violating  tho  laws  of  his  country.  While  he 
was  making  the  Theban  army  victorious  on 
every  side,  he  neglected  the  law  which  forbade 
any  citizen  to  retain  in  his  hands  the  supreme 
power  for  more  than  one  month,  and  all  his 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EPI 


237 


ERA 


eminent  services  seemed  unable  to  redeem  him 
from  death.  He  paid  implicit  obedience  to  the 
laws  of  his  country,  and  only  begged  of  his 
judges  that  it  might  be  inscribed  on  his  tomb, 
that  he  had  suffered  death  for  saving  his  coun- 


try from  ruin.  This  animated  reproach  was 
felt;  he  was  pardoned,  and  invested  again  with 
sovereign  power.  He  was  successful  in  a  war 


with  Thessaly,  and  again  engaged  against  the 
Lacedaemonians.  The  hostile  armies  met  near 
Mantinea  363  B.  C.  and  while  Epaminondas  was 
fighting  bravely  in  the  thickest  of  the  enemy, 
he  received  a  fatal  wound  in  the  breast,  and  ex- 
pired with  joy  on  hearing  that  the  Bceotians 
had  obtained  the  victory.  On  hearing  his 
friends  regret  that  he  had  left  no  children,  he 
said;  "  I  leave  behind  me  two  immortal  daugh- 
ters, the  victories  of  Leuctra  and  Mantinea. 

EPEE,  Charles  Michael,  abbe  de  1',  was  born 
at  Versailles  in  1712.  None  of  the  teachers  who 
had  been  successful  with  deaf  and  dumb  pupils, 
had  published  accounts  of  their  method,  so  that 
De  L'  Epee  was  not  indebted  to  them  for  the 
mode  of  instruction  which  he  first  employed 
upon  two  sisters.  His  zeal  in  the  cause  of 
those  who  were  destitute  of  speech  and  hearing 
led  him  into  pecuniary  embarrassment.  One 
incident  in  his  life  is  peculiarly  interesting. 
He  met,  one  day,  in  the  streets  of  Paris  a  deaf 
and  dumb  youth  in  the  garb  of  a  beggar  whom 
he  was  convinced  was  the  heir  of  the  rich  fami- 
ly of  the  Count  of  Solar.  A  law-suit  followed, 
which  was  at  first  successful,  but  when  the 
friends  of  Solar  were  dead,  his  property  was 
again  wrested  from  him,  and  he  was  compelled 
to  enlist  in  the  army  as  acuraissier.  Del'  Epee 
died  in  1780. 

EP1IESUS,  the  capital  city  of  Ionia,  famous 
for  its  splendid  temple  dedicated  to  the  worship 
of  Diana.  This  superb  temple  occupied  229 
years  in  its  erection,  was  425  feet  long,  2JO 
broad  and  adorned  with  an  immense  number 
of  lofty  columns.  It  was  burned  by  Erostratus 
356  years  B.  C.  to  perpetuate  his  name.  The 
paltry  village  of  Aiasoluk  occupies  the  site  of 
the  ancient  city. 

EPICTETUS,  a  stoic  philosopher,  born  at 
Hieropolis,  in  Phrygia,  A.  D.  90.  He  was  the 
slave  of  Epaphroditus,  a  freedman  of  Nero. 
His  master  once  struck  him  a  severe  blow  upon 
the  leg.  "  You  will  break  it,"  was  the  calm 
reply  of  the  stoic.  The  brute  repeated  the 
blow  and  broke  it.  "  Did  I  not  tell  you  so  ?  " 
was  the  quiet  exclamation  of  the  philosopher. 
He  was  afterwards  freed,  and  made  governor 
of  Cappadocia  A.  D.  134. 


EPICURUS,  was  born  at  Gargettus,  near 
Athens,  :*12  B.  C.  In  the  36th  year  of  his  age 
he  opened  his  school  in  an  Athenian  garden. 
He  taught  his  scholars  that  the  siimmum  Uonum 
consisted  in  happiness ;  but  that  happiness  did 
not  spring  from  sensual  enjoyments  but  from  a 
practice  of  the  virtues.  He  commended  wis- 
dom, was  temperate,  moderate,  gentle,  firm, 
and  fearless  of  death.  He  died  270  B.  C.,  and 
had  many  followers. 

EPIRUS,  a  province  on  the  borders  of  Greece, 
the  most  southerly  portion  of  the  modern  Alba- 
nia.  This  country  was  first  inhabited  by  the 
Chaones,  and  the  kingdom  of  Epirus  may  be 
said  to  have  begun  with  Pyrrhus  the  son  of 
Achilles,  about  the  year  UOO  B.  C  About  2dO 
B.  C.  another  Pyrrhus,  king  of  this  country, 
distinguished  himself  greatly  by  his  wars  with 
the  Romans,  in  favor  of  the  Tarentines.  Upon 
the  death  of  Deodamia,  the  last  of  this  race, 
about  the  year  24U  B.  C.,  the  Epirots  formed 
themselves  into  a  republic,  which  was  reduced 
by  Paulus  Amilius,  the  Roman  general,  all  the 
towns  destroyed,  and  the  inhabitants  enslaved 
in  one  day.  Upon  the  taking  of  Constantino- 
ple, in  1204,  Michael  Angelus  seized  this  coun- 
try, and  his  posterity  held  it  till  it  was  taken  by 
the  Turks  under  Amurath  II,  in  1432.  In 
1447,  Castriot  (Scanderbeg)  revolted  from  the 
Turks,  but  the  country  was  finally  reduced  by 
Mohammed  II,  in  146t>. 

EQUATOR,  Republic  of  the,  a  South  Amer- 
ican state,  composed  of  the  three  southwestern 
departments  of  the  former  republic  of  Colombia ; 
Ecuador,  Assuay,  and  Guayaquil.  It  lies  be- 
tween Brazil  on  the  east,  Peru  on  the  South, 
New  Granada  on  the  north,  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean  on  the.  west,  having  an  area  of  325,000 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  650,000  souls. 
The  eastern  part  is  uninhabited  or  occupied  by 
independent  Indians.  The  capital  of  the  re- 
public is  Quito,  with  70,000  inhabitants.  This 
section  formerly  constituted  the  audiencia  of 
Quito,  dependent  upon  the  vice-royalty  of  New 
Granada.  In  1823  it  was  delivered  from  the 
Spanish  yoke  by  the  brilliant  victory  of  Pichin- 
cha  gained  by  the  patriot  general  Sucre,  and 
it  joined  tiie  Colombian  confederacy.  When  that 
state  fell  to  pieces  in  1830,  it  declared  itself  an 
independent  state. 

ERASMUS,  Desiderius,  a  man  celebrated 
for  his  learning,  was  born  at  Rotterdam  in 
1467.  At  the  age  of  17  he  assumed  the  monas- 
tic habit,  but  subsequently  obtained  a  dispen- 
sation from  his  vows.  He  travelled  through 
many  countries,  but  was  received  with  the 


CYCLOPEDIA    OP  HISTORY. 


ESC 


238 


EST 


greatest  kindness  by  Henry  VIII,  of  England, 
and  was  for  a  short  time  professor  of  Greek  at 
Oxford.  Erasmus  died  1536.  Besides  his  the- 
ological works,  and  his  editions  of  the  classics, 
he  published  an  Encomium  on  Folly,  which  has 
been  often  reprinted.  His  letters  are  of  histori- 
cal value. 

EREBUS,  the  son  of  Chaos  and  Darkness, 
the  brother  and  husband  of  night,  and  the 
father  of  Day  and  Light.  He  was  transformed 
into  a  river  which  flows  through  the  infernal 
regions.  - 

ERFURT,  a  fortress  in  Thuringia,  belonging 
to  Prussia;  the  town  contains  at  present 2 1 ,330 
inhabitants.  It  was  founded  in  the  5th  century. 
It  maintained  a  kind  of  independence,  until  the 
17th  century,  when  the  elector  of  Mente  gained 
possession  ol  it.  In  1814  it  was  granted  to  Prus- 
sia by  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  Erfurt  was 
famous  for  the  meeting  between  Napoleon  and 
the  Emperor  Alexander  witli  many  other  kings 
and  princes.  This  was  in  September  1608,  and 
Napoleon's  object  was  the  pacification  of  all 
Europe.  He  was  now  at  the  summit  of  power 
and  glory  and  he  stood  upon  the  very  pinnacle 
of  grandeur,  with  a  feeling  of  intense  enjoy- 
ment. "  Come  to  Erfurt,"  he  wrote  exulting'ly 
to  Talma,  "  and  you  shall  play  to  a  icliole  pit  full 


ERSKINE,  Thomas,  lord  Erskine,  a  celebrat- 
ed lawyer,  was  the  son  of  David  Henry  Erskine, 
tenth  Earl  of  Buchan,  and  was  born  in  the  year 
1750.  It  was  not  until  after  he  served  some 
years  in  the  army  and  navy  that  he  embraced 
the  legal  profession  at  the  age  of  2b'.  In  1778, 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  his  success  was 
both  speedy  and  triumphant.  During  25  years 
he  enjoyed  an  extensive  practice.  He  was 
appointed  attorney  general  to  the  prince  of 
Wales,  and,  in  1802,  keeper  of  his  seals  for  the 
duchy  of  Cornwall.  He  died  in  1823,  Many 
of  his  speeches  and  some  political  works  have 
been  published.  His  popularity  may  be  infer- 
red from  the  fact  that  his  pamphlet,  entitled  A 
view  of  the  Causes  and  Consequences  of  the 
War  with  France,  went  through  48  editions. 

ERZERUM,  ARZERUM,  or  ARZ-ROUM, 
anciently  .tfrze,the  capital  of  Turkish  Armenia, 
and  of  a  pachalic  of  the  same  name,  situated  near 
the  head  of  the  Euphrates,  250  miles  N.  N.  E. 
«.f  Aleppo,  contains  about  100,000  inhabitants, 
Turks,  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Persians  It 
is  a  well  built  place  and  enjoys  considerable 
trade.  Its  manufactures  are  numerous. 

ESCURIAL,  a  magnificent  palace,  situated 
on  the  ascent  to  the  chain  of  mountains  bound- 


ing Old  Castile,  22  miles  from  Madrid.  It  was 
erected  by  Philip  II,  in  commemoration  of  the 
victory  of"St.  Qucnlin,  gained  over  the  French 
in  l.r)5'7.  The  battle  was  fought  on  the  day  of 
the  festival  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  palace  was 
dedicated  to  this  saint,  whose  instrument  of 
martyrdom,  a  gridiron,  is  immortalized  in  the 
disposition  of  the  buildings  composing  the  Es- 
curial.  It  is  said  to  have  cost  50,000.000  dollars, 
and  contains  many  noble  works  of  art. 

ESNEH,  ESNE,  or  ASNA.  a  city  of  Upper 
Egypt,  27  miles  S.  of  Thebes,  standing  on  the 
site  of  Latopolis.  and  containing  some  superb 
ruins. 

ESQUIMAUX,  dwarfish  tribes  of  North 
America,  occupying  the  northern  coast  of  Amer- 
ica, from  prince  William's  sound  to  the  borders 
of  the  Atlantic  on  the  coast  of  Labrador.  They 
live  by  hunting  and  fishing,  and  are  alike  des- 
titute of  laws  and  religion.  They  formerly  put 
to  death  widows  and  orphans,  and  those  who, 
from  age  or  misfortune,  were  incapable  of  gain- 
ing a  subsistence. 

ESSEQUIBO,  a  settlement  of  English  Gui- 
ana, on  the  borders  of  a  river  of  the  same  name, 
ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1814.  The  soil  is 
fertile  and  well  cultivated. 

ESSEX,  earl  of,  (see  Devereux). 

E8TACHAR.  or  ESTAKAR,  or  ISTA- 
CHAR,  a  town  of  Persia,  KiO  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
Ispahan,  near  which  are  the  ruins  of  the  an- 
cient Persepolis,  the  residence  of  the  Persian 
kings. 

EiSTA ING,  Charles  Henry,  count  d',  a  French 
admiral  and  lieutenant  general  of  the  French 
armies  before  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution, 
was  the  descendant  of  a  noble  French  family, 
and  commenced  his  career  in  the  West  Indies. 
He  was  twice  taken  prisoner  by  the  English. 
He  was  vice-admiral  in  the  American  war,  and 
was  appointed  a  commander  of  the  national 
guards  in  178U,  but  was  guillotined  in  1793. 

ESTHER,  a  Jewish  girl  who  became  the 
queen  of  Ahasuerus,  the  luxurious  monarch  of 
Persia.  (For  the  particulars  of  her  story  see 
the  book  of  Esther). 

ESTHONIA,  or  the  GOVERNMENT  OF 
REVAL,  part  of  the  province  of  Livonia,  be- 
longing to  Russia,  and  containing  302,000  in- 
habitants. After  1385  the  country  was  sold  to 
the  Teutonic  knights,  and  formed  a  part  of  Li 
vonia,  subject  for  a  century  to  Sweden,  but  ulti 
mainly  reverting  to  the  Russians. 

ESTREMADURA,  a  Spanish  province,  is 
bounded  N.  by  Leon  and  Old  Castile,  E.  by 
New  Castile,  S.  by  Andalusia,  and  W.  by  For- 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EUG 


239 


EUL 


tugal.    It  is  extremely  fertile  and  contained,  in 
1797,  423,393  inhabitants. 

ESTREMADURA.  a  province  of  Portugal, 
bounded  N.  by  the  province  of  Beira,  E.  and  S. 
by  Alentejo,  and  VV.  by  the  ocean.  It  is  124 
miles  long,  and  77  broad.  It  is  generally  fertile, 
and  contains  700.500  inhabitants. 

ETHIOPIANS.  This  name  was  anciently 
applied  to  all  nations  having  a  dark  skin,  and 
was  not  confined  to  Africans,  but  was  also  appli- 
ed to  Asiatics.  Ethiopia  being  one  of  the  names 
of  Abyssinia,  it  was  applied  to  the  inhabitants. 
ETON,  a  village  of  England,  in  Bucks,  sep- 
arated by  the  Thames  from  Windsor.  It  con- 
tains 3,230  inhabitants.  Its  college  is  well-en- 
dowed, and  was  founded  in  1440. 

ETRURIA,  the  country  of  the  Etruscans, 
now  Tuscany,  was  bounded  N.  by  the  river 
Magna,  E.  by  the  Apennines,  S.  by  the  Tiber, 
and  W.  by  the  Mediterranean.  The  Etruscans 
at  a  very  early  age  had  received  the  arts  from 
Greece,  and  produced  some  most  beautiful  spe- 
cimens. They  gave  to  the  Romans  their  early 
religious  usages  and  architecture,  and  finally 
became  the  victims  of  Roman  ambition. 

In  1801  the  name  of  Etruria  was  restored, 
and  the  country  was  made  a  kingdom  and  re- 
mained so  until  amalgamated  with  the  French 
empire,  by  a  senatorial  decree  of  May  30,  1808. 
The  next  year  Eliza,  the  sister  of  Napoleon, 
received  this  territory,  with  the  title  of  grand- 
duchess  of  Tuscany.  In  1814  its  ancient  rulers 
regained  it. 

ETTENHEIM,  a  small  town  of  the  duchy 
of  Baden,  with  2630  inhabitants.  Here  the 
duke  of  Enghien  was  arrested. 

EUCLID,  the  father  of  mathematics,  was 
born  at  Alexandria,  about  300  B.  C. 

EUERGET^E  (benefactors),  a  name  given 
to  the  JigriaspcE  or  .Irimaspi,  a  tribe  of  the  Per- 
sian province  of  Drangiana.  on  account  of  their 
having  saved  the  army  of  Cyrus  when  in  dan- 
ger of  perishinor  for  want  of  provisions. 

EUGEN  E,  Francis,  of  Savoy,  fifth  son  of  Eu- 
gene Maurice,  duke  of  Savoy-Carignan,  was 
born  at  Pans  in  1663.  His  mother  was  Olym- 
pia  Mancmi.  niece  to  Cardinal  Mazarin.  He 
was  educated  for  the  church,  but  after  the  death 
of  his  father,  and  the  exile  of  his  mother,  he 
and  his  brother  Philip  went  to  Vienna,  where 
they  met  with  a  gracious  reception.  In  the 
war  which  broke  out  with  Turkey,  prince  Philip 
fell  in  battle,  and  left  his  command  to  Eugene, 
who  signalized  himself  at  the  siege  of  Vienna 
in  1683,  as  he  did  afterwards  at  Buda.  He  next 
served  against  the  French  in  Italy ;  and  in  1697 
21 


commanded  the  army  in  Hungary,  where  he 
gained  a  splendid  victory,  in  which  the  Turks 
lost  above  30.000  men.  with  their  commander 
the  grand  vizier.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war  occasioned  by  the  disputes  about  the  Span- 
ish succession,  Eugene  commanded  the  Impe- 
rialists in  Italy,  where  he  was  opposed  to  Vil- 
leroi,  whom  he  made  prisoner.  After  this  he 
acted  in  conjunction  with  Marlborough.  In 
1712  the  prince  carne  to  England  to  prevail 
upon  the  court  to  continue  the  war,  hut  could 
not  succeed.  Compelled  to  act  on  the  defensive, 
he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost;  and,  in  1714. 
settled  preliminary  articles  with  marshal  Villars 
at  Rastadt,  which  ended  soon  after  in  a  general 
peace. 

In  1716  the  war  with  the  Turks  was  renewed, 
and  the  prince  again  took  the  field  in  Hungary, 
where  he  attacked  the  enemy  in  their  camp, 
and  obtained  a  complete  victory,  which  was 
followed  by  the  capture  of  Temeswar  and  Bel- 
grade. From  this  time  to  1733  Eugene  re- 
mained at  Vienna,  employed  in  the  cabinet ;  but 
in  that  year  he  assumed  the  command  in  Italy, 
where  he  experienced  various  success  in  the 
contest  with  the  combined  pt>wers  of  France, 
Spain,  and  Sardinia.  He  was  found  dead  in 
his  bed,  April  10,  1736. 

EUGENE  DE  BEAUHARNAIS,  the  son 
of  viscount  Alexander  Beauharnais  and  Jose- 
phine, afterwards  empress  of  France,  was  born 
September  3,  1731.  In  the  French  revolution 
he  entered  the  army,  and  when  his  mother  was 
married  to  Bonaparte,  accompanied  the  latter 
to  Italy  and  Egypt.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  many  campaigns.  In  1805  he  was  made 
prince  o"f  France  and  viceroy  of  Italy.  In  1807 
he  was  declared  prince  of  Venice,  and  Napo- 
leon's heir  to  the  kingdom  of  Itily.  During 
the  retreat  from  Moscow,  his  good  conduct, 
with  that  of  Nev,  saved  the  army  from  total 
destruction.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  he 
surrendered  Italy  to  the  Austrians,  and  went 
to  Munich  to  his  father-in-law,  the  king  of  Ba- 
varia. Thenceforth  he  took  no  share  in  the  for- 
tunes of  Napoleon.  He  was  created  duke  of 
Leuchtenburg,  and  the  principality  of  Eichstedt 
was  bestowed  upon  him.  He  died  at  Munich, 
Feb.  21,  1824. 

EULER,  Leonard,  a  mathematician  of  Bale, 
born  in  1707.  He  was  educated  at  the  univer- 
sity of  his  native  place.  In  his  19th  year  he 
gained  a  prize  from  the  academy  of  Paris  for 
the  best  treatise  on  the  masting  of  vessels.  He 
took  the  department  of  Mathematics  in  the 
academy  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  published  a 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


EUR 


240 


EZE 


vast  number  of  treatises.  In  the  Paris  Academy 
of  Sciences  he  gained  ten  prizes.  In  1741  he 
became  professor  in  the  Berlin  academy,  but 
returned  to  St.  Petersburg  where  he  died  in 
1783  in  the  office  of  director  of  the  mathematical 
department.  Throughout  his  life,  he  received 
honors  from  all  quarters.  He  was  cheerful  and 
amiable  in  private  life,  although  the  last  17  years 
of  his  existence  were  past  in  total  blindness. 

EUPHRATES,  PHRAT,  or  FRAT,  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  celebrated  rivers  in  Asia, 
1,500  miles  long,  and  is  navigable  for  ships  of 
500  tons  to  Bassard.  It  rises  in  the  mountains 
of  Armenia. 

EURIPIDES,  a  celebrated  tragic  poet,  in 
great  favor  with  Archelaus,  was  born  at  Salamis 
on  the  day  that  the  army  of  Xerxes  was  routed 
by  the  Athenians.  He  wrote  75  tragedies,  only 
nineteen  of  which  are  extant.  Euripides  was 
called  Misogynes  for  his  hatred  of  women,  and 
particularly  ~6f  his  own  wife.  In  the  75th  year 
of  his  age,  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs. 

EUROPE,  the  least 'extensive,  but  ths  most 
improved  of  the  four  quarters  o/  the  globe,  is 
situated  between  36°  and  71°  N.  latitude;  hav- 
ing from  south  to  north  a  breadth  of  about  2,000 
miles  and  from  east  to  west  a  length  of  nearlv 
3000.  It  contains  about  three  millions  and  a 
half  of  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  330 
million,  and  is  bounded  by  the  sea  in  all  direc- 
tions except  the  east  where  it  joins  Asia. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  States  of 
Europe,  with  the  religion  and  government  of 
each. 

Relitrimi.  Goremmrr.t. 

Russia.  Greek  Church.       Monarchy. 

Sweden.  Lutheran.  Lim.  Monarchy. 

Denmark.  Lutheran.  Monarchy. 

Prussia.  Protestant.  Monarchy. 

Great  Britain.         Protestant.  Lim.  Monarchy. 

Netherlands.          Prot.  and  Cath.      Lim.  Monarchy. 
Belgium.  Prot.  and  Cath.      Lim.  Monarchy. 

Switzerland.          Prot.  and  Cath.      Republic. 
Hanover.  Lutheran.  Monarchy. 

Saxony.  Lutheran.  Lim.  Monarchy. 

Wurtuinberg.          Lutheran.  Lim.  Monarchy. 

%rtate".'Sl"a"  \     rr°testant.  Lim.  Monarchy. 

Bavnrin.  Catholic.  Lim.  Monarchy. 

Austria.  Catholic.  Ab».  Monarchy. 

Franc.-.  Catholic.  Lim.  Monarchy. 

Spain.  Catholic.  Monarchy. 

PortuiMl.  Catholic.  Monarchy. 

Sardinia.  Catholic.  Monarchy. 

.Naples.  Catholic.  Monarchy. 

SlChiirci|lhe      |     Calholic-  Monarchy. 

Ilajian  Sma.l     j     Calholic  noMnby. 

Ionian  Islands.      Greek  Church.       Repuhlic. 
Turkey.  Mohammedan.       Despotism. 

Greece.  Greek  Church.      Lim.  Monarchy. 


EUSTATIA,  ST.;  one  of  the  Leeward  island*. 
8  miles  S.  W.  of  St.  Christopher's,  a  vast  rock 
29  miles  in  circumference.  Population,  18,000. 
The  Dutch  settled  here  in  1(»00.  It  was  suc- 
cessively in  the  hands  of  the  English.  French, 
Dutch,  English,  (a  second  time),  and  was  re- 
stored to  the  Dutch  in  1G97.  In  1781  Admiral 
Rodney  reduced  the  inhabitants  to  poverty, 
under  pretence  of  their  having  supplied  the 
United  States  with  provisions.  The  island  was 
retaken  by  the  French,  again  submitted  to  tin1 
English  in  180!>.  and  was  again  restored  to  the 
Dutch  in  1814. 

EUTROP1US,  Flavius.  a  Latin  author,  who 
nourished  about  A.  D.  360;  his  Abridgment  of 
the  History  of  Rome  is  dedicated  to  the  empe- 
ror Valens,  to  whose  time  it  extends. 

EVE  ;  the  first  woman,  wife  of  Adam,  and 
created  from  a  rib  taken  from  his  side.  (See 
Mam.) 

E  WING,  John,  a  celebrated  American  divine 
and  mathematician,  was  born  in  Cecil  county, 
Maryland,  June  22,  1732.  and  was  graduated  at 
Princeton  college  in  1755.  After  completing 
his  education,  he  was  for  a  short  time  tutor  in 
the  college,  and  instructed  the  philosophical 
classes  of  the  college  of  Philadelphia,  wkere  lv 
was  settled  as  pastor  of  tiie  first  presbyterian 
congregation  in  175'.'.  He  v.-ent  to  England  in 
1773  to  obtain  subscriptions  for  an  Academy, 
and  received  the,  degree  of  D.  D.  from  the  uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  On  his  return  to  Amer- 
ica in  1775.  lie  !i!!ed  the  otlice  of  provost  of  the 
university  of  Pennsylvania  until  his  death.  lie 
published  Lectures  on  Natural  History,  and 
made  some  most,  important,  additions  to  the  as- 
tronomical articles  in  the  American  edition  of 
the  Encijclnpa'dia  liritamrira.  He  died  Sept. 
8, 18C2.  in  the  71st  year  of  his  age. 

EX ETEK.  called"  by  the  Indians  Siramscot, 
a  pleasant  and  flourishing  town  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, in  Rockingham  county  15  miles  N.  N. 
W.  of  Ntfwburyport.  It  has  an  excellent 
academy,  founded  by  John  Phillips  in  1781.  and 
called  Phillips  Exeter  academy. 

EYLAU,  Preuss.  a  small"  town  in  Prussia 
Proper,  whore  a  gn>;it  battle  between  the  French 
and  Russians  was  fought  on  the  7th  and  8th  of 
Febnnrv.  1807.  in  which  neither  party  gained 
its  object.  The  Russians  retired  behind  the 
rregel,  and  the  French,  after  remaining  some 
days  on  the  field  of  battle,  fell  back  on  the  Vis- 

EZEKIEL,  the  third  of  the  great  prophets, 
a  son  of  Buzi.  for  whose  history  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  Old  Testament.  " 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


FAB 


F. 


241 


FAI 


FABIUS  MAXIMUS,  duintus,  a  celebrated 
Roman  who,  from  u  dull  and  unpromising  child- 
hood, sprang  into  a  maturity  of  valor  and  hero- 
ism, and  was  gradually  raised  by  his  merit  to 
the  highest  offices  in  the  state.  In  his  first 
consulship  he  gained  a  victory  over  Ltguria, 
and  the  fatal  battle  of  Thrasymene  occasioned 
his  election  to  the  dictatorship.  In  this  impor- 
tant office  he  began  to  oppose  Hannibal,  riot  by 
fighting  him  in  The  open  field  like  his  predeces- 
sors, but  continually  harassing  his  army  by 
countermarches  and  ambuscades,  for  which  he 
received  the  surname  of  Cunctator,  or  Delaver. 
When  he  had  laid  down  his  office  of  dictator, 
his  successors,  for  awhile,  followed  his  plan  ; 
but  the  rashness  of  Varro  and  his  contempt  for 
the  operations  of  Fabius,  occasioned  the  fatal 
battle  of  Cannee ;  and,  on  that  occasion,  the 
Carthaginian  enemy  observed,  that  Fabius  was 
the  Hannibal  of  Rome.  When  he  had  made  an 
agreement  with  Hannibal,  for  the  ransom  of  the 
captives,  which  was  totally  disapproved  by  the 
Roman  senate,  he  sold  all  his  estates  to  pay  the 
money,  rather  than  forfeit  his  word  to  the  ene- 
my. The  bold  proposal  of  young  Scipio  to 
carry  the  war  from  Italy  into  Africa,  was  re- 
garded as  chimerical  by  Fabius,  and  rejected  by 
him  as  too  hazardous  an  experiment.  He  did 
not,  however,  live  to  see  the  success  of  the  Ro- 
man arms  under  Scipio,  and  the  conquest  of 
Carthage  by  measures  which  he  treated  with 
contempt,  and  heard  proposed  with  indignation. 
He  died  in  his  100th  year,  202  B.  C.,  after  he 
had  been  five  times  consul. 

FABRICIUS,  Cains,  Luscinus,  a  truly  heroic 
and  virtuous  Roman,  incorruptible  at  a  time 
when  wealth  was  almost  omnipotent,  and  pre- 
serving a  fearless  bearing  in  the  presence  of 
the  mightiest.  He  lived  at  a  time  of  danger  to 
the  commonwealth,  when  Pyrrhus.  king  of  Epi- 
rus,  had  come  to  Italy,  less  for  the  purpose  of 
affording  aid  to  the  Tarentines,  than  of  acquiring 
a  military  reputation  by  conquering  the  masters 
of  the  world.  When  he  was  sent  on  an  em- 
bassy to  Pyrrhus  for  the  purpose  of  redeeming 
some  prisoners,  the  king  of  Epirus  attempted  to 
corrupt  his  fidelity  by  a  bribe,  which  was  indig- 
nantly refused.  The  king  on  the  next  day  or- 
dered a  curtain  to  be  suddenly  drawn,  display- 
ing to  view  an  elephant  of  enormous  size,  a 
creature  hitherto  unknown  in  Italy.  The  brave 
Fabricius  calmly  said  : — "  Your  elephant  of  to- 
day moves  me  no  more  than  vour  gold  of  yes- 
terday." He  died  275  B.  C.  " 


FAIRFAX,  Thomas,  lord  ;  was  born  at  Den- 
ton,  in  Yorkshire,  in  161 1  He  entered  into  the 
service  under  lord  Vere.in  Holland,  and  on  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  wars  took  part  against 
the  king.  Afterwards,  however,  the  jealousy 
of  Cromwell  disgusted  him  with  the  Puritans, 
although  continued  in  the  employ  of  the  gov- 
ernment. He  assisted  in  the  Restoration,  was 
reconciled  to  Charles  II,  and  died  in  1671. 

FAIRIES.  Almost  all  nations  have,  in  igno- 
rant times,  possessed  a  strong  belief  in  the  su- 
pernatural, which  has  been  continued  to  the 
present  day,  among  the  unenlightened.  Wild 
and  terrific  scenes  were  peopled  by  the  imagi- 
nation with  fierce  and  fearful  beings,  while 
flowery  dells,  sequestred  glades,  green  and 
smiling  forests,  and  pleasant  water-falls,  were 
selected  as  the  haunts  of  a  gentler,  and  more 
graceful  race  of  beings,  than  belongs  to  hu- 
manity. 

Pastoral  nations  delighted  to  picture  forms  of 
miniature  elegance,  whose  habitations  were 
delicate  and  fragrant  flowers.  The  fairy  queen 
Titania  hung  like  a  bee  or  butterfly,  within 
a  hairbel,  or  led  the  gay  dance  by  moonlight, 
over  roses,  without  bending  the  most  fragile 
floweret  leaf  beneath  her  fx)t8tep.  The  beings 
called  fairies  were  at  first  termed  elves,  the 
word  elf  originating  with  the  Saxons,  who,  from 
remote  antiquity,  believed  in  them. 

The  Laplanders,  Icelanders,  and  inhabitants 
of  Finland,  believed  in  the  existence  of  fairies. 
Many  affirmed  that  they  had  had  intercourse 
with'them,  and  had  been  invited  to  their  sub- 
terranean retreats,  where  they  were  hospitably 
entertained.  The  little  men  and  women  hand- 
ed round  wine  and  tobacco,  with  which  the 
mortal  visitors  were  supplied  in  abundance,  and 
afterwards  sent  them  on  their  way,  with  good 
advice,  and  an  honorable  escort.  Up  to  tliis 
time,  these  people  boast  of  mingling  in  the 
magical  ceremonies  and  dances  of  the  fairies. 

The  word  fairy  is  thought,  by  most  writers, 
to  be  derived  from  the  Persian,  and  the  charac- 
ter of  the  English  fairies  and  the  Persian  Peris 
is  similar.  The  Peris  of  the  Orientals,  are  rep- 
resented as  females  of  exquisite  beauty,  and 
great  gentleness,  who  are  not  permitted  to  reside 
in  Heaven.  They  are  not  however  of  earth. 
They  live  in  the  colors  of  the  rainbow,  among 
the  gorgeously-tinted  clouds,  and  are  nourished 
by  the  fragrance  of  sweet  flowers. 

The  Dives  of  the  Persians  were  spirits  of  the 
male  sex,  with  habits  and  dispositions,  directly 
contrary  to  those  of  the  Peris.  They  were  ma- 
levolent, cruel,  and  fierce,  and  described  a* 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


FAI 


242 


1AI 


hideous  in  their  appearance.  Huge  spiral  horns 
sprang  from  their  heads,  their  eyes  were  large 
and  staring,  their  claws  sharp  and  their  fangs 
terrific.  Covered  with  shaggy  hair,  and  hav- 
ing long  rough  tails,  it  seemed  as  if  they  pos- 
sessed every  deformity.  The  Dives  warred 
with  mankind,  and  pursued  the  Peris  with  un- 
relenting hatred.  Their  lives,  however,  were 
limited,  and  they  were  not  incapable  of  feeling 
personal  violence. 

The  fancies  of  the  inhabitants  of  tlie  East, 
teem  with  supernatural  beings.  The  Genii, 
spirits  of  vast  size,  were  said  to  have  been  im- 
prisoned by  Solomon,  who  shut  them  up  in 
caskets,  upon  which  he  placed  his  seal.  Some 
were  thrown  into  rivers.  A  fisherman  once 
drew  one  np  from  the  bottom  of  a  stream  in  his 
net,  and  the  vessel  being  opened,  a  dense  smoke 
arose  from  the  interior.  The  smoke  gradually 
assumed  the  vast  figure  of  a  Genius.  The 
whole  story  is  related  in  the  Arabian  Nights' 
Entertainments. 

Fairies  of  a  certain  class,  such  as  the  warlike 
elves  or  fays,  were  believed  to  exist  by  all  Eu- 
ropean nations.  During  times  of  military  en- 
thusiasm, the  fancy  of  warriors  saw  processions 
of  fairies,  well-armed  and  mounted,  bearing 
gorgeous  banners ;  their  weapons  glittering  in 
the  moonlight,  or  gleaming  like  lightning  on 
the  darkness  of  the  night.  A  Bohemian  le- 
gend says  that  a  certain  knight,  travelling  with 
a  friend,  met  one  of  these  nocturnal  processions, 
and,  disregarding  the  caution  of  his  companion, 
spurred  his  horse  forward  to  attack  them. 
Horse  and  rider  were  found  dead  upon  the  spot 
in  the  morning. 

The  Swedes  asserted  that  there  was  a  certain 
class  of  supernatural  beings,  pretty  much  the 
same  as  the  Brownies  of  Scotland,  who  assisted 
the  miners,  labored  in  the  shafts,  and  were  far 
more  ingenious  than  mortal  workmen. 

The  fairies  of  England  were  generally  of  a 
harmless  disposition.  Oberon  and  Titania,  the 
fairy  king  and  queen,  were  pleasant  little  peo- 
ple, with  a  spice  of  humanity  in  their  disposi- 
tions. Robin  Goodfellow  was  a  mischievous 
little  creature,  but  not  very  spiteful.  He  was 
represented  like  a  rustic,  "  in  a  suit  of  leather, 
close  to  his  body,  his  hands  and  face  russet  col- 
or, with  a  flail." 

The  Scottish  fairies  were  certainly  guilty  of 
great  deviations  from  the  path  of  honesty.  One 
of  their  greatest  sins  was  that  of  stealing  fine 
children,  from  their  cradles,  and  leaving  in  the 
place  of  a  healthy  infant,  a  rickety  and  de- 
formed being.  The  elves  often  stole  away 


wives  from  their  husbands,  and  these  women 
were  only  to  be  regained  by  confronting  the 
fairy  procession  on  a  certain  night,  within  a 
clay  and  a  year,  after  the  loss,  which  time  was 
allowed  the  bereaved  mortals  for  restitution. 

The  electrical  circles  which  are  sometimes 
found  upon  the  turfweie  believed  to  be  fairy 
rings,  within  which  it  was  thought  dangerous 
to  sleep,  or  to  be  found  after  sunset.  The 
Scotch  fairies  were  of  diminutive  stature,  of  a 
doubtful  nature,  capricious  and  very  resentful. 
The  Scotch  were  afraid  to  speak  of  them  dis- 
respectfully, and  even  called  malicious  spirits, 
"  gude  people." 

These  fairies  lived  in  green  hills,  on  which 
they  danced  by  moonlight.  The  interior  of 
their  habitations  is  described  as  presenting  a 
most  beautiful  appearance,  brilliant  with  glit- 
tering gold  and  gems,  and  containing  every 
thing  which  a  splendid  fancy  could  contrive. 
But  as  "  all  is  not  gold  that  glitters,"  these  fine 
appearances  are  said  to  be  a  show,  put  on  to 
conceal  a  mean  or  repulsive  reality. 

These  little  beings  are  admirable  riders,  and 
the  best  judges  of  horses  in  the  world.  They 
go  about  in  large  companies  by  night,  when 
their  presence  is  disclosed  by  the  shrill,  bell-like 
ringing  of  their  bridles.  When  the  little  men 
find  their  steeds  jaded,  they  do  not  scruple  to 
continue  their  pleasure  at  the  expense  of  mor- 
tals. They  steal  horses,  and  ride  them  almost 
to  death.  The  animals  are  found  in  the  morn- 
ing in  then-  stalls  panting  and  flecked  with 
loam,  with  their  manes  and  tails  matted  and 
twisted.  The  shrewd  reader  will  guess  that 
the  fairies  often  had  to  bear  the  blame,  which 
belonged  to  careless  grooms. 

A  sailor,  on  the  Isle  of  Man,  who  was  riding 
to  visit  his  sister,  was  invited  by  a  party  of  jolly 
fairies  who  were  hunting,  to  join  them  in  their 
excursion.  Not  being  aware  of  the  nature  of 
the  little  men,  who  made  a  gay  appearance,  as 
they  swept  by  in  green  dresses,  riding  to  the 
music  of  a  mellow  norn,  Jack  followed  on,  de- 
lighted, and  only  learned  his  danger  when  he 
arrived  at  his  sister's  house. 

These  diminutive  huntsmen  used  to  seize 
upon  the  horses  which  English  residents 
brought  over  to  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  ride  them 
without  ceremony.  A  gentleman  of  the  island 
attributed  the  loss  of  half  a  dozen  capital  hunt- 
ers, to  the  little  men  in  green. 

Sometimes  they  were  more  honest,  and  paid 
good  money  for  horses,  to  which  they  took  a 
fancy.  A  man  who  had  a  fine  horse  to  sell, 
was  once  riding  his  steed  among  the  moun- 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


FAI 


243 


FAU 


tains,  when  a  dapper  little  gentleman  stepped  up, 
and  examined  it.  He  made  the  animal  show 
his  paces,  and,  after  some  haggling  about  the 
price,  bought  him.  All  this  was  well  enough ; 
but  when  the  seller  dismounted,  the  purchaser, 
having  fixed  himself  in  the  saddle,  sank  through 
the  earth  with  his  bargain.  The  man  who  be- 
held all  this,  was  somewhat  startled,  but  as  there 
-.vas  no  mistake  about  the  hard  red  gold  which 
lie  had  received  from  the  fairy  horseman,  he 
put  it  in  his  pocket,  and  inarched  off. 

The  Brownies  were  singular  beings.  The 
Brownie  attached  himself  to  some  family,  per- 
forming menial  offices  with  a  good  grace,  like  a 
hired  servant.  But  unlike  a  servant,  he  did 
not  labor  in  the  hope  of  wages,  on  the  contrary 
an  offer  of  recompense  drove  this  delicate  gen- 
tleman away.  He  was  fond  of  stretching  him- 
self at  length  before  the  fire,  like  a  dog,  and 
this  appeared  to  give  him  the  highest  satis- 
i'aclion. 

An  amusing  anecdote  is  told  concerning  this 
habit.  A  Brownie  who  had  attached  himself 
to  a  certain  house,  used  to  hover  round  the 
kitchen,  uneasy  if  the  servants  sat  up  late, 
which  prevented  him  from  occupying  his  place 
upon  the  hearth.  Sometimes  the  impatient 
Brownie  appeared  at  the  door,  and  admonished 
the  servants  in  the  following  terms — '•  Gang  a' 
to  your  beds,  sirs,  and  dinna  put  out  the  wee 
grieshoch." — thus  anglicised,  "  Go  to  your 
beds,  all  of  you,  and  do  n't  put  out  the  few  em- 
bers." The  Brownie  left  the  hearth  at  the  first 
crow  of  the  cock. 

The  inhabitants  of  Germany  believe  to  this 
day.  that  there  exists  a  race  called  the  Siille 
I'olke,  the  silent  people.  To  every  family  of 
eminence,  a  family  of  the  Sidle  V'olke.  is  attach- 
ed, containing  just  as  many  members  as  the 
mortal  family.  When  the  lady  of  the  mortal 
family  becomes  a  mother,  the  queen  of  the 
fitille  Volke  enjoys  the  same  blessing,  and  the 
silent  people  endeavor  to  ward  off  any  injury 
which  threatens  those  whom  they  protect. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  all  the 
different  sprites  with  which  superstition  has 
filled  the  woods,  waters,  hills,  and  valleys  of 
Europe.  A  few  of  the  most  agreeable  elves 
have  been  touched  upon.  It  is  not  worth  while 
to  present  the  darker  features  of  a  gloomy  super- 
stition, to  the  contemplation  of  the  young.  The 
Kelpies  and  the  wild  Huntsmen  ha've  found  no 
place  in  this  sketch. 

The  legends  of  the  Irish  are  generally  gay, 
exhibiting  the  character  of  that  poor,  but  pleas- 
ant people.    The  Irish  fairies  are  spruce  little 
21* 


gentlemen,  and  merry  little  ladies,  who  trip  it 
away  with  blithe  hearts,  and  light  footsteps 
upon  their  favorite  and  beautiful  places  of  re- 
sort. Poor  people  delight  to  describe  wealth 
and  splendor,  which  they  do  not  possess,  and 
accordingly,  in  the  tales  of  the  Irish,  the  pala- 
ces of  the  "  good  people,"  are  full  of  gold  and 
brilliance. 

FALCONER,  William,  a  pleasing  English 
poet,  born  in  1730,  and  brought  up  to  the  sea. 
An  occurrence  in  his  own  life  forms  the  ground- 
work of  his  poem  tlie  shipwreck.  He  was  lost 
at  sea. 

FALIERI,  Marino,  doge  of  Venice,  in  the 
14th  century,  having,  previously  to  his  eleva- 
tion, gained  some  brilliant  victories  for  the 
republic.  Michael  Steno,  a  young  patrician, 
havincr  conceived  himself  injured,  revenged 
himself  by  some  offensive  lines  directed  against 
the  honor  of  the  doge's  wife.  For  this  he  was 
only  punished  by  a  temporary  confinement,  and 
the  doge,  burning  for  revenge,  found  a  plan  for 
punishing  the  aristocracy  and  annihilating  the 
power  of  the  senate.  This,  however,  was  dis- 
covered, and  Falieri  put  to  death  in  13f)5.  Lord 
Byron  and  Casimir  Delavigne  have  made  this 
story  the  subject  of  two  powerful  dramas. 

FALK1RK,  a  town  of  Scotland,  between  the 
Forth  and  Clyde,  where  the  army  of  Scots  com- 
manded by  Cumyn  and  Sir  Wm.  Wallace,  was 
defeated  by  Edward  I,  of  England.  But  in 
January  174G  the  scene  was  reversed  by  the 
defeat  of  the  English. 

FALKLAND'S  ISLANDS,  a  group  com- 
prising two  large  and  numerous  small  islands 
mountainous  and  boggy,  in  the  South  Atlantic 
ocean,  East  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The 
harbor  of  Port  Louis  is  a  convenient  watering 
place  for  whale  sloops. 

FANTIN,  or  FANTEE  ;  an  African  country 
on  the  gold  coast,  the  inhabitants  of  which, 
40.000  in  number,  are  courageous  but  cunning, 
living  under  an  aristocratical  form  of  govern- 
ment. 

FAROE  or  FAROER ;  a  group  in  the  North- 
ern ocean  between  Iceland  and  Shetland,  be- 
longing to  Denmark.  Population  (in  1812), 
5209. 

FARQUH  AR,  George,  an  actor  and  soldier, 
but  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  ability  of  his  dra- 
matic works,  born  in  Londonderry,  Ireland,  in 
1676,  died  in  1707. 

FAUST,  a  goldsmith  of  Mentz,  to  whom  the 
invention  of  the  art  of  printing  is  attributed. 
He  died  in  1466. 

FAUST,  doctor  John,  a  dealer  in  the  black 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


FAU 


244 


FEO 


art,  who  lived  in  the  IGth  century.  He  was  a 
student  of  Wittemberg,  but  abandoned  theology 
for  magic.  This  personage  is  often  confounded 
with  the  preceding.  He  figures  in  many  old 
romances  and  tales,  English  and  German.  The 
following  is  a  sketch  of  one  of  these,  "  the  His- 
tory of  lite  Damnable  Life  and  Deserved  Death 
of  Doctor  John  Faustus."  This  romance  is  a 
translation  from  the  German.  It  is  filled  "  up 
to  the  blue,"  with  magic  and  supernatural  hor- 
rors, and  acquires  new  interest  from  the  fact 
that  it  embodies  the  same  old  German  tradition, 
upon  which  Goethe  founded  his  wild  drama  of 
Faust.  Faustus  is  first  introduced  as  a  student 
of  the  University  of  Wittemberg,  where  he  is 
made  Doctor  of  Divinity,  but  soon  after  gives 
himself  up  entirely  to  the  study  of  the  Black 
Art.  He  makes  a  compact  with  the  devil,  by 
which  the  latter  is  to  serve  him  in  all  his  desires 
for  the  space  of  twenty-four  years,  at  the  ex- 
piration of  which  he  is  to  deliver  himself  up, 
body  and  soul,  to  the  destroyer.  This  compact 
is  written  with  his  own  blood,  and  straightway 
Mephistophiles  becomes  his  familiar  spirit.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  this  spirit  is  obedient  to  the 
wishes  of  Faustus,  but  when  the  Doctor  puts 
an  improper  question,  or  tries  to  do  a  good  ac- 
tion, Mephistophiles  dragoons  him  into  propri- 
ety by  a  rabble  rout  of  imps,  or  frightens  him 
with  a  cock  and  a  bull  story  about  the  other 
world,  giving  him  a  foretaste  of  the  pleasant 
pastime  of  being  "  tossed  upon  pitchforks  from 
one  devil  to  another."  On  one  occasion,  in 
particular,a  great  procession  of  evil  spirits  came 
to  torment  him,  in  which  procession  Lucifer 
appears  "  in  a  manner  of  a  man  all  hairy,  but  of 
a  brown  color  like  a  squirrel,  curled,  and  his 
tail  turning  upwards  on  his  back  as  the  squirrels 
use.  I  think  he  could  crack  nuts  too  like  a  squir- 
rel." 

Then  a  minute  account  is  given  of  Faustus's 
journey  to  Tartarus,  and  through  the  air,  and 
among  the  planets,  and  afterwards  through  the 
most  famous  kingdoms  of  the  earth,  whereby 
it  appears  that  he,  and  not  Columbus,  was  the 
discoverer  of  America.  Of  course  the  magic 
doctor  was  deeply  read  in  all  mysteries,  and  he 
certainly  discourses  wisely  upon  comets,  and 
falling  stars,  and  other  marvels.  One  chapter 
relates  "  how  Faustus  was  asked  a  question  con- 
cerning Thunder."  His  answer  is  certainly 
very  luminous  for  a  Doctor  in  Divinity,  and 
the  Black  Art.  "  It  hath  commonly  been  seen 
heretofore,' '  says  he, "  that  before  a  thunder-clap 
fell  a  shower  of  rain,  or  "a  gale  of  wind:  for 
commonly  after  wind  falleth  rain,  and  after 


rain  a  thunder-clap,  such  thickness  comes  to 
pass  when  the  four  winds  meet  together  in  the 
heavens,  the  airy  clouds  are  by  force  beaten 
against  the  fixed  crystal  firmament,  but  when 
the  airy  clouds  meet  with  the  firmament,  they 
are  congealed,  and  so  strike,  and  rush  against 
the  firmament,  as  great  pieces  of  icr>  when  they 
meet  on  the  waters ;  then  each  other  sounded 
in  our  ears;  and  that  we  call  thunder."  After- 
wards comes  a  series  of  the  Doctor's  merry 
conceits,  showing  how  he  practised  necroman- 
cy ;  how  he  transported  three  young  dukes 
through  the  air  from  Wittemberg  to  Munich  ; 
and  how  one  of  them  fell  from  the  magic  cloak, 
on  which  thev  sailed  through  the  air,  and  was 
left  behind  at  "Munich,  being  '•  strucken  into  an 
exceeding  dumps."  We  are  also  told  how  he 
pawned  his  leg  to  a  Jew  ;  how  he  eat  a  load  of 
hay,  and  how  he  cheated  a  horse-jockey,  and 
conjured  the  wheels  from  a  clown's  waggon, 
with  many  other  wonders  of  a  similar  nature. 
And  finally,  we  are  informed  that,  at  the  end 
of  the  appointed  time,  the  evil  one  carne  for  him 
between  12  and  1  o'clock  at  night,  and  after 
dashing  his  brains  out  against  the  wall,  left  his 
body  in  the  yard,  "  most  monstrously  torn  and 
fearful  to  behold." 

FAWKES,  Guy,  the  principal  agent  in  the 
gunpowder  plot,  in  the  reign  of  James  I,  who, 
being  discovered,  and  having  betrayed  his  ac- 
complices to  the  number  of  eighty,  was  execu- 
ted in  1G05.  (See  Gunpowder  Plot.) 

FAYAL,  one  of  the  Azores,  ten  miles  in 
diameter,  containing  22.000  inhabitants.  It 
rises  in  the  form  of  a  dome,  and  is  extremely 
fertile. 

FAYETTE,  General  la.  (See  La  Fayette.) 
FENELON,  Francois  de  Salignac  de  la 
Motte,  the  venerable  archbishop  of  Cambray, 
was  born  in  1651.  He  preached  at  the  age  of 
15  with  success,  and  was  appointed  archbishop 
of  Cambray  in  H>!!4.  He  had  great  success  in 
converting  the  Huguenots  but  it  was  by  means 
of  mild  persuasion  and  not  of  infuriate  threats. 
He  superintended  the  education  of  the  dukes 
of  Burgundy,  Anjou,  and  Berri,  the  grandsons 
of  Louis  XIV.  Fenelon  died  in  1715.  His 
literary  productions  are  numerous,  but  his  most 
celebrated  work  is  Leg  .irenturcs  de  Teldmaque, 
which  inculcates  a  pure  system  of  morality  in 
the  most  pleasing  and  interesting  manner. 

FEODAL  or  FEUDAL  LAWS,  the  tenurp 
of  land,  by  suit  and  service,  to  the  lord  or  ownei 
of  it,  introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons 
about  600.  This  slavery  increased  under  Wil- 
liam 1, 1068,  who,  dividing  the  kingdom  into 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL, 


FER 


245 


FIS 


baronies,  gave  them  to  certain  persons,  and  re- 
quired these  persons  to  furnish  the  King  with 
money  and  a  stated  number  of  soldiers.  The 
feudal  system  was  discountenanced  in  France 
by  Louis  XI,  about  1410,  was  limited  in  Eng- 
land by  Henry  VII,  in  141)5;  but  abolished  by 
statute  12th  Charles  II,  1602. 

FERDINAND  V,surnamed  the  Catholic,  son 
of  John  II,  King  of  Arragon,  was  born  in  1453. 
He  married  Isabella,  queen  of  Castile,  but  was 
allowed  only  a  small  share  in  the  government. 
In  10  years  he  conquered  the  Moors  of  Grena- 
da, and  expelled  them  from  Spain  in  1492. 
He  acquired  Naples  and  Navarre,  and,  during 
his  reign,  America  was  discovered  by  'Colum- 
bus. He  died  in  1516  of  the  dropsy.  His 
policy  was  despotic,  and  his  character  was 
stained  by  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition. 
(See  Inquisition.) 

FERDINAND  VII,  of  Spain,  the  son  of 
Charles  IV.  and  Maria  Louisa  de  Bourbon  was 
born  October  14, 1784,  and  in  1801,  he  married 
Maria  Antonia  Theresa  de  Bourbon,  who  died 
of  a  violent  medicine,  after  having  been  inju- 
riously treated,  in  1806.  Ferdinand  had  four 
wives,  the  last  of  whom  was  Maria  Christiana, 
daughter  of  Francis  I,  King  of  Naples.  Fer- 
dinand was  pardoned  by  Charles  IV  for  entering 
into  a  conspiracy  against  his  life,  but  the  peo- 
ple could  not  be  persuaded  of  the  innocence  of 
the  monarch,  or  the  guilt  of  his  son,  and  on  the 
19th  of  March,  1808,  Charles  was  forced  to 
abdicate  in  favor  of  Ferdinand  VII.  Ferdinand 
was  invited  to  Burgos  by  Napoleon,  and  abdi- 
cated after  mature  deliberation,  Joseph  Bona- 
parte being  appointed  to  supply  his  place. 
Ferdinand  remained  at  Valencay  until  the  end 
of  18L3.  On  his  return  to  Spain,  he  professed 
to  entertain  liberal  principles,  but  he  abolished 
the  Cortez,  and  till  ld2J  sanctioned  what  is 
termed  the  reign  of  terror  in  Spain.  On  the 
entrance  of  the  French  into  Spain  in  1823,  a 
regency  was  formed,  and  the  king  went  to 
'Cadiz,  whence  he  corresponded  with  the 
enemy.  After  re-assuming  his  authority  he 
continued  his  despotic  proceedings.  Ferdinand 
died  in  1833.  The  affairs  of  Spain  are  now  in 
an  unsettled  state.  Don  Carlos,  the  brother  of 
Ferdinand,  and  his  infant  daughter  being  sup- 
ported by  two  opposite  parties,  as  the  true  sov- 
ereigns. 

FERGUSON,  James,  an  experimental  phi- 
losopher, mechanist,  and  astronomer,  was  born 
in  Keith  in  1710.  While  a  shepherd,  he  watch- 
ed the  stars  by  night,  and  at  an  early  age, 
constructed  a  celestial  globe.  For  some  years 


he  supported  himself  in  Edinburgh  by  his  tal- 
ents as  a  miniature  painter.  In  1763  he  was 
chosen  member  of  the  Royal  Society.  He 
died  in  1776.  His  works  are  numerous. 

FERNANDEZ,  or  JUAN  FERNANDEZ, 
a  fertile  island  4  leagues  long,  and  2  wide,  100 
leagues  from  the  coast  of  Chili.  Here  Alexan- 
der Selkirk,  a  Scotch  mariner,  lived  alone  from 
the  year  1705  to  1709. 

FERR.ARA,  a  duchy  in  upper  Italy,  for  a 
long  time  ruled  by  the  house  of  Este,  now 
forming  part  of  the  States  of  the  Church. 

FESCH.  Joseph.  Cardinal,  the  uncle  of  Na- 
poleon Bonaparte,  and  archbishop  of  Lyons, 
was  born  at  Ajaccio.  He  received  various 
employments  and  honors  from  his  illustrious 
nephew 

FEZ,  part  of  Mauritania,  formerly  a  distinct 
and  powerful  kingdom,  but  now  a  province  of 
Morocco.  Although  fertile,  the  Moors  permit » 
large  portion  of  the  land  to  remain  uncultivat 
ed.  It  contains  about  890,000  square  miles 
The  city  of  Fez,  built  in  793,  by  Edris,  con- 
tains about  100,000  inhabitants. 

FEZZAN,  anciently  PHAZANIA,  ia  a 
country  of  Africa  South  of  Tripoli.  The  vege- 
tation is  luxuriant,  although  the  climate  is  un- 
pleasant. No  exact  estimate  of  the  population 
has  been  made.  It  perhaps  amounts  to  rather 
more  than  100.000. 

FIELDING,  Henry,  was  born  at  Sharphara 
Park,  Somersetshire,  April  22,  1707.  His  dra- 
rnatic  pieces,  of  which  he  wrote  a  number,  do 
not  display  the  talent  which  his  novels  exhibit. 
The  latter,  although  tainted  with  frequent 
grossness,  display  inimitable  tact,  drollery,  and 
knowledge  of  life.  Fielding  speedily  dissipated 
the  fortune  he  received  from  his  wife,  and  re- 
sorted to  the  bar  for  support.  Here  his  success 
was  not  great,  and  his  pen  gave  him  the  means 
of  life.  He  died  in  Lisbon,  whither  he  went 
on  account  of  ill  health,  August  1754. 

FINGAL,  an  ancient  prince  of  Morven,  a 
province  of  Caledonia,  born  in  282.  He  was 
the  determined  enemy  of  the  Romans,  and  is 
celebrated  by  Ossian,  who  represents  him  as 
his  father. 

FINLAND,  a  grand  principality  of  Russia, 
containing  135,000  square  miles,  and  1,378,500 
inhabitants.  But  little  of  the  soil  is  fit  for  the 
purposes  of  agriculture,  and  hunting  forms  the 
principal  resource  of  the  hardy  population. 
Finland  formerly  belonged  to  Sweden,  but  was 
conquered  by  a  Russian  army  in  180^. 

FISHER,  John  a  Catholic  bishop  of  Roches 
ter,  was  born  in  1459.  He  was  a  prelate  more 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


FLE 


246 


FLO 


eminent  for  his  learning  and  virtues,  than  for 
ecclesiastical  dignities  and  royal  favor.  Having 
refused  to  acknowledge  the  spiritual  supremacy 
of  Henry  VIII,  Fisher  was  thrown  into  prison, 
and,  after  twelve  months  confinement,  was  con- 
demned and  executed,  on  the  22d  of  June,  1535. 

FLANDERS,  formerly  a  province  of  the 
Austrian  Netherlands,  now  forming  the  Belgic 
Provinces  of  East  and  West  Flanders.  East 
Flanders,  contains  718,000  inhabitants;  and 
West  Flanders  580,600.  Both  parts  are  ex- 
tremely fertile  and  the  Flemings  are  extensive- 
ly employed  in  manufactures.  The  Franks 
siezed  upon  Flanders  about  412,  and  in  864  it 
was  granted  to  Baldwin  I,  with  the  title  of  count 
of  Flanders,  the  sovereignty  being  reserved  to 
France.  The  country,  by  the  marriage  of  Philip, 
duke  of  Burgundy,  with  Margaret,  daughter  of 
Lewis  de  ftfalatin,  earl  of  Flanders,  in  1369, 
came  to  the  house  of  Burgundy ;  and  it  passed 
to  the  house  of  Austria  by  the  marriage  of  Ma- 
ry, daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold,  to 
Maximilian,  emperor  of  Germany.  Still  the 
sovereignty  was  in  France  till  1525,  when 
Charles  V,  taking  Francis  I,  prisoner,  at  Pa  via, 
released  it  from  that  servitude.  In  1556, 
Charles  resigned  these  territories  to  his  son 
Philip,  king  of  Spain.  The  whole  of  this  coun- 
try was  conquered  by  the  French  in  1794  ;  but 
only  part  of  it  now  remains  in  their  posses- 
sion, forming  the  French  department  of  the 
north. 

FLEETWOOD,  Charles,  a  parliamentary 
general  in  the  civil  wars,  the  son  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Fleetwood,  knight^  cup-bearer  to  James  I, 
and  Charles  I,  and  comptroller  of  Woodstock 
park.  In  1644,  the  subject  of  this  article  was 
made  colonel  of  horse,  and  governor  of  Bristol. 
He  was  afterwards  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-general, and  had  a  share  in  the  defeat  of 
Charles  II  at  Worcester.  On  the  death  of  Ire- 
ton,  Fleetwood  married  his  widow,  and  being 
now  related  to  Cromwell,  was  appointed  deputy 
of  Ireland,  in  which  place  he  was  succeeded  by 
Cromwell's  younger  son  Henry.  Fleetwood 
joined  in  deposing  Richard,  and  after  the  res- 
toration he  became  one  of  the  council  of  State, 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces,  but  after- 
ward retired  to  private  life  at  Stoke  Sewing- 
ton,  where  he  died  soon  after. 

FLETCHER,  John,  son  to  the  bishop  of 
London,  a  famous  dramatic  writer,  (see  liuni- 
mrmt  and  Fletcher). 

FLEURUS  or  FLERUS ;  a  town  of  Belgi- 
um,  in  the  province  of  Hainault,  on  the  Sambre, 
six  miles  N.  E.of  Charleroi.  Population  2400. 


Four  battles  have  been  fought  here.  In  1622 
the  troops  of  Spain  and  Germany  were  matched 
against  each  other.  In  1690  the  French  defeat- 
ed the  allies  here  with  great  loss.  In  1794  the 
French  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  A  us- 
trians,  and  it  was  on  this  occasion  that  aerosta- 
tion wns  found  to  b«  of  practical  use.  Coutel, 
the  chief  of  the  cerostatic  corps,  ascended  with 
a  general  and  adjutant,  in  a  balloon  of  great 
size,  hovered  over  the  enemy,  and  reconnoitered 
their  works.  The  information  thus  gained  was 
conveyed  to  the  French  by  means  of  signal 
flags.  During  the  process  of  inflation,  the  fire 
of  a  battery  was  opened  upon  the  assistants, 
and  as  the  balloon  ascended  for  the  first  time,  a 
cannon  ball  passed  between  its  neck  and  the 
gondola.  Soon,  however,  the  daring  aeronauts 
attained  a  safe  elevation,  and  could  see  beneath 
them  the  then  harmless  cannon  fruitlessly  dis- 
charging their  shot  into  the  upper  air.  The 
fourth  battle,  called  the  battle  of  Ligny,  was 
fought  on  June  16, 1815,  between  the  Prussians 
and  French  and  was  desperately  contested. 

FLEURY,  Andre  Hercule  de,  cardinal,  pre- 
ceptor to  Louis  XV.  became  prime  minister  on 
the  disgrace  and  fall  of  his  rival,  the  duke  of 
Bourbon.  His  administration  was  conducted 
with  great  skill  and  address ;  commerce  and 
industry  flourished  under  him,  and  lie  had  the 
fortune  to  conciliate  the  differences  between 
the  courts  of  London  and  Madrid.  He  died  in 
1743. 

FLORA,  so  called  by  the  Romans,  the  god- 
dess of  flowers.  Her  Greek  name  was  Chloris. 
Her  festivals  were  celebrated  with  many  licen- 
tious practices. 

FLORENCE,  capital  of  the  grand-duchy  of 
Tuscany,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  of 
Italy,  justly  deserving  the  name  which  has  been 
bestowed  on  it — Florence  the  Fair.  It  contains 
76.000  inhabitants.  It  is  interesting  from  its 
hisloricitl  associations,  and  from  the  invaluable 
monuments  of  art  which  it  contains,  and  with 
which  the  Florentine  gallery  is  crowded.  The 
Pitti  palace,  the  cathedral,  the  church  of  St. 
Croce.  the  church  del  Carmine,  &c.,  can  never 
be  sufficiently  admired.  The  revival  of  the  arts 
took  place  here,  and  thence  the  regeneration  of 
Europe  followed. 

FLORIAN.  a  French  dramatic  writer,  novel- 
ist,  and  fabulist,  married  a  niece  of  Voltaire. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  academy,  and 
died  Sept.  i:j,  17M4. 

FLORIDA,  a  territory  of  the  1'nited  States, 
bounded  N.  by  Alabama  nnd  Georgia,  E.  by  the 
Atlantic,  S.  and  VV.  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico",  140 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


FOR 


247 


FOU 


miles  broad,  and  400  miles  long.  It  was  divided 
into  E.  and  W.  Florida  in  17(33,  but  at  present 
is  subdivided  into  counties.  The  largest  river, 
the  St.  Johns,  is  navigable  for  200  miles.  The 
country,  is  with  few  exceptions,  level,  and  fer- 
tile, although  but  little  cultivated.  Its  majestic 
forests  give  it  a  peculiar  and  picturesque  ap- 
pearance. Intermixed  with  the  dark  glossy 
leaves  of  the  oaks  appear  flowers  of  the  most 
vivid  and  varied  colors.  Groves  of  magnolias, 
cover  immense  tracts  of  land,  bending  beneath 
the  weight  of  their  snowy  blossoms,  and  fill  the 
air  with  perfume.  Florida  was  discovered  in 
1512,  by  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon,  in  his  famous 
search  after  the  fabulous  fountain  which  was 
to  restore  health  and  beauty  to  the  aged,  on 
Palm  Sunday,  (Pascua  Florida),  and  hence  the 
name.  Pop.  1840,  54,107. 

The  French  and  Spaniards  long  made  it  the 
theatre  of  contest,  but  at  length  the  Spaniards 
were  established  in  the  town  and  fort  of  St. 
Augustine.  In  17G3,  Florida  was  ceded  to 
Great  Britain,  in  exchange  for  the  island  of 
Cuba.  In  178!  the  Spanish  governor,  don  Gal- 
vez,  conquered  West  Florida,  which  remained 
in  the  possession  of  Spain  until  the  peace  of 
1783,  whereby  Great  Britain  relinquished  both 
provinces  to  Spain.  A  negotiation  for  the  trans- 
fer of  the  whole  province  to  the  United  States 
was  consummated  by  treaty  in  1819  ;  the  treaty 
was  ratified  by  Spain  in  October,  1820,  and 
General  Jackson  took  possession  of  it  for  the 
United  States  in  February,  1821. 

FLOYD,  William,  the  first  delegate  from 
New  York,  who  signed  the  declaration  of  Amer- 
ican Independence,  born  on  Long  Island,  Dec. 
17,  1734.  The  inheritor  of  a  large  estate,  he 
was  one  of  those  who,  like  Charles  Carroll,  set 
his  all  at  stake,  and  his  property  was  laid  waste 
by  the  British  troops.  After  having  command- 
ed the  militia  of  Long  Island,  and  served  as 
senator,  he  removed,  in  1803,  to  a  farm  on  the 
Mohawk  river,  where  he.  died,  Aug.  4,  1821, 
ao-ed  87  years. 

FLUSHING,  a  fortified  city,  on  the  S.  side 
of  the  island  of  Walcheren,  in  the  Netherlands. 
Population  4,500.  It  carries  on  an  active  com- 
merce with  the  East  Indies.  It  was  invested 
by  lord  Chatham  in  1809,  and  capitulated,  but 
was  evacuated  by  the  British  on  the  23d  of  De- 
cember. 

FO,  FOE,  or  FOHI,  the  founder  of  the  Chi- 
nese religion,  said  to  have  been  born  in  Cash- 
mere, about  1027  B.  C.  Miracles  attended  his 
birth,  and  were  performed  by  him  in  after  life. 
His  priests  are  called,  in  China,  Leng ;  in  Tar- 


tary,  Lamas ;  in  Siam,  Talapoins ;  and  in  Eu- 
rope, Bonzes. 

FOLARD,  chevalier  Charles  de,  a  celebrated 
tactician,  born  at  Avignon  in  1009.  He  was 
aide-de-camp  under  the  duke  de  Vendome  in 
1702,  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Cassano, 
and  made  prisoner  at  Blenheim.  He  next  served 
against  the  Turks,  and  then  entered  into  the 
service  of  Charles  XII,  during  the  latter  part  of 
his  career.  He  died  at  Avignon,  in  1752. 

FONTAINE,  Jean  de  la,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished literary  men  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV,  born  in  1621.  Fontaine  was  educated  at 
Rheims,  and  went  to  Paris,  where  he  lived  in 
habits  of  intimacy  with  the  wits  of  the  age.  He 
died  at  Paris,  in  1G95,  aged  74.  The  most  sim- 
ple of  men  in  private  lite,  his  writings  exhibit 
shrewdness  and  a  knowledge  of  mankind,  which 
place  them  above  the  reach  of  imitation.  His 
early  works  are  tainted  with  licentiousness. 

FONTAINEBLEAU,  a  town  of  France,  13 
leagues  S.  S.  E.  of  Paris,  with  a  splendid  palace 
and  a  military  academy.  It  is  famous,  in  di- 
plomatic history,  as  the  place  where  several 
treaties  have  been  concluded.  It  was  here  that 
Napoleon  signed  his  first  abdication,  April  llth, 
1814,  and  bade  an  affectionate  farewell  to  his 
devoted  troops. 

FONTENOY,  a  village  of  Belgium,  where 
the  French,  headed  by  Louis  XV,  defeated  the 
allies  under  the  command  of  the  duke  of  Cum- 
berland, April  30,  1745. 

FOOTE,  Samuel,  a  comic  dramatist,  and  ac- 
tor, born  at  Truro,  Cornwall,  in  1721,  died  at 
Dover,  in  October,  1777.  He  was  a  grest  mimic 
and  a  man  of  wit.  A  gentleman,  who  was  the 
fortunate  possessor  of  some  fine  Constantia  wine, 
after  praising  its  good  qualities,  invited  Foote  to 
taste  some.  A  very  small  bottle  was  produced, 
together  with  a  very  small  glass,  which  the  nig- 
gardly host  half  filled.  The  wag  swallowed 
this  immediately.  "  Well,  Foote,"  said  his  en- 
tertainer, "  what  do  you  think  of  that?  It  is 
47  years  old."  "  What  do  1  think  ?"  replied 
the"  wit ;  "  why,  sir,  I  think  it's  very  little  for 
its  age." 

FORLI,  anciently  Forum  Livii,  belongs  to 
the  States  of  the  Church,  contains  12,960  in- 
habitants, and  is  14  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Ravenna. 

FORMOSA,  an  island  in  the  Chinese  sea, 
240  miles  long,  und  (30  broad,  distinguished  for 
its  admirable  fertility,  and  the  quality  of  its 
fruits. 

FORTUNA,  the  sister  of  the  Fates,  the  god- 
dess of  success  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

FOULAHS,  FOOLAHS,  or  FELLA 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


FOX 


248 


FOX 


TAHS,  a  nation  of  Central  Africa,  extending 
from  the  Atlantic  to  Darfoor.  Mr.  Hodgson  says ; 
"  Of  all  the  nations  of  Central  Africa  described 
by  captain  Clapperton,  the  Fellatahs are  the  most 
remarkable.  The  publication  of  his  first  jour- 
ney to  Soudan  represented  this  people  as  inhab- 
iting the  country  of  the  Negroes,  but  differing 
from  them  essentially  in  physical  character. 
They  have  straight  hair,  noses  moderately  ele- 
vated, the  parietal  bones  not  so  compressed  as 
those  of  the  Negro,  nor  is  their  forehead  so 
much  arched.  The  color  of  their  skin  is  a  light 
bronze,  like  that  of  the  Wadreagans,  or  Melano- 
Goetulians,  and  by  this  characteristic  alone  can 
they  be  classed  in  the  Ethiopian  variety  of  the 
human  species.  The  Fellatahs  are  a  warlike 
race  of  shepherds,  and  have,  within  a  short  pe- 
riod, subjugated  an  extensive  portion  of  Soudan. 
The  lamented  Major  Laing,  who  arrived  at 
Timbuctoo,  assures  us  that  they  were  in  pos- 
session of  that  far-famed  city.  It  was  an  order 
from  the  Fellatah  governor  which  compelled 
him  to  leave  Timbuctoo.  and  to  his  instigation 
or  connivance  is  his  death  probably  to  be  attri- 
buted. Mungo  Park  was  killed  by  a  party  of 
these  people,  while  descending  the  Quorra. 
They  may  be  supposed  to  occupy  the  banks  of 
this  unknown  river,  from  its  rise  to  its  termi- 
nation." 

FOUQUIER-TINVILLE,  Anthony  Quen- 
tin,  an  attorney,  born  in  1747,  rendered  his  name 
infamous  during  the  revolution  He  obtained 
from  Robespierre  the  post  of  public  accuser, 
but  was  put  to  death  as  one  of  the  revolutionary 
tribunal,  May  7, 1795. 

FOX,  George,  founder  of  the  society  of  Qua- 
kers, or  Friends,  was  born  at  Drayton,  in  Lei- 
cestershire, in  1634.  The  name  of  Quakers 
was  bestowed  upon  the  sect  at  Derby,  from  their 
trembling  method  of  delivery,  and  from  their 
exhortations  to  tremble  before  the  Lord.  He 
was  persecuted,  and  imprisoned  several  times, 
and  died,  in  consequence  of  the  hardships  he 
had  suffered  in  IG'JO,  in  the  C7th  year  of  his 
age. 

FOX,  Charles  Jamrs,  second  son  of  Henry 
Fox,  first  lord  Holland,  was  born,  Jan.  14,  1748. 
He  received  his  education  at  Eton,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  classical  exercises. 
From  that  seminary  he  removed  to  Hertford 
college,  Oxford,  after  which  he  went  on  his 
travels  ;  and  in  1768  was  returned  to  parliament 
for  Midhurst.  In  1770  he  was  appointed  a 
commissioner  of  the  admiralty,  which  place  he 
resigned  in  1772,  and  soon  after  obtained  a 
place  at  the  treasury  board.  Some  differences 


arising  between  him  and  lord  North,  he  was 
dismissed  in  1774,  and  from  that  time  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  opposition.  •'  On  his  first 
separation  from  the  ministry,''  says  Butler, "  Mr. 
Fox  assumed  the  character  of  a  whig. 

li  Almost  the  whole  of  his  political  life  was 
spent  in  opposition  to  his  majesty's  ministers. 
In  vehemence  and  power  of  argument  he  re- 
sembled Demosthenes ;  but  there  the  resem- 
blance ended.  He  possessed  a  strain  of  ridicule 
and  wit,  which  nature  denied  to  the  Athenian  ; 
and  it  was  the  more  powerful,  as  it  always  ap- 
peared to  be  blended  with  argument,  and  to 
result  from  it.  To  the  perfect  composition 
which  so  eminently  distinguished  the  speeches 
of  Demosthenes,  he  had  no  pretence.  He  was 
heedless  of  method  : —  having  the  complete 
command  of  good  words,  he  never  sought  for 
bettor;  if  those,  which  occurred,  expressed  his 
meaning  clearly  and  fo  cibly,  he  paid  little  at- 
tention to  their  arrangement  or  harmony. 

"  The  moment  of  his  grandeur  was,  when, 
after  he  had  stated  the  argument  of  his  adver- 
sary, with  much  greater  strength  than  his  ad- 
versary had  done,  and  with  much  greater  than 
any  of  his  hearers  thought  possible,  he  seized 
it  with  the  strength  of  a  giant,  and  tore  and 
trampled  on  it  to  destruction.  If,  at  this  mo- 
ment, he  had  possessed  the  power  of  the  Athe- 
nian over  the  passions  or  the  imaginations  of 
his  hearers,  he  might  have  disposed  of  the  house 
at  his  pleasure ;  but  this  was  denied  to  him ; 
and,  on  this  account,  his  speeches  fell  very  short 
of  the  effect,  which  otherwise  they  must  have 
produced." 

In  1780  he  was  elected  for  Westminister, 
which,  with  a  slight  interruption,  he  continued 
to  represent  to  his  death.  When  the  Rocking- 
ham  party  came  into  power,  Mr.  Fox  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs. 
On  the  dissolution  of  this  administration,  by  the 
death  of  the  chief,  a  coalition  was  formed  be- 
tween Mr.  Fox  and  lord  North,  who,  with  their 
respective  adherents,  came  again  into  office 
until  the  introduction  of  the  India  bill  occasion- 
ed their  final  dismissal  in  1734.  In  17>8,  Mr. 
Fox  travelled,  but  while  in  Italy,  he  was  recalled 
in  consequence  of  1  he  king's  insanity.  On  this 
great  occasion,  he  maintained  that  the  prince 
of  Wales  had  a  right  to  assume  the  regency  : 
which  was  opposed  by  Mr.  Pitt  and  the  Parlia- 
ment. The  next  remarkable  event  in  the  pub- 
lic life  of  Mr.  Fox  was  the  part  lie  look  with 
regard  to  the  French  revolution.  That  change 
ho  hailed  as  a  blessing,  while  Burke  denounced 
it  as  a  curse  ;  and  this  difference  of  sentiment 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


FRA 


249 


FRA 


produced  a  schism  in  the  party  which  was  never 
repaired.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Pitt,  in  180G, 
Mr.  Fox  came  again  into  office,  as  secretary  of 
state ;  but  he  died  Sept.  13. 1806.  and  his  remains 
were  interred  in  Westminister  Abbey. 

FRANCE,  a  vast  country  of  Europe,  com- 
prising 213,800  square  miles,  32,000,000  inhab- 
itants. In  1824  the  total  value  of  exports  v,-as 

440.542.000  francs;    of  imports,  in   the   same 
year,  4:1l.^(.il,000  francs.     In  1829,  the  revenue 
was  986,1 50,821  francs,  and  the  expenditures, 

90..1 86,1  f>8  francs.     Public  debt.  3,000,000,000 
francs.     France  is  divided  into  86  departments ; 
85  are  formed  of  the  old  provinces ;  the  86th 
was  united  to  France  in  1791. 

The  departments  formed  from  the  six  north- 
ern provinces  are  the  department  of  the  .North, 
Pas-de-Calais,  Somme,  Lower  Seine,  Erere, 
Calvados,  Manche.  Orne.  Seine,  Seine-et-Oise, 
Seine-et-Marne,  Oise.  Aisne,  Aube,  Upper 
Marne,  Marne,  and  Ardennes.  The  depart- 
ments formed  from  the  six  provinces  of  the  east, 
are  Meurthe,  Moselle,  Meuse,  Vosges,  Lower 
Rhine.  Upper  Rhine,  Doubs,  Upper  Saone, 
Jura,  Cote-d'or,  Yonne.  Saone-et-Loire,  Ain, 
•Rhone,  Loire.  Isere,  Drome,  Upper  Alps.  The 
departments  formed  from  the  seven  provinces 
of  the  south,  are  the  Mouths  of  the  Rhone, 
Lower  Alps,  Var,  Upper  Garonne,  Tarn,  Aude, 
Herault,  Gard,  Lozere,  Upper  Loire,  Ardeche, 
Eastern,  Pyrenees,  Ariege,  Lower  Pyrenees. 
Gironde,  Dordogne,  Lot-et-Garonne,  Lot.  Ave- 
gron,  Tarn-et- Garonne.  Landes,  Gers,  Upper 
Pyrenees,  Corsica.  The  departments  formed 
r-om  the  six  provinces  of  the  west,  are  Cha- 
rente.  Lower  Charente,  Vienne,  Deux-Sevres,  la 
Vendee,  Maine-et-Loire,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  Cotes- 
du-Nord,  Finesterre,  Morbihan,  Lower  Loire, 
Sarthe,  Mayenne.  The  departments  formed 
from  the  eight  central  provinces  are.  Loiret, 
Eure-e'.-Loir.  Loir-et-Cher, Indre-et-Lore. Cher, 
Indre,  Nievre.  Allier,  Creuse,  Upper  Vi- 
enne, Correze,  Puy-du-D6me,  Cantal.  and  Vau- 
cluse. 

France  was  called  by  the  Romans,  Transal- 
pine Gaul,  or  Gatd  beyond  the  Alps,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Cisalpine  Gaul,  on  the  Italian 
side  of  the  Alps.  Like  other  countries,  it  soon 
became  a  desirable  .object  to  the  ambitious  Ro- 
mans; and,  after  a  brave  resistance,  was  an- 
nexed to  their  empire  by  the  invincible  arms 
of  Julius  Ccesar,  about  48  years  B.  C.  Gaul 
continued  in  the  possession  of  the  Romans  until 
the  downfal  of  that  empire,  in  the  5th  century. 
About  420,  under  the  conduct  of  Pharamond, 
the  Franks,  an  cncient  people  of  Westphalia, 


commenced  the  conquest  of  the  Gauls.  The 
Franks  originated  the  Salic  law  by  which  the 
sovereignty  is  rendered  hereditary  only  in  the 
male  line.  The  Franks  and  Burgundians,  after 
establishing  their  power,  and  reducing  the  Gauls 
to  a  state  of  slavery,  parceled  out  the  lands 
among  their  principal  leaders ;  and  succeeding 
kings  found  it  necessary  to  confirm  their  privi- 
leges, allowing  them  to  exercise  sovereign  au- 
thority in  their  respective  governments,  until 
they,  at  length,  assumed  an  independence,  only 
acknowledging  the  king  as  their  head.  This 
gave  rise  to  those  numerous  principalities  that 
formerly  existed  in  France,  and  to  the  several 
parliaments ;  for  every  province  became,  in  its 
policy  and  government,  an  epitome  of  the  king- 
dom. 

The  first  Christian  monarch  of  the  Franks 
was  Clovis,  son  of  the  chivalrous  Childeric,  who 
is  regarded  as  the  true  founder  of  the  monarchy. 
He  expelled  the  Romans,  and  gained  the  bril- 
liant victory  of  Tolbiac  over  the  Germans.  He 
is  celebrated  by  the  vow  which  lie  made  to  em- 
brace the  Christian  religion  at  the  solicitation 
of  his  wife  Clotilda,  and  was  baptized  at  Rheims. 
The  first  race  of  French  kings,  prior  to  Charle- 
magne, found  a  cruel  enemy  in  the  Saracens, 
who  then  overran  Europe,  and  retaliated  the 
barbarities  of  the  Goths  and  Vandals  upon  their 
posterity.  In  the  year  800,  Charlemagne,  king 
of  France,  the  glory  of  these  dark  ages,  became 
master  of  Germany,  Spain,  and  part  of  Italy, 
and  was  crowned  king  of  the  Romans  by  the 
pope.  He  divided  his  empire  by  will  among 
his  sons,  which  proved  fatal  to  his  family  and 
their  posterity.  Soon  after  this  the  Normans 
ravaged  the  kingdom  of  France,  and.  about  the 
year  900,  obliged  the  French  to  yield  up  Nor- 
mandy  and  Bretagne  to  Rollo,  their  leader,  who 
married  the  king's  daughter  and  was  persuaded 
to  profess  himself  a  Christian.  This  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  Norman  power  in  France : 
which  afterwards  gave  a  king  to  England,  in 
the  person  of  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  who 
subdued  Harold,  the  last  Saxon  king,  in  the 
year  10GG.  In  the  reign  of  Philip  I,  in  1060, 
were  commenced  the  crusades.  In  1108,  Philip 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis  the  Fat,  or 
Louis  VI,  who  engaged  in  a  war  with  Henry 
I,  of  England.  Louis  VII,  surnamed  the 
Young,  marched  into  Champagne  in  the  year 
1137,  and  having  surprised  the  city  of  Vetry, 
met  with  no  resistance,  except  in  the  parochial 
church,  which  he  caused  to  be  set  on  fire;  in 
consequence  of  which  1,300  persons  perished 
in  the  flames.  Philip  II,  or  Philip-Augustus 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


FRA 


250 


FRA 


nis  son  and  successor,  in  1180,  and  Richard  I, 
of  England,  undertook  a  joint  expedition  to  the 
holy  land,  in  1191;  but  the  former  returning 
to  Europe  in  disgust,  the  latter  was  obliged  to 
relinquish  the  enterprise. 

Philip  II  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis 
the  Liu n.  in  1223.  He  was  poisoned  after  a 
short  reign  of  three  years,  and  was  succeeded 
in  1226,  by  his  son  Louis  IX,  commonly  styled 
St.  Louis,  who  engaged  in  a  new  crusade  against 
the  infidels  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  in  which 
himself  and  his  nobility  were  taken  prisoners. 
Having  been  afterwards  ransomed,  he  led  an 
army  against  the  infidels  of  Africa,  where  he 
died  in  1270,  before  Tunis. 

His  son  and  successor,  Philip  III,  kept  the 
field  against  the  Moors,  and  saved  the  remains 
of  the  French  army  ;  and  this  procured  him  the 
surname  of  the  Hardy.  In  the  reign  of  Philip 
IV,surnamed  the  Fair,  who  succeeded  in  12e5, 
the  Supreme  tribunals,  called  parliaments,  were 
instituted ;  and  the  knights  templars,  a  military 
order,  that  had  undertaken  the  defence  of  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  were  suppressed  and  ex- 
tirpated. The  fiist  branch  of  Capetian  kings 
ended  with  Charles  IV,  who  left  only  a  daugh- 
ter; and  the  states  having  solemnly  decreed 
that  all  females  were  incapable  of  succeeding 
to  the  crown,  Philip  de  Valois,  the  next  male 
heir,  was  raised  to  the  throne  in  1328. 

Edward  III  of  England  having  claimed  the 
French  crown,  hostilities  commenced,  and  the 
English  gained  the  battle  of  Crecy  in  1346,  and 
Poictiers  in  1356;  but.  about  the  end  of  the  14th 
century,  the  French  recovered  all  the  provinces 
which  the  English  had  conquered  in  France. 
A  civil  war  raging.  Henry  V,  king  of  England, 
took  advantage  of  these  disorders,  and  invaded 
France  in  1415.  He  made  himself  master  of 
Hajfleur,  and  gained  the  famous  battle  of  Agin- 
court,  in  which  the  French  lost  an  incredible 
number  of  men.  In  1420  the  succession  to  the 
French  throne  was  secured  to  the  king  of  Eng- 
land by  treaty  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the 
infant.  Henry  VI,  was  crowned  king  of  France 
at  Paris.  By  degrees,  Charles  VII  recovered 
possession  of  the  kingdom,  in  which  he  was 
greatly  assisted  oy  Joan  of  Arc,  a  pretended 
prophetess,  who  raised  the  siege  of  Orleans,  and 
defeated  the  English  ;  but  being  taken  prisoner, 
this  gallant  girl  was  barbarously  burned  for  al- 
leged sorcery. 

On  the  death  of  Charles  VIII,  who  was  the 
last  prince  of  the  first  line  of  the  house  of  Va- 
lois, the  duke  of  Orleans  ascended  the  throne, 
under  the  title  of  Louis  XII,  and  was  so  hu- 


mane, generous,  and  indulgent  to  his  subjects, 
that  he  obtained  the  appellation  of  Father  of 
his  people.  Francis  I.  one  of  the  most  distin- 

Baished  of  the  kings  of  France,  succeeded  him. 
e  ascended  the  throne  in  1515.  at  the  age  of 
21,  and  died  in  1547.  He  conquered  the  Milan- 
ese in  1525,  but  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  siege 
of  Pa  via.  In  1535  he  possessed  himself  of  Sa- 
voy, but  was  afterwards  defeated.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Francis  II,  commenced  those  civil 
commotions  which  harassed  France  during  30 
years.  The  king  was  instigated  to  attempt  the 
extirpation  of  the  Protestants,  who,  by  way  of 
reproach,  were  denominated  Huguenots.  The 
minority  and  reign  of  Charles  IX  exhibited  a 
serifs  of  treacheries,  commotions,  and  assassina- 
tions ;  and  France  became  a  field  of  war  and 
bloodshed.  The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
disgraced  the  age.  Henry  III  was  a  weak  and 
debauched  prince ;  and  in  him  ended  the  line 
of  Valois.  On  his  death,  the  crown  devolved 
on  the  house  of  Bourbon,  in  the  person  of  Hen- 
ry IV,  king  of  Navarre,  who  was  descended 
from  Robert  of  France,  count  of  Clermont,  tho 
fifth  and  last  son  of  Saint  Louis.  Henry  was 
the  son  of  Antony  of  Bourbon,  duke  of  Ven- 
dome  and  Jeanne  d'Albret,  heiress  of  Navarre. 
He  was  justly  styled  the  Great,  being  one  of 
the  best  and  most  amiable  of  the  French  prin- 
ces; but  he  perished  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin 
in  1610. 

Unds-r  the  minority  and  in  the  reign  of  Louis 

XIII,  France  returned  to  its  former  state  of 
disorder  and  wretchedness,  and  cardinal  Rich- 
elieu, the  prime  minister,  rendered  the  power 
of  the  crown    absolute.     The   reign  of  Louis 

XIV,  was  long  and  brilliant.     The  great  Conde. 
compelled    the    emperor    Ferdinand    III,   and 
Christiana,  queen  of  Sweden,  to  conclude  the 
peace  of  Westphalia.     But  the  unbounded  am- 
bition of  Louis  rendered  him  odious  or  formi- 
dable to  every  prince  in  Europe.     The  united 
forces  of  England.  Holland,  and  Austria,  obliged 
him  to  conclude  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  lti!)7. 
and  that  of  Utretcht  in  1713.  "lie  reigned  73 
yours  from  1G42,  to  1715.     William  111  was  the 
great  enemy  of  Louis  XIV.     In  1702,  he  organ- 
ized a  new  confederacy  of  the  powers  of  Eu- 
rope against  him,  but   died   before    hostilities 
commenced.     The    Ensrlisli   duko   of  Marlbo- 
rough,  who  led  the  allied  forces,  gained,  in  1704, 
the  'battle  of  Blenheim,  which  was  followed  by 
other  victories.     But,  in  1715.  this  bloody  and 
useless  contest  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of 
Utretcht,  though   Louis  succeeded  in  placing 
his  grandson  on  the  throne  of  Spain. 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


FRA 


251 


FRA 


At  the  age  of  five  years,  his  great  grandson 
ascended  the  throne,  under  the  title  of  Louis 
XV.  In  conjunction  with  Germany.  Russia,  and 
Sweden.  France,  in  this  reign,  twice  contended 
against  Prussia  and  Great  Britain.  These  wars 
were  Concluded  in  1748,  and  in  1763.  Louis 
XVI  assumed  the  crown  of  France  in  1774, 
under  the  most  unfortunate  auspices.  He  found 
a  court  abandoned  to  the  utmost  extravagance, 
and  the  country  loaded  with  an  enormous  debt. 
The  king  convoked  an  assembly  of  the  nota- 
bles, consisting  of  princes,  deputies  chosen  from 
among  the  nobility,  dignified  clergy,  the  par- 
liaments, and  the  pays  d  ilat. 

It  was  proposed  to  establish  a  land  tax,  with- 
out any  exception  in  favor  of  the  nobility  or 
clergy.  This  proposal  being  followed  by  a  gen- 
eral refusal,  the  assembly  of  the  notables  was 
dissolved,  and  the  minister  thought  he  could 
make  a  more  advantageous  bargain  with  the 
parliaments.  But  as  the  latter  remonstrated, 
and  advanced  the  opinion,  that  the  right  of  im- 
posing new  taxes  belonged  only  to  the  states 
general,  the  king  convoked  them  in  1789. 
Necker's  indiscreet  measure,  by  which  it  was 
stipulated  that  the  numbers  of  the  tiers  etat 
(third  estate)  should  be,  at  least,  equal  to  that 
of  the  other  two  orders  conjointly,  threw  the 
preponderance  into  the  scale  of  the  former,  who 
could  not  fail  to  find  many  adherents  in  the 
superior  classes.  As  soon  as  the  deputies  of 
the  third  order  had  formed  themselves  into  a 
national  assembly,  the  other  orders  were  led 
away  by  their  impulsive  force,  and  the  equilib- 
rium was  entirely  destroyed. 

The  storm  of  p'opular  fury  gathered  and  broke 
rapidly.  On  the  14th  of  July,  1789,  the  Bastile 
was  taken.  On  the  4th  of  August  the  privi- 
leges of  the  nobility  were  suppressed.  On  the 
5th  of  October,  1789,  the  king,  queen,  and  royal 
family  were  forced  from  Versailles  by  the  mob, 
and  brought  captive  to  the  capital.  However, 
the  monarch  disconcerted  the  schemes  of  his 
adversaries  by  a  free  acceptance  of  the  new 
constitution,  which  abolished  the  feudal  system, 
and  the  titles  of  nobility.  The  situation  of 
Louis  and  his  family  became  so  unsupportable 
under  the  harsh  restraints  which  were  imposed, 
that  they  contrived  to  escape  from  their  im- 
placable enemies,  but  the  unfortunate  monarch, 
being  recognised  at  St.  Menehoult,  by  Drouet, 
the  post-master,  was  stopped  at  Varennes,  con- 
strained to  return  to  Paris  with  his  family,  and 
to  become  a  mere  prisoner. 

While  the  king  was  preparing  to  surrender 
his  throne  and  life,  the  jacobins  caused  a  decree 
2 


to  be  enacted,  suppressing  the  chasseurs  and 
grenadiers,  of  whom  they  were  afraid,  as  well 
as  the  staff  of  the  national  guard.  All  the 
measures  which  they  pursued  till  the  10th  of 
August,  1792,  had,  for  their  sole  aim,  the  over- 
throw of  the  monarchy.  On  that  day,  the  Mar- 
seillese,  who  had  been  invited  to  Paris  to  form 
the  advanced -guard  in  the  attack  on  the  palace 
of  the  Tuilleries,  in  conjunction  with  the  na- 
tional guards,  fired  on  the  devoted  Swiss  who 
composed  the  royal  body-guard,  and  almost 
annihilated  them.  The  king  and  his  family 
sought  refuge  in  the  assembly ;  it  was  decreed 
that  they  should  be  imprisoned  in  the  Temple, 
and  they  were  conducted  thither. 

The  national  convention  was  opened  on  the 
21st  of  September,  and,  in  the  first  sitting 
abolished  royalty,  and  proclaimed  the  republic 
The  king  was  tried  and  condemned,  and  on  the 
21st  of  January,  1793,  perished  on  the  scaffold. 
"  Son  of  St.  Louis  !"  were  the  last  words  which 
his  confessor,  the  abbe  Edgeworth,  addressed  to 
him;  "  Son  of  St.  Louis,  ascend  to  heaven  !' 
Against  the  French  republic,  the  emperor  and 
the  king  of  Prussia  had  already  declared  war 
and.  on  the  king's  death,  their  example  was 
followed  by  Great  Britain  and  Holland,  ano 
speedily  after  by  Spain  and  Russia.  While 
France  was  pressed  on  all  sides  by  the  different 
powers  of  Europe,  this  unfortunate  country  was 
a  prey  to  all  kinds  of  internal  disorders,  and  to 
the  most  unbounded  lice-ntiousness. 

Robespierre  and  Danton  obtained  a  decree  by 
which  all  the  sans-culottts  were  to  be  armed 
with  pikes  and  muskets  at  the  expense  of  the 
rich,  who  were  themselves  to  be  disarmed  as 
suspected  persons.  Marat,  one  of  the  principal 
agents  in  the  revolution,  was  assassinated  by 
Charlotte  Corday.  Towards  the  close  of  June, 
1793.  the  new  constitution  was  adopted,  and 
greafe  disturbances  broke  out  at  Lyons,  Mar- 
seilles, and  in  La  Vendee.  Soon  after  the  sur- 
render of  Valenciennes  to  the  English,  the 
committee  of  public  safety  was  established  to 
desolate  France  by  the  most  horrid  butcheries 
and  persecutions.  They  appiehended  all  sus- 
pected persons,  and  tried  them  by  revolutionary 
committees,  the  powers  of  which  were  so  un- 
limited, that  they  could  readily  seize  on  four- 
fifths  of  the  population  of  France. 

One  of  their  early  victims  was  the  unhappy 
Marie  Antoinette,  the  widow  of  the  murdered 
Louis.  Her  death  was  followed  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Girondists.  The  infamous  duke  or 
Orleans  was  brought  up  to  Paris  from  Mar- 
seilles, and  being  tried  and  condemned,  braved 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


FRA 


252 


FRA 


the  insults  of  the  multitude  on  the  way  to 
execution.  Brittany  and  a  great  part  of  Nor- 
mandy being  filled  with  the  royalists,  who  had 
acquired  the  denomination  of  ckouans.  Carrier, 
one  of  the  most  atrocious  monsters  of  the  revolu- 
.  tion,  was  sent  to  Nantes,  where  he  spared  nei- 
ther age  nor  sex,  but  put  to  death  the  aged,  the 
infirm,  and  even  infants.  The  atrocities  com- 
mitted by  the  satellites  of  the  convention  in  the 
city  of  Lyons,  exceeded  all  that  can  be  con- 
ceiVed;  at  the  end  of  five  months,  nearly  0.000 
persons  had  perished. 

In  Paris  the  executions  were  now  multiplied 
to  such  a  degree,  that  eighty  persons  were  fre- 
quently conveyed  in  the  same  vehicle  to  the 
place  where  they  suffered.  To  cite  the  names 
of  all  the  illustrious  victims  who  fell,  would  far 
exceed  our  limits,  and,  at  the  same  time,  pre- 
sent too  horrid  a  picture  of  human  depravity. 
At  length,  Robespierre,  Couthon,  and  iSt.  Just, 
were  brought  to  condign  punishment.  A  form 
of  government  was  afterwards  settled  by  the 
convention  ;  and  a  council  of  ancients,  a  coun- 
cil of  five  hundred,  and  five  rulers,  called  a 
directory,  were  appointed  :  but  the  other  pow- 
ers of  Europe  being  still  in  league  against 
France,  and  the  new  government  being  unfor- 
tunate in  the  field,  the  executive  power  was,  in 
1799,  vested  in  three  consuls,  of  whom  the  first 
was  the  victorious  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

The  consulate  restored  the  energy  of  the  gov- 
ernment, and  Bonaparte,  having,  in  1800,  gained 
the  victory  of  Marengo,  forced  Austria  to  con- 
clude the  treaty  of  Luneville  in  February,  1801  ; 
and  concluded  the  treaty  of  Amiens  with  Eng- 
land in  October  of  tha't  year  ;  thus  restoring 
peace  to  all  Europe.  The  British  government 
refusing  to  surrender  Malta,  according  to  the 
treaty  of  Amiens,  after  some  angry  discussions 
the  English  ambassador  left  Paris  in  April, 
1803,  and  war  was  recommenced.  In  1604,  the 
first  consul,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  was  crowned 
emperor  of  France  by  the  pope  ;  and,  in  1  "•!);">, 
king  of  Italy ,  at  Milan.  He  afterwards  assumed 
the  title  of  Mediator  of  Switzerland,  and  Pro- 
tector of  the  Confederation. of  the  Rhine.  He 
made  one  of  his  brothers  king  of  Holland, 
another  king  of  Naples,  a  third  king  of  Spain, 
and  a  fourth  king  of  Westphalia. 

Tin's;'  manifestations  of  ambition  excited,  in 
succession,  the  jealousies  and  fears  of  all  Europe. 
Austria  and  Russia  commenced  hostilities  in 
180"),  but  were  overthrown  at  Austerlitz  :  Prus- 
sia in  1806,  but  she  was  crushed  at  Jena ;  Rus- 
sia again  in  the  same  year,  but  she  was  defeated 
at  Fnedland ;  Spain,  in  1807 ;  Austria,  again,  in 


1808,  but  she  was  overthrown  at  Wagram  , 
Russia,  again,  in  1812;  and  finally,  Itussia. 
Prussia,  Sweden.  Austria,  England,  &c.,  invad- 
ed France  in  J814,  when  Napoleon  abdicated, 
retired  to  the  island  of  Elba,  and  the  Bourbons 
were  restored.  After  a  year's  absence,  Napoleon 
returned  to  Paris,  but  having  been  defeated  in 
the  memorable  battle  of  Waterloo,  again  abdi- 
cated the  throne,  and  was  conveyed  as  a  stair 
prisoner  to  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  where  he 
died  in  1821.  The  Bourbons  were  re-estab- 
lished on  the  throne  in  the  person  of  Loui.s 
XVIII.  brother  of  Louis  XVI,  and  France  relin- 
quished the  states  and  provinces  acquiied  dur- 
ing the  revolutionary  wars.  Louis  XVIII  died 
on  the  Kith  of  December.  1825,  and  his  brother. 
Charles  X.  ascended  the  throne,  and  was  crown- 
ed with  splendor  at  Rheims,  .May  29.  l.-'Jii,  after 
taking  the  solemn  oath  to  govern  according  to 
the  cliarter.  But  the  misfortunes  of  the  Bour- 
bons had  not  taught  them  wisdom.  In  ]83l). 
the  tyrann  v  of  the  itncim  rfffimc  seemed  to  have 
re-appeated,  and  fetters  were  placed  upon  the 
press.  On  Tuesday  morning,  July  27th,  the 
liberal  journals  of  Pans  were  seized,  and  a  rev- 
olution immediately  broke  out.  In  three  days 
the  glorious  struggle  was  terminated  in  favor 
of  the  people.  The  paving-stones  and  tiles  of 
the  houses  became  weapons  more  formidable 
than  sabres  or  muskets.  The  royal  cavalry  an 
they  rushed  upon  the  barracades  were  :i 
front  and  from  above  ;  the  young  scholars  of  the 
polytechnic  school,  a  military  institution,  hav- 
ing been  dismissed  without  their  swords,  seized 
what  arms  they  could  rind,  and  ranged  them- 
selves on  the  side  of  the  people.  Some  com- 
manded the  populace,  others  served  the  guns 
with  spirit  arid  success.  Aug.  2,  the  king  abdi- 
cated, an  i  was  permitted  to  leave  France.  The 
(lukt-  uf  Orleans  was  chosen  king,  a  new  min- 
istry appointed,  and  after  a  fair  trial,  the  old 
ministry  was  imprisoned  for  life.  The  affairs 
of  France  now  appear  to  be  in  a  settled  state. 

FRANCE,  Isle  of.  or  Mauritius;  an  island 
in  the  Indian  ocean,  (500  miles  east  of  Mada- 
gascar, belonging  to  Great,  Britain.  Its  cir- 
cumference is  ITx)  mile's.  The  climate  is  hot, 
but  healthy,  a  large  portion  of  the  land  fertile, 
and  the  whole  well  watered.  Population  in 
1822,  87,603,  of  whom  13,475  were  blacks.  It 
was  discovered  in  the  H'.tii  century  by  the  Por- 
tuguese. Tlu>  Dutch  first  settled  in  it,  but  re- 
linquished it,  and  the  French  took  possession  of 
the  island ;  but  since  1810,  it  has  been  in  the 
hands  of  the  English. 

FRANCHE-COMTE,or  Upper  Burgundy, 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


FRA 


253 


FRA 


an  ancient  province  of  France,  called  by  the 
Romans,  Sequania.  It  was  wrested  from  the 
Spanish  by  Louis  XIV,  and  ceded  to  the  French 
by  the  peace  of  Nimeguen,  in  1673.  It  forms 
the  departments  of  the  Doubs,  Upper  Saone, 
and  the  Jura. 

FRANCIS  I,  of  France,  surnamed  by  his 
subjects,  the  father  of  literature,  was  born  at 
Cognac,  in  1494.  His  father  was  Charles, 
count  of  Angouleme.  Wishing  to  accomplish 
the  projects  of  Louis  with  regard  to  the  Milan- 
ese, he  passed  the  Alps,  penetrated  as  far  as 
Milan,  and  found  the  Swiss  encamped  near 
Marignano.  The  contest  was  kept  up  for  two 
whole  days.  Francis  I,  and  the  chevulier  Bay- 
ard performed  prodigies  of  valor,  and  the  mar- 
shal of  Trivulzio,  who  had  been  in  eighteen 
actions,  called  this  a  combat  of  giants.  The 
Swiss  were  beaten  with  a  loss  of  15,000  men, 
and  Sforz.a  ceded  Milan,  and  retired  to  Franco 
where  he  died.  The  Swiss  agreed  to  a  per- 
petual treaty  of  peace,  and  long  remained  the 
faithful  allies  of  France.  Leo  X,  equally  re- 
conciled, came  to  a  conference  in  which  the 
pragmatic  sanction  v.*as  abolished,  to  make  way 
for  the  concordats,  by  which  the  king  enjoyVd 
the  power  of  conferring  benefices. 

The  death  of  the  emperor,  Maximilian  I.  pre- 
sented the  imperial  throne  to  the  view  of  Fran- 
cis I,  and  Charles,  of  Austria.  The  former 
never  pardoned  his  rival  for  h.iving  obtained  it, 
and  hence  arose  the  interminable  wars  between 
Austria  and  France.  The  first  care  of  Francis 
I,  was  to  attach  himself  to  Henry  VIII,  of  Eng- 
land, and  they  had  an  interview  near  Calais ; 
but  Charles  V  ruined  his  rival's  scheme  by 
<raining  the  favor  of  the  all-powerful  Cardinal 
Wolsey.  Tiie  campaign  which  followed,  pre- 
sented a  scene  of  alternate  success  and  defeat 
on  both  sides.  The  Milanese  were  won  by  the 
intrigues  of  Leo  X,  and  Charles  V,  and  France 
had  at  once  for  adversaries  the  new  pope  Adrian 
VI,  the  Emperor.  England,  the  Venetians,  and 
the  Geonese,  aiid,  to  crown  her  misfortunes, 
the  constable  of  Bourbon,  whom  discontent 
drove  to  the  arms  of  Charles  V,  and  whom  im- 
perial favor  raised  to  the  rank  of  commander- 
m-chief. 

The  king  fought  in  different  places  with  va- 
rious success.  The  imperialists  and  the  Eng- 
lish were  repulsed  by  LaTremouille,  the  duke 
of  Guise,  and  the  duke  of  Vendome  ;  but  Bon- 
nivet  was  beaten,  and  the  brave  Bayard  killed, 
in  Italy.  But  these  misfortunes  did  not  destroy 
the  hopes  of  Francis:  he  passed  the  mountains 
and  re-entered  the  territory  of  the  Milanese. 


Following  the  advice  of  Bonnivet,  he  besieged 
Pavia,  although  the  oldest  officers  warned  hitn 
against  doing  so.  The  allies  arrived  in  time  to 
succor  it,  and,  on  February  24th,  1525,  was 
fought  the  battle  of  Pavia,  in  which  Francis  I, 
after  having  had  two  horses  killed  under  him, 
and  smarting  with  wounds,  was  taken  prisoner. 
Bonnivet  killed  himself  in  despair. 

The  king  wrote  to  the  duchess  of  Angou- 
leme, who  was  regent,  this  memorable  line 
Madtim,  tec  hare  Tost  every  thing  but  honor. 
Transferred  to  Spain,  he  was  imprisoned  at 
Madrid,  where,  disheartened  and  sick,  he  firmed 
the  treoty  bv  which  he  ceded  Burgundy,  Flan- 
ders, and  Artois,  and  gave  up  his  two  sons  as 
hostages.  Issuing  from  his  prison,  his  spirits 
revived  with  the  free  air,  and  open  scenery,  and 
springing  upon  a  spirited  horse,  he  exclaimed 
with  animation;  /  am  yet  a  king!  The  pro- 
gress of  the  king  of  France  through  Spain  hardly 
resembled  that  of  a  prisoner.  Throughout  his 
journey,  entertainments  were  given  him  by  the 
Spanish  noblemen,  who  were  glad  of  an  oppor- 
tunity to  display  their  wealth  and  consequence. 
One  night,  on  arriving  at  a  noble  manor,  he 
was  obliged  to  take  his  seat  at  a  splendid  festi- 
val, which  concluded  with  a  ball,  in  which  the 
courteous  monarch  did  not  refuse  to  take  a 
part.  He  then  asked  two  beautiful  girls,  the 
daughters  of  a  proud  old  nobleman,  to  dance 
with  him.  But  thev  only  consented  to  perform 
that  part  of  the  figure  in  which  the  lady  averts 
her  face  from  her  partner;  in  short,  so  blindly 
patriotic  were  these  pretty  Spaniards,  that  they 
turned  upon  their  heels,  to  the  no  small  confu- 
sion of  the  king  of  France.  Their  old  father, 
however,  not  only  disapproved  of  their  con- 
duct, but  punished  it  in  a  summary  manner, 
for  seizing  both  by  the  hair,  he  dragged  them 
out  of  the  ball  room  with  more  rapidity  than 
grace.  So  much  for  refusing  a  king's  invita- 
tion. 

Francis  had  now  an  opportunity  of  witness- 
ing a  whimsical  instance  of  Spanish  pride  in 
his  reception  by  a  certain  old  gentleman  named 
Don  Diego  d'Alvar,  who,  feigning  a  painful 
indisposition,  kept  his  seat,  while  the  French 
monarch  remained  standing  in  his  presence. 
Don  Diego  had  a  menagerie,  an  expensive 
part  of  the  establishment  of  a  Spanish  grandee 
in  those  times.  During  the  festival  given  to 
Francis  I,  an  African  lion  escaped  from  his 
cage.  Consternation  spread  among  the  guests, 
each  of  whom  thought  himself  the  devoted  vic- 
tim of  the  infuriated  animal,  when  the  major- 
domo  of  the  castle,  seizing  in  one  hand,  a  flam 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


FRA 


254 


FRA 


ing  brand,  and  grasping  his  sword  in.the  other, 
advanced  to  meet  the  lion.  The  animal,  fright- 
ened by  the  flames,  recoiled,  and  the  major- 
domo  followed  him  up  to  his  cage  in  which  he 
enclosed  him  with  as  much  coolness  as  if  he 
had  been  operating  upon  a  greedy  hound  taken 
in  the  act  of  abstracting  the  deposits  from  the 
larder.  This  act  of  courage  was  more  admired 
by  Francis,  than  any  thing  else  which  occurred 
at  the  castle  of  Don  Diego. 

Francis  I  returned  to  France.  His  cause 
becoming  that  of  all  the  princes  who  dreaded 
the  increase  of  the  power  of  Charles  V,  a  league 
was  formed  between  the  princes  of  Italy,  the 
king  of  England,  and  Francis  I.  The  indig- 
nant emperor  sent  Laney  into  the  States  of  the 
Church,  where  he  made  himself  master  of  many 
places.  The  constable  of  Bourbon,  even  after 
the  conquest  of  Milan,  wanting  money,  ad- 
vanced upon  Rome,  and  promised  his  troops 
the  pillage  of  this  city.  He  was  killed  in  the 
assault.  The  furious"  soldiers,  at  the  end  of 
two  hours  fighting,  entered  Rome,  killed  all 
they  met,  sacked  the  houses,  profaned  the 
churches,  and  delivered  themselves  up  to  ex- 
cesses of  all  kinds,  which  continued  for  two 
months. 

The  flame  of  war  rekindled.  Marshal  Lau- 
trec  regained  the  greater  part  of  Milan,  sacked 
Pavia,  in  revenge  for  the  capture  of  the  kinor, 
then  forced  the  imperialists  to  conclude  a  treaty 
with  the  pope,  who  was  besieged  in  the  castle 
of  Saint  Angelo,  and  went  thence  to  Naples 
where  he  perished  of  the  plague  with  the  rest 
of  his  army.  In  1529,  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded  at  Cambray.  called  the  Peace  of  La- 
dies (Paix  dcs  Dames),  on  account  of  the  pleni- 
potentiaries, the  duchess  of  Angouleme,  for 
Francis  I,  and  Margaret  of  Austria,  governess 
of  the  Low  Countries,  for  Charles  V.  The 
king  engaged  to  pay  the  emperor  2,000,000 
crowns,  to  cede  the  sovereignty  of  Flanders  and 
Artois,  and  to  marry  Eleonoru,  the  sister  of  the 
emperor,  whose  attentions  had  solaced  his  cap- 
tivity. 

Finding  peace  established,  he  employed  him- 
self in  repressing  a  multitude  of  disorders  to 
which  the  wars  had  given  rise,  in  making  wise 
regulations,  in  reforming  legal  abuses  and  pre- 
serving the  tranquillity  of  the  church,  which 
reformers  had  already  menaced.  He  founded 
the  college  of.  France,  protected  literature, 
which  he  himself  cultivated,  encouraged  the 
arts,  founded  the  royal  library  and  printinf  es- 
tablishment, honored  learned  men,  and  labored 
to  deserve  the  title  of  Restorer  of  the  Sciences. 


But  he  again  cast  his  eyes  upon  Milan,  and  in 
1535,  entered  Italy,  and  made  himself  master 
of  Savoy.  Charles,  in  turn,  made  an  irruption 
into  Provence,  but  was  repulsed  with  loss. 
The  Flemings,  who  had  entered  Picardy,  met 
with  the  same  fate.  The  alliance  concluded 
between  Francis  I,  and  Soliman,  the  sultan  of 
the  Turks,  rendered  Charles  more  prudent,  and 
he  concluded  a  truce  for  ten  years.  This  was 
soon  broken  by  his  ill  faith,  and  the  murder  of 
two  French  ambassadors.  Five  French  armies 
wore  in  readiness,  and  Charles  V  advanced  to 
Scissons,  when  new  negotiations  brought  about 
the  peace  of  Crespy.  In  March.  1547,  Francis, 
who  possessed  so  many  good  qualities,  died,  the 
victim  of  his  illicit  intrigues.  Notwithstanding 
his  numerous  wars,  he  kept  the  finances  of 
Frnnce  in  a  flourishing  condition. 

FRANCIS  II,  of  France,  son  of  Henry  II, 
married  Mary  Stuart,  of  Scotland,  and  ascended 
the  throne  July  10,  15-J9.  He  died  December 
5,  15GO.  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  leaving  France 
loaded  with  debt,  and  a  prey  to  civil  war. 

FRANCIS,  sir  Philip,  a  famous  politician, 
was  born  in  Ireland,  in  1740.  He  was  educated 
attSt.  Paul's  school;  after  which  he  obtained  a 

!)lace  in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State, 
n  1760,  he  went  in  the  suit  of  the  English 
ambassador  to  Lisbon.  In  17li3.  he  was  a  clerk 
in  the  war  office,  and,  in  1773.  he  went  out  to 
India,  as  a  member  of  the  council  of  Bengal, 
and  fought  a  duel  with  Warren  Hastings,  who 
was  wounded.  On  his  return  to  England,  he 
was  elected  M.  P.  for  Yarmouth  in  the  isle  of 
Wight.  He  supported  the  proceedings  against 
Warren  Hastings,  whom  he  opposed  on  every 
occasion.  He  was.  however,  a  member  of  the 
opposition,  and  when  his  friends  came  into 
office,  he  was  made  knight  of  the  bath.  He, 
died  December  22,  1813. 

FR  ANCONI  A,  a  town  of  New  Hampshire,  in 
Grafton  conntv,  23  miles  northeast  of  Haver- 
hill,  noted  for  "its  valuable  iron  mines.  Popu- 
lation 450.  It  contains  a  singular  curiosity 
called  the  Prnfdr,  Rock,  a  high  precipice  which 
pivrvnts  :i.  side  view  of  a  human  face. 

FRANKFORT,  a  town  in  Franklin  county, 
the  seat  of  government  of  Kentucky,  on  the 
Kentucky.  It  is  a  thriving  place,  with  1,917. 
inhabitant*. 

FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAINE,  one  of 
the  four  free  cities  of  Germany,  contains  54,000 
inhabitants.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Germanic  diet, 
and  is  fumous  for  its  fairs. 

FRANKLIN.  Benjamin,  was  born  in  Boston, 
January  17,  170G.  lie  was  the  youngest  of 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


FRA 


255 


FRA 


seventeen  children,  and  was  intended  for  his 
father's  business,  which  was  that  of  a  soap-boiler 
and  tallow-chandler,  but  being  disgusted  with 
this  employment,  he  was  apprenticed  to  his 
brother,  w-lio  was  a  printer.  This  occupation 
was  more  congenial  to  his  taste,  and  he  used 
to  devote  his  nights  to  the  perusal  of  such  books 
cos  his  scanty  means  enabled  him  to  buy.  By 
restricting  himself  to  a  vegetable  diet,  he  ob- 
tained more  money  for  intellectual  purposes, 
and  at  sixteen  had  read  Locke  on  the  Under- 
standing, Xenophon's  Memorabilia,  and  the 
Port-Royal  Logic,  in  addition  to  many  other 
works.  Having  incurred  the  displeasure  of  his 
father  and  brother,  he  determined  to  procure 
the  cancelling  of  his  indentures,  and  leave 
Boston.  This  he  accomplished,  arrived  at  New 
\rork,  walked  thence  to  Philadelphia,  and  en- 
tered the  city  of  Friends  with  some  articles  of 
dress  in  his  pockets,  a  dollar  in  cash,  and  a  loaf 
of  bread  under  his  arm.  Here  he  obtained  em- 
ployment as  a  printer,  and  Sir  William  Keith, 
the  governor,  observing  his  diligence,  persuaded 
him  to  go  to  England,  to  purchase  materials 
for  a  press,  on  his  own  account.  This  was  in 
1725,  but  he  found  he  was  the  bearer  of  no  let- 
ters that  related  to  himsejf,  and  he  was  accord- 
incrH'  obliged  to  work  at  his  trade.  He  returned 
to  "Philadelphia,  where,  in  a  short  time,  he  en- 
tered into  business  with  one  Meredith,  and 
about  172:3.  began  a  newspaper  in  which  he 
inserted  many  of  his  moral  essays.  He  pub- 
lished Poor  Richard's  Almanac  which  is  well 
known.  At  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  he  began 
Ihe  sttidj'  of  the  modern  and  classical  langua- 
ges. He  founded  the  University  of  Pennsy] va- 
aiaand  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  and 
.ahvented  the  Franklin  stove,  which  still  holds 
its  place  even  amonor  the  variety  of  modern  in- 
ventions of  a  similar  kind.  In  1 746,  he  made  his 
experiments  on  Electricity  and  applied  his  dis- 
coveries to  the  invention  of  the  lightning  rod. 

In  17.31,  he  was  appointed  deputy  post  mas- 
ter general  for  the  colonies.  After  the  defeat 
of  Braddock.  a  bill  for  organizing  a  provincial 
militia  having  passed  the  assembly,  Franklin 
was  chosen  colonel  In  1757,  he  was  sent  to 
England  with  a  petition  to  the  king  and  coun- 
cil against  the  proprietaries  who  refused  to  bear 
a  share  in  the  public  expenses.  While  thus 
employed,  he  published  several  works,  which 
gained  him  a  high  reputation,  and  the  agency 
of  Massachusetts.  Maryland,  and  Georgia.  In 
17G'J,  Franklin  was  chosen  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  made  doctor  of  laws  at  Oxford,  and 
the  same  year  returned  to  America. 
22* 


In  17G4,  he  was  again  deputed  to  England  as 
agent  of  his  province,  and  in  17GG.  was  exam- 
ined before  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  stamp-act.  His  answers  were  clear 
and  decisive.  His  conduct  in  England  was 
worthy  of  his  previous  character.  Finding  him 
warmly  attached  to  the  colonies,  invective  and 
coarse  satire  were  levelled  against  him,  but  his 
integrity  and  matchless  wit  formed  an  invulnera- 
ble defence.  He  was  next  oifered  "  any  reward, 
unlimited  recompense,  honors  and  recompense 
beyond  his  expectations,"  if  he  would  forsake 
his  country,  but  he  stood  firm  as  a  rock. 

He  returned  to  America  in  1775,  and  was 
immediately  chosen  a  member  of  Congress,  and 
performed  the  most  arduous  duties  in  the  ser- 
vice of  his  country.  He  was  sent  as  commis- 
sioner to  France  in  J776,  and  concluded  a 
treaty,  February  C.  1778,  in  which  year  he  was 
appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  court 
of  Versailles,  and  one  of  the  commissioners  for 
negotiating  peace  with  Great  Britain.  Although 
he  solicited  leave,  he  was  not  permitted  to  return 
till  1785.  i  He  was  made  president  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  as  a  delegate  to  the  convention  of 
1787,  approved  the  federal  constitution.  He 
died  April  17,  1790. 

How  generally  he  was  beloved  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  the  various  honors  which  he  re- 
ceived, show.  Incorruptible,  talented,  and  vir- 
tuous, he  merited  the  eulogium  of  lord  Chat- 
ham, %vho  characterised  him  as  "  one  whom  all 
Europe  held  in  high  estimation  for  his  know- 
ledge and  wisdom ;  who  was  an  honor,  not  to  the 
English  nation  only,  but  to  human  nature." 
His  wit  and  humor  rendered  his  society  accept- 
able to  every  class.  On  one  occasion,  he  was 
dining  with  the  English  ambassador,  and  a 
French  functionary  at  Paris.  The  former  rose, 
and  gave  the  following  sentiment :  "  England — 
the  bright  suit  whose  rays  illuminate  the  world !" 
The  French  gentleman,  struggling  between 
patriotism  and  politeness,  proposed  ;  il  France 
— the  moon  whose  mild  beams  dispel  the  shades 
of  night."  Doctor  Franklin,  rising  in  turn, 
said  ;  ';  General  George  Washington1  —  the 
Joshua,  who  commanded  the  sun  and  moon  to 
stand  still — and  they  obeyed  him  !"  Franklin's 
wit  and  humor  are  happily  displayed  in  an  epi- 
taph which  he  wrote  years  before  his  death. 
THE  BODY 

OF 
BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN, 

PRINTER, 

(l.IKE  THE  COVER  OF  AN  OLD  BOOK, 
ITS  CONTENTS  TORN  DOT, 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


FRE 


256 


FUL 


AND  STRIPPED  OF  ITS  LETTERING  AND  GILDING,) 

LIKS  HERE,  FOOD  FOR  WORMS  J 

YET  THE  WORK  ITSELF  SHALL  NOT  BE  LOST, 

FOR  IT  WILL  (AS  HE  BKL1EVED)  APPEAR  ONCE 

MORK 
IN  A  NEW 

AND  MORE  BFAUTIFUr.  EDITION, 

CORRECTED  AND  AMENDED 

BV 

THE  AUTHOR. 

FRANKS,  a  German  tribe,  living  between 
the  Weser  and  the  Elbe.  Between  the  years 
234  and  254,  they  invaded  Gaul,  but  were  re- 
pulsed by  Auielian.  They  gained  from  the 
Alemanni  a  very  extensive  territory  on  the 
Rhine. 

FREDEGONDE,  the  wife  of  Chilperic,  of 
France,  a  ruthless  woman  who  persuaded  her 
husband  to  oppress  his  subjects.  She  is  said  to 
have  murdered  Sigebert,  Meroveus,  the  son  of 
Chilperic,  Andovcus,  his  brother,  and  Pretex- 
tatus,  bishop  of  Rouen.  Aterwards,  retiring 
to  Paris,  she  continued  her  persecutions  of 
Brunchant,  and  Childebert,  her  son,  took  the 
field  and  vanquished  him  with  the  slaughter  of 
30,000  of  his  army.  She  then  wasted  Cham- 
pagne, and  retook  Paris.  She  died  in  5!)7, 
after  having  caused  Chilperic  to  be  assassin- 
ated. 

FREDERIC,  Augustus  III,  elector  of  Saxony, 
was  chosen  king  of  Poland,  in  1694.  He  de- 
clared war  against  Sweden,  and  was  dethroned 
by  Charles  XII.  The  reverses  of  the  Swedish 
monarch  enabled  Augustus  to  regain  his  throne 
in  1709.  He  died  February  1st.  1733,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son. 

FREDERIC  I,  surnamed  Barbarossa,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  imperial  crown,  on  the  death  of 
his  uncle,  Conrad  III,  in  1152.  His  first  busi- 
ness was  to  ensure  the  tranquillity  of  Germany, 
after  which  lie  inarched  into  Italy,  and  assumed 
its  sovereignty.  He  afterwards  renewed  the 
war,  took  Milan  a  second  time,  and  destroyed 
it,  bnt  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope. 
He  engaged  in  the  crusades  against  the  Turks, 
defeated  Saladin  in  two  combats,  and  took  sev- 
eral cities  from  the  infidels.  He  was  drowned 
July  10th,  1190;  in  the  midst  of  his  successes. 
FREDERIC  II,  king  of  Prussia,  commonly 
called  the  Great,  was  the  son  of  Frederic  VVii- 
liam  I,  and  was  born  January  21,1712.  His 
education  was  strict,  but  when  he  grew  up,  he 
showed  so  strong  an  inclination  to  literature 
and  music,  as  to  incur  the  displeasure  of  his 
father,  who  considered  reading  as  beneath  the 
dignity  of  a  monarch  and  a  man.  So  harsh 


was  the  conduct  of  his  parent,  that  in  1730,  he 
attempted  to  escape  from  Prussia,  but  was  taken 
with  his  travelling  companion,  Lieutenant  Catt," 
who  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  king. 
The  prince  himself  was  punished  by  confine- 
ment. The  death  of  his  father  raised  him  to 
the  throne,  May  31st,  1740.  and,  by  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  defenceless  state  of  Maria  The- 
resa, he  added  Silesia  to  his  dominions.  In 
1744,  he  again  took  up  arms  against  the  queen 
of  Hungary  ;  and  the  treaty  of  Dresden,  which 
was  concluded  in  1745,  left  him  in  possession 
of  an  extended  territory.  In  1755,  he  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  England,  which  produced 
the  seven  years'  war ;  in  "which  Frederic  exhib- 
ited all  the  powers  of  his  character  as  a  skil- 
ful general.  In  1757,  he  had  to  contend  with 
Russia.  Austria,  Saxony.  Sweden,  and  France  ; 
notwithstanding  which,  and  though  his  ene- 
mies made  themselves  masters  of  his  capital,  he 
extricated  himself  from  his  difficulties,  and  by 
the  battle  of  Torgau,  repaired  all  his  losses.  In 
1763,  peace  was  restored.  Frederic  afterwards 
led  a  philosophic  life,  with  the  exception  of  his 
share  in  dismembering  Poland  in  1773.  He 
died  August  17,  17t?<>,  in  the  75th  year  of  his 
age,  and  the  47th  of, his  reign,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  nephew  Frederic  William  II. 

FR1EDLAND,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  memo- 
rable for  the  battle  fought  there  on  \he  14th  of 
June,  1807.  between  the  French  and  Russians, 
which  resulted  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  latter, 
with  immense  loss. 

FRIENDLY  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands 
in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  150  in  number. 
They  are  very  fertile,  lut  contain  but  few 
springs  of  good  water.  They  were  discovere  ' 
in  1773  by  Captain  Cook,  who  thought  the  ir 
habitants  amicable  and  inoffensive,  although 
subsequent  events  have  shown  them  to  be  capa- 
ble of  the  darkest  treachery  and  the  blackest 
crimes.  Population  200.000. 

FRISIANS, -an  old  tribe  of  Germans,  inhab- 
iting Friesland.  Prussia  took  possession  of 
Friesland  in  1744,  and  East  Friesland  was  an- 
noxed  to  Hanover  in  1814. 

FULTON,  Rolx-tf .  the  celebrated  American 
engineer,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1765. 
At  an  early  age  he  exhibited  a  fondness  for  the 
mechanical  arts,  and  a  talent  for  drawing.  In 
his  22d  year,  he  went  to  England,  and  subse- 
quently to  France,  distinguishing  himself  in 
both  countries  by  mechanical  inventions.  He 
returned  to  America  in  If-OG.  Mr.  Livingston 
and  Fulton  had  built  a  steamboat  upon  the 
Seine  in  1803,  which  was  completely  successful, 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


GAM 


257 


GEN 


out.  in  1807,  the  first  attempt  at  steam  naviga- 
tion in  America  was  made  upon  the  Hudson. 
The  maximum  speed  of  this  was  only  five  miles 
an  hour.  In  180K  Mr.  Fulton  took  a  patent  for 
liis  invention,  and  in  1811  a  second  patent  for 
subsequent  improvements.  He  died  February 
X!4th,  1615. 


GADSDEN,  Christopher,  lieutenant-gover- 
nor of  South  Carolina,  was  born  in  1724.  He 
was  an  ardent  friend  of  liberty,  and  discharged 
tile  duties  of  member  of  the  provincial  congress 
with  ability  and  applause.  He^died,  Sept.  1805. 
in  the  £2d  year  'of  his  age. 

GAELS,  a  family  ot' the  Celts,  who  from 
Gaul,  passed  over  to  Britain  and  the  neighbor- 
ing islands.  Traces  of  them  are  still  found  in 
the  remote  districts  of  Ireland  and  Scotland. 

GAGE,  Thomas,  the  last  royal  governor  of 
Massachusetts.  He  was  lieutenant  under 
Braddock,  witnessed  his  defeat,  and  bore  his 
body  from  the  field  of  battle.  In  1760  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  Montreal,  and  a  few 
years  afterwards  succeeded  to  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  British  forces  in  America.  He  was 
the  successor  of  Hutchinson  in  the  office  of 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  his  oppressive 
pleasures  precipitated  the  revolution. 

GALBA,  Sergius  or  Servius  Sulpicius,  em- 
peror of  Rome,  was  born  B.  C.  4,  and  succeed- 
ed Nero  on  the  imperial  throne.  He  rose  grad- 
ually through  various  state  offices  although 
continually  exposed  to  the  jealousy  of  Nero, 
who  ordered  him  to  he  assassinated,  but  having 
escaped  the  toils  which  were  laid  for  him,  he 
was  saluted  emperor  A.  D.  68.  His  avarice  in- 
duced him  to  profit  by  the  sale  of  offices,  and 
his  appointment  of  Piso  Licmianus,  instead  of 
Otho,  to  fill  the  office  of  colleague  in  the  gov- 
ernment, exasperated  the  soldiers,  who  put  "him 
to  death.  A.  D.  69,  in  the  72d.year  of  his  age, 
after  a  reign  of  three  months. 

GALICIA,  and  LODOMIRIA,  a  kingdom 
of  Austria,  which  comprises  32,500  square  miles, 
and  4,075.000  inhabitants.  Also,  a  province  of 
Spain,  anciently  Gallsscia,  containing  1,795,199 
inhabitants. 

GALILEE,  the  most  northerly  province  of 
Palestine,  the  scene  of  many  events  in  the  Irfe 
of  our  Savior.  It  is  now  part  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Damascus,  oppressed  by  Turkish  tyran- 
ny, and  infested  by  robbers. 

GAM  A,  Vasco  da,  the  celebrated  Portuguese 
navigator,  who  discovered  the  maritime  way  to 


the  East  Indies,  by  doubling  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  He  lived  in  the  reign  of  Emanuel  the 
Fortunate.  He  was  appointed  viceroy  of  the 
Portuguese  Indies,  and  died  Dec.  1524,  at  Goa. 

GARDINER,  bishop  of  Winchester,  was  a 
s!r.enuous  opponent  of  the  reformation  in  Eng- 
land. He  lost  his  place  under  Henry  VIII,  but 
regained  it  under  the  bigoted  Mary,  whom  he 
instigated  to  persecute  the  Protestants  with  fire 
and  sword. 

GARR1CK,  David,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
and  talented  of  English  performers,  and  the 
friend  of  doctor  Johnson.  He  was  born  in  1716, 
and  died  Jan.  20, 1779,  after  having  amassed  an 
immense  fortune  by  his  profession. 

G  ASTON  DE  FO1X,  duke  of  Nemours,  the 
nephew  of  Louis  XII,  was  born  in  1488.  He 
ran  a  brilliant  career  in  arms,  and  fell  in  the 
battle  of  Ravenna,  April  11, 1512. 

GATES,  Horatio,  was  born  in  England  in 
1728,  and  rose  rapidly  in  the  military  profession. 
Soon  after  the  French  war  he  purchased  an  es- 
tate in  Virginia,  and  was  appointed  adjutant- 
general  in  the  continental  force  on  the  breaking 
out  of  our  revolutionary  war.  The  first  move- 
ment of  Gates,  after  taking  command  of  the 
army  that  had  just  retreated  from  Canada  in 
1776,  was  to  retire  from  Crown  Point  to  Ticon- 
deroga,  and  this  excited  pretty  general  surprise 
and  disapprobation.  But  he  regained  confidence 
by  those  operations  which  resulted  in  the  sur 
render  of  Burgoyne  and  his  army  at  Saratoga. 
When  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  south- 
ern army  in  1780,  he  found  it  weak  and  badly 
supplied,  and  disheartened  by  the  aspect  of  af- 
fairs in  general.  His  conduct  at  the  battle  of 
Camden.  which  was  won  by  Cornwallis,  sub- 
jected him  to  a  temporary  loss  of  command  and 
legal  investigation,  although  he  was  finally  ac- 
quitted. Meantime  the  war  had  ended,  and 
Gates  removed  from  Virginia  to  New  York, 
where  he  died.  April  10,  180(3,  in  the  78th  year 
of  his  age.  He  was  talented,  well  intbrrned, 
courteous  and  pious. 

GAUL,  or  GALLIA,  the  ancient  name  of 
France.  The  inhabitants  were  naturally  fierce 
and  warlike,  and  resisted  the  Romans  by  whom 
they  were  finally  subjugated,  with  great  spirit. 

GENEVA,  a  canton  of  Switzerland,  com- 
prising 91  square  miles,  and  53.5(50  inhabitants, 
of  whom  a  large  proportion  are  Protestants. 
The  city  of  Geneva  stands  on  the  lake  of  the 
same  name,  and  is  divided  by  the  Rhone  which 
flows  through  it.  It  is  famous  for  the  manu- 
factures of  watches,  chintz,  woollens,  muslins, 
silks,  porcelains,  &c.  After  a  variety  of 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


GEN 


258 


GEO 


chunges,  it  became  subject  to  the  dukes  of  Sa- 
voy. But  the  citizens  of  Geneva,  supported  by 
the  Helvetic  league,  resisted  the  attempts  of 
the  house  of  Savoy,  with  whom  a  permanent 
accommodation  was  effected  in  1603.  Under 
Calvin  and  other  reformers,  it  eagerly  embraced 
a  pure  doctrine,  and  became  the  seat  of  the  re- 
formed religion.  From  the  time  of  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  peace  with  Savoy,  the  history  of 
Geneva  is  little  more  than  a  narrative  of  "con- 
tentions between  the  aristocracy  and  democracy. 

GENGHIS  KHAN,  emperor  of  the  Moguls, 
was  born  A.  D.  1163,  and  received  the  name  of 
Temujin.  He  founded  in  1206  that  vast  em- 
pire, the  grandeur  of  which  was  the  theme  of 
admiration  throughout  the  worlds  The  leading 
men  of  the  small  domain  left  him  by  his  father, 
having  rebelled  against  him,  he  marched  upon 
them  "with  an  army  of  30,000  men,  and  com- 
pletely frustrated  their  designs.  Tartary  and 
China  fell  before  the  power  of  the  conqueror, 
whose  dominions  extended  to  the  banks  of  the 
Dnieper.  In  the  year  1225,  the  emperor  ar- 
rived at  the  banks  of  the  river  Tula,  after  an 
absence  of  seven  years.  In  the  next  year  he 
defeated  the  king  of  Tanaut  with  the  loss  of 
300,OuO  men.  He  died  Aug.  24,  1227,  in  the 
63d  year  of  his  age,  leaving  to  his  children  an 
empire  1200  leagues  in  length.  The  conquests 
of  the  great  Khan  were  stained  with  the  most 
atrocious  cruelties,  his  march  was  like  the  pro- 
gress of  a  fiery  storm,  bursting  over  several 
countries  at  once,  and  involving  them  in  ruin. 
According  to  the  most  moderate  calculation,  no 
fewer  than  2,000.000  men  fell  beneath  the  mur- 
dering sword,  without  reckoning  the  numbers 
that  affliction  anti  the  horrors  of  slavery  con- 
signed to  the  grave. 

GENUS,  (Stephanie  Feliciti  Ducrestde  St. 
Aubin,  marchioness  de  Sillery)  Countess  de, 
was  born  near  Autun,  in  1746.  Soon  after 
her  birth,  she  narrowly  escaped  suffocation,  for 
a  gentleman  who  called  to  see  her  mother,  was 
about  to  sit  down  upon  the  chair  on  which  the 
infant  was  laid,  had  actually  divided  the  flaps 
of  his  coat  for  that  purpose,  and  was  only  pre- 
vented by  the  united  screams  of  the  nurs?  and 
mother.  The  literary  talent  of  Madame  de 
Genlis  early  developed  itself,  and  induced  1hc 
Count  de  Genlis  to  ofl'..T  her  his  hand,  without 
ever  having  seen  her.  She  was  governess  of 
the  duke  of  Orleans'  children,  and  many  of  her 
earlv  works  were  devoted  to  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation. She  died  in  1830,  with  a  very  high 
reputation. 

GENOA,  a  dukedom  and  city  of  Sardinia, 


on  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  city  contains 
7G,000  inhabitants.  The  harbor  is  capacious 
and  secure.  The  city  is  built  on  an  elevation, 
and  the  streets  are  narrow,  dirty,  and  steep.' 
The  duchy  contains  2,330  square  miles,  and 
590,500  inhabitants.  Genoa,  possessed  by  the 
Lombards,  after  the  fall  of  the  Western  Roman 
empire,  came  next  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks, 
but  was  erected  into  a  republic  after  the  down- 
fall of  Charlemagne.  Quarrels  with  the  Pisans 
and  Venetians  occupied  the  Genoese  for  many 
years.  The  French  assumed  the  sovereignty  of 
Genoa,  but  did  not  long  retain  it.  Internal  dis- 
sensions not  unfrequently  enabled  foreign  pow- 
ers to  seize  upon"the  State.  In  1528  tranquillity 
was  restored  to  Genoa,  an  aristocratical  form  of 
government  established,  and  a  doge  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  state.  Sometime  after  this  the 
city  was  convulsed  by  the  furious  contentious 
between  the  old  and  new  nobilitv ,  the  two  por- 
tions into  which  the  aristocracy  was  divided. 
By  degrees  Genoa  lost  her  foreign  possessions, 
the  last  of  which,  Corsica,  revolted  in  1730. 
During  the  invasion  of  Italy  in  1797,  Genoa  ob- 
served a  strict  neutrality,  but  the  dissensions  of 
the  Genoese  did  not  escape  the  vigilant  eye  of 
IMapoleon  ;  he  established  a  form  of  government 
on  the  French  representative  system,  and  gavo 
it  the  title  of  the  Ligurian  republic.  In  if  15 
the  congress  of  Vienna  annexed  Genoa  to  the 
territories  of  Sardinia,  reserving  to  it  its  own 
senate  and  council,  without  the  concurrence  of 
which  no  taxes  can  be  laid  upon  the  Genoese. 

GEORGE  I.  Lewis,  king  of  Great  Britain, 
elector  of  Hanover,  and  duke  of  Brunswick- 
Lunenhurgh.  was  born  May  28,  1GUU.  and  was 
the  son  of  "Ernest  Augustus  and  Sophia,  grand- 
daughter of  James  I.  He  was  proclaimed 
king  of  England.  Aug.  1,  1714.  and  landed  at 
Greenwich  in  the  following  month.  At  the 
commencement  of  his  reign  the  whigs  had  the 
ascendency  :  both  in  nnd  out  of  parliament.  In 
]715  a  revolution  broke  out  in  f-cotland  in  favor 
of  the  Pretender,  but  was  quelled  without  much 
trouble,  although  there  were  many  who  were 
decidedly  opposed  to  the  existing  government. 
In  1715  the  bill  for  Septennial  parliaments  was 
brouo-ht  into  the  house  of  lords  by  the  duke  of 
Devonshire,  and  passed  both  houses.  In  1718, 
a  quadruple  alliance  of  England,  Holland, 
France,  and  Germany,  was  formed  against 
Spain,  and  the  Spanish  were  defeated  by  Sir 
George  Byn?  on  the  coast  of  Sicily.  In  1720 
was  starte'd  the  celebrated  South  Sea  scheme, 
which  involved  thousands  of  families  in  ruin. 

In  1721  Bishop  Atterbury  was  seized  and  con 


HISTORICAL   AND.  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


GEO 


259 


GER 


veyed  to  the  Tower,  and  afterwards  banished 
on  suspicion  of  treason  ;  the  duke  of  Norfolk, 
the  earl  of  Orrery,  and  others  were  imprisoned 
for  participation  in  the  plot.  In  1725  the  treaty 
of  Hanover  was  signed  to  counteract  the  first 
treaty  of  Vienna.  In  1727  the  king  visited  his 
electoral  dominions  at  Hanover,  but  being  seized 
with  a  paralytic  disorder  on  the  road  from  Han- 
over to  Holland,  he  was  conveyed  to  Osna- 
burgh,  June  11,  1727,  where  he  died,  in  the 
13th  year  of  his  reign.  The  disaffection  towards 
the  elector  of  Hanover,  on  his  arrival  in  England 
was  very  great,  and  the  populace  gave  no  equiv- 
ocal signs  of  it.  One  time  a  noisy  mob  sur- 
rounded a  carriage,  which  contained  some  Ger- 
man ladies  of  the  court,  and  assailed  their  ears 
with  epithets  of  abuse  more  fluent  than  elegant. 
One  of  the  foreigners,  putting  her  head  out  of 
the  carriage-window,  said,  in  her  broken  Eng- 
lish ;  "  My  good  peoples,  we  ish  come  for  all 
your  goods."  "  Yes,"  replied  a  surly  fellow  in 
the  crowd,  "  and  for  all  our  chattels  too." 

GEORGE  II,  AUGUSTUS,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  Oct.  30,  1683,  and  was  created 
prince  of  Wales,  Oct.  4, 1714.  In  1704  he  mar- 
ried Wilhelmina  Caroline  Dorothea,  of  Brand- 
enburgh-Anspach,  and  in  1727  succeeded 
George  I.  In  1729  the -peace  of  Seville  was 
concluded  with  Spain,  but  the  war  with  that 
country  was  renewed  in  1739.  In  1742  Sir 
Robert .  Walpole  resigned,  after  having  been 
minister  for  nearly  twenty  years,  and  in  the 
same  year,  the  king  espousing  the  cause  of 
Maria  Theresa,  marched  against  the  French 
whom  he  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Dettingen, 
but  without  gaining  much  advantage.  In  1745 
Charles  Edward,  the  Pretender,  landed  in  Scot- 
land, but  was  finally  defeated  at  Culloden.  The 
peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  was  concluded  in  174d. 
In  17f>4  the  encroachments  of  the  French  in 
America  brought  on  that  war  which  resulted 
happily  for  Great  Britain,  and  some  of  the  suc- 
cesses of  which  in  America  are  attributable  to 
the  bravery  of  the  provincial  troops.  In  the 
midst  of  general  prosperity,  George  II  died  at 
Kensington,  Oct.  25,  1760,  in  the  77th  year  of 
his  age  and  33d  of  his  reign.  He  possessed  no 
shining  qualities,  and  despised  learning. 

GEORGE  III,  king  of  Great  Britain,  eldest 
son  of  Frederick,  prince  of  Wales,  was  born  June 
4, 1738.  He  succeeded  his  grandfather  George 
II,  Oct.  25, 1760,  and  married  Charlotte  Sophia-, 
princess  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Sept  8,  1761, 
and  both  were  crowned  Sept.  22,  in  the  same 
year.  He  was  deranged  in  mind  from  Oct. 
1788  to  March  1789.  On  April  24,  1789,  he 


went  in  procession  to  St.  Paul's  cathedral ;  re- 
covered from  a  second  attack,  March  It),  1804  ; 
relapsed  lelO ;  and  died  in  Windsor  Castle,  Jan. 
29,  1820,  in  the  82d  year  of  his  age,  and  60th  of 
his  reign. 

GEORGE  IV,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
Aug.  12, 1762.  He  had  been  regent  during  the 
insanity  of  his  father,  whom  he  succeeded  on 
his  death.  In  1795,  he  had  married  Caroline 
Amelia  Augusta,  whose  sufferings  and  perse- 
cution excited  the  indignation  of  the  world 
against  her  heartless  husband.  Well  educated 
and  talented,  he  abused  the  gifts  which  were 
bestowed  upon  him,  and  in  his  youth  plunged 
into  the  guiltiest  excesses.  Loaded  with  debt 
he  at  length  adopted  a  system  of  retrenchment, 
sold  his  splendid  racing-stud,  and  reduced  his 
whole  establishment.  With  the  assistance  of 
parliament,  he  extricated  himself  from  his  diffi- 
culties. The  indignation  excited  by  a  nefarious 
transaction  of  his,  which  was  exposed  by  the 
Jockey  Club,  compelled  him  to  abandon  the 
turf  He  died  July  26,  J830,  and  was  succeed- 
ed by  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Clarence,  under 
the  title  of  Will  lam  IV. 

GEORGE  CADOUDAL,  a  Chouan  chief, 
who,  with  general  Pichegru,  was  concerned  in 
a  conspiracy  to  take  the  life  of  Bonaparte  when 
first  consul.  He  was  brought  over  to  France  in 
a  British  government  vessel,  but  was  seized  by 
the  police,  tried,  condemned,  and  executed, 
June  24,  1804,  ao-ed  35  years. 

GEORGIA,  one  of  the  U.  States,  is  bounded 
N.  by  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina  ;  N.  E.  by 
South  Carolina;  S.  E.  bv  the  Atlantic  ocean, S. 
by  Florida,  and  W.  by  Alabama.  It  is  300  miles 
in  length,  and  240  in  breadth,  containing  60,000 
square"  miles.  Population  691,392.  The  soil  is 
like  that  of  South  Carolina,  and  the  staple  pro- 
ductions are  the  same.  The  Cherokees,  inhab- 
iting the  northwestern  part  of  the  state,  are  far 
advanced  in  civilization.  The  first  settlement 
which  the  English  made  in  Georgia,  was  in 
1733,  under  the  superintendence  of  James  Og- 
lethorpe. 

GEORGIA,  in  Persian  GURG1STAN,  called 
by  the  natives  IBERIA,  a  rich  country  of  Asia, 
bounded  by  Circassia,  Daghestan,  Shirvan,  Ar- 
menia, and  the  Black  Sea.  The  Greek  religion 
is  the  prevailing  faith.  The  country  belongs 
chiefly  to  Russia,  only  a  small  part  now  remain- 
ing in  the  hands  of  its  former  masters,  the  Turks. 

GERMANICUS  C^SAR,ason  of  Claudius 
Drusus  Nero,  and  Antonia,  the  virtuous  niece 
of  Augustus.  He  was  adopted  by  his  uncle 
Tiberius,  and  raised  to  the'  highest  offices  of 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


GER 


260 


GER 


stale.  At  the  time  of  the  death  of  Augustus,  he 
was  employed  in  a  war  with  Germany,  but  Tibe- 
rius, jealous  of  the  hero,  recalled  him,  although 
he  permitted  him  to  celebrate  a  triumph  ibr 
his  victories.  He  then  sent  him  to  the  east  with 
sovereign  authority,  but  viewed  his  successes 
with  a  jealous  eye.  Germanicus  died  near  An- 
tioch,  A.  D.  19,  in  the  34th  year  of  his  age,  not 
without  suspicion  of  poison. 

GERMANTOWN,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania, 
7  miles  N.  of  Philadelphia,  memorable  lor  a  bat- 
tle fought  here  on  the  4th  of  October,  1777,  be- 
tween the  Americans,  under  Washington,  and 
the  British,  J.o  the  disadvantage  of  the  former. 

GERMANY,  was  formerly  divided  into  nine 
circles,  viz.  Austria,  Bavaria  and  Swaltia,  on 
the  si  nit  ii ;  Franconm,  in  the  centre  ;  Upper  and 
Imcer  Saxony,  and  Westphalia,  in  the  north  ; 
Upper  and  Ijoicer  Rhine  in  the  west.  The  other 
countries  belonging  to  Germany,  and  not  in- 
cluded in  the  circles,  were  Bohemia,  JMoraeia, 
Silesia,  and  Lusatia.  The  secondary  states  of 
Germany  form,  with  a  part  of  Prussia,  Austria, 
and  some  provinces  of  Denmark,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands, the  GERMANIC  CONFEDERA- 
TION. The  secondary  states,  are,  in  number, 
36,  of  which  the  principal  are:  1.  The  four 
kingdoms  of:  Hanover,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Wur- 
temberg :  2.  Eight  grand-duchies,  viz.  Hesse- 
Cassel,  Mecklenburg  Schwerin,  Oldenburg, 
Mecklenburg  Streliiz,  Saxe- Weimar,  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  Baden,  Luxemburg  :  4.  Ten  duch- 
ies and  eleven,  principalities  ;  5.  Four  free  cities  : 
Lubeck,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Frankfort  on 
the  Maine. 

Germany  (Gcrmania)  like  Gaul,  was  ancient- 
ly occupied  by  numerous  tribes,  some  of  which 
were  only  subjugated  by  the  Romans,  after  a 
very  fierce  and  prolonged  resistance.  It  was 
afterwards  conquered  Dy  Charlemagne,  who 
fixed  his  imperial  residence  in  Germany.  The 
posterity  of  Charlemagno  inherited  this  country 
until  the  demise  of  Louis  V.  Otho  the  Illus- 
trious, having  declined  the  royal  dignity.  Con- 
rad I,  duke  of  Franconia,  was  ummimously 
elected  to  fill  the  vacant  throne  in  (J12.  Thence, 
until  1800,  the  empire  of  Germany  was  an  elec- 
tive monarchy.  Frederic  I  ascended  the  throne 
in  1152,  and  during  his  reign  was  formed  the 
famous  league  of  the  Hansea'ie  towns  for  the 
protection  of  conimr-rce.  Frederic  II  was 
crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1218.  He  did 
much  for  the  encouragement,  of  arts  and  lite- 
rature. 

The  princes  of  the  empire.  assembled  in  diet, 
at  Frankfort,  elected  Rudolph  of  llapsburg  to 


the  imperial  throne  in  1272.  He  swayed  the 
imperial  sceptre  with  ability  for  about  18  years, 
and  died,  alter  a  short  illness,  in  the  73d  year  of 
his  age.  Albert  I  of  Austria  was  invested  with 
the  diadem  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  in  12!>8.  Under 
his  harsh  administration,  the  Swiss  revolted, 
and  the  foundation  of  the  Helvetic  republic  was 
laid. 

Henry  VII  of  Luxemburg  was  elected  in 
1308.  and  now  commenced  the  celebrated  divi- 
sion of  Guelphes  and  Ghibellines  in  the  con- 
tests between  the  emperors  and  popes.  On  his 
death,  Louis  of  Bavaria  was  recognised  as  law- 
ful possessor  of  (lie  throne  in  1330.  Charles 
IV.  king  of  Bohemia,  received  the  imperial  dia- 
dem in  13-")G.  His  reign  was  prosperous,  and 
under  his  swav  a  spirit  of  opposition  to  the  cor- 
rupt clergy  began  to  manifest  itself.  Wences- 
laus,  his  son,  succeeded  him  in  1378.  after  which 
Sigismund  ascended  the  throne  in  1411.  He 
concurred  with  the  pope  in  convoking  the  fa- 
mous council  of  Constance,  by  which  the  re- 
former Huss  was  condemned,  and  the  war  of 
the  Hussites  followed.  Albert  II  died  in  a 
short  time,  and,  in  1440.  the  electors  placed  up- 
on the  imperial  throne  Frederic  111,  duke  of 
Austria.  His  son  Maximilian  was  elected  king 
of  the  Romans,  and  invested  with  the  supreme 
dignity  in  14!)3.  He  was  an  active  and  enter- 
prising prince. 

Charles  V  presented  himself  as  a  candidate 
for  the  imperial  .crown  in  1520.  Ferdinand,  the 
brother  of  Charles,  succeeded  him.  Then  came 
Maximilian  II.  the  son  of  Ferdinand,  who  had 
already  received  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  and 
had  been  elected  king  of  the  Romans.  On 
the  demise  of  Ihis  illustrious  prince,  his  eldest 
son.  who  had  been  elected  king  of  the  Romans, 
and  acknowledged  as  his  successor  to  the  crown 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  succeeded  to  the  em- 
pire by  the  name  of  Rodolph  II.  in  157ti.  The 
emperor  ceded  Bohemia  to  his  brother  Matthias, 
who  succeeded  him  in  1012.  On  the  demise  of 
Matthias.  Ferdinand  was  declared  emperor  in 
I(ii:>,  bui.on  account  of  his  fanaticism  the  Prot- 
estants renounced  allegiance  to  him,  and  a  war 
ensued  which  was  \\nncd  with  sanguinary  ani- 
mosity by  both  parties.  Ferdinand  w;is  at  first 
triumphant,  and  Germany  began  to  tremble  with 
the  apprehension  of  slavish  subjection  ;  Gusta- 
vus,  king  of  Sweden,  rushing  with  impetuosity 
into  the  empire,  defeated  the  imperialists,  but 
was  slain  on  the  plain  of  Lutzen. 

On  the  death  of  Ferdinand  II.  his  son,  Fer- 
dinand III,  ascended  the  imperial  throne,  in 
1G37,  at  si  critical  period,  and  succeeded  in 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


GER 


261 


GER 


tranquillizing  Germany,  although  the  flames  of 
war  yet  rolled  unabated.  France,  Sweden,  Den- 
mark, England,  and  some  of  the  German  states 
were  confederated  against  Spain  and  the  house 
of  Austria.  At  length  a  treaty  was  concluded, 
since  known  as  the  peace  of  Westphalia.  On 
the  death  of  Ferdinand.  Leopold  I,  king  of  Hun- 
gary and  Bohemia,  was  declared  duly  elected  to 
the  imperial  throne  in  1U57.  Scarcely  were  the 
troubles  in  the  north  composed,  when  a  war 
with  Turkey  broke  out,  while  Louis  XIV  of 
France  took  this  opportunity  of  marching  against 
the  German  monarch.  But  notwithstanding 
his  perplexities  and  embarrassments,  Leopold 
found  means  to  render  the  crown  of  Hungary 
hereditary  in  his  family,  an  object  which  had 
long  been  desired.  The  archduke  Joseph  was 
chosen  sovereign  of  Hungary,  elected  king  of 
the  Romans,  and  ascended  tho  imperial  throne 
in  1703.  He  governed  with  stern  inflexibility, 
and  continued  the  Spanish  war.  The  arch- 
duke Charles  was  elevated  to  the  imperial 
throne,  by  the  name  of  Charles  VI,  in  1711. 
Anne  queen  of  England,  having  expressed  her 
pacific  intentions,  he  had  to  sustain  the  whole 
weight  of  a  war  with  France  and  Spain,  unless 
he  accepted  the  terms  of  Louis.  At  length, 
however,  negotiations  were  commenced,,  and 
the  treat v  of  Utrecht  re-established  the  general 
peace.  Chat  les  died  in  the  2Jlh  year  of  his  age. 
He  was  the  author  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
which  secured  all  the  possessions  of  the  house 
of  Austria  to  his  daughter  the  archduchess 
Maria  Theresa,  and  which  was  guaranteed  by 
the  states  of  the  empire,  and  by  all  the  great 
powers  of  Europe. 

The  death  of  Charles,  in  1740,  was  followed 
by  very  serious  commotions,  but  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  was  preserved,  and  the  treaty  of  Fus- 
senand  Aix-la-Chapelle  terminated  th<>  war  of 
the  Austrian  succession  in  favor  of  .Maria 
Theresa.  Two  years  after  the  conclusion  of 
the  treaty  of  Hubertsburg,  the  emperor  Francis 
died,  in  the  twenty-first  year  of  his  reign.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Joseph  II.  in  17G4 
his  imperial  majesty'  joined  with  Russia  and 
Prussia  in  the  base  dismemberment  of  Poland, 
but  this  did  not  prevent  hostilities  from  being 
commenced  with  Austria  and  Prussia,  on  ac- 
count of  the  succession  to  the  electorate  of  Ba- 
varia. Maria  Theresa,  empress  of  Germany, 
queen  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and  arch- 
duchess of  Austria",  died  in  17tiO.  She  left  her 
extensive  possessions  in  the  hands  of  a  son, 
who  promulgated  a  decree  in  favor  of  the  lib- 
erty of  the  press,  which  had  been  hitherto  much 


.circumscribed  in  the  Austrian  dominions.  In 
178IJ  Joseph  II  published  an  edict  for  the  total 
abolition  of  villanage  and  slavery  in  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  and  Silesia;  and  similar  measures 
were  taken  soon  after  for  the  relief  of  the  peas- 
ants of  Austrian  Poland.  He  also  abolished 
the  use  of  torture  in  his  hereditary  dominions, 
and  died  in  the  25th  year  of  his  reign.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Leopold  II,  grand- 
duke  of  Tuscany,  in  171H). 

The  French  revolution  now  attracting  the 
attention  of  all  the  European  powers,  a  confe- 
rence was  held  at  Pilnitz  between  the  emperor, 
the  king  of  Prussia,  and  the  elector  of  Saxony  ; 
but,  instead  of  advising  an  immediate  attack 
upon  France.  Leopold  acted  with  his  accus- 
tomed moderation,  and  merely  wished  to  oppose 
an  effectual  security  against  the  tremendous 
hurricane  which  threatened  Europe.  However, 
he  was  afterwards  persuaded  to  commence  hos- 
tilities, but  his  designs  were  soon  terminated 
by  his  death,  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign. 

Francis  II  succeeded  his  father  in  17it5i.  At 
the  instigation  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  he  re- 
solved to  use  his  utmost  endeavors  for  the  res- 
toration of  the  monarchy  in  France ;  but  the 
attempts  of  the  allies  were  so  unfortunate  in 
the  first  campaign,  that  they  commenced  the 
second  with  altered  views,  and  a  feeling  of  in- 
security in  consequence  of  previous  losses.  The 
second  campaign  proved  more  successful,  but 
that  of  17^14  was  disastrous  to  the  allies.  The 
fourth  campaign  atjain  raised  the -hopes  of  the 
Austrians.  In  17iHJ,  from  altered  views  of  ex- 
pediency, the  French  turned  their  arms  upon 
the  Austrian  possessions  in  Italy,  where  the 
victories  of  Bonaparte  soon  spread  the  terror  of 
his  name. 

At  length  the  court  of  Vienna,  finding  that 
all  expectations  of  effectual  opposition  to  the 
French  were  totally  unfounded,  concluded,  in 
]7!/7,  the  treaty  ot  Campo-Formio,  by  which 
the  emperor  ceded  to  France  the  whole  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  all  his  former  territory  in  Italy, 
but  received  in  return  the  city  of  Venice,  Istria, 
Dalmatia,  and  the  Venetian  islands  in  the  Adri- 
atic. However  the  war  was  renewed  with  great 
vigor  on  both  sides,  and,  in  17:'!J.  tiie  Austrians 
compelled  the  French  to  evacuate  nearlv  the 
whole  of  Italy.  The  brilliant  successes  of  the 
archduke  Charles  in  Germany,  also,  reanimated 
the  court  of  Vienna,  and  contributed  to  break 
off  the  conferences  at  Rastadt.  In  the  mean 
time,  Bonaparte,  having  returned  from  Egypt, 
and  been  chosen  first  consul  of  the  French  re- 
public, the  war  with  Austria  was  destined  to 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


GER 


262 


GER 


take  a  new  turn.  That  general,  at  the  head  of 
an  army  of  reserve,  marched  towards  Italy  ;  and 
having  collected  his  artillery,  transported  it  with 
inconceivable  labor  across  the  Alps,  and  ad- 
vanced to  Milan.  After  reducing  Pavia,  and 
defeating  the  Austrians  in  the  battle  of  Monte- 
bello,  the  French  marched  to  the  plain  of  Ma- 
rengo.  Both  the  French  and  Imperialists  ex- 
hibited extraordinary  skill  and  resolution.  At 
length  the  first  consul,  availing  himself  of  an 
error  which  had  been  committed,  compelled  his 
enemies  to  retreat.  In  Germany  the  French 
had  opened  the  campaign  with  similar  success ; 
and  Genera]  Moreau.  after  defeating  the  Impe- 
rialists in  several  engagements,  formed  a  junc- 
tion with  the  array  of  Italy,  and  obliged  the 
Austrians  to  conclude  an  armistice. 

Soon  after  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed 
at  Paris  by  count  St.  Julien;  but  as  Bonaparte 
refused  to  negotiate  with  England,  the  emperor 
would  not  ratify  them.  Hostilities  were  there- 
fore re-commenced,  and  the  Austrians  were 
defeated  by  Moreau  in  the  decisive  battle  of 
Hohenlinden.  This  was  followed  in  1801  by 
the  treaty  of  Luneville,  by  which  the  emperor 
ceded  to  France  the  Belgic  provinces,  and  the 
whole  of  the  country  on  the  left  side  of  the 
Rhine.  In  1805,  the  court  of  Vienna  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Russia,  the  object  of  which 
appears  to  have  been  to  rescue  the  states  of  Eu- 
rope from  French  predominance  and  oppression. 
The  emperor,  therefore,  made  preparation  for 
war.  Without  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  the 
Russian  troops,  the  Austrians  marched  towards 
the  banks  of  the  Danube,  where  hostilities 
commenced,  and  the  French,  under  Bonaparte, 
after  a  severe  contest,  succeeded  in  defeating 
the  Imperialists  with  great  loss.  The  Austrians 
retreated  and  Bonaparte  advanced  to  Munich. 
From  this  time,  partial  engagements  took  place, 
in  which  the  Austrians,  though  they  fought 
with  their  accustomed  bravery,  were  uniformly 
defeated. 

The  whole  Austrian  army  in  Suabia  now 
concentrated  itself  in  and  near  Uhn  ;  and  every- 
thing seemed  to  indicate  the  approach  of  a  gen- 
eral and  decisive  battle.  However,  to  the  as« 
tonishment  and  concern  of  all  Europe,  general 
Mack,  who  was  in  Ulm  with  33,000  men,  with- 
out striking  a  blow  agreed  to  the  terms  of  ca- 
pitulation offered  by  Bonaparte,  evacuated  that 
important  fortress,  and  surrendered  himself  and 
his  troops  prisoners  of  war. 

Bonaparte  was  every  where  victorious,  and 
the  decisive  battle  of  Austerlitz  compelled  the 
emperor  Francis  to  conclude  an  armistice  which 


was  speedily  followed  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg. 
In  1^00,  sixteen  German  princes  renounced 
their  connection  whh  the  German  empire,  and 
signed  at  Paris  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine. 
by  which  they  acknowledged  Napoleon  as  their 
protector. 

This  was  followed,  on  the  Gth  of  August,  by 
the  renunciation  of  the  title  of  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, by  Francis,  who  assumed  that  of  emperor 
of  Austria,  and  who  publicly  absolved  all  the 
German  provinces  and  states  from  their  recip- 
rocal duties  towards  the  German  empire.  In 
i  •-!  ':'.  Francis,  smarting  under  sacrifices  already 
made,  and  dreading  farther  encroachments,  re- 
solved to  try  again  the  chance  of  war.  at  a  time 
when  a  large  proportion  of  the  military  force 
of  France  was  employed  in  completing  the  sub- 
jugation of  Spain.  War  was  declared,  in  pro- 
clamation from  the  archduke  Charles  and  the 
emperor  Francis,  and  these  were  followed  by  a 
manifesto,  stating  the  provocations  and  causes 
of  alarm  given  by  France  to  Austria. 

The  Austrians  were  defeated  in  two  battles, 
one  at  Abensburg  by  Napoleon  in  person,  and 
the  other  at  EckmUhl ;  and  after  these  defeats, 
the  French  emperor  pioceeded  to  Vienna  which 
surrendered  to  him.  But  in  the  battle  of  As- 
pern,  which  followed  soon  after,  Napoleon  ex- 
perienced the  severest  check  which  his  career 
had  yet  received.  However,  niter  the  decisive 
battle  of  Wagrain  an  armistice  was  concluded. 
This  was  followed  by  a  peace  between  Austria 
and  France,  by  which  the  emperor  Francis 
ceded  to  Napoleon  all  these  parts  <•!'  his  tenitory 
which  bordered  on  the  Adriatic.  Other  cessions 
were  also  made.  By  a  secret  article  in  this 
treaty,  the  emperor  Francis  agreed  to  give  his 
daughter,  the  archduchess  Louisa  Maria,  in 
marriage  to  Napoleon.  After  the  disastrous 
consequences  of  the  Russian  campaign,  Austria 
declared  war  against  France,  a  declaration  which 
was  followed  by  a  treaty  of  amity  and  defensive 
alliance  between  the  courts  of  Vienna  and  Pe- 
tersburg. Russia  and  Prussia  had  previously 
formed'  treaties  with  Great  Britain.  Sweden 
had  also  joined  the  allies,  and  the  accession  of 
Bavaria  to  the  common  cause  proved  the  gen- 
eral concurrence  of  Germany  to  throw  off  the 
yoke  of  Napoleon.  The  battle  of  Leipzig  de- 
cided the  fate  of  Germany. 

After  Napoleon  abdicated  the  throne  of  France 
in  1-1-1.  the.  allied  powers  concluded  a  treaty  at 
Paris  by  which  the  German  stad-s  were  to  be 
independent,  and  united  by  a  federal  league. 
As  the  Austrian  or  Catholic  Netherlands  were 
unable  to  secure  their  independence,  Belgium 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


GIZ 


2G3 


GOD 


was  annexed  to  the  Netherlands  forming  a  sin- 

S'e  state,  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  house  of 
range.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  in  1815, 
a  congress  of  the  allied  powers  was  held  at  Vi- 
enna, at  which  the  future  tranquillity  of  Ger- 
many was  provided  for  by  a  solemn  act  of  con- 
federation, signed  by  its  sovereigns  and  free 
cities,  including  the  emperor  of  Austria  and  the 
king  of  Prussia,  for  those  of  their  possessions 
formerly  appertaining  to  the  German  empire  : 
the  king  of  Denmark  for  Holstein,  and  the  king 
of  the  Netherlands  for  Luxemburg. 

GERRY,  Elbridge,  a  patriotic  American,  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of  independence, 
was  born  at  Marb^'head,  Massachusetts,  July 
]4,  1744,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard  College. 
He  was  elected,  from  his  warm  patriotism,  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  General  Court,  in 
177*2,  and  was  afterwards  a  member  of  Congress, 
presided  at  the  treasury-board,  and  performed 
several  important  tasks.  In  1810  he  was  chosen 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  the  following 
year  re-elected.  In  1812  he  was  chosen  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States,  and  died  shortly 
after. 

GHENT,  in  French  GAND,  the  capital  of 
East  Flanders,  a  fine  city,  containing  82,000 
inhabitants.  Its  manufactures  are  numerous 
and  lucrative.  It  has  been  the  scene  of  several 
diplomatic  negotiations,  of  which  that  to  resist 
the  tyranny  of  Spain,  in  1578,  and  called  the 
pacification  of  Ghent,  is  particularly  memorable, 
as  well  as  the  treaty  of  peace  between  the  Unit- 
ed States  and  Great  Britain,  in  December,  1814. 

GIBBON,  Edward,  an  eminent  English  his- 
torian, born  at  Putney,  in  1737.  He  resided 
much  abroad,  chiefly  at  Lausanne,  but  was 
engaged  in  political  life  for  a  long  time.  He 
conceived  the  idea  of  his  great  work,  the  De- 
cline and  Fall  of  the,  Roman  Empire,  at  Rome, 
as  he  sat  amidst  the  ruins  of  the  capitol,  "  while 
the  barefooted  friars  were  sinijing  vespers  in 


the  temple  of  Jupiter."     He  died   in  England, 
16th  of  January,  1794,  in  the  57th  year 
ge. 
GIBRALTAR,  a  rocky  promontory,  in  the 


South  of  Spain,  1400  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  It  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1704, 
soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  and  has  since  been  several 
times  besieged,  but  never  with  success.  The 
most  determined  attempt  was  that  in  177!)  which 
was  defeated  by  the  skill  of  general  Elliot. 

GIZEH  ;  a  city  of  Egypt,  three  miles  above 
Cairo,  distinguished  for  the  antique  monuments 
in  its  vicinity. 


GLASGOW,  a  city  of  Scotland,  in  the  coun- 
ty of  Lanark,  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the 
kingdom,  containing  202.000  inhabitants.  It  is 
the  first  city  in  Scotland  in  regard  to  commerce 
and  manufactures.  It  contains,  among  other 
superb  public  buildings,  a  magnificent  cathe- 
dral Its  university  enjoys  a  high  reputation. 

GLENDOWER,  Owen,  a  celebrated  Welsh 
chieftain,  born  in  1254.  He  was  the  determined 
foe  of  Henry  IV,  and  for  a  long  time,  kept  a 
marauding  warfare  which  was  highly  annoying 
to  the  English.  He  died,  unsubdued,  February 
24,  1416. 

GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON,  marquis  of 
Anvers  and  duke  of  Brabant,  was  the  son  of 
Eustace  II,  count  of  Boulogne,  and  was  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  llth  century.  He 
served  with  distinction  under  Henry  IV,  em- 
peror of  Germany,  but  acquired  an  imperishable 
fame  in  the  crusades.  At  Nice,  Edessa,  and 
Antioch,  he  particularly  distinguished  himself, 
and  in  July,  ]  099,  he  took  Jerusalem,  after  a 
siege  of  five  weeks.  On  taking  possession  of 
the  city,  he  threw  off  his  armor,  clothed  him- 
self in  a  mantle,  and,  with  bare  head  and  naked 
feet,  went  to  the  church  of  the  sepulchre.  On 
the  foundation  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusa- 
lem, in  the  same  year,  Godfrey's  virtues  were 
declared  to  be  pre-eminent,  and  the  princes 
conducted  h:tu  to  the  church  which  covered  the 
tomb  of  Christ  and  offered  him  a  crown.  But 
he  refused  to  wear  a  diadem  of  gold  where  his 
Savior  had  worn  a  crown  of  thorns,  and  mod- 
estly claimed  the  honor  of  being  the  defender 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  He,  however,  enjoyed 
it  but  a  short  time,  for  he  died  July  18, 1100,  just 
one  year  after  the  taking  of  Jerusalem. 

GODMAN,  John  D.  an  eminent  American 
naturalist,  lecturer,  and  writer,  was  born  at 
Annapolis,  in  Maryland,  and  at  an  early  age. 
was  apprenticed  to  a  printer.  Disliking  his 
business,  he  shipped  as  a  sailor  on  board  the 
Chesapeake  flotilla,  in  the  war  of  1813.  Hav- 
ing afterward  studied  medicine  he  settled  in 
New  York,  and  was  offered  the  professorship 
of  anatomy  in  Rutger's  medical  college.  The 
state  of  his  health,  however,  rendered  travelling 
necessary,  and  he  went  to  Vera  Cruz,  but  with- 
out experiencing  the  relief  which  he  hoped. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  April  17,  1830,  in  the 
32d  year  of  his  age.  His  Natural  History  of 
American  Quadrupeds  (3  vols.  8  vo.),  and  his 
Rambles  of  a  Naturalist  are  deservedly  popular. 

GODOLPHIN,  Sidne'y,  earl  of  Godolphin, 
and  lord  high  treasurer  of  England,  was  born 
in  Cornwall,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


GffT 


264 


GOL 


employed  in  the  reigns  of  Charles  II  and 
James  II,  although  he  voted  for  the  exclusion 
of  the  latter,  in  1680.  He  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  treasury  on  the  accession  of  Queen 
Anne,  but  was  obliored  to  retire  from  oflice  in 
1710.'  He  died  in  ] 712. 

GCETHE,  John  Wolfgang  von,  born  Aug. 
28,  1749,  at  Frankfort  on  the  Maine.  He  dis- 
played an  early  fondness  for  literature  and  the 
arts  which  increased  with  his  years.  His  studies 
embraced  the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences.  In 
1771  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws,  and 
wrote  a  legal  dissertation.  He  eventually  set- 
tled at  Weimar,  on  the  invitation  of  the  grand- 
duke,  who  conferred  upon  him  several  offices 
and  honors,  fie  died,  at  an  advanced  age,  in 
1832.  Of  his  various  works,  the  Sorrows  of 
Werther,  the  drama  of  Faust,  and  the  Appren- 
ticeship of  Wilhelm  Meister,  are  well  known, 
through  the  medium  of  translation,  to  the  Eng- 
lish reader. 

The  following  particulars  of  the  life  of  this 
celebrated  man  were  written  not  long  before 
his  death.  "  It  would  be  difficult  to  rind  a  man 
who  had  arrived  at  the  age  of  eighty-one  with 
fewer  infirmities  than  Gcsthe.  The  prodigious 
activity  of  his  mind  seems  not  to  have  worn 
out  his  body,  although  the  latter,  it  is  said,  was 
put  to  the  proof  by  his  juvenile  irregularities. 
His  elevated  form,  the  striking  regularity  of 
his  features,  his  imposing  and  noble  bearing, 
the  athletic  proportions  of  his  body,  seem  to 
have  suffered  no  injury  from  age  ;  he  holds  him- 
self as  upright  as  a  young  man  of  eighteen  ;  no 
apparent  infirmity  accompanies  his  years,  and 
the  wrinkles  of  his  face  hardly  indicate  a  man 
of  sixty. 

"  There  is  in  his  behavior  and  countenance 
Bomethingcold  and  reserved,  which  adds  to  the 
emotion  which  is  felt  in  beholding  him.  He 
rarely  determines,  in  the  interviews  which  he 
grants  to  strangers,  to  display  the  resources 
of  his  genius  ;  and  visiters  are  sorry  to  observe 
that  these  hours  of  audience  are  only  moments 
of  repose  for  his  spirit — perhaps  of  annoyance. 
It  is  said  that  this  reserve  always  disappears  in 
favor  of  strangers  who  arrive  at  Weimar,  pre- 
ceded by  a  literary  reputation.  Gcethe  has  i'elt 
obliged  to  impose  this  reserve  upon  himself  to 
avoid  the  unhappy  consequences  of  frankness 
which  once  distinguished  him,  and  it  i 
that  F.nglish  travellers  have  not  a  little  contri- 
buted to  it  by  the  indiscretion  they  have  shown 
in  publishing  in  their  journals  incorrect  frag- 
ments of  their  conversations  with  him. 

"The   life   which   Goethe  leads  at  present 


bears  the  impress  of  that  vigor  of  mind  and 
body,  which  he  has  succeeded  in  preserving. 
With  a  freshness  and  activity  of  mind,  that 
eighty  years  of  a  laborious  life  have  not  im- 
paired, he  knows  how  to  profit  by  every  mo- 
ment of  the  day.  By  six  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing he  is  at  work,  and  he  permits  no  interrup- 
tion until  the  hour  of  noon.  During  these  long 
mornings  he  writes  letters,  composes,  reviews 
his  complete  works,  and  arranges  his  corres- 
pondence with  Schiller,  of  which  the  first  vol- 
ume has  been  published  some  months.  Atnoen 
strangers  ure  admitted.  Alter  dinner,  he  as- 
sembles at  his  house,  about  4  or  5  o'clock,  the 
limited  number  of  the  elect  who  have  the  hap- 
piness to  live  ia  hiihits  of  intimacy  with  him. 
The  evenings  of  Goethe  are  consecrated  to 
reading;  he  reads  with  a  prodigious  rapidity, 
whicirwuuld  be  but  a  delect,  were  it  not  ac- 
companied by  an  astonishing  memory  and  an 
extraordinary  faculty  of  analysis.  He  is  but 
seldom  seen  at  the  theatre,  and  the  theatre  of 
Weimar  feels  this  abandonment  but  too  sensi- 
bly. Goethe  was  formerly  the  manager,  pt  r- 
haps  we  may  call  him  the  creator  of  it :  it 
was  he,  who,  aided  by  Schiller,  foimed  all  the 
actors,  who  ibr  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury, shcr.e  in  the  iirst  rank  upon  the  German 
stage,  and  made  the  little  theatre  of  Weimar 
the  true  school  of  the  dramatic  ait  in  Ger- 
many ."  (Su:  page  (148.) 

GOLCOIS'DA  ;  (now  Hyderabad)  a  province 
of  Hindostan,  the  soil  of  which  is  fertile,  but 
which  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  diamond 
v.  h:eh,  now.  however,  hardly  pay  the 
expenses  of  mining.  It  was  anciently  called 
Tellingana. 

GOLDSMITH,  Oliver,  an  eminent  poet  and 
miscellaneous  u  riter,  born  in  Ireland  in  1731. 
His  father  was  a  clei-gyman.  and  he  studied  at 
Dublin.  Edinburgh  and  Levden,  and  took  a 
doctor's  degree  at  Padua.  Having  made  the 
tour  of  Europe  on  foot,  supporting  himself  by 
flute  playing,  he  reached  London,  after  a  long 
absence,  with  but  a  few  pence  in  his  pocket 
Here  hr-  supported  him.-elf  by  his  p-n.  and 
compiled  many  works.  h<  !1i?  those 

which  have  rendered  hwpame  immortal.  His 
poem  of  The  Traveller  gained  him  an  enviable 
poetical  reputation.  1'.-.  'ablished 

on  a  firm  basis  by  the    :  e.     Im- 

provident, like  manv  men  of  genius,  ho  was 
about  to  many  his  landlady  t>>  cai;r<  1  a  debt  he 
owed  her,  when  the  sale  of  his  novel  the  Vicar 
of  Waketie'd.  which  met  the  approbation  of  Dr 
Johnson,  alibrded  him  a  temporary  relief.  An 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


GOR 


265 


GRA 


adventure  which  he  himself  met  with  formed 
the  groundwork  of  his  highly  successful  com- 
edy, She  Stoops  to  Conquer.  He  put  up  at.  the 
house  of  a  gentleman,  mistaking  it  for  an  inn, 
and  amused  the  inmates  by  calling  out  lustily 
for  whatever  he  wanted,  ordering  the  servants, 
slapping  his  host  upon  the  back,  and  asking  to 
see  the  bill  of  fare.  His  mortification,  on  dis- 
covering his  mistake,  can  easily  be  imagined. 
He  died  April,  1774.  He  was  eccentric  even  to 
absurdity,  and,  in  society  showed  the  simpli- 
city of  la  Fontaine.  Garrick,  in  some  extempo- 
raneous verses,  spoke  of  Him  as 
"  Noll, 
Who  wrote  like  an  an-el,  but  talked— like  poor  Poll." 

GONZALVO,  Hernandez  y  Aquilar  de  Cor- 
dova, commonly  called  the  great  captain,  was 
born  in  1443.  This  celebrated  Spaniard  served 
under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  the  conquest  of 
Granada,  where  he  took  several  strong  places 
from  the  Moors.  Ferdinand  gave  him  the  com- 
mand of  the  forces  which  he  sent  into  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  to  succor  Frederick  and  Al- 
phonso.  After  having  gained  his  purpose,  he 
returned  to  Spain,  and  then  serving  against  the 
Turks  wrested  Zante  and  Cephalonia  from  them. 
He  was  afterwards,  in  consequence  of  his  various 
victories,  appointed  viceroy  of  Naples,  with  un- 
limited powers.  He  died  in  1515. 

GOOKIN,  Daniel,  major-general  of  Massa- 
chusetts from  1681  to  1667,  the  year  of  his 
death.  He  was  an  Englishman,  but  came  to 
Virginia,  in  1621,  and  removed  to  New  Eng- 
land that  he  might  enjoy  freedom  of  worship  Fn 
1644.  He  is  the  author  of  the  Historical  Col- 
lections of  the  Indians  in  New  England. 

GOIIDIUS,  a  king  of  Phrygia,  who  fastened 
the  pole  of  his  chariot  with  so  ingenious  a  knot 
tint  the  oracle  promised  the  kingdom  to  the 
man  who  should  untie  it.  Alexander  the  Great 
cut  it  with  his  sword. 

GORE,  Christopher,  a  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, born  in  Boston,  in  1753.  was  the  son 
of  a  mechanic.  His  education  was  completed 
at  Harvard  University;  he  studied  law  and 
practised  it  with  success.  He  was  the  first 
United  Slates  attorney  Tor  Massachusetts,  and 
was  one  of  the  commissioners  to  settle  the 
claims  on  England  for  the  spoliations  commit- 
ted by  her  upon  the  property  of  the  Americans. 
He  was  twice  elected  senator  for  Suffolk  county 
in  his  native  state,  and  in  1809  was  chosen  gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts,  but  remained  in  office 
only  one  year.  In  1814  he  was  chosen  United 
States  senator,  but  died  in  retirement,  March  1, 
1827,  in  the  69lh  year  of  his  age. 


GOREE.  a  small  island  off  the  coast  of  Af- 
rica, near  Cape  Verd,  with  a  military  post  be- 
longing to  the  French. 

GOTH  A,  formerly  a  Saxon  duchy,  contain- 
ing 522  square  miles,  and  83.000  inhabitants. 
In  1326  it  was  annexed  to  the  duchies  of  Saxe- 
Coburg,  and  Saxe-Altenburg. 

GOTHS,  aii -ancient  barbarous  tribe,  whose 
origin  is  very  uncertain.  They  were  said  to 
come  from  Scandinavia.  For  a  long  time  they 
resided  in  Germany  whence  they  finally  forced 
their  way  and  made  themselves  formidable  to 
the  Romans.  Under  Alaric  they  took  and  plun- 
dered Rome.  The  Goths  of  the  east  were  called 
Ostrogoths,  and  those  of  West  Visigoths. 

GOTTINGEN,  a  city  of  Hanover,  on  the 
Leine,  22  leagues  S.  S.  E.  of  Hanover.  It  con- 
tains 10,000  inhabitants,  and  is  famous  for  its 
university  founded  by  King  George  II  in  1734. 
GRACCHUS,  Tiberius  Semproni  us  and  Caius. 
the  sons  of  the  celebrated  Cornelia,  lost  their 
lives  in  attempting  to  reform  the  republic.  With 
a  winning  eloquence,  affected  moderation,  and 
uncommon  popularity,  Tiberius  began  to  revive 
the  Agrarian  law,  which  had  already  caused 
dissensions  among  the  Romans.  His  proposi- 
tion passed  into  a  law,  but  he  was  killed  in  the 
midst  of  a  tumult,  for,  happening  to  raise  his 
hand  to  his  head,  his  enemies  declared  that  he 
signified  a  desire  fora  crown,  and  he  was  killed 
in  the  outbreak  of  popular  fury  which  ensued. 
His  brother  Caius  supported  the  cause  of  the 
people  with  more  vehemence,  and  less  modera- 
tion than  Tiberius,  and  his  success  animated 
his  resentment  against  the  nobles.  With  the 
privileges  of  a  tribune,  he  treated  the  patricians 
with  contempt,  and  this  behavior  hastened  his 
ruin.  He  fled  with  a  large  number  of  his  ad- 
herents, but  the  consul  Opinius  attacked  and 
defeated  them,  and  slew  their  leader,  B.  C.  121, 
about  thirteen  years  after  the  unfortunate  end 
of  Tiberius. 

GRANADA,  an  extensive  province  in  the 
south  of  Spain,  bordering  on  the  sea,  about  200 
miles  hi  length.  The  soil  of  the  valleys  is  fer- 
tile. The  city  of  Granada  is  interesting  for  its 
historical  recollections,  and  monuments  of  the 
past.  Among  the  latter  is  the  magnificent 
Alhambra,  which  has  already  been  described. 
Granada  has  some  manufactures  and  is  the  seat 
of  an  university.  Population  of  the  city  80,000. 

GRATTAN',  Henry,  a  celebrated  statesman, 
was  born  about  1750. 'in  Dublin.  He  was  elect- 
ed into  the  Irish  parliament  in  1775,  and.  by  his 
powerful  remonstrances  obtained  for  his  coun- 
try a  participation  in  the  commerce  of  Britain, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


GRE 


266 


GRE 


for  which  he  was  rewarded  by  a  vote  of  50,000 
pounds  sterling.  In  17'JO  he  was  returned  for 
the  city  of  Dublin,  and  from  that  time  was  the 
active  leader  of  the  opposition  till  the  union 
with  England,  which  measure  he  resisted  with 
all  his  eloquence.  When  it  was  effected,  he 
accepted  a  seat  in  the  united  house  of  commons 
for  Million.  In  the  French  wars  he  supported 
government  with  great  ability  ;  but  his  princi- 
pal exertions  were  called  forth  in  advocating 
the  Catholic  claims,  to  which  cause  he  fell  a 
martyr,  by  leaving  Ireland,  in  an  exhausted 
state,  to  carry  the  petition,  with  which  he  was 
intrusted,  to  England.  He  died,  soon  after  his 
arrival,  May  14,  1820;  and  his  remains  were 
interred  in  Westminster  Abbey.  What  Irish- 
man does  not  feel  proud  that  he  has  lived  in 
the  days  of  Grattan  ?  Who  has  not  turned  to 
him  for  comfort  from  the  false  friends  and  open 
enemies  of  Ireland  ?  Who  did  not  remember 
him  in  the  days  of  its  burnings,  and  wastings, 
and  murders.  No  government  ever  dismayed 
him — the  world  could  not  bribe  him.  He  only 
thought  of  Ireland — lived  for  no  other  object — 
dedicated  to  her  his  beautiful  fancy,  his  elegant 
wit,  his  manly  courage,  and  all  the  splendor 
of  his  astonishing  eloquence.  He  was  so  born, 
and  so  gifted,  that  all  the  attainments  of  human 
genius  were  within  his  reach  ;  but  he  thought 
the  noblest  occupation  of  man  was  to  make 
other  men  happy  and  free ;  and  in  that  straight 
line  he  went  on  for  fifty  years,  without  one  side 
look,  without  one  yielding  thought,  without  one 
motive  in  his  heart  which  he  might  not  have 
laid  open  to  the  view  of  God  and  man.  He  is 
gone  ! — but  there  is  not  a  single  day  of  his  hon- 
est life  of  which  every  good  Irishman  would 
not  be  more  proud,  than  of  the  whole  political 
existence  of  the  Wellington's  and  the  Lans- 
downes, — the  annual  deserters  a«d  betrayers  of 
their  native  land. 

GRAY,  Thomas,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
London,  in  17115.  After  completing  the  course 
of  education  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  he  made 
the  tour  of  Europe,  returning  in  1741.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  passed  in  literary  re- 
tirement. He  was  for  ever  laying  gigantic  lit- 
erary plans,  which  he  wanted  the  perseverance 
to  execute.  He  wrote  little  and  published  only 
after  mature  deliberation.  His  Odes  on  A  Dis- 
tant Prospect  of  Eton  College,  on  the  Progress 
of  Poesy.  The  Bard,  and  his  Elegy  in  a  Country 
Church  Yard,  are  inimitable.  This  distinguish- 
ed poet  died  of  a  gout  in  the  stomach,  JiUy  30, 
1771. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  (See  Britain  and  Entr- 
land.\ 


GREECE.  Ancient  Greece,  Grircia,  Hellas, 
and  jlcliaia,  contained  about  42.000  square  miles. 
It  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Ionian  Sea, 
south  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  east  by  the 
^Egean,  and  north  by  Thrace  and  Dalmatia. 
This  country  has  been  esteemed  superior  to 
every  other  part  of  the  earth,  on  account  of 
the  salubrity  of  the  air,  the  temperature  of  the 
climate,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and,  above  all, 
the  fame,  learning,  and  arts  of  its  inhabitants. 
The  most  celebrated  of  its  cities  were  Athens, 
Sparta,  Corinth,  Thebes,  Sicyon,  Mycente, 
Delphi,  Troczene,  Salarnis,  Megara,  Pylos,  <fec. 

The  history  of  Greece  is  darkened,  in  its 
primitive  ages,  by  the  mists  of  fable.  The  in- 
habitants believed  that  they  were  the  original 
dwellers  in  the  country,  and  sprang  from  the 
earth,  whereon  they  dwelt;  and  they  heard, 
with  contempt,  the  probable  conjecture's  which 
traced  their  origin  to  the  inhabitants  of  Asia, 
and  the  colonies  of  Egypt.  In  the  first  periods 
of  their  history,  the  Greeks  were  governed  by 
monarchs ;  and  there  were  as  many  kings  as 
there  were  cities.  The  monarchical  power  grad- 
ually decreased  ;  the  love  of  liberty  established 
the  republican  governments  ;  and  no  part  of 
Greece,  except  Macedonia,  remained  in  the 
hands  of  an  absolute  sovereign.  The  expedition 
of  the  Argonauts  first,  rendered  the  Greeks  re- 
spectable among  their  neighbors ;  and  in  the  suc- 
ceeding age,  the  wars  of  Thebes  and  Troy  gave 
opportunity  to  their  heroes  to  display  their  valor 
in  the  field  of  battle.  The  simplicity  of  the  an- 
cient Greeks  rendered  them  virtuous  ;  and  the 
establishment  of  the  Olympic  games  in  partic- 
ular, where  the  only  reward  of  the  conqueror 
was  a  laurel  crown,  contributed  to  their  aggran- 
dizement, and  made  them  ambitious  of  fame, 
and  not  the  slaves  of  riches. 

The  austerity  of  their  laws,  and  the  educa- 
tion of  their  youth,  particularly  at  Lacedeinon 
rendered  them  brave  and  active,  insensible  to 
bodily  pain,  fearless  and  intrepid  in  the  hour  of 
dnnger.  The  celebrated  battles  of  Marathon, 
Thermopylae  Salamis,  Platn-a.  and  Mycale,  suf 
ficiently  show  what  superiority  a  well  train- 
ed, though  small  army  possesses  over  millions 
of  undisciplined  barbarians.  After  many  signal 
victories  over  the  Persians, the  Greeks  became 
elated  with  their  success,  and  when  they  found 
no  one  able  to  dispute  their  power  abroad, 
they  turned  their  arms  against  each  other,  and 
leagued  with  foreign  states  to  destroy  the  most 
flourishing  of  their  cities.  The  Messenianand 
Peloponnesiau  wars  are  examples  <if  the  dread- 
ful calamities  which  arise  from  civil  discord  and 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


GRE 


267 


GRE 


long  prosperity ;  and  the  ease  with  which  the 
gold  and  sword  of  Philip  of  Macedon  corrupted 
and  enslaved  Greece,  fatally  proved  that  when 
a  nation  becomes  indolent  and  luxurious  at 
home,  it  ceases  to  be  respectable  in  the  eyes  of 
neighboring  states.  The  annals  of  Greece,  how- 
ever, abound  with  singular  proofs  of  heroism 
and  resolution.  While  the  Greeks  rendered 
themselves  so  illustrious  by  their  military  ex- 
ploits, tiie  arts  and  sciences  were  assisted  by 
conquest,  and  received  fresh  lustre  from  the 
liberal  patronage  bestowed  on  them. 

From  the  fifteenth  century  until  a  recent 
period,  Greece  was  subject  to  the  Turkish  gov- 
ernment. Although  degraded — changed  from 
what  she  was,  there  was  yet  something  in  Mod- 
ern Greece  to  remind  the  world  of  former  days 
of  glory.  Ere  the  storm  of  the  revolution 
broke  forth,  the  bard  could  sing — 

"  On  Suli's  rock, and  Parga's  shore, 
Exists  the  remnant  of  a  line 

Such  as  the  Doric  mothers  bore, 
And  there,  perhaps,  some  seed  is  sown, 
That  Heracleidan  blood  might  own." 

The  revolution  in  the  Morea  broke  out  at  a 
village  of  Achaia,  March  23,  1821.  From  that 
time  forward  their  warlike  weapons  were  never 
relinquished  by  the  Hellenists.  The  Greeks 
struggled  against  ferocity,  bravery,  wealth, and 
power,  while,  they  themselves,  although  the 
sympathy  of  the  liberal  portion  of  the"  world 
was  theirs,  not  only  received  no  assistance,  but 
even  experienced  checks  from  the  cabinets  of 
Europe.  At  length  England  took  the  part  of 
the  Greeks,  and  a  Russian.  French  and  British 
squadron,  under  Admiral  Sir  Edward  Codring- 
ton,  destroyed  the  Turkish-Egyptian  armada  of 
J 10  ships,  in  the  bay  of  Navarino,  Oct.  20;  Jd27. 
In  March,  1628.  the  war  between  Russia  and 
Turkey  broke  out,  and  tiie  interference  of  for- 
eign powers  produced  the  pacification  of  Greece 
in  182J.  The  Turks  were  compelled  to  evacuate 
Greece  ;  a  limited  monarchy  was  established  ; 
Otho  I,  a  young  man  of  eighteen,  being  at  the 
head  of  the  government.  Schools  have  now 
been  established  in  various  places,  and,  freed 
from  the  oppression  which  prostrated  its  ener- 
gies, the  Greek  character  now  begins  to  appear 
in  a  happy  light. 

GREENE.  .Nathaniel,  a  distinguished  major- 
general  in  the  American  army  during  the  re- 
volution, was  born  in  Rhode  Island,  May  22, 
1742,  and  early  evinced  an  attachment  to  litera- 
ture and  science,  and  a  propensity  for  a  mili- 
tary life.  In  1770  he  was  elected  to  the  state 
legislature,  took  part  in  the  earliest  battles  of 
23* 


the  revolution,  and  June,  6,  1775,  assumed  the 
command  of  the  army  before  Boston  for  a  short 
time.  Want  of  space  renders  it  impossible  for 
us  to  follow  him  through  all  the  steps  of  his 
career  of  glory,  or  even  to  enumerate  his  bril- 
liant actions.  He  died  in  1786,  in  Georgia, 
whither  he  had  removed  upon  some  grants  of 
land. 

GREENLAND,  an  extensive  country  of  N. 
America,  belonging  to  Denmark,  and  settled 
800  years  ago.  The  natives  belong  to  the  Es- 
quimaux family,  and  are  rude  in  their  man- 
ners, and  confined  in  their  ideas.  They  are  of 
diminutive  size,  clothed  in  skins,  and  subsist- 
ing by  hunting  and  fishing.  Their  religious 
notions  are  rude  and  primitive.  There  are 
numerous  settlements  upon  the  coast  of  Green- 
land, many  of  them  being  made  by  the  Mora- 
vian missionaries. 

GREGORY  I,  pope  of  Rome,  surnamed  the 
Great,  succeeded  Pelagius  II,  in  590,  and  intro- 
duced many  of  the  present  ceremonies  of  the 
Romish  church.  He  was  of  a  noble  family  and 
induced  to  take  monastic  vows  by  a  disgust  of 
worldlv  affairs.  He  died  in  604. 

GREGORY  VII,  called  Hildebrand  before 
his  election,  succeeded  Alexander  II,  in  the 
year  1073.  being  advanced  by  the  suffrages  of 
the  cardinals,  without  the  emperor's  authority  ; 
the  better  to  confirm  himself  in  the  pontificate, 
he  abolished  the  imperial  power  of  conferring 
investiture  upon  bishops  and  clergymen,  and 
became  an  inveterate  enemy  of  the  emperor 
Henry  IV.  He  prevailed  upon  Rodolph,  Duke 
of  Suabia,  to  assume  the  title  of  emperor,  and 
take  up  arms  against  Henry,  but  Rodolph  being 
overthrown  and  slain,  Henry  marched  directly 
into  Italy,  besieged  Rome,  took  the  city,  and 
established  Clement  III  upon  the  papal  throne. 
Gregory  fled  to  Salerno,  and  there  died,  after 
having  enjoj-ed  the  papal  dignity  12  years. 
There  were  several  other  popes  of  the  same 
name. 

GRENADA,  New,  formerly  a  viceroyalty  of 
South  America,  and  more  recently  a  portion  of 
Colombia,  but  now  a  separate  republic.  Together 
with  Venezuela,  it  was  formerly  called  Terra 
Firma.  It  has  an  area  of  375 ,000  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of]  ,500,000  souls.  The  moun- 
tains of  the  republic  are  rich  in  the  precious 
metals,  yielding  annually  about  3,000,000  dol- 
lars' worth  of  gold. 

GRENOBLE,  an  old  French  city,  capital  of 
the  department  of  here,  113  leagues  S.  E.  of 
Paris.  It  was  the  first  city  to  open  its  gates  to 
Napoleon,  when  he  returned  from  Elba.  The 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


GRE 


268 


GUA 


garrison  had  taken  up  arras  to  resist  the  little 
band  of  the  imperialists,  when  Napoleon,  ad- 
vancing, and  uncovering  his  breast,  said  to 
them  : — "  If  there  be  one  among  you,  who 
would  slay  his  general  and  emperor,  he  can  do 
it — behold  I  am  defenceless."  He  was  answer- 
ed bv  animating  shouts  of  "  Vive  Uempereur." 
Population  25,000. 

GREY,  Lady  Jane,  an  unfortunate  and  most 
amiable  lady,  the  daughter  of  Henry  Grey, 
marquis  of  Dorset,  by  Tady  Frances  Brandon, 
daughter  of  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  was  of  royal 
descent  on  both  sides.  She  was  born  in  1537, 
at  Bradgate  Hall,  her  father's  seat  in  Leicester- 
shire ;  arid  early  in  life  gave  proofs  of  uncom- 
mon genius.  She  worked  admirably  with  her 
needle  ;  wrote  an  elegant  hand  ;  played  well 
on  several  instruments ;  and  was  well  versed 
in  Greek  and  Latin,  besides  being  conversant 
with  French  and  Italian.  Roger  Ascham,  "  the 
schoolmaster  of  princes,'.'  has  given  a  beautiful 
and  affecting  narrative  of  his  interview  with 
her  at  Bradgate  Hall,  where  he  found  her  read- 
ing Plato's  Phaedon  in  Greek,  while  the  family 
were  amusing  themselves  in  the  park. 

In  1551,  her  father  was  created  duke  of  Suf- 
folk ;  and  at  this  time  lady  Jane  Grey  was  much 
at  court ;  where  the  ambitious  duke  of  Northum- 
berland projected  a  marriage  between  her  and 
his  son,  lord  Guilford  Dudley,  which  took  place 
at  the  end  of  May,  1553.  Soon  after  this  Ed- 
ward VI  died,  having  been  prevailed  upon  in 
his  last  illness,  to  settle  the  crown  upon  the 
lady  Jane,  who,  against  her  will,  was  proclaim- 
ed with  great  pomp. 

The  splendor  of  royalty,  however,  endured 
but  a  short  time.  The  nation  was  dissatisfied, 
and  the  nobility  indignant  at  the  presumption 
of  Northumberland,  so  that  Mary  was  not  long 
in  obtaining  the  victory,  and.  with  an  indignant 
spirit,  determined  on  revenge.  Lady  Jane  and 
her  husband,  after  having  been  confined  in  the 
Tower  some  months,  were  arraigned  and  con- 
demned to  death,  Nov.  3,  1553.  The  sentence 
was  not  carried  into  execution,  until  the  12th 
of  February  in  the  following  year,  when  lord 
Guilford  first  suffered,  and  his  lady  immediately 
afterwards,  on  the  same  scaffold.  She  died  with 
the  firmness  and  meekness  of  a  martyr  ;  and 
such  no  doubt  she  was,  since  her  Protestant 
principles  were  more  offensive  to  the  queen, 
than  the  part  she  had  been  compelled  to  act. 
On  the  evening  previous  to  her  death  she  sent 
a  letter  written  in  Greek  to  her  sister;  and  even 
after  seeing  the  headless  body  of  her  husband 
carried  to  the  chapel,  she  wrote  three  sentences, 


in  Greek,  Latin  and  English,  in  a  table  book, 
which  she  presented  to  the  lieutenant  of  the 
tower. 

GR1DLEY,  Jeremiah,  a  distinguished  lawyer, 
who  was  born  in  1705,  and  flourished  in  Mas- 
sachusetts before  the  revolution.  Although  a 
warm  opponent  of  the  British  ministry,  he  ac- 
cepted the  office  of  attorney-general  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  defended  the 
writs  of  assistance,  but  was  completely  refuted 
by  James  Otis,  who  had  studied  law  in  his  office. 
He  died  in  Boston,  Sept.  7,  1767,  aged  about  62 
years. 

GRISONS,  The.  since  1778.  the  largest  can- 
ton of  the  Swiss  confederacy,  containing  88.000 
inhabitants.  Its  exports  are  cattle,  cheese,  coals, 
and  valuable  minerals.  It  was  the  Upper  Rhoatia 
of  the  Romans. 

GRISWOLD,  Roger,  a  governor  of  Connec- 
ticut, was  born  at  Lyme,  in  that  state,  in  1762. 
He  was  educated  at  Yale  College,  and  chosen 
member  of  Congress  in  1794.  In  1807  he  accept- 
ed the  office  of  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Connecticut,  and  after  serving  as  lieutenant- 
governor,  in  1811  was  chosen  governor  of  his 
native  state.  He  died  in  1812. 

GRONINGEN,  the  name  of  a  province  and 
city  of  the  Netherlands.  The  city  contains 
27,800  inhabitants,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  famous 
university. 

GROTIUS,  or  De  Groot,  Hugo,  a  famous 
scholar  and  statesman,  born  at  Delft,  April  10, 
1583.  So  precocious  were  his  powers,  that  he 
was  appointed  advocate-general  in  his  24th 
year.  Grotius,  having  espoused  the  cause  of 
a  religious  sect  called  the  Remonstrants,  was 
condelnned  to  imprisonment  for  life  in  the  fort- 
ress of  Louvenstein,but  having  concealed  him- 
self in  a  chest  in  which  his  wife  had  sent  him 
some  books,  he  was  carried  out  of  the  castle 
unsuspected.  After  wandering  about  in  seve- 
ral countries,  having  been  banished  for  ever 
from  his  own,  he  went  to  Stockholm  in  1634, 
and  was  appointed  counsellor  of  state,  and  am- 
bassador to  the  French  court.  Although  per- 
sonally obnoxious  to  Cardinal  Richelieu,  he  held 
this  office  for  10  years,  and  then  returned  to 


Sweden,  passing  through  his  native  country, 
where  his  reception  was  most  flattering.  He 
solicited  his  dismission  from  the  queen  of  Swe- 


den,  but,  after  leaving  her  court,  was  tuken  sick 
at  Rostock,  in  Pomerania.  and  died  there.  Au- 
gust 28,  1645.  He  was  a  profound  and  elegant 
scholar,  and  a  powerful  writer. 

GUADALAXARA,  formerly  an  intendancy 
of  Mexico,  now  forms  the  state  of  Yalisco,  in 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CUE 


269 


GUI 


the  Mexican  confederacy.  It  is  fertile  and  well 
timbered.  Population,  800,000.  Number  of 
square  miles  72,000.  The  capital  is  a  city  of 
the  same  name,  built  on  a  fertile  plain,  and 
containing  (>!),000  inhabitants,  Spaniards,  mulat- 
toes,  and  mestizoes. 

GUADELOUPE,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
valuable  of  the  Caribbee  Islands — about  70  miles 
long,  and  25  broad.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts 
by  a  channel,  which  runs  from  north  to  south. 
It  was  discovered  by  Columbus.  After  passing 
alternately  from  the  French  to  the  English,  its 
possession  was  confirmed  to  the  former  in  1614. 
Population  110.000. 

GUANAXUATO,  a  rich  and  populous  state 
of  Mexico,  containing  450,000  inhabitants  on 
6,300  square  miles. 

GUANAXUATO,  or  Santa  Fe  Guanaxuato, 
the  capital  of  the  preceding  state,  is  140  miles 
northwest  of  Mexico,  and  contains  40.000  inhab- 
itants. Of  these  many  are  miners,  the  mines 
in  the  vicinity  being  uncommonly  productive. 
The  city  stands  at  an  elevation  of  6,836  above 
the  sea,  and  is  situated  in  a  mountainous  defile. 

GUAT1MALA.  the  largest  of  the  five  states 
of  the  republic  of  Central  America.  It  borders 
on  Mexico,  the  gulf  of  Honduras,  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean 

GUAT1MALDA,  La  Nueva,  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment of  Central  America,  was  founded  in 
1775,  and  contains  40,000  inhabitants.  It  is 
situated  on  the  river  Vacas,  near  the  Pacific 
Ocean. 

GUAXACA,  or  Oaxaca,  an  uncommonly 
rich  and  fertile  state  of  Mexico,  containing 
600,000  inhabitants,  many  of  whom  are  tribu- 
tary Indians.  The  capital  town  of  the  same, 
called  also,  Antequera,  contains  40,000  inhabi- 
tants. 

GUAYAQUIL,  a  province  of  the  Equator, 
containing  about  90,000  inhabitants.  G/t/u/a- 
quil,  the  capital,  on  the  west  side  of  Guayaquil 
river,  has  an  excellent  harbor. 

GUELPHS,  the  name  of  a  family,  one  of  two 
opposite  factions  that  divided  Italy  about  the 
year  1255.  the  partisans  of  papal  and  imperial 
power.  The  family  of  the  Uberti  were  at  the 
head  of  the  Florentine  Ghibellines,  the  other 
faction  ;  and  the  people,  or  rather,  the  republi- 
can party,  resented  their  contumacy  so  much, 
that  they  ran  to  arms,  broke  into  the  palace  of 
the  Uberti.  and,  having  killed  some,  forced  all 
the  Ghibellines  to  take  refuge;  in  Sienna,  where 
they  were  hospitably  received,  in  direct  viola- 
tion of  a  treaty  between  the  Florentines  and 
Siennese. 


GUESCLIN,Bertranddu,  constable  of  France, 
and  one  of  her  most  renowned  generals,  born 
in  1314,  at  the  castle  of  Motte  Broon;  near  Ren- 
nes.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  years,  he  won  a 
prize  in  a  tournament.  After  the  battle  of  Poic- 
tiers,  and  the  losses  of  Charles,  du  Guesclin 
came  forward,  and  redeemed  the  honor  of  hia 
country,  wresting  from  the  hands  of  the  Eng- 
lish almost  all  their  possessions.  He  died,  in  the 
midst  of  triumph,  before  Chateau-neuf-de-Rau- 
don,  July  13,  1380.  He  had  nothing  pleasing 
or  noble  in  his  person,  and  owed  his  honors 
wholly  to  his  own  exertions. 

GUIANA,  a  country  of  South  America,  for- 
merly of  vast  extent.  At  present  what  was 
formerly  Spanish  Guiana,  belongs  to  Venezuela, 
and  Portuguese  Guiana,  to  Brazil.  The  remaiu- 
ing  portions  are  divided  between  the  English, 
Dutch,  and  French.  The  animals  and  birds  of 
Guiana  are  numerous,  as  are  its  vegetable  pro- 
ductions. Parts  of  Guiana  are  yet  wild  and 
imperfectly  known,  and  in  its  interior  the  El 
Dorado  of  the  Spaniards  was  formerly  believed 
to  exist. 

GUILFORD,  a  town  and  sea-port  of  New 
Haven  county,  Connecticut,  on  Long  Island 
Sound,  containing  52,344  inhabitants.  It  has 
two  harbors,  and  enjoys  considerable  trade.  The 
Indian  name  of  the  place  was  Mtnunkatuck. 

GUILLOTIN,  Joseph  Ignatius,  a  French 
physician,  born  in  1738,  was  the  inventor  of  the 
instrument  for  inflicting  capital  punishment, 
which  bears  his  name. 

GUINEA.  A  large  portion  of  the  western 
coast  of  Africa  bears  this  name.  But  its  limits 
cannot  be  exactly  defined.  It  is  commonly 
divied  into  the  Grain  Coast,  the  Ivory  Coast, 
the  Gold  Coast,  and  Slave  Coast. 

GUISE  ;  a  town  and  dukedom  of  France,  in 
Picardy,  besieged  by  the  Spaniards  in  1528. 
The  dukes  of  "Guise  were  very  important  per- 
sonages in  all  the  affairs  of  France,  from  the 
reign  of  Francis  I,  to  that  of  Henry  IV.  This 
family  was  a  branch  of  the  house  of  Lorraine, 
promoted,  by  Francis  I,  in  1528,  from  counts  of 
Guise,  to  dukes.  The  first  thus  raised  was 
Claude,  the  son  of  Rene  II.  He  had  eight  sons, 
among  whom  were  Francis,  duke  of  Guise,  Clau- 
dius, duke  of  Aumale,  and  Rene,  marquis  of  El- 
bceuf.  Francis  gallantly  defended  Metz  against 
Charles  V,  and  took  Calais  from  the  English. 
He  was  assassinated  in  1516.  He  was  the  father 
of  Henry,  duke  of  Guise,  and  Charles,  duke  of 
Maine,  &c.  Henry  placing  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  Holy  League,  was  slain  in  the  States  of 
Blois,  by  the  order  of  his  prince,  in  1588 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


GUN 


270 


GUS 


Charles,  the  other  brother,  took  up  arms  against 
Henry  IV,  till  at  last,  in  1594,  he  was  forced  to 
submit  to  that  victorious  prince.  Charles,  the 
son  of  Henry,  succeeded  his  father  in  the  duke- 
dom, and  was  the  father  of  Henry  II,  who  was 
chosen  king  of  Naples. 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT,  a  conspiracy  formed 
in  the  beginning  of  James  I,  of  England,  for  the 
re-establishment  of  popery,  which,  were  it  not 
a  fact  well  known  to  all  the  world,  could  scarcely 
be  credited  by  posterity.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lics had  expected  great  favor  and  indulgence 
from  Jarnes,  both  because  he  was  a  descendant 
of  Mary,  a  rigid  Catholic,  and  because  he  had 
shown  some  favor  to  that  religion  in  his  youth  ; 
but  they  soon  discovered  their  mistake,  and 
were  at  once  surprised  and  enraged  to  find 
James,  on  all  occasions,  express  his  resolution 
of  strictly  executing  the  laws  enacted  against 
them,  and  of  persevering  in  the  policy  of  his 
predecessor.  This  declaration  determined  them 
to  destroy  the  king  and  parliament  at  a  blow. 
They  therefore  stored  in  the  vaults  under  the 
parliament-house,  thirty-six  barrels  of  gunpow- 
der, purchased  in  Holland,  and  covered  them 
with  coals  and  fagots.  The  meaning  of  a 
warning  but  ambiguous  letter,  received  by  lord 
Monteagle  was  first  penetrated  by  the  king. 
The  care  of  searching  the  vaults  devolved  upon 
the  earl  of  Suffolk,  lord  Chamberlain,  who  pur- 
posely delayed  the  search  until  the  day  before 
the  meeting  of  parliament,  Nov.  5.  1605. 

He  remarked  the  great  piles  of  fagots,  which 
lay  in  the  vault  under  the  house  of  peers,  and 
seized  a  man  preparing  for  the  terrible  enter- 
prise, dressed  in  a  cloak  and  boots,  with  a  dark 
lantern  in  his  hand.  This  was  one  Guy  Fawkes, 
who  had  just  disposed  every  part  of  the  train 
for  taking  fire  the  next  morning;  the  matches 
and  other  combustibles  being  found  in  his  pock- 
ets. The  whole  of  the  design  was  now  discov- 
ered ;  but  the  atrocity  of  his  guilt,  and  the  des- 
pair of  pardon,  inspiring  him  with  resolution, 
he  told  the  officers  of  justice  with  an  undaunted 
air,  that  had  he  blown  them  and  himself  up 
together,  he  had  been  happy.  Before  the  coun- 
cil he  displayed  the  same  intrepid  firmness, 
mixed  even  with  scorn  and  disdain,  refusing  to 
discover  his  associates,  and  showing  no  concern 
but  for  the  failure  of  his  enterprise.  But  his 
bold  spirit  was  at  length  subdued  ;  after  having 
been  confined  to  the  tower  for  two  or  three  days, 
on  the  nick  being  shown  him,  his  courage  failed 
him,  and  he  made  a  full  discovery  of  his  accom- 
plices, to  the  number  of  eighty,  who  all  suffered 
punishment. 


GUSTAVUS  I,  king  of  Sweden,  commonly 
called  Gystavvs  Fasa,  was  imprisoned  when 
Christian  II ,  of  Denmark,  sought  to  enslave  his 
country.  Having  escaped  from  prison  in  1519, 
he  arrived  at  Lubeck.  after  meeting  with  vari- 
ous difficulties.  Here  he  was  countenanced  by 
the  Senate,  but  failing  of  accomplishing  his 
object,  he  was  proscribed  by  the  tyrant,  and  fled 
to  Dalecarlia,  where  he  roused  the  miners  to 
revenge  the  wrongs  of  their  suffering  country. 
The  young  hero  found  the  peasants  prepared 
to  receive  him  with  open  arms,  and  to  swear  to 
revenge  the  massacre  at  Stockholm  with  the 
last  drop  of  their  blood.  The  brave  Dalecarlians 
flocked  to  the  standard  of  Gustavus,  who  was, 
from  this  moment,  irresistible.  After  the  burn- 
ing of  the  Danish  fleet,  the  diet  assembled.  Gus- 
tavus was  proclaimed  king  of  Sweden  and  of 
the  two  Gothlands,  in  15'J3,  and  he  soon  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  the  doctrines  of  Luther 
in  his  dominions. 

In  1531,  Christian  made  preparations  for  re- 
covering his  throne,  but  his  vast  armament  was 
defeated  with  great  slaughter.  In  1 54'^,  Gus- 
tavus prevailed  on  the  stales  to  render  the  crown 
hereditary  in  his  own  family.  This  valiant, 
wise,  and  virtuous  hero,  the  true  deliverer  of 
his  countrv,  died  in  150(1,  at  the  age  of  70. 

GUSTAVUS  II,  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden, 
succeeded  Charles  ' IX,  in  1  Gil,  at  the  age  of 
eighteen.  Gustavus  having  plnced  the  Chan- 
cellor Oxenstiorn  at  the  head  of  the  administra- 
tion of  civil  aft'airs,  took  charge  himself  of  the 
martial  operations,  and,  in  I(jl3.  prosecuted  the 
war  against  Denmark  with  such  vigor  and  suc- 
cess, that,  through  the  mediation  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Holland,  an  advantageous  peace  was 
procured,  by  which  the  Danish  monarch  re- 
nounced all  pretensions  to  the  throne.  He  was 
equally  successful  with  the  Russians,  who  ceded 
to  him  the  fine  province  of  Livonia,  and  part  of 
the  province  of  IS'ovogorod.  His  hostilities, 
however,  with  his  cousin  Sigismund,  were  of 
longer  duration,  and  were  productive  of  those 
glorious  events  which  procured  him  a  conspi- 
cuous rank  among  the  most  distinguished  war- 
riors of  his  time.  The  king  of  Poland  could  not 
forget  the  Swedish  crown  of  which  he  had 
been  deprived  by  the  impolitic  conduct  of  his 
f;ither  and  himself,  and  formed  a  plot  for  seiz- 
ing on  Gustavus,  who,  however,  avoided  the 
snare. 

The  Swedish  rnonarch.  having  prepared  a 
numerous  fieri,  set  ^ail,  and  laid  siege  to  Riga, 
in  I  (521 .  Gustavus  proved  victorious,  but  allow- 
ed the  besieged  to  capitulate  on  honorable  terms. 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


GW 


271 


HAL 


During  a  series  of  years  he  was  engaged  in 
constant  warfare,  which  afforded  him  opportu- 
nities of  training  the  Swedes,  and  forming  those 
intrepid  commanders  and  formidable  battalions, 
which  long  kept  Europe  in  alarm.  -  At  length, 
in  1629.  Gustavus  gloriously  terminated  the  war 
with  Poland,  and  obtained  large  cessions  of  ter- 
ritory. He  did  not,  however,  long  enjoy  the 
fruits  of  his  victories  in  peace.  The  resentment 
whicli  he  felt  against  the  emperor,  and  his  am- 
bition to  curb  the  power  of  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria, determined  him  to  march  an  army  of  sixty 
thousand  men  into  Germany,  in  1630.  He  re- 
duced Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  and  various  other 
places,  and  compelled  the  elector  of  Braden- 
burgh  to  unite  his  troops  with  the  Swedish 
battalions.  He  then  invaded  Saxony.  In  1631, 
the  imperialists  awaited  Gustavus  at  Leipzig, 
with  an  army  of  40,000  men.  The  Swedish 
monarch  led  his  troops  to  the  attack,  and,  after 
an  obstinate  conflict,  obtained  a  decisive  victory. 
He  then  penetrated  into  Bavaria,  and  levied 
contributions  on  the  opulent  districts  of  Ger- 
many. The  battle  of  Lutzen  ensued,  in  1633, 
on  the  fate  of  which  contest,  that  of  Europe 
appeared  to  depend.  The  Swedish  infantry 
performed  prodigies  of  valor,  broke  the  line  of 
the  imperialists,  and  seized  their  cannon.  Vic- 
tory had  already  declared  for  the  Swedes,  when 
Gustavus  was  found  stretched  among  the  slain. 
His  death  plunged  Sweden  into  the  greatest 
affliction,  but  his  triumphant  bands  for  a  time 
supported  her  military  reputation. 

GUSTAVUS  1 1 1,  king  of  Sweden,  the  eldest 
son  of  Adolphus  Frederic,  duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp,  was  born  in  174b',  and  succeeded  to 
the  throne  on  his  father's  death.  February  12th, 
1771.  The  country,  which  was  convulsed 
throughout,  was  tranquillized  by  the  prud.ent 
measures  of  Gustavus,  who  was  wise,  firm,  and 
accomplished,  although  fond  of  pleasure,  and 
ambitious.  He  determined  to  take  part  ag.iinst 
the  French  revolutionists,  and  thereby  gave 
very  general  dissatisfaction.  A  conspiracy  "was 
formed  against  him  ;  the  most  prominent  mem- 
bers being  the  counts  Horn,  Ribbing,  and  An- 
karstrcem.  and  he  was  shot  by  the  latter  at  a 
masquerade  at  Stockholm,  March  15,  1792. 

GWINNETT,  Burton,  an  Englishman,  born 
in  1732,  emigrated  to  Charleston  (S.C.),  in 
1770,  and  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence.  He  settled  in  Geor- 
gia, where  he  took  an  active  share  in  the  affairs 
of  the  revolution  ;  and  was  subsequently  chosen 
a  member  of  the  convention  assembled  for  the 
purpose  of  framing  a  state  constitution.  He 


died  of  wounds  received  in  a  duel  with  General 
Mclntosh,  May  27, 1777,  in  the  45th  year  of  his 
age. 

H. 

HAARLEM  or  Haerlem,  a  large  city  of  the 
Netherlands,  on  the  river  Spaaren,  about  three 
miles  from  the  sea.  It  contains  many  fine  pub- 
lic edifices,  and  some  scientific  institutions.  It 
is  a  thriving  place,  and  has  22,000  inhabitants. 

HABAKKUK,  a  Jewish  prophet,  who  flour- 
ished about  600,  B.  C. 

H./EMUS,  the  ancient  name  of  the  range  of 
mountains  in  Turkey,  now  called  the  llalkan. 

HA  GAR,  "an  Egyptian  slave  of  Abraham, 
and  the  mother  of  Ishmael.  (For  her  history, 
vide  Grncsis.) 

HAINAUT,  or  Hainault,  a  province  of  the 
Netherlands,  containing  574,800  inhabitants, 
and  1683  square  miles.  Its  soil  is  fruitful,  and 
its  minerals  valuable  and  abundant. 

HALE,  Nathan,  a  Captain  in  the  American 
revolutionary  army,  born  in  Coventry,  Con- 
necticut, and  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1773. 
After  the  retreat  from  Long  Island,  he  exam- 
ined the  British  camp  in  disguise,  but  was  ap- 
prehended, tried,  condemned,  and  executed 
with  circumstances  of  peculiar  barbarity.  (For 
an  account  of  his  last  moments,  see  article  An- 
dre.) 

HALICARNASSUS,  the  capital  of  Caria, 
in  Asia  Minor,  now  called  Bodrnn,  or  Budroii. 
It  was  here  that  queen  Artemisia  erected  the 
famous  Mausoleum  to  the  memory  of  her  de- 
ceased husband  Mausolus. 

HALIFAX,  the  capital  city  of  Nova  Scotia,  on 
Chebucto  Bay.  Its  fine  harbor  is  one  of  the 
best  in  America.  Population  16,000.  It  was 
first  settled  by  an  English  colony,  in  1749. 

HALL,  Lyinan.  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Con- 
necticut, in  1731,  and  studied  medicine.  He 
removed,  however,  to  Georgia,  where  he  prac- 
tised his  profession  until  the  breaking  out  of  the 
revolution  induced  him  to  devote  his  property 
and  person  to  the  service  of  his  country,  and, 
in  1775,  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  gen- 
ral  Congress,  then  assembled  in  Philadelphia. 
In  1762,  he  was  chosen  governor  of  the  State 
of  Georgia,  but  died  in  retirement  in  the  60th 
year  of  ins  age. 

HALLE,  a  Prussian  city,  in  the  province  of 
Saxony,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Saale,  contain- 
ing 23,873  inhabitants.  Its  university  ranks 
deservedly  very  high.  It  was  the  scene  of  an 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


HAM 


272 


HAN 


obstinate  conflict,  on  the  17th  of  October,  1SC6, 
three  days  after  the  battle  of  Jena. 

HALLO  WELL,  a  post-town  in  Kenncbec 
county,  Maine,  situated  forty-five  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Kennebec,  54  miles  N. 
N.  E.  of  Portland.  It  is  a  flourishing  place, 
and  contained,  in  1840,  4,625  inhabitants. 

HAMBURG,  a  free  city  of  Germany,  situ- 
ated on  the  Elbe,  about  80  miles  from  its  mouth, 
containing  122,000  inhabitants.  It  was  founded 
in  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  and  was  originally 
a  fort  called  Hammenburg.  In  1618,  it  was 
admitted  into  the  number  of  imperial  towns, 
subject  to  the  counts  of  Holstein.  In  1768, 
however,  the  subjection  was  annulled,  and 
Hamburg  was  confirmed  into  an  independent 
city.  In  1807,  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  a 
large  French  garrison,  and  Bonaparte  seized  a 
part  of  its  public  funds.  In  1810,  it  was  incor- 
porated into  the  French  empire  ;  and  in  1813,  a 
memorable  but  unsuccessful  effort  was  made  to 
shake  off  the  French  yoke.  A  contribution  of 
$9,000,000  was  then  levied  upon  it,  and  the 
most  positive  orders  were  given  to  defend  it,  at 
whatever  sacrifice,  against  the  allies.  This  led 
to  incalculable  distress,  to  the  destruction  of  the 
houses  on  the  ramparts,  to  the  seizure  of  con- 
siderable merchandise  ;  and,  finally,  of  the  bank 
funds  by  Davoust.  At  last,  the  city  was  evac- 
uated in  May,  1814,  and  part  of  the  "bank  funds 
have  been  restored  by  the  Bourbons. 

HAMILTON,  Elizabeth,  a  lady  of  fine  liter- 
ary talent,  born  at  Belfast,  in  Ireland.  July  25, 
1758,  died  July  23,  1816.  During  a  residence 
in  Scotland,  she  acquired  that  knowledge  of  the 
national  peculiarities  of  the  Scotch,  which  she 
has  so  happily  displayed  in  her  Cottagers  of 
Glenburnie.  She  published  several  other  works, 
principal!  v  on  the  subject  of  education. 

HAMILTON,  Alexander,  was  born  in  the 
island  of  Nevis,  in  1757.  At  the  age  of  sixteen, 
he  entered  Columbia  college.  New  York,  in 
which  institution  he  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self. At  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  published 
political  essays  in  favor  of  the  colonial  cause,  so 
powerful  and  brilliant,  that  they  were  at  first 
attributed  to  Mr.  Jay,  then  in  the  prime  of  life. 
At  nineteen,  eager  to  peril  his  life  in  the  cause 
of  his  beloved  country,  Hamilton  entered  the 
army  ;  he  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain  of 
artillery,  and  Washington  appointed  him  his 
aid-de-camp  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel, 
when  lie  was  but  twenty  years  of  age.  At  the 
siege  of  Yorktown,  he  was  in  the  hottest  of  the 
fire,  and  headed  an  assault  which  carried  one 
of  the  enemies  outworks.  After  the  war,  he 


commenced  the  study  of  the  law  in  New  York, 
and  was  speedily  admitted  to  practice.  In 
1783,  he  was  chosen  member  of  Congress,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  ability,  unwearied 
industry,  and  patriotism.  After  having  been 
chosen  to  a  seat  in  the  Legislature  of  New  York, 
he  became  a  member  of  the  convention,  which 
met  at  Philadelphia  for  the  purpose  of  framing 
the  federal  constitution.  The  essays  which  he 
published  under  the  title  of  the  Federalist,  con- 
tributed more  than  any  thing  else  to  render  the 
constitution  popular.  "As  secretary  of  the  trea- 
sury, to  which  office  he  was  appointed  in  1789, 
he  gained  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  greatest 
financiers  of  the  age  In  1705,  he  retired  into 
private  life,  but  in  17H8,  as  inspector  general, 
he  organi/ed  the  army  intended  to  lepel  the 
threatened  invasion  of  the  French,  and  in  1799, 
on  the  death  of  Washington,  he  .succeeded  to 
the  chief  command. 

On  June  llth,  1804,  inconsequence  of  a  dis- 
pute between  Colonel  Burr  and  General  Ham- 
ilton, the  parties  met  at  Hoboken,  and  Hamil- 
ton was  killed  by  the  first  shot,  standing  on  the 
fatal  spot  where  his  eldest  son  had  recently  been 
killed  in  a  similar  rencounter. 

HAMPDEN,  or  Hamden,  John,  a  celebrated 
English  patriot,  was  born  in  London,  in  1594. 
He  obtained  a  seat  in  the  second  parliament  of 
Charles  I,  and  in  the  year  1636,  his  resistance 
to  the  payment  of  the  tax,  called  ship  money, 
drew  upon  him  the  eyes  of  all  men,  and  he  be- 
came the  champion  of  the  disaffected.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  to  take  up  arms  against  the  king ; 
and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable,  that  he  fell  in 
the  very  same  field  where  he  mustered  the 
militia,  near  Brill,  in  Buckinghamshire.  June 
18.  1643.  Lord  Clarendon's  character  of  him 
is  that  which  Sallust  gave  of  Catiline  :  "  He  had 
a  head  to  contrive,  a  tongue  to  persuade,  and  a 
hand  to  execute  any  mischief."  But  this  opi- 
nion is  that  of  a  firm  supporter  of  legitimate 
abuses,  for  Hampden  appeared  to  have  been  in- 
fluenced throughout  his  career  by  purely  patri- 
otic principles. 

HANAU.  a  province  <f  8*«e-Cassel,  the 
capital  of  which.  Ilanau.  on  the  Kinzig,  con- 
tains 9.700  inhabitants.  In  1792,  Hauau  was 
attacked,  but  not  occupied,  by  the  French,  but, 
at  the  end  of  October.  1813.  an  Austrian  and 
Bavarian  corps  oppOMd  here  the  great  army  of 
the  French,  in  their  retreat  from  Leipsig:  a 
sanguinary  conflict  took  place  in  wliich  the 
Bavarians  were  defeated,  and  the  flying  army 

I's  letreal. 

HANCOCK,  John,  was  born  at  Quincy,  in 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


HAN 


273 


HAN 


Massachusetts.  Having  lost  his  parents  early, 
ho  was  sent  to  Harvard  College,  where  he  grad- 
uated in  1754.  by  his  uncle,  a  rich  and  benevo- 
lent merchant,  to  whose  wealth  and  business 
he  succeeded  in  1764.  After  the  battle  of  Lex- 
ington, when  pardon  was  offered  to  the  rebels, 
in  case  of  submission  to  the  royal  authority, 
Hancock  and  Adams  were  the  only  Americans 
excepted  by  Gage  from  the  offer  of  mercy. 
After  having  been  president  of  the  provincial 
Congress  of  Massachusetts,  Hancock  was  sent 
to  the  general  Congress  at  Philadelphia,  in  1775, 
and  filled  the  presidential  chair  of  that  body 
until  1779,  when  sickness  compelled  him  to 
relinquish  it.  He  was  annually  chosen  governor 
of  Massachusetts,  from  1760  till  1785.  In  1767, 
he  was  re-elected,  and  filled  the  post  until  his 
death  in  17!'3,  at  the  age  of  56  years. 

HANDEL  or  Haendel,  George  Frederic,  a 
native  of  Saxony,  born  February  24, 1(584.  Ho 
early  determined  to  cultivate  his  talents  for 
music,  and  he  produced  his  earliest  operas  at 
Hamburg.  In  1710,  he  visited  England,  and 
his  fame  and  fortune  were  there  established. 
In  1741,  he  brought  out  his  master-piece,  the 
Oratorio  of  the  Messiah.  Towards  the  latter 
part  of  his  life,  he  was  affected  with  total  blind- 
ness, and  he  died,  April  C,  1759,  leaving  a  for- 
tune of  £20,000.  His  appetites  were  coarse, 
his  person  ungainly,  and  his  temper  violent, 
although  ;in  external  roughness  was  compen- 
sated by  a  humane  and  generous  heart. 

The  following  anecdote  strikingly  illustrates 
his  manners,  and  his  peculiar  humor.  Dr. 
Greene,  a  personal  friend,  as  well  as  a  warm 
admirer  of  Handel,  brought  to  the  great  Ger- 
man an  anthem  of  his  own  composition,  request- 
ing the  favor  of  his  opinion  and  remarks  upon 
it.  Handel  readily  received  the  production, 
promised  to  examine  it  immediately,  and  invited 
the  doctor  to  breakfast  with  him  the  next  day. 
Dr.  Greene  accordingly  waited  on  the  illustri- 
ous musician.  Handel,  who  had  inspected  the 
composition,  received  him  with  cordiality,  gave 
him  an  elegant  breakfast,  treated  him  with 
every  politeness,  but  constantly  continued  to 
evade  iiis  visiter's  questions  respecting  his  opin- 
ion of  the  anthem.  Greene,  at  length,  too  im- 
patient to  wait  any  longer  for  the  great  corn- 
poser's  decision  on  the  merits  of  his  piece, 
exclaimed  vehemently.  "My  dearest  friend, 
keep  me  no  longer  in  suspense — tell  me,  I  pray 
you — tell  me  what  do  you  think  of  my  anthem  ?" 
Handel,  who  had  found  it  scientifically  written, 
but  very  deficient  in  melody,  answered,  "  Oh, 
it  is  ver  fine,  my  dear  doctor,  ver  fine  indeed, 


only  it  do  vant  air,  and  so  I  flung  it  out  of  de 
vindow." 

HANNIBAL,  or  Annibal,  son  of  Hamilcar 
Barcas,  born  B.  C.  247,  was  a  celebrated  Car- 
thaginian general.  He  was  educated  in  his 
father's  camp,  and  inured  from  his  early  years 
to  the  labors  of  the  field,  having  passed  into 
Spain  when  nine  years  old ;  at  the  request  of 
his  father  he  took  an  oath  of  eternal  enmity  to 
the  Romans.  After  his  father's  death,  he  had 
the  command  of  the  cavalry  in  Spain,  and  some 
time  after,  upon  the  death  of  Asdrubal,  he  was 
invested  with  the  command  of  all  the  armies  of 
Carthage,  though  not  yet  in  the  twenty-fifth 
year  of  his  age.  In  three  years  of  continual 
success,  he  subdued  all  the  nations  of  Spain, 
which  opposed  the  Carthaginian  power,  and 
took  Saguntum  after  a  siege  of  eight  months. 
This  city  was  in  alliance  with  Rome  and  its 
fall  was  the  cause  of  the  second  Punic  war, 
which  Hannibal  prepared  to  support  with  all 
the  courage  and  prudence  of  a  finished  general. 
The  army  with  which  he  entered  Ilaly  amount- 
ed, by  the  largest  computation,  to  100.000  foot, 
and  20,000  horse.  With  this  overwhelming 
force  he  passed  the  Alps,  conquered  his  oppo- 
nents, crossed  the  Appenines.  invaded  Etruria 
defeated  Flaminius  at  the  lake  Thrasymene,  and 
Caius  Teremius  and  L.  .'Emilius  in  the  fatal  bat- 
tle of  CannsE. 

Had  Hannibal,  immediately  after  this  battle, 
marched  his  army  to  the  gates  of  Rome,  it  must 
have  yielded  amidst  the  general  consternation, 
but  his  delay  continued  so  long  that  the  Ro- 
mans recovered  their  hopes,  and,  when  he  finally 
approached  the  walls,  he  was  informed  that'the 
piece  of  ground  on  which  his  army  then  stood, 
was  being  sold  at  a  high  price  in  the  Roman 
fcirum.  He  then,  after  some  time,  retired  to 
Capua,  the  luxuries  of  which  enervated  his 
troops,  and  unfitted  them  for  action  ;  this  gave 
rise  to  the  saying  that  "  Capua  was  a  Cannae 
to  Hannibal."  Marcellus,  who  succeeded  the 
cautious  Fabius  in  the  field,  first  taught  the 
Romans  that  Hannibal  was  not  invincible. 
Scipio  having  passed  over  into  Africa,  the  Car- 
thaginians now  recalled  Hannibal  to  combat  the 
adventurous  Roman.  After  sixteen  years  of 
flattering  triumph,  the  Carthaginian  general 
left  Italy,  met  Scipio  at  Zama.  was  defeated, 
and  fled  to  Adrumetum.  The  Carthaginians 
procured  peace  on  favorable  terms,  and  Hanni- 
bal fled  to  Syria,  but  he  was  pursued  from 
place  to  place  by  the  animosity  of  the  Romans, 
and  at  length  killed  himself  at  the  court  of  Pru- 
sias,  king  of  Bithynia,  B.  C.  183,  aged  G4  years. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


HAR 


274 


HAS 


HANNO,  a  Carthaginian  general  of  high  re- 
putation, who  was  conquered  by  Scipio  in  Spain. 
He  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  great  nav- 
igator. 

HANOVER,  a  kingdom  in  the  north  of  Ger- 
many, consisting  of  the  duchy  of  Bremen,  the 
duchy  of  Lunenburg,  and  several  other  princi- 
palities. It  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  in  1814. 
It  contains  14,800  square  miles,  and  1,582,574 
inhabitants. 

The  Hartz  mountains  contain  silver,  iron,  cop- 
per, lead,  &c.  Hanover  is  subject  to  the  king 
of  Great  Britain,  who  is  also  styled  king  of  Han- 
over. A  viceroy  is  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment. When  Napoleon  had  obtained  dominion 
over  almost  the  whole  Continent  in  1811.  Han- 
over became  an  integral  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Westphalia,  which  had  been  formed  of  provin- 
ces ceded  by  Prussia,  and  others  to  France,  and 
of  which  Jerome  Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napo- 
leon, was  the  sovereign.  On  the  liberation  of 
Germany  from  the  yoke  of  France,  the  Hano- 
verians gave  proofs  of  the  most  unalterable  af- 
fection and  loyalty  to  their  legitimate  sovereign. 
Hanover,  its  capital,  suffered  severely  during 
its  occupation  by  the  French  from  1803  to  1813; 
but  was  relieved  from  their  presence  by  the 
arrival  of  Bernadotte.  with  an  allied  force,  on 
the  6th  of  November  of  the  latter  year. 

HANOVER,  a  town  of  Grafton  county,  N. 
H.  53  miles  N.  W.  of  Concord.  Population 
2,613.  Dartmouth  college  is  a  well  endowed 
institution  of  some  antiquity  in  this  town. 

HARDICANUTE,  the  opponent  of  Harold, 
filled  the  throne  of  England  and  Denmark  fora 
short  time.  He  made  himself  odious  by  the 
imposition  of  taxes,  and  died  at  the  nuptials  of 
a  Danish  lord,  in  1041. 

HAROLD  I.  king  of  England,  was  the  son  of 
Canute,  by  Alfvven  daughter  of  the  earl  of 
Southampton,  his  first  wife.  He  was  proclaim- 
ed king  of  England,  on  the  death  of  Canute,  in 
1035.  and  was  supported  by  his  countrymen, 
the  Danes,  in  opposition  to  Earl  Godwin  of 
Kent,  who  favored  Hardicanute.  He  reignc-d 
four  years  without  distinguishing  himself,  and 
died  in  1039. 

HAROLD  II,  king  of  England,  succeeded 
Edward  the  Confessor,  A.  D.  100G.  He  was 
defeated  by  William  the  Conqueror  in  the  fatal 
battle  of  Hastings,  Oct.  14.  10GG. 

liAKOUN  AL  RASCHID.  (See  Aaron  or 
Harun  (d  Ruscliid.) 

HARPER,  Robert  Goodloe,  was  born  near 
Fredericksburg,  Va.  of  poor  parents ;  but  was 
extremely  well-educated,  and  early  displayed 


great  mechanical  abilities.  He  served  a  short 
time  in  a  troop  of  light  horse,  but  he  soon  with- 
drew from  the  service  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
pleting his  education.  He  entered  Princeton 
college,  and,  while  distinguishing  himself  in  the 
upper  classes,  he  was  employed  in  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  lower.  After  leaving  college  he 
went  to  Philadelphia,  and  thence  to  Charles- 
ton, where  he  studied  law,  but  soon  retired  to 
an  interior  district  to  practice.  Some  essays 
in  a  paper,  gave  a  favorable  idea  of  his  talents 
and  principles,  and  he  was  elected  to  the  legis- 
lature, and  soon  after  to  congress.  His  career 
in  congress  was  such  as  to  reflect  high  honor 
upon  him.  After  the  prostration  of  the  federal 
party,  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  Balti- 
more, having  married  the  daughter  of  the  late 
Charles  Carroll.  He  triumphantly  defended 
judge  Chase  on  his  impeachment.  He  was 
afterwards  elected  senator  in  congress  and  ma- 
jor-general of  the  militia.  The  former  office 
his  professional  duties  compelled  him  to  relin- 
quish. He  was  a  fine  public  speaker,  well  read 
in  belles-lettres,  and  the  useful  sciences,  and 
beloved  in  private  life.  He  died  suddenly  on 
the  15th  of  January,  1825,  aged  GO. 

HARRISBURG,  a  borough  in  Dauphin 
county,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Susquelianna, 
the  seat  of  government  of  Pennsylvania.  Pop- 
ulation in  1840,  6,020  It  is  a  pleasant.,  thriv- 
ing, and  well-built  town,  although  half  a  cen- 
tury ago  it  was  a  wilderness  inhabited  by  In- 
dians. 

HARRISON,  Benjamin,  a  signer  of  the  De- 
claration of  Independence,  born  in  Virginia. 
He  was  educated  at  William  and  Mary  college, 
and  wont  early  into  public  life,  but  he  refused 
the  offers  of  the  Britisli  government,  find  was 
a  delegate  to  the  first  Congress  in  1774.  As 
chairman  of  the  board  of  war,  speaker  of  the 
house  of  burgesses,  and  governor  of  Virginia, 
he  was  extremely  popular  and  useful.  He  died 
in  1791.  . 

HART,  John,  the  son  of  a  farmer  of  New 
Jersey,  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  His  property  suffered 
when  New  Jersey  became  the  theatre  of  war. 
His  death  took  place  in  1780. 

HARTFORD,  a  city  of  Hartford  county, 
Connecticut,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Connec- 
ticut river.  50  miles  above  its  mouth,  and  100 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Boston.  Pop.  in  1840, 12,793. 
It  is  a  well-built  and  flourishing  to\vn.  It  was 
settled  by  the  English  in  ](>.'>'•>.  Among  its  in- 
stitutions is  a  Deaf  and  Dumb  Asylum. 

HASTINGS,  a  borough  and  market  town  of 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


HAW 


275 


HEB 


England,  with  8,000  inhabitants,  memorable  for  Massachusetts,  in  1724.  was  graduated  at  Yale 

the  battle  fought  in  its  vicinity,  which  gave  the  College,  and  then  practised  law.     He  was  one 

British  crown  to  William  the  Conqueror.  of  the  ;>.  blest  advocates  of  American  liberty,  and 

HASTINGS,  Warren,   was  born   in    1733,  rejected  every  offer  made  to  induce  him  to  de- 

at  or  near  Dayiesford,  in  Worcestershire,  und  sert  his  country.     Ho  was  elected  to  the  legis- 

was  sent  to  India,  as  a  writer  in  the  company's  lature  in  1764,  but  retired  in  177ti,  although  he 

service  in  1750.     On  his  arrival  in  the  East.'he  still  continued  to  inspire  his  countrymen  by  his 

applied  himself  with  diligence  to  the  duties  of  eloquence.     He  died  March  10,  1788. 
his  station,  and  at  his  leisure  studied  the  ori-         HAYNE,  Isaac,  a  native  of  South  Carolina, 

ental  languages.  After  fourteen  years  residence  distinguished  himself  by  his  services  during  the 
in  Bengal,  he  returned  to  England  ;  but  in  17G9 
he  went  out  as  second  in  council  at  Madras, 


revolution.     After  the  capture  of  Charleston,  he 
took  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  Great  Britain,  with 

where  he  remained  about  two  years,  and  then    the  express  stipulation  that  he  should  not  bear 

removed  to  the  presidency  of  Calcutta.      As 

governor-general,  he  was  guilty  of  great  oppres- 


arms  against  his  'country.     When  in  violation 

_  of  British  promises,  he  was  summoned  to  join 

sion,  and~charges  were  brought  against  him  in  the  British  standard,  he  refused,  and  was  in 

parliament,  supported  by  such  men  as  Sheri-  consequence  condemned  by  a  court  of  inquiry, 

dan,   Burke,  and   Fox.     Hastings  returned  to  and  hanged,  on  the  4th  of  August,  17SI. 

England  in  178b',and  an  impeachment  followed.  HA  YTL     (See  Domingo,  St.) 
His  trial  lasted  nine  years,  and  having  been  ac- 
quitted he  retired  from  public  life,  amply  com- 
pensated in  a  pecuniary  view  for  the   losses  he 
had  sustained.     He  died  Aug.  22,  1818. 


HA  YTL 

HEBREWS.  Abraham  first  received  the 
name  of  Hebrew  from  the  Canaanites,  among 
whom  he  dwelt.  The  derivation  of  the  word  is 
uncertain.  Its  signification  before  the  time  if 

HAVANA,  or  Havannah,  the  capital  of  Cuba,  Jacob,  or  Israel,  is  uncertain,  but  it  appears  to 
and  of  the  province  and  government  of  the  have  been  applied  afterward  exclusively  to  the 
same  name,  is  situated  on  the  northern  coast  posterity  of  Jacob,  and  to  have  been  synony- 
of  the  isl.ind,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Lagira.  nious  with  Isiaelites.  After  the  Babylonish 
Population,  composed  of  whites,  rnulattoes,  and  captivity  the  appellation  was  changed  to  Jews, 
negroes.  112,023.  The  streets  of  the  city  are  Their  history  begins,  of  course,  with  Abraham. 
dirty,  but  the  strongly  fortified  harbor  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  public  edifices 
of  the  city,  particularly  the  Catholic  churches, 
are  very  splendid  The  commerce  of  Havana 


is  extensive  and  increasing. 


After  the  call  of  Abraham,  he  went  at  first  to 
Canaan,  which  God  had   promised  to  his  pos- 
terity, taking  with  him  Sarah  his  wife,  and  Lot 
the  son  of  his  brother,  and  here  led  a  wander- 
It  was  founded    ing  life  removing  in  search  of  pasture  with  his 


pointed  to  the  command  of  the  Wolf,  and  in 
1744  distinguished  himself  in  the  action  of  Tou- 
lon. In  1747,  he  was  made  admiral  of  the  white, 


1511,  by   Diego  Velasquez,  and    has   been  flocks,  from   place  to  place,  and  dwelling  with 

twice  taken  by  the  English,  but  was  restored  his   familv,  in   tents.     By    the  bounty  of  the 

to  Spain,  in   17(33.      The  bones  of  Columbus  Lord,  his'wealth  increased,  and  he  became  rich 

repose  in  the  cathedral  of  Havana.  in  flocks,  in  gold  and  in  silver.     He  treated  the 

HAWKE,  Edward,  lord,  a  gallant  English  chiefs  who  sought  alliance  with  him  on  a  foot- 

adrniral,  the  son  of  a   barrister,  was  born    in  ing  of  equality.     We  have  already  spoken  of 

1713,  and  entered  the  naval  service  as  a  mid-  the  principal  events  of  Abraham's  life  under 

shipman  at  the  age  of  12.  In  1734,  he  was  ap-  the  proper  head ;  and  it  is  needless  to  recap- 
itulate them.  Under  Isaac  and  Jacob,  the  He- 
brews still  formed  a  great  nomadic  family, 
without  changing  their  habits  and  manners. 

and  by  the  capture  of  a  number  of  vessels  of  Jacob  had  twelve  sons,  from  whom  sprang  the 

a  French  squadron,  procured  his  promotion  to  twelve  tribes  of  the    Hebrew  people.     These 

the  blue.    In  1755  he  was  appointed  vice-admi-  were  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  Dan.  Judah,  Nap- 

ral  of  the  white.   November  2i),  1759,  he  gained  thali,  Gad,  Asher.  Issachar,  Zebulon,  Joseph, 

a  great  victory  over  the  French  fleet,  commanded  and  Benjamin.     Joseph,  having  been  sold   to 

by  Conflans  in  Quiberon  bay,  though  it  was  a  some    merchants  by  his  jealous  brethren,  was 

lee  shore,  and  the  sea  ran  high  in  the  midst  of  a  taken  to  Egypt,  and  rose  to  a  high  rank  at  the 

storm.     He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  177ti  a  court  of  Pharaoh.     This  led  to  the  emigration 

few  years  after  he  hid  been  appointed  first  lord  of  his  father's  family  to  E^ypt,  about  1800  B.  C. 

of  the  admiralty.     He  d;ed  Oct.  14,  1781.  During  the  life-time  of  Joseph,  the  Hebrews 

HAWLEY,  Joseph,  born  at  Northampton,  were  well  treated,  but  after  his  death,  a  tvranni- 
24 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


HEB 


276 


HEB 


cal  king  filled  the  throne,  and  the  persecutions 
th?y  endured  threatened  to  annihilate  the  na- 
tion. But  God  raised 'up  a  deliverer  in  the  per- 
son of  Moses,  and  the  children  of  Israel  having 
Jeft  the  land  of  Egypt,  were  conducted  ever  the 
bed  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  afterwards  were  provi- 
dentially preserved  in  the  desert.  When  ar- 
rived at  Mount  Sinai,  the  Lord  promulgated 
his  lawa  from  the  summit  of  that  awful  moun- 
tain. Notwithstanding  the  blessings  which  had 
been  heaped  upon  them,  the  Hebrews  murmur- 
ed, and  became  idolatrous,  and  were  in  conse- 
quence punished  for  their  sins.  The  various' 
nations  inimical  to  the  Hebrews  were  repulsed 
with  loss.  Moses  having  died  on  Mount  Nebo. 
before  the  entrance  into 'the  promised  land,  his 
place  was  filled  by  the  warlike  Joshua.  The 
waters  retired  before  the  bearers  of  the  ark.  and 
the  people  crossed  the  Jordan  in  safety.  The 
walls  of  the  city  of  Jericho  were  destroyed  by 
the  Lord,  and  the  inhabitants  slain  by  the  Isra- 
elites. The  period  of  Judges  abounded  in  he- 
roic exploits  of  individual  valor,  among  which 
those  of  Samson  are  the  most  celebiated.  At 
length,  about  1100  B.  C.  the  monarchy  was 
established,  Saul  being  the  first  king.  Saul 
achieved  some  brilliant  victories,  but  as  he  be- 
came disregardful  of  the  counsels  of  the  prophet 
Samuel,  the  latter  privately  anointed  David, 
the  son  of  Jesse,  a  valorous  youth,  whose  fame 
eclipsed  that  of  Saul.  The  rei^n  of  David  ex- 
tended from  1055  to  1015.  It  was  rendered  bril- 
liant by  victories  over  the  Jebusites.  Philistines. 
Amalekites,  Idumceans,  Moabites,  Ammonites, 
and  Zoba,  but  unhappy  by  the  domestic  misfor- 
tunes and  crimes  which  imbittered  the  heart  of 
king  David.  Under  Solomon,  his  son,  whose 
reign  extended  from  1015  to  !J75,  the  nation  at- 
tained a  high  degree  of  splendor  and  conse- 
quence, while  his  stern  strength  and  pure  integ- 
rity, sunk  under  the  corrupting  influence  of 
wealth  and  luxury.  Towards  the  latter  part  of 
his  reign,  Solomon, enervated  by  the  pleasures  of 
his  seraglio,  and  enthralled  by  female  favorites, 
permitted  the  worship  of  false  gods,  and  forsook 
the  Deity  to  whom  he  owed  his  glory.  The  re- 
volt of  the  ten  tribes  under  Jerr.boarn,  took 
place,  while  Rehoboam  succeeded  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  two,  Judah  and  Benjamin.  The  ten 
tribes  formed  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  the  two 
that  of  Judah.  Sichem,  at  first,  and  afterward 
Samaria ,  was  the  capital  of  Israel,  and  Jerusa- 
lem that  of  Judah.  The  contest  between  the 
two  states  was  furious,  and  not  unequal.  In 
general  the  kingdom  of  Judah  preserved  the 
worship  of  the  true  God,  while  that  of  Israel 


was  idolatrous.  The  kingdom  of  Israel  existed 
253  years  after  the  separation,  under  1!)  kings, 
whose  authority  was  gained  and  lost  by  violent 
revolutions.  Shalmaneser,  king  of  "Assyria, 
ended  the  kingdom,  and  carried  the  people  cap- 
tive into  Asia~B.  C.  722. 

The  kingdom  of  Judah  existed  under  20  kings 
of  the  house  of  David,  until  588  B.  C.,  when 
Nebuchadnezzar  took  Jerusalem,  and  carried 
away  the  inhabitants  captive.  During  the  cap- 
tivity flourished  Daniel,  Jeremiah,  and  other 
prophets,  who  were  commissioned  by  God  to 
inform  the  Hebrew  people  of  the  fate  which 
awaited  them.  Fiom  the  time  of  the  captivity 
they  are  more  often  known  under  the  name  of 
JEWS,  but  we  continue  their  history  here  that 
it  may  be  more  intelligible.  Their  captivity 
was  terminated  by  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  who 
published  an  edict  permitting  all  the  Jews  to 
return  !o  their  country,  and  to  rebuild  the  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem.  They  placed  the  foundations 
of  the  temple  ;  but  the  Samaritans,  the  invete- 
rate enemies  of  the  Jews,  procured  a  suspension 
of  their  operations.  Nevertheless  Darius,  in- 
formed of  the  edict  of  Cyrus,  permitted  the  com- 
pletion of  the  temple.  The  Jews  labored  with 
snr-h  spirit.,  that,  four  years  after,  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  were  rebuilt,  and  their  worship  re- 
established JNeheiniali,  beinrr  choi-en  governor 
of  Judea,  neglected  no  exertions  to  maintain 
the  public  observance  of  the  laws  of  God.  Es- 
ther, a  Jewish  maiden,  having  found  favor  in 
the  eyes  of  Ahasuerus,  king  of  Persia,  this 
monarch  confirmed  the  immunities  of  the  Jews, 
preserved  them  from  massacre,  and  severely 
punished  their  implacable  enemies. 

In  the  time  of  the  high-priest  Onias,  Selen- 
cns,  king  of  Syria,  sent  Heliodorus  to  seize  all 
the  gold'of  the. temple.  He  came  to  Jerusalem 
and  entered  the  temple,  intending  to  obey  the 
royal  command.  It  was  in  vain  that  the  high- 
pr'iest  represented  to  him  that  the  treasures 
were  deposites,  destined  for  the  support  of  thf 
fatherless  and  widows.  Heliodorus  turned  a 
deaf  ear  to  his  remonstrances,  and  was  already 
on  the  threshold  of  the  treasury,  when  he  be- 
held a  white  horse,  richly  caparisoned,  whose 
rider  wore  a  terrible  aspect,  with  armor  of  gold. 
At  the  same  time  Ileliodorus  was  attacked  by 
two  young  men  of  surpassing  beauty,  and  would 
Irive  !  ceii  slain,  but  for  the  interposition  of 
Onias.  \vlio  implored  the  pardon  of  the  Al- 
inighty,  and  offered  up  a  sacrifice  to  appease  his 
wrath. 

Antiochus  Epiphanes,  or  the  Illustrious,  the 
successor  of  Seleucus,  an  impious  prince,  de- 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


HEB 


277 


HEL 


prived  Onias  of  the  sacerdotal  office,  and  sold  it 
to  the  n.ghestbidder.  He  entered  Jerusalem  with 
a  powerful  army,  arid  killed  or  enslaved  e!0,000 
men.  He  had  the  boldness  to  enter  the  temple, 
and  to  bear  away  the  altar  and  golden  table,  the 
golden  candlestick,  the  precious  vessels,  and  all 
the  money  that  the  treasury  contained,  and  even 
undertook  to  abolish  the  religion  of  the  Jews, 
forbidding  them,  on  pain  of  death,  to  maintain 
their  worship,  and  erecting  the  statue  of  Jupiter 
Olympius  on  the  altar  of  the  temple.  The  Jews 
were  forced  to  attend  the  profane  sacrifices,  and 
compelled  to  eat  the  flesh  of  animals  prohibited 
by  their  law.  Under  this  persecution  many  of 
the  Jews  yielded,  but  there  were  many  who  re- 
mained firm,  and  among  others,  Eleazer  and 
the  mother  of  the  Maccabees,  with  her  seven 
children. 

Eleazer,  90  years  of  age,  would  neither  con- 
form to  the  usages  of  the  idolaters,  nor  feign  to 
do  so.  The  conduct  of  the  mother  of  the  Mac- 
cabees was  heroic  and  firm.  The  mother  and 
her  children  were  seized,  and  Antiochus  wished 
to  compel  them  to  eat  the  flesh  of  swine,  but 
they  refused.  Six  of  the  children  were  then 
killed  in  succession,  but  without  effecting  any 
change  in  the  resolution  of  the  remainder.  The 
king  hoping  to  succeed  with  the  youngest,  per- 
sonally exhorted  him  to  abandon  the  laws  of  his 
fathers,  swearing  to  render  him  wealthy  and 
happy,  and  make  him  one  of  his  favorites ;  but 
he  failed  to  make  the  slightest  impression.  The 
child  and  his  mother  were  cruelly  put  to  death. 
Judas  Maccabasus  rendered  his  name  formidable 
to  the  enemies  of  the  Jews,  for,  having  collect- 
ed an  army  of  six  thousand  men,  he  performed 
prodigies  of  valor.  He  conquered  and  killed 
Apollonius,  governor  of  Samaria,  and  the  gen- 
eral of  the  Syrian  army.  Every  where  victory 
crowned  his  efforts,  but  the  valiant  leader  fell  in 
battle,  after  slaying  many  of  his  enemies.  Jona- 
than and  Simeon,  his  brothers,  emulated  his 
glory.  The  Jews  refused  to  recognise  Jesus 
Christ,  who  was  born  in  the  reign  of  Herod, 
king  of  the  Jews,  as  the  Messiah.  Christ  fore- 
told the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  which  was 
taken  by  Titus,  A.  D.  70,  after  a  siege  of  un- 
parallele'd  .horror.  This  was  the  signal  of  the 
complete  dispersion  of  the  Jews,  in  fulfillment 
of  the  divine  warning. 

The  Weimar  Geographical  Ephemerides 
gives  the  following  estimate  of  the  numbers  of 
the  Jews,  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  EUROPE  : 
in Russiaand Poland,  658,809;  Austria. 453,524 ; 
European  Turkey,  321 ,000 ;'  States  of  the  Ger- 
man Confederation,  13d,000  ;  Prussia,  134,000; 


Netherlands,  80,000,  France,  60,000;  Italy, 
3(5,000  ;  Great  Britain.  12,000;  Cracow,  7,300; 
Ionian  Isles,  7,000  ;  Denmark,  6,000  ;  Switzer- 
land, 1,970;  Sweden,  450:  total  number  of 
Jews  in  Europe,  1,918,053.  ASIA  :  Asiatic 
Turkey,  300,000;  Arabia,  200,000  ;  Hindustan, 
100.000;  China,  60.000;  Turkestan,  40,000; 
province  of  Iran,  35,000  ;  Russia  in  Asia,  3,000 ; 
total,  738,000.  AFRICA  :  Morocco  and  Fez, 
300,000;  Tunis,  130,000;  Algiers,  30,000; 
Abyssinia,  20,000;  Tripoli,  12,000;  Egypt, 
12,000;  total,  504000.  AMERICA:  North 
America,  5,000 ;  Netherlandish  Colonies,  500 ; 
Demerara  and  Essequibo,  200;  total,  5,700. 
New  Holland,  50.  Grand  total,  3,218,000. 

HEBRIDES,  or  Western  Islands.;  a  cluster 
of  islands,  on  the  western  coast  of  Scotland,  iu 
the  Atlantic  ocean,  containing  70,000  inhabit- 
ants. The  J\'erc  Hebrides  are  a  group  of  islands 
in  the  South  Pacific  ocean,  discovered  by  Qui- 
ros  in  1506.  The}'  are  extremely  fertile. 

HECTOR,  the  "brave  son  of  Priam,  king  of 
Troy,  and  Hecuba,  his  wife,  killed  by  Achilles. 

HECUBA,  daughter  of  Dymas,  king  of 
Thrace,  and  second  wife  of  Priam.  She  sur- 
vived the  fall  of  Troy  but  a  short  time,  and  was 
stoned  to  death  by  the  Greeks,  who  were  exas- 
perated at  her  bitter  reproaches. 

HEGIRA,  the  flight  of  Mohammed,  from 
Mecca  to  Medina,  from  which  era  the  Moham- 
medans begin  their  computation  of  time.  They 
fix  it  on  the  16th  of  July,  A.  D.  622. 

HELENA,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  Leda, 
wife  of  Tvndarus,  as  it  is  fabled,  by  Jupiter, 
who  introduced  himself  to  her  notice,  in  the 
form  of  a  swan.  She  married  Menelaus,  whom 
she  forsook  for  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  who  bore 
her  to  Troy,  and  thus  kindled  the  flame  of  war 
between  the  Greeks  and  Trojans.  She  was  re- 
ceived by  Menelaus  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  but 
on  his  death,  was  murdered  by  Polyxo  of  Ar- 
gos,  the  widow  of  one  of  the  warriors  killed  be- 
fore Troy. 

HELENA,  St.  a  rocky  island  in  the  Atlan- 
tic, on  the  coast  of  Southern  Africa,  1200  miles 
from  any  land.  It  is  10£  miles  long,  and  63 
broad,  and  belongs  to  the  English.  It  was  the 
residence  of  the  captive  Napoleon  from  Novem- 
ber, 1815  to  May  5,  1821 ,  the  day  of  his  death. 
Here  his  body  is'buried,  and  by  his  side  lies  the 
sword  he  wore  upon  the  field  of  Austerlitz. 

HELIOGABALUS,  Marcus  Aurelius  Anto- 
ninus, a  Roman  emperor,  son  of  Varius  Marcel- 
lus,  called  Heliogabalus,  from  having  been  a 

rriest  of  the  Sun  in  Phmnicia.  At  the  age  of 
4,  he  was  invested  with  the  purple  on  the  death 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


HEN 


278 


HEN 


of  Macrmus.  but  his  cruelty  and  licentiousness 
were  such,  that  his  subjects  rose  agninst  him, 
;tnd  his  head  was  severed  from  his  body.  March 
JO,  A.  D.222,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  age, 
after  a  reign  of  3  years  and  9  months.  He  bur- 
thened  his  subjects  with  the  most  oppressive 
taxes,  his  halls  were  covered  with  carpets  of 
gold  and  silver  tissue,  and  his  mats  were  made 
with  the  down  of  hares,  and  the  soft  feathers 
found  under  the  wings  of  partridges.  He  often 
invited  the  lowest  of  the  people  to  share  his 
banquets,  and  made  them  sit  down  on  large 
bellows  full  of  wind,  which,  by  suddenly  empty- 
ing themselves,  threw  the  guests  on  the  ground, 
and  left  them  a  prey  to  wild  beasts.  He  tied 
some  of  his. favorites  to  a  large  wheel,  and  was 
particularly  delighted  to  see  them  whirled  round 
like  Ixion,  and  alternately  suspended  in  the  air, 
a«d  plunged  beneath  the  water. 

HELIOPOLIS,  (city  of  the  sun),  a  large  and 
ancient  city  of  Egypt,  a  little  above  Memphis, 
the  stupendous  remains  of  which  yet  excite  at- 
tention. Near  here  a  fierce  battle  was  fought 
between  the  Turks  and  French,  March  20,  IbOO. 

HELLE,  in  fable,  a  daughter  of  Athamas, 
and  Nephese,  who,  to  escape  from  the  persecu- 
tion of  her  step-mother  Ino,  trusted  herself  to 
the  back  of  a  golden  ram  from  which  she  fell 
and  was  drowned  in  that  part  of  the  sea,  called 
the  Hellespont,  now  the  Dardanelles. 

HELOISE,  Eloise,  or  Louisa,  the  mistress 
and  wife  of  Abelard,  born  in  Paris  1101.  (See 
Melard.) 

HENGIST,  the  first  Saxon  king  of  Kent, 
about  the  end  of  the  5th  century.  Tie  was  in- 
vited to  the  assistance  of  the  Britons  against  the 
Scots  and  Picts,  and  received  from  the  hands  of 
Vortigern  the  whole  of  Kent,  for  which  he  gave 
his  daughter  in  marriage.  However,  he  leagued 
with  the  enemies  of  Britain,  and  committed 
great  ravages  beyond  the  limits  of  his  territory. 
Ho  died  in  the  year  488. 

HENRY  I,  "king  of  France,  crowned  at 
Rheims  in  1027.  His  mother,  Constance,  en- 
deavored to  set  his  younger  brother,  Robert, 
upon  the  throne ;  but,  with  the  assistance  of 
Robert  II,  duke  of  Normandy,  Henry  defeated 
the  queen's  army,  and  obliged  his  brother  to 
content  himself  with  the  dukedom  of  Burgun- 
dy. In  his  time  Pope  Leo  IX  held  a  council  at 
Rheims  in  France,  and  the  Normans  headed  by 
Robert  Guicard,  took  Naples  and  Sicilv  from 
1  he  .Saracens.  He  died,  Aug.  4.  Kilil). 

HENRY  IV,  king  of  France,  called  tho 
Great,  born  in  1553,  was  son  of  Anthony  of 
Bourbon,  duke  of  Vendome.  After  the  massa- 


cre of  St.  Bartholomew,  lie  signalized  himself 
against  the  leaguers,  and  on  the  death  of  Hen- 
ry III,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  taking  the  title 
of  king  of  France  arid  Navarre.  His  enemies 
endeavored  in  vain  to  make  Cardinal  do  Bour- 
bon kiriij,  under  the  title  of  Charles  X.  In. 
1589,  with  4.000  men,  he  defeated  30,01)0  men 
commanded  by  the  duke  of  Mayenne,  and,  in 
1599,  with  1,200  men,  he  routed  a  force  of 
1(!,000.  He  also  signalized  himself  in  several 
other  battles,  and  besieged  Paris,  which  held 
out  against  him  at  the  instigation  of  the  Span- 
iards. He  was  afterwards  crowned  at  Char- 
tres.  He  defeated  18,000  Spaniards  in  Bur- 
gundy, 1594,  with  1500  men,  took  Amiens,  and 
reduced  the  leaguers  whom  he  generously  par- 
doned. The  duke  de  Biron's  execution,  in 
1602,  was  the  only  example  of  just  severity  in 
his  reign  ;  and  France  had  enjoyed  peace  forlG 
years,  when  Ravaillac,  with  a  knife,  stabbed  the 
king  'in  his  coach  at  Paris,  May  14,  1C10,  the 
day  after  the  queen's  coronation. 

HENRY  I,  emperor  of  Germany,  son  of 
Otho,  duke  of  Saxony,  succeeded  Conrad,  his 
brother-in-law,  in  919.  He  reduced  Arnold, 
duke  of  Bavaria,  and  vanquished  the  Hungari- 
ans, Bohemians,  Scliivonians,  and  Danes.  He 
took  the  kingdom  of  Lorraine  from  Charles  the 
Simple,  defeated  the  Hungarians  a  second  time, 
and  killed  8,000  of  their  number.  He  died  of 
an  apoplexy  in  936. 

HENRY  III,  of  Franconia,  snrnamed  the 
Black,  succeeded  Conrad  II,  in  1033.  He  de- 
feated the  Bohemians,  that  denied  him  tribute, 
in  his  second  campaign,  and  restored  Peter  to 
the  throne  of  Hungary,  whence  his  subjects  had 
driven  him  in  1043,  leduced  the  petty  princes 
of  Italy,  and  made  war  on  the  Hungarians.  He 
died  at  Bothfeld  in  Saxony,  in  1056. 

HENRY  I,  of  England,  surnamed  Beauclerc, 
was  born  in  1008,  and  succeeded  his  brother, 
William  Rufus,  in  1100.  He  married  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Malcolm,  king  of  Scots,  in  the  same 
year.  Soon  after  this,  his  brother  Robert  re- 
turned i'rorn  abroad,  and  laid  claim  to  the  crown 
of  England;  but  in  1105,  Henry  invaded  Nor- 
mandy with  a  strong  army  ;  took  some  of  the 
principal  towns ;  and  a  battle  ensuing.  Robert 
was  overthrown,  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  to 
England.  In  1109,  he  betrothed  his  daughter 
Maude  to  the  emperor  of  Germany.  In  1117 
he  was  challenged  by  Louis  of  France,  and  he 
lost  his  queen.  'May  1.  1 119.  In  1120,  lie  con- 
veyed his  son  to  Normandy,  to  ri'crive  the 
homage  of  the  barons  of  that  duchy  ;  on  his  re- 
turn, the  young  prince,  his  sister  Maude,  and 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


HEN 


279 


HEN 


all  but  one  of  the  ship's  company,  were  drowned, 
the  vessel  having  been  run  upon  a  rock.  This 
affliction  shortened  the  life  of  Henry,  who  died 
Dec.  1, 1135,  in  theGSlh  year  of  his  age,  leaving 
his  daughter  Matilda  heir  to  all  his  dominions. 

HENRY  II,  king  of  England,  was  born  in 
1133,  and  having  invaded  England  January  7, 
1 153,  had  homage  done  him  as  successor  to  Ste- 
phen, in  1154,  in  which  year  he  also  began  to 
reign.  In  1170  he  had  his  son  Henry  crowned 
king  of  England.  In  1172  he  reduced  Ireland  to 
subjection.  The  murder  of  Thomas  a  Becket, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  attributed  to 
Henry,  who  was  compelled  to  do  penance  forit. 
The  latter  part  of  his  reign  was  troubled.  In 
1173  he  imprisoned  his  queen  on  account  of 
Rosamond,  his  mistress.  He  died  at  Chinon, 
near  Saumur,  in  the  56th  year  of  his  age,  and 
the  35th  of  his  reign,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
displayed  great  bravery  and  wisdom. 

HENRY  III,  of  England,  was  born  Oct.  1, 
1297,  and  was  crowned  at  Gloucester,  Oct.  28, 
1216.  He  married  Eleanor,  daughter  of  the 
count  of  Provence,  Jan.  14,  1236;  pledged  his 
crown  and  jewels  for  money  when  he  married 
his  daughter  Margaret,  to  the  king  of  Scots, 
1242 ;  was  obliged  by  his  nobles  to  resign  the 
power  of  a  sovereign,  and  sell  Normandy  and 
Anjou  to  the  French,  1253.  In  12u'l,  he  shut 
himself  up  in  the  tower  of  London,  for  fear  of 
his  nobles.  In  12G4,  he  engaged  in  a  contest 
with  the  nobles,  but,  after  having  experienced 
many  reverses,  was,  owing  to  the  bravery  of  his 
son,  triumphant  in  the  famous  battle  of  Eves- 
ham,  in  which  Leicester  lost  his  life.  Over- 
come by  the  cares  of  government,  and  the  infir- 
mities of  age.  Henrv  died  at  Westminster,  Nov. 
16,1272. 

HENRY  IV,  duke  of  Hereford,  and  grand- 
son of  Edward  III,  was  born  in  1367  ;  married 
Mary,  the  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Hereford,  who 
died  in  l:i',)4,  bell-re  he  obtained  the  crown.  In 
13.37  he  fought  in  personal  combat  witli  the 
duke  of  Norfolk,  but  Richard  II  stopped  the 
combat,  and  ordered  the  combatants  to  leave 
the  kingdom  ;  the  dtake  of  Norfolk  for  life,  and 
Henry  for  10  years.  The  latter  returned  to 
England  in  arms  against  Richard,  in  1399,  com- 
pelled him  to  abdicate  the  throne,  and  was 
crowned  king  of  England  the  same  year.  In 
1402  he  was  defeated  by  the  Welsh,  and  in 
1403,  he  married  Joan  of  Navarre,  widow  of 
the  duke  of  Bretagne.  In  1403  the  rebellion  of 
the  Percies  began,  but  was  soon  suppressed. 
Henry  died  of  the  apoplexy,  in  Westminister, 
March  20,  1413,  was  buried  at  Canterbury,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son.  34* 


HENRY  V.  who  was  born  in  1383,  and  was 
crowned  in  1413.  In  his  youth  he  was  noto- 
rious for  all  kinds  of  debauchery,  but  reformed 
his  life  on  receiving  the  crown.  In  1415  he 
embarked  for  France,  and  landed  at  Harfleur, 
with  an  immense  army,  part  of  which  was  de- 
stroyed by  dysentery.  The  battle  of  Agincourt 
succeeded,  in  which  the  English  gained  a  splen- 
did victory.  In  141G,  Henry  pledged  his  regalia 
for  20,000/,  to  push  his  conquest,  and  a  treaty 
being  concluded,  fixed  his  court  at  Paris  in 
1421;  but,  just  as  his  glory  had  reached  its 
summit,  and  both  crowns  devolved  upon  him, 
he  died  at  the  age  of  34  years. 

HENRY  VI,  was  born  at  Windsor,  in  1421 ; 
ascended  the  throne  August  31,  1422,  and  was 
proclaimed  king  of  France  the  same  year.  Hen- 
ry V,  previous  to  his  death  had  appointed  the 
duke  of  Bedford,  his  eldest  brother,  to  the  re- 
gency of  France.  In  1 428  the  duke  commenced 
the  siege  of  Orleans,  the  first  adverse  blow  to 
the  English  power  in  France,  for  it  was  saved 
by  Joan  of  Arc  (which  see).  In  1445  Henry 
married  Margaret  of  Anjou,  and  was  crowned 
in  the  same  year.  In  1446  Jack  Cade's  insur- 
rection broke  out,  and  in  1452,  the  duke  of 
York,  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  regency 
of  England  by  Henry  V,  inarched  to  London 
with  an  army  "of  10,000  men,  but  retiring  into 
Kent  was  followed  by  Henry  VI,  at  the  head 
of  a  superior  force.  The  king  soon  after  was 
incapacitated  from  sickness,  and  the  duke  of 
York  was  appointed  lieutenant  and  protector 
of  the  kingdom.  In  1455,  however,  Henry  re- 
sumed the  reins  of  government,  and  annulled 
the  protectorship  of  the  duke,  who  levied  an 
army,  though  without  advancing  any  pretension 
to  the  crown.  At  length  a  battle  was  fought 
at  St.  Albans  on  the  31st  of  May,  when  the 
Yorkists  slew  about  5,000  of  their  enemies; 
Henry  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  adversary,  and 
\va;  obliged  to  surrender  his  authority. 

After  various  fluctuations  of  fortune,  the  duke 
appeared  at  London,  and  the  parliament  de- 
clared in  favor  of  his  claim,  but  decreed  that 
Henry  should  possess  the  dignity  during  his 
life-time,  and  that  the  administration  should,  in 
the  meanwhile,  remain  with  the  duke.  Mar- 
garet, however,  spurned  this  compact,  collected 
a  strong  army,  defeated  and  slew  the  duke,  and 
affixed  his  head,  encircled  with  a  paper  crown, 
upon  the  gates  of  York.  Margaret,  after  some 
successes,  was  finally  defeated  in  the  memora- 
ble battle  of  Teuton,  which  ended  in  the  com- 
plete triumph  of  the  Yorkists,  who  were,  how- 
ever, shortly  to  experience  a  reverse  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Hexham,  1464.  Henry  reascended  his 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


HEN 


280 


HEN 


throne,  but  was  finally  imprisoned  and  murder- 
ed. The  young  son  of  Magaret  was  murdered 
at  Tewkesbury,  and  the  queen,  after  having 
bravely  defended  her  husband's  cause  in  twelve 
battles,  dierl  in  France,  in  a  miserable  condition. 
HENRV  VII,  descended  from  John  of  Gaunt, 
and  nearly  allied  to  Henry  VI,  was  born  in 
1455.  He  landed  at  Milford  Haven,  Aug.  7, 
1-485,  and  having  defeated  the  usurper  Richard 
III,  at  the  memorable  battle  of  Bosworth,  in 
the  same  year,  was  proclaimed  king.  In  14^(5 
he  married  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV. 
Soon  after  his  marriage  he  went  into  the  north, 
where  the  partisa.ns  of  Richard  were  strong-, 
and  making;  hostile  preparations,  but  they  were 
quelled.  The  conspiracy  of  1487,  headed  by 
Lambert  Siennel,  an  imposter  who  pretended 
to  be  a  Plantagenet,  was  also  put  down.  Henry 
received,  as  a  compromise  for  his  claim  upon 
the  French  crown  £186,250.  besides  25,COO 
crowns  yearly.  In  1492  the  country  was  dis- 
turbed by  an  imposter  named  Osbeck,  or  War- 
benk.  (See  Wnrbcck.)  The  schemes  of  another 
imposter,  named  Wilford,  who  personated  the 
earl  of  Warwick,  afforded  Henry  a  pretext  for 
arresting  the  earl,  and  signing  his  death-war- 
rant. Henry  died  of  a  consumption  in  1509. 
By  his  avarice  and  rapacity,  he  is  said,  at  one 
period,  to  have  amassed  £1.800.000. 

HENRY  VIII,  was  born  in  1491.  and  suc- 
ceeded Henry  VII  in  1509.  He  placed  himself 
at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army,  50.000  strong. 
and  invaded  France,  but  after  an  ostentatious 
and  ineffectual  campaign,  concluded  a  truce. 
By  the  advice  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,  in  whom  he 
chiefly  confided,  he  agreed  to  an  interview  with 
Francis  I  of  France.  This  expensive  congress 
was  held  near  Calais,  within  the  English  pale, 
in  compliment  to  Henry  for  crossing  the  sea. 
In  the  same  year  a  costly  tournament  was  held 
in  Picardy  by  the  two  sovereigns.  By  tu0b 
means  all  the  immense  treasures  of  the  late 
king  were  quite  exhausted,  and  Henry  relied 
on  Wolsey  alone  for  replenishing  his  r.ofiers. 
In  1521  Henry  received  the  title  of  defender  of 
the  Faith. 

In  1527,  Henry,  who  had  been  18  years  mar- 
ried to  Catharine  of  Arragon.  the  widow  of  his 
brother,  conceived  a  violent  passion  for  the 
beautiful  Anna  Bulion,  one  of  the  queen's  maids 
of  honor,  and  immediately  set  about  procuring 
:i  divorce  from  his  wile.  But  both  the  pope 
and  Cardinal  Wolsey  were  unwilling  to  sanction 
this  unjustifiable  scheme.  Wolsey  was  therefore 
forced  to  give  place  to  Thomas  Cranmer,  and, 
after  being  arrested,  died  at  Leicester  Abbey, 


not  without  suspicion  of  having  been  poisoned. 
Henry  now  privately,  married  Anna  Bullen, 
whom  he  had  created  marchioness  of  Pembroke. 
As  the  monks  had  shown  the  greatest  resist- 
ance to  his  wishes,  he  resolved  at  once  to  de- 
prive them  of  their  power.  Commissioners 
sent  to  examine  into  the  state  of  convents  and 
monasteries,  found  the  religious  tainted  with 
the  worst  of  crimes,  and  a  geneial  horror  was 
excited  in  the  nation.  In  ]5'M.  a  new  visitation 
was  appointed,  and  fresh  crimes  were  brought 
to  light.  In  less  than  two  years  from  this  ex- 
posure, Henry  became  possessed  of  all  the  mo- 
nastic revenues. 

In  153(>,  Henry  caused  his  innocent  queen, 
Anna  Bullen,  to  be  put  to  death,  and  en  tlu: 
following  day  he  married  Jane  Seymour.  The 
most  cruel  religious  persecutions  now  ensued, 
and  among  the  deaths  of  those  obnoxious  to  the 
king,  was  "that  of  Sir  Thomas  More.  Jane  Sey- 
mour having  died  in  child-bed.  Henry  contracted 
a  marriage  with  Anne  of  Cloves.  He  hated 
her,  however,  from  the  moment  he  saw  her ; 
and  resolved  to  get  rid  of  her  and  his  prime- 
minister  Cromwell  together.  Cromwell  was 
accordingly  arrested  for'high-treason  :  and  with- 
out even  being  heard  in  his  own  defence,  was 
condemned  and  suffered  on  the  scaffold.  Anno 
of  Cleves  being  divorced.  Henry  married  Cath- 
arine Howard,  in  August  l.~40",  \\h<>  living  ac- 
cused of  infidelity,  was  beheaded  on  Tower-hill, 
with  the  lady  Rcchford.  February  12, 1C-42.  In 
1. ">.;:',  Henry  married  his  sixth  "and  last  wife, 
Catharine  Parr.  Though  his  health  was  declin- 
ing apace,  yet  his  implacable  cruelties  were  not 
less  frequent.  The  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  his 
son.  th'e  earl  of  Surrey,  were  the  last  who  felt 
the  effects  of  thf  tyrant's  groundless  suspicions. 
The  latter  was  arrested,  tried,  and  condemned 
for  high-treason,  notwithstanding  his  eloquent 
and  spirited  defence* and  the  ••.eistcnce  was  soon 
after  executed  upon  him  on  Tower-hill.  The 
parliataentmeeliDg  on  tin-  I-Hh  day  of  January, 
1 .'-!().  a  bill  of  attainder  was  iound  against,  the 
duke  of  Norfolk.  The  dtalh-warrant  was  made 
out.  and  immediately  sent  to  the  lieutenant  of 
the  tower.  T!i ••  (hike  prepared  for  denth.  hut 
was  saved  by  the  drill)  of  Henry.  Jan.  2,^,  1547, 
at  the  ajre  of  5(5.  aftVr  a  reign  of  nearly  IW  vears. 
HllNllY.  Patrick,  son  of  John  Henry,  was 
born  in  the  colony  nf  Virginia,  May  29,  1736. 
Passionately  addicted  to  field  sports.  Mid  averse 
to  toil  of  any  kind,  even  the  elements  of  educa- 
tion were  mastered  by  him  with  distaste,  al- 
though he  had  a  strong  mind,  and  a  retentive 
memory.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  married 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


HEN 


281 


HER 


Miss  Skelton,  and  settled  on  a  farm,  but  agri- 
cultural as  well  as  mercantile  pursuits,  in  winch 
he  afterwards  embarked,  possessed  no  charm 
for  him,  and  he  was  unsuccessful.  As  a  final 
effort,  he  resolved  to  attempt  the  law,  and  was 
licensed  to  practise  after  six  weeks'  preparatory 
study.  For  several  years  his  practice  was  lim- 
ited and  the  wants  of  his  family  extreme,  but 
his  prospects  were  eventually  bettered.  In 
1765  he  was  elected  member  of  the  house  of 
ourgesses,  and  introduced  his  celebrated  resolu- 
tions on  the  stamp  act.  In  the  midst  of  the 
debate  on  the  occasion,  he  exclaimed,  "  Ccesar 
had  his  Brutus,  Charles  the  First  his  Cromwell, 

and  George  the  Third" '•  Treason  !  "  cried 

the  speaker — ;' Treason,  treason!"  echoed  from 
every  part  of  the  house.  Henry  faltered  not 
for  an  instant,  but.  taking  a  loftier  attitude,  and 
fixing  on  the  speaker  an  eye  of  fire,  he  added 

"  may  profit  by  their  example.  If  this  be 

treason,  make  the  most  of  it."  Henry  served 
his  country  in  various  posts,  was  sent  to  the 
congress  at  Philadelphia,  in  1774,  took  the  field, 
and  was  elected  governor  of  the  commonwealth. 
In  1791  he  retired  from  public  life,  and  died  in 
17<)7.  To  his  large  family  he  left  wealth  and  a 
good  name.  His  eloquence  was  manly  and 
convincing,  and  his  voice  powerful  and  musical. 
The  following  was  his  language  in  1775 

::  It  is  vain,  sir,  to  extenuate  the  matter. 
Gentlemen  may  cry,  peace,  peace— but  there  is 
no  peace.  The  war  has  actually  begun. 

"  The  next  gale,  that  sweeps  from  the  north, 
will  bring  to  our  ears  the  clash  of  resounding 
arms!  Our  brethren  are  already  in  the  field ! 
Why  stand  we  here  idle  ?  What  is  it  that  gen- 
tlemen wish  ?  What  would  they  have  ?  Is  life 
so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased 
at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery  ?  Forbid  it, 
Almighty  God. — I  know  not  what  course  others 
may  take,  but  as  for  me.  give  me  liberty  or  give 
me  death!" 

He  took  his  scat.  No  murmur  of  applause 
was  heard.  The  effect  was  too  deep.  After 
the  trance  of  a  moment,  several  members  started 
from  their  seats.  The  cry.  "  to  arms,"  seemed 
to  quiver  on  every  lip,  and  gleam  from  every 
eye!  Richard  II.  Lee  arose  and  supported  Mr. 
Henry  with  his  usual  spirit  and  elegance.  But 
his  melody  was  lost  amidst  the  agitations  of 
that  ocean,  which  the  masterspirit  of  the  storm 
had  lifted  up  on  high.  That  supernatural  voice 
still  sounded  in  their  ears  and  shivered  along 
their  arteries.  They  heard,  in  every  pause,  the 
cry  of  liberty  or  death.  They  became  impatient 
of  speech — their  souls  were  on  fire  for  action. 


HERCULANEVM,  a  city  not  far  from  Na- 
ples, which  was  buried  in  an  eruption  of  Vesu- 
vius, in  the  reign  of  Titus,  A.  1).  7i>.  It  has 
been  excavated  and  presents  a  most  curious  and 
interesting  spectacle. 

HERCULES,  a  fabulous  Grecian  hero,  the 
son  of  Jupiter  and  Alemena,  the  wife  of  Am- 
phitryon, king  of  Thebes.  In  vain  did  the 
jealous  Juno  send  two  serpents  to  kill  the  young 
hero  in  his  cradle,  he  strangled  them  both,  and 
thus  displayed  to  all  the  divinity  of  his  origin. 
He  had  to  "combat  for  a  long  time  the  enmity 
of  Juno,  who  exacted  of  him  twelve  labors, 
independently  of  other  signal  actions  which  ho 
performed.  1.  He  killed  the  Nemean  lion,  to 
deliver  the  kingdom  of  Mycene,  and  wore  his 
skin  in  the  remainder  of  his  exploits.  2.  He 
slew  the  Lernean  hydra,  whose  heads  multipli- 
ed seven-fold,  on  being  severed.  3.  He  brought 
to  Eurysthens  upon  his  shoulders  the  Eryman- 
thean  boar,  an  animal  of  a  prodigious  size.  4. 
He  subdued  the  golden-horned,  and  brazen- 
hoofed  stag  of  Diana.  5.  He  destroyed  with 
his  arrows  the  foul  Stymphalian  birds  of  extra- 
ordinary size  and  voracity.  6.  He  cleansed 
the  Augaean  stables.  7.  He  tamed  the  furious 
bull  of  Crete.  8.  He  gave  Diomodes  to  be  de- 
voured by  his  own  horses  which  had  been  fed 
on  human  flesh.  9.  He  vanquished  the  Ama- 
zons, whose  queen,  Hippolyta,  he  gave  in  mar- 
riage to  his  i'riend  Theseus.  10.  He  brought 
the  oxen  of  Geryon  king  of  Spain,  to  Greece. 
This  was  only  effected  by  killing  this  monarch, 
formidable  for  his  triple  head.  11.  Hercules 
obtained  the  golden  apples  of  the  garden  of  the 
Hesperides,  by  killing  the  dragon  with  a  hun- 
dred heads  that  guarded  them.  12.  He  dragged 
away  Cerebus,the  three-headed  dog  that  watch- 
ed the  gate  of  hell,  into  which  he  descended 
twice,  once  with  his  friend.  Theseus,  and  after- 
wards to  seek  the  queen  Alceste,  who  devoted 
herself  to  death  for  her  husband  Admetus. 

The  centaur  Nessus  having  insulted  Dejani- 
ra,  the  wife  of  Hercules,  the  hero  killed  him 
with  an  arrow,  the  barb  of  which  was  poisoned 
with  the  blood  of  the  Lernean  hydra.  The 
centaur,  in  dying,  persuaded  Dejanira.  to  give 
a  tunic  dipped  in  his  blood,  to  her  husband, 
in  token  of  reconciliation.  Hercules  had  no 
sooner  clothed  himself  in  this  garment  than  he 
perceived  that  he  was  poisoned  by  it.  He  ac- 
cordingly, with  the  help  of  Philoctetes.  built  a 
funeral  pile  on  Mount  CEta  and  expired  in  the 
flames.  But  Jupiter  received  him  in  the  ranks 
of  the  gods,  and  gave  him  in  marriage  Hebe, 
the  beautiful  goddess  of  youth.  Hercules  is 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


HIE 


282 


HIL 


generally  represented  as  a  robust  man,  leaning 
on  his  club.  On  his.  shoulders  he  wears  the 
skin  of  the  Nemean  lion,  and  holds  in  his  hands 
the  Hesperian  fruit. 

HEROD,  surnamed  the  Great,  was  born  in 
Ascalon,  Judea,  B.  C.  71.  He  was  made  king 
of  Judea  by  means  of  Anthony,  and  rendered 
himself  odious  by  his  tyranny,  and  as  he  knew 
that  the  day  of  his  dea"th  would  become  a  day 
of  mirth  and  festivity,  he  ordered  the  most  illus- 
trious of  his  subjects  to  be  confined  and  mur- 
dered the  very  instant  he  expired,  that  every 
eye  in  the  kingdom  might  seem  to  shed  tears 
at  the  death  of  Herod.  This  order  was  never 
executed.  He  died  in  the  70th  year  of  his  age, 
after  a  reign  of  40  years,  which  was  rendered 
memorable  by  the  birth  of  Christ. 

HESSE-CASSEL,  or  KURHESSEN,  an 
electorate,  member  of  the  Germanic  confedera- 
cy, containing  (352,700  inhabitants.  The  soil  is 
generally  fertile,  and  the  annual  revenue  about 
4,500.000  guilders. 

HEfeSE-DARMSTADT,  Grand-duchy  of, 
contains  750,000  inhabitants.  The  climate  is 
healthy ,  and  great  facilities  exist  for  the  exten- 
sion of  commerce. 

HIERO  I,  a  king  of  Syracuse,  after  his  bro- 
ther Gelon,  rendered  himself  odious  by  his  ty- 
ranny in  the  beginning  of  his  reisrn.  He  made 
war  ngaiipt  Theron.  the  tyrant  of  Agiigentum, 
and  took  Himera.  He  obtained  three  different 
crowns  at  the  Olympic  games,  two  in  horse- 
races, and  one  in  a  chariot-race.  The  first 
Olympic  ode  of  Pindar  is  inscribed  to  him.  and 
mention  is  made  of  his  horse  Phrenicus,  by 
which  he  was  the  winner  of  the  Olympic  crown . 
The  ancient  races  were  somewhat  different 
from  the  modern.  At  the  former,  honor  alone 
was  the  reward  of  the  winner,  and  no  one  lost 
either  his  character  or  his  money. 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  the  conversation 
ofSimonidosr.Epicharmus,  Pindar,  &c.,  softened 
the  roughness  of  Hiero's  manners,  and  the 
severity  of  his  government,  and  tended  to  ren- 
der him  the  patron  of  learning,  genius,  and 
merit.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  18  years,  B.  C. 
467,  leaving  the  crown  to  his  brother  Thrasy- 
bulus,  who  disgraced  it  by  his  tyranny. 

HIERO  II,  a  descendant  of  Gelon,  reigned 
about  200  years  after  the  preceding ;  was  ap- 
pointed to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  Cartha- 
ginians. He  joined  his  enemies  in  besieging 
Messana,  which  had  surrendered  to  the  Romans; 
but.  lie  wns  beaten  by  Appius  Claudius,  tin-  Ro- 
man consul,  and  obliged  to  retire  to  Syracuse, 
where  he  was  soon  blocked  up.  Seeing  all 


hopes  of  victory  lost,  he  made  peace  with  the 
Romans  and  proved  so  faithful  to  his  engage- 
ments, during  the  fifty-nine  years  of  his  reign, 
that  the  Romans  never  had  a  more  firm,  or 
more  attached  ally.  He  died  in  the  U4th  year 
of  his  age,  about  li'25  years  B.  C.  He  was  uni- 
versally regretted,  and  all  the  Sicilians  showed 
by  their  lamentations  that  they  had  lost  a  com- 
mon father  and  a  friend.  He  liberally  patron- 
ized the  learned,  and  employed  the  talents  of 
Archimedes  for  the  good  of  his  country. 

HILL.  Rowland,  Rev.,  son  of  £ir  Rowland 
Hill,  was  born  at  Hawkestone.  in  177;",  and  ed- 
ucated at  Eton  and  Cambridge.  He  was  a 
Calvinistic  methodist.  and  took  Whitfield  for 
his  model.  His  discourses  were  singular,  being 
sometimes  crowded  with  puns,  and  stories,  while 
at  others,  their  solemnity  was  unbroken.  Some 
of  his  straits  are  mentioned  in  his  diary. — 
"  17(>7,  Jan.  1,  preached  at  Chesterton;  we  had 
the  honor  of  a  mob — no  other  harm  was  done 
than  the  windows  broke."  "  Thursday — in  a 
barn,  for  the  first  time,  with  much  comfort. 
God  send,  if  I  am  to  live,  this  may  not  be  my 
last  barn.  Some  gownsmen  were  theie,  but 
they  were  not  permitted  to  do  more  than  gnash 
with  their  teeth."  Mr.  Hill  used  to  be  circum- 
spect in  receiving  recruits.  To  a  person  who 
had  a  great  desiie  to  preach,  and  talked  about 
hiding"  his  talents,  he  replied  that  "  the  closer 
he. hid  them  the  better."  Robert  Hall  once  re- 
plied to  a  shoemaker,  who  expressed  a  similar 
reluctance  to  hide  his  talents  in  a  napkin,  "  the 
smallest  pocket-handkerchief  you  have  will  do, 
sir."  In  his  Afield  campaigns"  he  used  to  go 
to  largo  towns  on  market-davs,  and  address  the 
assemblage  in  the  market  houses.  When  he 
heard  of  a  fair  or  a  revel  he  preached  in  spite 
of  the  violence  with  which  he  was  assailed,  and 
often  with  success.  His  favorite  text  was, 
"Come  ye  out  from  among  them."  Harris, 
one  of  Whitfie'd's  most  energetic  followers,  re- 
lates  of  himself,  that  once  on  a  journey,  being 
tempted  to  desert  his  Master's  cause,  "he  said, 
"Satan.  I'll  match  thee  for  this,"  "and  so  I 
did."  s;iid  he,  "for  I  had  not  ridden  far.  before 
I  came  to  a  revel,  where  there  was  a  show  of 
mountebanks,  which  1  entered,  and  just  as  they 
were  commencing,  I  jumped  into  the  midst  of 
them  ami  cried  out.  let  us  pray,  which  so  thun- 
derstruck them,  that  they  listened  to  me  q:iietly, 
while  I  preached  them  a  most  tremendous  ser- 
mon, that  frightened  many  of  them  home." 

At  Edinburgh,  on  the  Gallon  Hill,  Mr.  Hill 
preached  to  an  assemblage  of  10,000  people. 
The  old  women,  as  they  looked  out  of  their 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


HOL 


283 


HON 


doors  at  the  stream  of  human  beings,  observing 
some  soldiers  amongst  them,  exclaimed,  "  Eh, 
sirs,  what  will  become  of  us  now  ?  The  verra 
sodgers  are  ganging  to  hear  the  preaching." 
Mr.  Hill  died  in  April,  1833. 
H1NDOSTAN  (See  India). 
H I N  G  H  A  M ,  a  flourishing  to  wn  of  Plymouth 
county,  Mass.,  14  miles  S.  of  Boston.  The 
manufacture  of  wooden  ware  is  extensive,  and 
the  mackerel  fishery  gives  employment  to  many. 
Population  (in  1830)  3.357. 

HIPPIAS  and  HIPPARCHUS,  two  sons  of 
Pisistratus,  king  of  Athens,  whom  they  suc- 
ceeded 527  B.  C.  Hipparchus  was  slain  in  a 
conspiracy  512  B.  C.,  by  Harmodius  and  Aris- 
togiton,  who  had  devoted  themselves  to  their 
country.  Hippias  alone  now  held  the  reins  of 
government,  but  he  became  odious,  and  on  the 
siege  of  Athens  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  he  sur- 
rendered the  city  and  retired  to  Ligaeum,  on  the 
Hellespont,  509  B.  C.  Thus  Athens  once  more 
recovered  its  liberty.  An  attempt  was  after- 
wards made  to  restore  Hippias  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Athens.  By  some  authors  he"  is  said 
to  have  perished  at  the  battle  of  Marathon ;  but 
others  assert  that  he  died  at  Lemnos  in  poverty 
and  distress. 

HOPE II,  Andrew,  the  Tell  of  the  Tyrol,  a 
heroic  Tyrolese,  who  headed  an  insurrection 
of  his  countrymen  on  the  10th  of  April,  1809. 
His  resistance  to  the  French  on  many  occasions, 
was  chivalric,  and  successful.  After  he  found 
farther  resistance  useless,  he  concealed  himself, 
but  was  betrayed  by  a  priest,  conveyed  to  Man- 
tua, and  shot,  February  20,  1810.  He  met  his 
fate  with  firmness,  ri.'joicing  that  he  had  done 
his  duty. 

HOHENLINDEN,  a  village  of  Bavaria,  18 
mil>?s  E.  of  Munich,  remarkable  for  the  great 
defeat  which  the  Austrian  army  sustained  here 
on  the  3d  of  December,  1800,  from  the  French, 
under  Moreau. 

HOLLAND,  a  maritime  province  of  the 
Netherlands,  bounded  W.  by  the  German  ocean, 
E.  by  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  the  province  of 
Utrecht,  and  S.  by  Zealand.  The  agricultural 
wealth  of  the  province  is  great.  The  extent 
of  the  whole  is  ubout  2,200  square  miles,  and 
the  population  820,449.  s(For  its  history,  &c., 
see  Netherlands.) 

HOLLAND,  NEW,  is  the  largest  island  in 
the  world,  and  was  formerly  supposed  to  form 
part  of  a  vast  continent.  It  is  2,600  miles  long, 
and  2000  miles  broad.  It  was  discovered 
the  Dutch  in  Hi05,but  not  determined  to  be 
island  until  1770,  when  this  fact  was  establis 


by  Captain  Cook.  The  soil  is  very  variable, 
some  portions  are  extremely  fertile,  and  others 
uncommonly  sterile.  Ids  now  known  us  Austra- 
lia ;  and  is  sub-divided  into  New  Holland  and  New 
South  Wales. 

HOLSTEIN,  a  German  duchy,  bounded  N 
by  Sleswick,  E.  by  the  Baltic,  and  duchy  of 
Lauenburg,  and  S.  and  W.  by  the  kingdom  of 
Hanover,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  river 
Elbe.  It  contains  3,285  square  miles,  and 
3(52,300  inhabitants,  mostly  Lutherans.  Almost 
the  whole  of  the  country'is  fruitful.  Its  early 
history  is  obscure.  It  was  conquered  by  Char- 
lemagne, formed  part  of  a  county  under  Lo- 
thaire,  and  was  erected  into  a  duchy,  with  two 
other  counties  in  1777. 

HOLYOKE,  Edward  Augustus,  M.  D.  son  of 
the  Rev.  Edward  Holyoke,  president  of  Harvard 
college,  was  born  Aug.  1 , 1723,  in  Essex  county, 
Mass.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1746, 
and  commenced  the  practice  of  medicine  at 
Salem  in  1749.  He  was  distinguished  in  Ilia 
profession,  and  published  several  scientific  dis- 
quisitions. He  died  March  31 , 1-29,  being  then 
over  one  hundred  years  of  age. 

HOMER,  the  most  celebrated  poet  of  anti- 
quity, was,  according  to  common  tradition, 
born  on  the  river  Meles.  not  far  from  Smyrna. 
His  father's  name  was  Mown,  and  his  mother's 
Critheis.  Seven  cities  contended  for  the  honor 
of  being  his  birth-place :  iSmyrna,  Colophon, 
Chios,  Argos,  Athens,  Rhodes,  and  Salamis.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  he  lived  in  the  10th,  9th, 
or  8th  century  before  Christ.  Little  is  known 
of  Homer.  He  has  been  represented  as  blind, 
but  this  must  have  been  a  misfortune  occurring 
in  his  latter  days,  for  his  descriptions  could  only 
have  been  given  by  a  man  possessed  of  sight. 
He  wandered  about  singing  his  poems,  which 
were  handed  down  from  mouth  to  mouth,  and 
from  generation  to  generation,  after  his  death, 
until  they  were  finally  transmitted  to  paper,  and 
thus  preserved  from  oblivion. 

HONDURAS,  one  of  the  Mexican  states, 
bounded  N.  by  the  bay  of  Honduras,  E.  by 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  S.  'by  Nicaragua,  and  W. 
by  Guatimala  and  Vera  Paz.  It  is  890  miles 
from  E.  to  W.and  150  from  N.  to  S.  The  face 
of  the  country  is  diversified,  and  the  soil  very 
fertile.  Part  of  Honduras  is  possessed  by  the 
Mosquito  Indians,  and  the  British  have  some 
settlements  in  it. 

HONORIUS,  the  first  emperor  of  the  West- 
ern empire  of  Rome,  who  succeeded  his  father 
Theodosius  the  Great,  \vith  his  brother  Arca- 
dius,  A.  D.  395.  He  was  neither  bold  nor 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


HOO 


284 


HOW 


vicious,  but  he  was  of  a  modest  and  timid  dis- 
position, unfit  for  enterprise,  and  fearful  of  dan- 
ger. He  conquered  his  enemies  by  means  of  his 
generals,  and  suffered  himself  and  his  people 
to  be  governed  by  ministers  who  took  advan- 
tage of  their  imperial  master's  indolence  arfd 
inactivity.  He  died  of  the  dropsy,  in  the  3'Jth 
year  of  his  age,  Aug.  15,  A.  D.  423. 

HOOD,  Robin,  an  outlaw  in  the  time  of  Rich- 
ard I.  who  dwelt  chiefly  in  Sherwood  Forest, 
Nottinghamshire,  and  was  the  most  romantic 
and  courteous,  as  well  as  the  most  powerful  of 
bandits.  He  took  from  the  rich,  but  he  gave  to 
the  poor.  It  is  said  that  he  was  bled  to  death 
by  a  nun,  to  whom  he  applied  for  phlebotomy, 
in  the  year  1247.  • 

HOOD,  Samuel,  lord  viscount,  was  the  eld- 
est son  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Hood,  vicar  of 
Thorncombe,  in  Devonshire;  at  which  place 
he  was  born  in  1724.  He  went  to  sea  at 
the  age  of  sixteen,  and,  after  serving  six  years, 
was  made  a  lieutenant.  In  1754  he  became 
a  master  and  commander  ;  and,  for  his  gallant- 
ry in  taking  a.  fifty-gun  ship,  was  made  a  post- 
captain  in  175°  In  1778  he  was  appointed 
commissioner  of  Portsmouth  dock-yard,  which 
place  he  resigned  in  17tiO,  on  being  made  rear- 
admiral.  With  this  rank  he  sailed  to  the  West  In- 
dies, where  he  defeated  the  attempt  made  upon 
St.  Christopher's  by  count  de  Grasse.  He  also 
had  an  active  part  in  the  victory  obtained  over 
that  commander  on  the  12th  of  April,  1782; 
for  which  he  was  created  baron  Hood  of  Cath- 
erington,  in  the  kingdom  of  Ireland.  In  1784, 
he  was  elected  into  parliament  for  Westmin- 
ster ;  but,  in  J767,  he  vacated  his  seat,  on  being 
named  one  of  the  lords  of  the  admiralty.  In 
1793,  he  was  appointed  to  command  i"n  the 
Mediterranean,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
by  taking  possession  of  Toulon,  and,  when  it 
was  no  longer  tenable,  destroying  the  arsenal, 
dock-yard,  and  shipping.  After  this  he  made 
himself  master  of  Corsica,  and  then  returned 
to  England,  where  he  was  made  a  viscount,  and 
governor  of  Greenwich  hospital,  lie  died  at 
Bath,  January  27,  1816. 

HOOPER,  William,  the  son  of  a  Scotch 
clergyman,  was  born  in  Boston,  June  17,  1742. 
He  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard 
college,  and  studied  law  under  Jarnes  Otis,  but 
commenced  the  practice  of  it  in  North  Carolina. 
In  1773  he  WHS  chosen  to  the  provincial  le^is- 
lature  from  the  town  of  Wilmington,  and  in 
1774  was  sent  a  delegate  to  the  general  con- 
gress at  Philadelphia.  He  advocated  the  cause 


of  liberty  with  his  pen  and  voice,  and  was  its 
prominent  champion.  He  died  in  October, 
17W),  aged  48. 

HOPKINS,  Stephen,  a  signer  of  the  Declar- 
ation of  independence,  was  born  in  Providence, 
now  Scituate,  March  7,  1707.  He  was  chosen 
speaker  of  the  gpneral  assemblyin  1741.  In  1751 
he  was  appointed  Chief  Justice  of  the  superior 
court  of  Rhode  Island,  and  in  1774  a  delegate 
to  the  general  congress.  Previous  to  this  he 
had  held  for  some  years  the  office  of  governor 
of  Rhode  Island.  In  1778,  he  was  a  fourth 
time  chosen  member  of  congress.  He  died 
July  13,  17c5,  at  the  age  of  78. 

HOPKINSON.  Francis,  an  American  author, 
one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, born  in  Philadelphia  in  1738.  In 
177G  he  was  a  delegate  to  congress  from  Bor- 
dentown,  New  Jersey.  He  also  served  his 
country  by  his  various  satirical  writings,  some 
of  which  are  really  meritorious. 

HORATII,  thre'e  Roman  brothers,  who  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Tullus,  to  prevent  the  efl'usion 
of  blood  in  a  general  battle,  engaged  the  Curi- 
atii,  three  Alban  brothers,  to  decide  the  contest. 
Two  of  the  Horatii  were  slain,  when  the  sur- 
viving brother  feigning  flight,  permitted  the 
Curiatii,  who  were  disabled  by  wounds,  to  ap- 
proach him  one  by  one,  arid  then  slew  them 
singly,  thus  deciding  the  contest  in  favor  of  the 
Romans.  The  conqueror  stained  his  triumph  by 
murdering  his  sister,  because,  amidst  her  coun- 
try's joy.  she  could  shed  tears  at  the  death  of 
her  lover,  one  of  the  Curiatii. 

II  OR  ATI  US,  Codes,  (the  one-eyed),  alone 
sustained  the  attack  of  the  Etrurian  armv,  while 
his  friends  broke  down  the  bridge  OUT  the 
Tiber  that  led  to  Rome,  behind  him.  He  then 
committed  himself  to  the  waves,  armed  as  he 
was,  and  reached  Rome  in  safety.  This  exploit 
was  performed  B.  C.  507. 

HORATIUS  FLACCUS,  Quintus.  a  cele- 
brated Roman  poet,  was  born  at  Venusium,  B. 
C.  «J5.  He  was  well  educated,  and  fought  at  Phil- 
ippi,  B.  C.4'.J.  Ailer  the  ruin  of  the  hopes  of  the 
patriots,  he  lived  in  retirement  and  even  refused 
the  .splendid  oilers  of  Augustus,  preferring  the 
peaceful  solitude  of  his  Sabine  farm.  He  died 
suddenly,  in  the  !)th  year  B.  C.,  and  57th  of 
his  age. 

HOWARD. Thomas. earl  of  Surrey,  and  duke 
of  Norfolk,  was  bom  in  147:5.  He  was  bred  to 
arms,  and  soon  after  the  accession  of  Henry 

«II,  was  honored  with  the  order  of  the  garter, 
succeeded  his  brother, Sir  Edward  Howard, 
high  admiral,  in  1513;  and  the  victory  of 


HISTORICAL     AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


HOW 


285 


HOW 


Flodden-field  was  chiefly  owing  to  his  valor  ests  south  of  Trent.  In  1601,  he  suppressed 
and  skill.  For  this,  the  "title  of  duke  of  Nor-  the  earl  of  ESSPX'S  rebellion,  and  was  princi- 
Iblk  was  restored  to  his  father,  and  he  was  pally  concerned  in  bringing  that  nobleman  to 
himself  created  earl  of  Surrey.  In  1521,  he  went  the  block.  Jarnes  I  continued  him  in  all  his 
to  Ireland  as  lord  lieutenant,  and  while  there  employments;  and  at  the  coronation  the  earl 
suppressed  a  dangerous  rebellion.  Notwith-  acted  as  lord-high-steward.  In  1605,  he  went 

ambassador  to  Spain  ;  and  in  1613,  he  conveyed 
the  princess  Elizabeth,  on  her  marriage,  to 
Flushing.  He  died  in  1(524,  at  the  age  of  8d. 


standing  these   services,  he   was   sent  to  th 
tower  by  Henry,  at  the  close  of  his  reign,  and 
kept  there  till  the  accession  of  Mary,  when  he 


was  released,  and  contributed  to  suppress  Wy 
alt's  rebellion.     He  died  in  1554. 


HOWARD.  John,   the  philanthropist,   was 
born  at  Hackney,  in   1720.      He    was   bound 

HOWARD,  Henry,  e:irl  of  Surrey,  was  the  apprentice  to  a  grocer  in  London  ;  but  disliking 

eldest  son  of  the  preceding  nobleman,  by  Eli-  the  business,  and  having  an  independent  for- 

zibeth.  daughter  of  Edward  Stafford,  duke  of  tune,  he  purchased  his  indentures,  and  made 

Buckingham.     He  was  born  in  1520.     He  was  the  tour  of  France  and  Italy.     On  his  return, 

well  educated,  talented,  and  chivalric.  While  at  he  married  a  widow  lady,  much  older  than  him- 

Florence.  he  issued  a  general  challenge,  nnd  in  self,  who  died  about  three  years  afterwards.     In 

a  splen:iid  tournament,  maintained  tlje  beauty  of  1756.  he  undertook  a  voyage  to  Lisbon,  to  see 

his  mistress,  Geraldine,  at  the  point  of  the  lance,  the  place  after  the   earthquake;   but,  on   the 

He  was   completely  victorious.     In    1542,  he  voyage,  the  ship  was  taken  by  a  French  priva- 

served  in  the  army,  under  his  father,  in  Scot-  leer,  nnd  carried  to  France.     On  being  released, 

land  ;  and,  in  1544,  he  went  as  field-marshal  to  Mr.  Howard  retired  to  a  villa  in  the  New  For- 

Boulogne,   where,  being  then   knight   of  the  est;  and,  in  1758.  married  a  second  time;  but 

jrarter.  he  was  constituted  king's  lieutenant  and  lost  his  lady  in  1765.     About  this  time  he  set- 

captain  general.    Happening,  however,  to  prove  tied  at  Cardington,  near  Bedford,  where  his 

unfortunate   in  an  attempt  upon  the  enemy's  time  was  much  occupied  in  benevolent  objects, 

convoy  of  provisions,  he  incurred  the  king's  and  in  the  education  of  his  son.     In  1773,  he 

displeasure,  which   hastened  his  ruin.     Some  received  the  office  of  high  sheriff,  which  led 

intemperate  language,  used  by  him,  was  caught  him  to  make  inquiries  into  the  state  of  prisons. 

hold  of;  charges  were  brought  against  him.  and,  With  this  view,  he   travelled   over   England, 

being  found  guilty,  he  was  beheaded  on  Tower  through  France,  Germany,  Holland,  Italy.  Spain, 

Hill.  January  10.  154(5-7.  Portugal,  and  Turkey.     He  published,  in  1777, 

HOWARD,  Charles,  earl  of  Nottingham,  was  a  work  entitled  <:  The  State  of  the  Prisons  in 

th?  son  of  William  lord  Howard,  of  EfFmgliam,  England  and  Wales."  dedicated  to  the  House 

and  grandson  of  Thomas,  the  second  duke  of  of  Commons.     In  1780,  appeared  an  appendix, 

Norfolk.     He  was  born  in  1536.     He  went,  in  with  an  account  of  the  author's  travels  in  Italy. 

1559,  to  congratulate  Francis  II,  of  France,  on  He  also  printed  a  description  of  the  Bastile,  a 

his  accession  to  the  throne  ;  and.  in  1569,  was  translation  of  Tuscany's  new  code  of  civil  law; 

made  general  of  the  horse  in  the  army  sent  and.  in  1739,  "  An  Account  of  Europe."     The 

against"  the  earls  of  Northumberland,  and  West-  plague  was  now  the  object  of  his  researches, 

mnreland.     The  next  year  he  went  with  a  fleet  and.  with  a  design  of  ascertaining  the  nature 

of  men-of-war  to  convoy  the  princess  Anne  of  of  this  disorder,  and  the  means  of  curing  it,  he 

Austria  to  Spain;  and  in   157;},  he  succeeded  set  out  for  the  east;  but  died  of  a  malignant 

his  father  in  his  titles  and  estate.     The  same  epidemic,  at  Cherson.  January  29th,  1790.     A 

year  he  wis  installed  knight  of  the  garter,  and  statue  has  been  erected  to  his  memory  in  St. 

"made  lord  Chamberlain  of  the  household  ;  and,  Paul's  cathedral. 

in  1535.  constituted  lord  high  admiral  of  Eng-  HOWARD,  John   Eager,  colonel,  a  gallant 

land.  officer  in  the  American  revolution,  was  born  in 

In  1533,  he  commanded  the  fleet  which  de-  Maryland.  June  4th.  1752.     He  principally  dis- 

feated  and  dispersed  the  Spanish  armada;  and,  tinguished  himself  in  the  southern  campaigns, 

in    !•":>;.   when   another  invasion    was    appre-  and  received  a  wound  at  the  battle  of  Eutaw, 

hended.  he  was  appointed  commander-in  chief  from  the  envcts  of  which  he  never  recovered. 

at  sea,  as  the  earl  of  Essex  was  on  the  land.  In  He  was  chosen  governor  of  Maryland  in  17HJ, 
this  expedition  Cadiz  was  taken,  and  the  Span^and  filled  the  post  for  three  years"  From  17i'0, 
ish  fleet  burnt  ;  for  which  he  was  made  earl  oMtill  1803  he  was  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  the 
Nottingham  and  justice-itinerant  of  all  the  for^  United  States.  He  died  in  October,  1827. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


uOW 


2S6 


HUN 


HOWE,  Richard,  earl,  the  third  son  of  Sir  HUDSON  CITY,  capital  of  Columbia  coun- 

Emanuel   Scrope,  second  viscount  Howe,  was  ty,  N.  Y.,  is  a  flourishing  place,  situated  on  the 

born  in  1725,  and,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  went  east  bank  of  the  Hudson  river,  117  miles  north 

on  board  the  Severn,  part  of  the  squadron  des-  of  New  York  city.     Population  in  1840,  5,670. 

lined  for  the   South   Seas,  under  Anson.     In  It  was  founded  in  1784. 

1745,  he  was  with  admiral  Vernon,  and  soon  HUGH  CAPET;  duke  and  afterwards  king 

after  was  made  commander  of  the  Baltimore  of  France,  was  the  son  of  Hugh  the  Great,  who 

sloop,  in  which,  with  another  armed  vessel;  he  dying,  left  him  under  the  protection  of  Rich- 

beat  off  two  French  ships  conveying  troops  and  ard  I,  duke  of  Normandy.     Lothaire,  king  of 

ammunition  to  the  Pretender  ;    for  which-  he  France,  pleased   with    Hugh's   prudence    and 

was  made  a  post  captain.     On  the  breaking  out  generosity,  gave  him,  in  9(jO,  the  dukedom  of 

of  the   war  with  France,  he   commanded  the  France,  with  the  earldom  of  Paris  and  Poitou. 

Dunkirk  ;  with  which  he  took  the  Alcide,  a  Louis  V  dying  fifteen  or  sixteen  months  after 

Frencli  04,  off  Newfoundland.      In    1757,  he  his  father,  Hugh  Capet  was  proclaimed  king  at 

served  under  Sir  Edward  Hawke,  and  his  ship,  Noyon,  and  crowned  at  Rheims,  !i»7.     Charles 

the  Magnanime,  battered  the  fort  on  the  Aix,  I,  'duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  son  of  Louis  IV,  the 

till  it  surrendered.     After  this  he  was  appoint-  only  man  of  the  royal  -blood  left  in  France,  was 

ed  commodore   of  a  squadron,  with  which  he  taken  prisoner  by  Hugh,  and  died  in  {)li2. 

took  the  town  of  Cherburg,  and  destroyed  the  HUNGARY,  the  country  of  the  Magyars,  or 
basin.  In  17CO,  he  was  appointed  colonel  of 
the  marines;  and,  in  1763,  had  a  seat  at  the 
admiralty-board.  In  17G5,  he  was  made  trea- 
surer  of  the  navy  ;  and,  in  1770,  promoted  to  be 
rear-admiral  of  the  blue  ;  in  1775,  rear-admiral 


of  the  white,  and  afterwards  vice-admiral  of  the 


Hungarians.  They  are  represented  as  derived 
from  the  Huns  of  Altila.  A  complete  account 
of  ancient  Hungary  would  present  little  more 
than  the  melancholy  picture  of  a  country,  the 
perpetual  seat  of  war.  The  Romans  for  a  lime 
assumed  the  ascendant,  and  obtained  a  decided 


blue.  France  having  now  entered  into  a  w#r  superiority  over  the  opposite  and  conflicting 
with-  England,  lord  Howe  was  sent  to  America  parties.  The  Hungarians  are  proved  to  belong 
to  oppose  D'Estaing.  In  1782,  he  was  made  an  to  the  Finnish  nations,  from  the  resemblance 
English  viscount,  and  appointed  to  the  com-  that  prevails  between  certain  words  of  their 
inand  of  the  fleet  sent  to  the  relief  of  Gibraltar,  respective  dialects.  The  Magyars  appear  to 
which  object  he  accomplished.  The  next  year  have  been  a  principal  division  of  that  great 
he  was  made  first  lord  of  the  admiralty ;"  but  northern  nation  contiguous  to  the  Altai  mouri- 
soon  resigned  that  station  to  Lord  Keppel.  In  tains,  whence  issued  the  hordes  who  introduced 
V783,  he  was  created  an  English  earl.  On  such  changes  in  the  character  of  nations,  Asi- 
the  breaking  out  of  hostilities  witii  France,  in  atic  and  European.  'So  far  as  the  Magyars  are 
1793,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  concerned,  their  progress  from  the  Altai  moun- 
channel  fleet;  and  on  the  1st  of  June,  in  the  tains  seems  obvious.  About  the  end  of  the  9th 
following  year,  he  gained  a  complete  victory  century,  we  find  a  division  of  them  entering  the 
over  the  trench,  who  lost  seven  ships  of  the  plains  of  Munkatz,  under  their  loader,  Almus, 
line.  For  this  he  received  the  thanks  of  par-  whose  son  Arpad,  was  the  first  duke  of  Hun- 
liament;  the  king  visited  him  on  board  his  ship,  gary.  In  a  few  years  (H!'(5),  Arpad  had  dispos- 
nresented  him  with  a  valuable  sword,  and  made  sessed  several  of  the  princes  of  Hungary,  anc> 
him  knight  of  the  garter.  The  last  service  contracted  alliances  with  others.  He  subduet 
rendered  by  his  lordship  to  his  country,  was  in  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Moravian  king- 
reducing  the  mutinous  seamen  to  their  duty,  at  dom  ;  and,  in  the  ardor  of  conquest,  was  for 
Portsmouth,  in  1797.  He  died  August  5th,  attempting  to  establish  himself  in  the  territories 
1799.  of  Arnulph.  Arpad  finally  extended  his  con- 
HOWE.  Sir  William,  brother  of  the  preced-  quests  into  Bavaria,  Suabia,  Franconia,  and 
ingf,  succeeded  General  Gage  in  the  command  Italy;  his  exertions  were  divided,  but  every- 
of  the  forces,  in  America,  in  1775.  He  defeated  where  successful.  His  son  Zoltan,  in  907,  had 
the  Americans  in  the  battle  of  Brooklyn  (177G),  penetrated  into  Alsatia,  Lorraine,  and  France, 
took  possession  of  New  York,  and  in  the  Octo-  While  the  genius  of  the  state  w.is  thus  aspiring 
ber  of  the  same  year,  repelled  the  Americans  at  to  eminence,  the  strength  of  others  seemed  pro- 
Germantown.  He  was  succeeded  in  his  com-  Jiortionately  paralysed,  as  if  the  unremitting 
mand  by  Clinton,  in  1778,  His  death  took  •kruelties  characteristic  of  Attila  were  again  to 
place  in  1814.  iBe  feared. 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


HUN 


287 


HUN 


The  imputation  of  ferocity  affixed  to  the 
name  of  the  Huns  inspired  terror,  till  their 
fourth  duke,  Geysa,  diverted  their  ferocious 
dispositions  into  other  channels.  The  attention 
he  bestowed  in  giving  a  tinge  of  religion  to  the 
mind  and  manners  of  his  countrymen,  operated 
as  an  incentive  ^to  their  civilization.  It  was 
not  until  the  commencement  of  the  llth  cen- 
tury, that  a  people  rude,  and  proud  of  their 
rudeness,  were  induced  to  lay  aside  their  bar- 
barous habits.  Stephen,  their  last  duke,  and 
first  king,  introduced  the  Christian  religion, 
and  those  social  institutions,  which,  if  left  to 
operate  unrestrained,  give  a  stamp  to  the  char- 
acter of  a  people.  He  died  in  1033,  after  a 
reign  of  41  years,  during  which  lie  had  estab- 
lished laws  iii  the  interior,  reunited  Transylva- 
nia to  his  kingdom,  subjugated  the  Sclavi,  and 
Bulgarians,  and  effected  much  for  the  amelio- 
ration of  society  and  morals. 

On  the  death  of  Stephen,  Hungary  became 
subject  to  the  tyranny  of  various  princes,  the 
country  being  involved,  for  nearly  a  century, 
in  the  horrors  of  civil  war.  In  this  distracted 
state  of  the  kingdom,  various  usurpers  aspiring 
fo  the  throne,  the  churches  were  destroyed,  and 
the  ministers  of  religion  persecuted.  Any  in- 
tervals of  peace  were  interrupted  by  the  Bul- 
garians, Walachians,  Russians,  Croats,  &c.  re- 
newing their  inroads.  Under  Ladislaus  1, 1077, 
the  country  enjoyed  some  tranquillity  ;  religion, 
commerce,  legislation,  tempered  the  bold  inde- 
pendence of  a  dark  age  ;  and  as  a  warrior,  he 
also  became  the  temporary  savior  of  his  coun- 
try The  race  of  Stephen  I'  became  extinct 
with  Andrew  III.  John  Corvin  or  Hunniades, 
was  justly  celebrated  for  his  military  achieve- 
ments in  his  wars  with  Amurath  II,  and  Moham- 
med II.  His  son,  Mathias  Corvin,  was  unan- 
imously elected  king  in  1453,  and  gave  early 
indications  of  greot  gifts  and  talents,  adding 
not  a  little  to  the  lustre  of  his  father's  acquire- 
ments. From  his  character,  policy,  military 
operations,  and  great  power,  he  has  been  de- 
scribed as  one  of  the  most  accomplished  kings 
of  Hungary.  Such  was  the  force  of  his  mind, 
that  his  views  extended  to  whatever  could  se- 
cure his  government,  and  render  it  formidable. 
His  ends  were  great,  and  his  means  prudent ; 
he  kept  both  the  Turks  and  Austrians  at  bay, 
and,  as  a  politician  and  hero,  was  watchful 
over  his  enemies,  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
To  his  other  eminent  qualities  this  king  added 
a  measure  of  literary  reputation.  He  is  said  A 
have  been  conversant  with  the  languages,  arts, 
and  sciences  of  his  time  ;  the  country  flourished 
25 


under  his  establishments,  civil  and  military, 
and  the  love  of  his  subjects  shows  the  great 
esteem  in  which  he  was  held  by  them.  Com- 
pared, generally,  with  his  contemporaries  in 
power,  the  energy  of  his  mind  seems  worthy  of 
admiration.  lie  knew  how  to  anticipate  hos- 
tile designs,  and  we  find  the  kingdom,  under 
his  government,  preponderating  in  the  balance 
of  Europe.  Mathias  had  no  children,  and  the 
election  of  a  new  king  occasioned  a  scene  of 
distress.  Under  Louis  II.  in  1516,  the  Turks 
besieged  Belgrade,  which  surrendered  to  their 
arms ;  and  this  was  followed  by  various  other 
successes.  In  the  famous  battle  of  Mohacs, 
(1520),  Louis  was  defeated  and  slain,  Buda  was 
given  up  to  pillage,  and  the  ferocious  barbari- 
ans, under  Solyman  II,  after  plundering  the 
country,  converted  the  scene  of  their  depreda- 
tions into  an  immense  desert.  The  country 
was  now  convulsed  with  disputes  about  the  suc- 
cession, the  archduke  Ferdinand  being  oppos- 
ed by  John  Zapolya,  who  was  finally  seated  on 
the  throne.  Zapolya  died  in  1540,  and  the 
Hungarians  invited  Ferdinand  to  the  throne 
The  country  was  again  desolated  and  crimsoned 
with  blood.  In  1564.  Maximilian  II.  emperor 
of  Germany,  laid  claim  to  the  crown,  but  it  was 
not  till  1570,  that  a  peace  was  finally 
between  the  Hungarians  and  Germans.  Joh 
Sigismund,  son  of  Zapolya,  was  created  prince 
of  Transylvania ;  and  the  next  circumstance  to 
be  noticed  and  recorded,  is  the  definitive  sub- 
jection of  the  Hungarians  to  the  imperial  house 
of  Austria.  At  the  accession  of  Charles  VI, 
emperor  of  Germany,  a  definitive  treaty,  in 
1711,  terminated  all  differences  ;  it.  was  not  till 
then  that  every  principle  of  internal  hostility, 
all  those  evils  which  had  proved  a  hindrance  to 
civilization,  disappeared.  As  the  Hungarians 
are  now  united  to  the  Austrian  dynasty,  the 
series  of  their  kings  is  that  of  the  emperors. 
After  Maximilian  II,  they  occur  in  the  follow- 
ino-  order:  llodolph,  157G;  Mathias  II,  1612; 
Ferdinand  11,1619;  Ferdinand  111,1637;  Le- 
opold I.  1G58;  Joseph  I,  1705;  Charles  VI, 
1711;  Maria  Theresa,  1741;  Joseph  11,1780; 
Leopold  II,  1789  ;  and  Francis  II,  now  king  of 
Hungary  and  emperor  of  Austria.  The  greater 
part  of  the  soil  of  Hungary  is  exceedingly  pro- 
ductive, and  no  country  has  so  many  mineral 
and  medicinal  springs.  Its  population  (exclusive 
of  Transylvania)  exceeds  9,400,000.  Education 
is  not  neglected.  The  condition  of  the  peas- 
antry, however,  is  deplorable. 

HUNTINGTON,  Samuel,  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ICE 


288 


IND 


Windham,  Conn.,  in  1732.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  farmer,  and  self-educated.  At  the  age  of  22, 
he  was  admitted  to  practice  law  in  his  native 
place,  but  shortly  afterwards  removed  to  Nor- 
wich. In  1704,  he  was  representative  of  Nor- 
wich to  the  General  Assembly,  and  in  the  next 
year  king's  attorney  ;  but  in  1774,  was  made  a 
judge  of  the  Superior  Court.  In  1775,  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  council  of  Connecticut, 
and  in  1776,  took  his  seat  as  a  delegate  to  the 
general  Congress.  In  1779,  he  succeeded  Mr. 
Jay  as  president  of  that  body.  In  1786,  he 
succeeded  Mr.  Gnswold,  as  governor  of  Con- 
necticut and  filled  the  office  till  his  death,  Jan- 
uary 5, 1796. 

HUSS,  John,  the  celebrated  reformer,  was  a 
native  of  Bohemia,  born  in  1373,  and  educated 
at  the  university  of  Prague.  He  early  perceived 
the  corruption  of  the  Romish  church,  arid  ex- 
posed its  prevalent  abuses  freely,  although  per- 
secuted by  several  popes.  He  finally  appeared 
at  Constance,  was  tried  in  1415,  burned  alive, 
and  his  ashes  thrown  into  the  Rhine.  The 
rebellion  of  the  followers  of  Huss  lasted  fifteen 
years,  and  filled  Bohemia  with  bloodshed. 

HUTCHINSON,  Thomas,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton, in  1711,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1727.  He  was  appointed  Lieutenant  Governor 
of  Massachusetts  in  1758,  and  chief-justice  in 
1760.  In  1771 ,  he  was  made  Governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  was  ambitious,  avaricious,  and 
hypocritical.  He  was  succeeded  by  Gage  in 
1774,  and  lived  in  retirement  at  Brompton, 
where  he  died  June  3d,  1780,  in  his  69th  year. 
He  was  a  writer  of  considerable  merit.  Atone 
time  a  Boston  mob  attacked  his  house  which 
was  nearly  demolished. 

HYDER,  Ally  Khan,  an  eastern  prince,  the 
formidable  enemy  to  the  British  in  India.  He 
was  frequently  successful,  and,  in  1766,  his  do- 
minions contained  70,000  square  miles.  He 
died  in  1782. 


ICELAND,  a  large  island  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  near  the  confines  of  the  polar  circle, 
about  280  miles  in  length,  belonginer  to  Den- 
mark. Christianity  was  introduced  into  it  in 
981.  Among  its  curiosities  is  Mount  Hecla, 
whose  terrific  eruptions  have  often  caused  the 
greatest  distress  among  the  inhabitants.  The 
islanders  are  simple,  irugal,  industrious,  and 
pious.  The  lower  classes  are  uncommonly 
well  informed.  The  staple  exports  are  fish,  oil, 
feathers,  sulphur,  and  salted  mutton ;  and  the 


imports  wood,  salt,  tobacco,  coffee,  iron,  and 
fishing-tackle.     Population  about  50,000. 

ILLINOIS,  one  of  the  United  States  ;  boun- 
ded north  by  Michigan  Territory ;  east  by  Lake 
Michigan  and  Indiana;  south  by  the  Ohio,  and 
west  by  the  Mississippi,  which  rivers  separate 
it  from  Missouri.  It  contains  58,000  square 
miles.  Population,  in  1840,  476,183.  Vanda- 
lia  is  the  capital.  The  face  of  the  country  is 
little  broken  by  hills,  being  generally  level,  or 
only  gently  undulating.  The  soil  is  very  fertile. 
The  state  has  a  school  fund,  and  there  is  a  col- 
lege at  Jacksonville.  The  first  settlements 
were  made  at  Kaskaskia.  and  Cahokia.  by  the 
French,  about  1756.  In  1818,  Illinois"  was 
erected  into  a  state. 

INDIA.  This  country  was  visited  early  by 
the  Phoenicians,  Egyptians,  and  other  remote 
nations  of  antiquity ;  afterwards  conquered  >n 
part  by  the  Persians,  subsequently  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  since  by  the  Mohammedans. 
The  authentic  history  of  it,  however,  is  of  no 
higher  date  than  the  year  100U  A.  D.,  com- 
mencing with  the  conquests  of  Mohammed 
Gazni,  who  possessed  the  eastern  parts  of  Persia, 
and  made  twelve  expeditions  into  Hindostan, 
sacking  some  of  the  principal  cities,  carrying 
off  their  treasure,  and  trying  to  exterminate  the 
inhabitants,  as  he  could  not  convert  them  to 
Mohammedanism.  The  empire  soon  crumbled 
to  pieces,  being  held  together  only  by  conquest. 
From  1158  to  1398,  other  invasions," by  the  fol- 
lowers of  Mohammed  continually  occurred,  till 
the  irruption  of  Nadir  Shah,  otherwise  called 
Kouli  Khan,  who  had  raised  himself  from  ob- 
scurity to  the  throne  of  Persia.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  invasions  was  that  of  Tamer- 
lane in  1398.  After  having  carried  into  cap- 
tivity a  vast  number  of  the  poor  inhabitants,  he 
caused  10,000  to  be  massacred  in  cold  blood, 
lest  they  should  join  the  enemy.  In  1555, 
Akbar,  the  greatest  emperor  the  Moguls  had 
ever  had,  began  to  reign  ;  and  during  a  series 
of  wars,  massacres,  invasions,  and  other  simi- 
lar pastimes  of  despotic  princes,  occupied  the 
throne  51  years.  Two  princes.  Jehah  Guire, 
and  Shah  Jehan,  succeeded  ;  the  latter,  a  de- 
bauched character,  was  dethroned  by  Aureng- 
zebe.  who  also  put  three  or  fonr  of  his  brothers 
to  death.  From  1660,  until  1678,  he  kept  the 
kingdom  tranquil ;  but  then  commenced  wars 
against  the  princess  of  the  Deccan,  which  con- 
tinued till  his  death,  in  1707.  As  if  his  evil 
Seeds  were  to  be  punished  in  his  descendants, 
eleven  of  them  were  raised  to  the  throne  in 
about  as  many  years,  and  most  of  them  assas- 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


IND 


289 


IND 


sinated.  In  1738,  Nadir  Shah,  of  Persia,  in- 
vaded the  empire,  entered  Delhi,  the  capital, 
and  demanded  vast  sums  of  money  as  a  contri- 
bution. In  1748,  Nizem-el-Mulk,  viceroy  of 
the  Deccan,  died  at  the  age  of  104  yeanl;  by 
his  invitation,  principally,  had  Nadir  entered 
the  territory  of  the  Moguls,  and  destroyed  the 
power  of  the  emperor,  as  only  one  imperial 
army  ever  entered  the  field  after  his  departure, 
and  that  was  defeated  by  the  Rohillas.  Delhi, 
therefore,  and  a  few  miles  around  it,  constituted 
almost  the  sole  territory  of  the  descendants  of 
Tamerlane  :  while  the  governors  of  districts 
and  provinces,  under  the  names  of  rajahs,  na- 
bobs, and  a  variety  of  others,  became  independ- 
ent sovereigns.  Nizam's  second  son  having 
succeeded,  instead  of  the  eldest,  to  his  father's 
throne,  this  event  first  began  those  contests 
between  the  French  and  English  East  India 
Companies,  that,  after  several  year's  bloody 
wars,  terminated  in  the  expulsion  of  the  former 
from  India.  In  1GOO,  queen  Elizabeth  first  sent 
an  ambassador  at  Akbar,  to  solicit  commercial 
intercourse  with  his  dominions.  A  company 
was  formed  to  carry  the  scheme  into  effect ; 
their  voyages  were  pretty  successful,  and.  after 
having  to  contend  with  the  Portuguese  in  sev- 
eral naval  engagements,  they  at  length  succeed- 
ed in  forming  a  factory  at  Surat,  on  the  Malabar 
Coast,  by  permission  of  the  emperor  Jehaun-gier. 
Here  they  did  not  at  first  prosper,  partly  from 
the  inadequacy  of  their  funds,  and  partly  from 
the  enmity  of  the  Dutch  and  Portuguese.  Ac- 
cident, however,  laid  the  foundation  of  their 
prosperity  in  the  present  important  city  of  Cal- 
cutta. 

In  1747,  the  war  commenced,  and  was  carried 
on  with  spirit  by  both  sides,  Mr.  dive  contri- 
buting to  the  successes  of  the  English,  until,  in 
1755,  a  cessation  of  hostilities  took  place.  In 
1759,  Calcutta  was  threatened  by  the  nabob  of 
Bengal,  Surajah  Dowlah,  who  marched  40,000 
foot,°30,000  horse,  and  4,000  elephants  against 
it.  Cassambuzar  surrendered  to  him  at  once; 
and  Calcutta  being  invested,  was  takan  in  three 
days.  This  caused  the  tragedy  of  the  Black 
Hole.— (See  Black  Hole.)  Colonel  Clive,  who 
had  now  a  commission  in  the  king's  service, 
immediately  on  the  receipt  of  this  news,  em- 
barked from  Fort  St.  David's  with  400  Euro- 
peans and  1000  Seapoys,  on  board  admiral 
Watson's  fleet.  All  the  old  possessions  were 
soon  regained,  and  the  nabob  was  reduced  to 
make  peace,  after  a  bold  attack  upon  his  camp. 
War,  however,  was  now  proclaimed  against 
France,  and  Chandernagore  reduced,  permis- 


sion being  obtained  from  the  nabob  for  that  pur- 
pose. Very  soon  afterwards,  he  quarreled  with 
the  company ;  war  with  hirn  also  was  inevita- 
ble :  and,  at  the  battle  of  Plassy,  Clive,  with  a 
handful  of  troops,  defeated  his  whole  army.  In 
this  he  was  assisted  by  the  neutrality  of  Meer 
Jaffier  All  Khan,  who  stood  aloof  during  the 
engagement.  On  the  Coromandel  coast,  in  the 
mean  time,  affairs  were  going  on  very  indiffer- 
ently for  the  English.  But  things  again  took  a 
turn ;  all  the  enterprises  cf  the  French  com- 
mander seeming  to  fail.  His  attempt  upon 
Wandewash,  in  1760,  proved  extremely  unfor- 
tunate. Again  the  French  forces  attempted  a 
stand  under  the  walls  of  Cheltaput,  18  miles 
from  the  field  of  battle  ;  but  finally  retired  into 
Pondicherry,  their  only  remaining  stronghold. 
Cheltaput,  Timmery,  and  Areot,  quickly  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  English ;  with  Carical, 
Chellambrum,  Verdachelium,  Permucoil,  Al- 
ampera.  and  Waldour.  Pondicherry  itself  was 
invested  ;  the  batteries  opened  in  December, 
and  the  place  capitulated  January  15th,  1761, 
the  whole  of  the  French  power  in  India  being 
thus  annihilated.  Meer  Jaffier,  the  nabob  ot 
Bengal,  not  answering  the  expectations  of  the 
company  was  deposed,  and  Meer  Cassim  Ali 
Khan  placed  on  the  Musnud,  or  throne.  War 
was  soon  declared  against  him — but  peace  was 
finally  concluded,  as  the  English  council  had 
been  guilty  of  great  injustice. 

In  1707,  a  new  enemy  appeared  in  the  Dec- 
can.  This  was  no  other  than  Hyder  Ally  or 
Hyder  Naig,  who  had  raised  himself  from  the 
rank  of  seapoy  to  that  of  a  powerful  prince. 
For  several  years  this  prince  baffled  the  attempts 
of  the  English  to  crush  him,  and  by  concentrat- 
ing immense  forces,  gained  great  advantages 
over  them.  In  1781,  Sir  Cyre  Coote  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief.  Hyder,  with  two 
hundred  thousand  men,  risked  "a  battle  with 
him,  July  1st ;  but,  notwithstanding  his  vast 
superiority,  was  routed  with  great  slaughter. 
He  tried  another  on  the  27th  of  August,  with 
similar  ill-success  and  loss.  Other  actions  ter- 
minated in  a  similar  manner.  In  1783,  the 
government  of  Bombay  determined  to  carry  the 
war  as  close  home  as  possible  to  Hyder's  doors. 
For  this  purpose  General  Matthews  invaded 
Canara,  took  nearly  all  the  towns,  and  obtained 
immense  plunder.  Hyder  Ally,  in  the  mean 
while,  had  died,  and  Tippoo,  his  son,  assembling 
an  army  of  150,000  men  to  recover  the  loss, 
appeared  before  Bidnore  on  the  7th  of  April, 
and  compelled  the  English  to  capitulate. 

Some  time  before  this  a  war  had  brpken  out 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


JND 


290 


IND 


with  the  Mahrattas.  At  length,  however,  p-ace 
was  concluded.  Tippoo  Sultan,  for  a  succes- 
sion of  years,  opposed  the  English,  and  various 
campaigns  were  undertaken  against  him.  The 
commanders  in  these  bloody  adventures  were 
General  Meadows,  Lord  Cornwaliis,  and  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesly,  afterwards  duke  of  Welling- 
ton. The  marquis  of  Hasting's  administration 
was  advantageous  to  the  British,  but  ruinous  to 
the  native?.  We  draw  a  veil  over  the  bloody 
contests,  and  oppressive  measures,  by  which 
the  natives  of  the  East  were  crushed,  their 
princes  ruined  and  betrayed,  their  wealth  stolen 
from  them,  and  their  clearest  rights  trampled 
under  foot,  without  remorse  or  hesitation.  The 
course  of  the  British  in  India  has  been  denoun- 
ced by  the  most  eloquent  and  upright  rnen  in 
England  —  the  voice  of  indignation  has  been 
lifted  up  against  the  company — in  vain.  Con- 
fiding in  their  immense  wealth,  steeled  by  their 
unrelenting  avarice,  proud  in  their  constant 
success,  they  smile  at  every  attempt  to  shake 
their  power,  or  impeach  their  oirices ;  and  if 
the  course  of  their  conduct  is  no  longer  marked 
with  that  extended  desolation  and  calamity 
which  formerly  distinguished  it,  it  is  because 
the  spark  of  resistance  is  quenched  in  the  ashes 
of  universal  ruin.  (For  further  information, 
with  regard  to  India,  see  the  articles  I'.n.-t  In- 
dies and  .Isia.) 

INDIANS  ;  a  name  commonly  applied  to  the 
aborigines  of  the  new  continent.  Those  of 
Mexico,  and  parts  of  South  America,  were, 
when  they  first  became  known  to  the  Span- 
iards, far  advanced  in  civilization.  Their  ar- 
chitecture had  little  of  the  rudeness  of  a  primi- 
tive and  untaught  race,  and  their  character  con- 
trasted favorably  with  that  of  their  conquerors. 
The  tribes  of  .North  America,  as  they  approach- 
ed the  north,  lost  much  of  the  refinement,  which 
was  apparent  in  their  southern  brethren.  ap- 
pearer1  to  have  little  notion  of  the  comforts 
of  life,  and  took  the  highest  delight  in  the  dar- 
ing exploits  of  huritintr  and  w;ir.  Each  tribe 
had  a  distinctive  character — a  peculiar  physiog- 
nomy, and  peculiar  habits;  but,  of  course,' there 
are  certain  general  features,  belonging  to  them 
in  eominoM.  We  cannot  devote  much  space  to 
this  subject,  and  a  ^'neral  ukeU:!i.  only,  will  be 
<  xperteil.  The  Cliipiieway  race  is  the  most 
Mu.aerous  :U  present.  The  New  England  tribes 
were  Algonquins,  and  the  NarraganseU,  the 
Mohegans,  the  Delaware  or  Lenni  Lenape,  th-; 
Iroquois  or- Six  Nations,  were  of  tlr-  same 
stock.  West  of  the  Mississippi  \ve  find  another 
family,  the  Sioux  or  Dahcotah  Indians,  branches 


of  which  are  Winnebagoes,  the  Otoes,  the 
loways,  the  Missouries,  "the  Assinniboins,  the 
Oir.anaws,  the  Kansas,  and  the  Osuges.  The 
Sacks  and  Foxes,  the  Pawnees,  the  Murtarees, 
or  L5igbcllios,lhe  Mandans,the  Crows  and  Black- 
ieet,  the  Shosonees,  the  Chohunnish,  the  Skill- 
oots,  Echeloots,  Multnomahs,  Clatrops,  &-c.,  are 
among  the  other  tribes  of  the  western  country. 
The  Chickasaws,  Choctaws,  and  Creeks,  of 
which  latter  the  Seminoles  are  a  division,  in- 
habit the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States. 
iSorth  of  the  Great  Slave  Lake,  is  another  In- 
clian  family  comprising  several  divisions.  • 

All  the  Indian  tribes  are  noted  for  their 
hospitality  and  bravery.  The  women  perform 
the  labors  of  the  field,  while  war  and  hunting 
are  considered  the  only  occupations  worthy  ot 
the  men.  Every  man  has  as  many  wives  as  he 
can  support,  and  these  women  share  his  affec- 
tions without  quarrelling  or  murmuring.  Instan- 
ces of  devoted  attachment  between  two  persons, 
however,  are  by  no  means  uncommon.  The 
Indians  believe  in  the  existence  of  a  Supreme 
Being,  but  they  never  demand  blessings  of 
him,  saying.  He  knows  best  what  is  good  -for 
them,  and  content  themselves  with  returning 
thanks  for  benefits  received.  But  they  also  have, 
superstitious  notions,  and  sacrifice  to  invisible 
beings.  They  attach  <rreat  importance  to  their 
medicines — bags  full  of  rubbish.  In  war  they 
seldom  give  quarter,  and  prisoners  arc  gener- 
ally tortured,  and  burnt  at  the  stake.  It  is  the 
pride  of  a  vanquished  chieftain  to  endure  these 
tortures  without  a  murmur,  and  to  perish, 
Sinclair,  with  an  unfaltering  voice,  his  tri 
umpha'nt  death-song,  in  which  he  recounts  his 
previous  exploits,  the  number  of  the  foes  that 
have  fallen  beneath  his  hatchet,  a.nd  whose 
scalps  adorn  his  wigwam,  and  rejoices  at  the 
prospects  of  reaching  those  Elysian  fields  of 
after-life,  where,  through  eternity,  the  immor- 
tal huntsman  pursues  and  slays  the  flying 
game. 

The  traditions  of  the  Iroquois  abound  with 


touchir^rektiona  of  the  injustice  they  have 
su.sUiineJrlroin  the  whites,  from  their  first  set- 
tling in  the  country.  "  We  and  our  tribes," 
say  they,  "  lived  in  peace  and  harmony  with 
each  other  Lt-fore  the  white  people  came  into 
this  country ;  our  council-house  extended  far 
to  the  north,  and  the  south.  In  the  middle  of 
it  we  could  meet.  froi:i  nil  par's  to  smoke  the 
pipe  of  ]•  :  when  the  white  men 

arrived  in  the  south,  we  received  them  as 
friends,  we  did  the  same  when  they  arrived  in 
the  east.  We  knew  not  but  the  Great  Spirit 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


IND 


291 


INQ 


had  sent  them  to  us  for  some  good  purpose,  and 
therefore  we  thought  they  must  be  a  good  peo- 
ple. We  were  mistaken.  The  whites  will 
not  rest  contented  until  they  shall  have  de- 
stroyed the  last  of  us,  and  made  us  disappear 
entirely  from  the  face  of  the  earth." 

The  Indian  swiftness  of  foot  and  sagacity  in 
tracing  the  march  of  an  enemy  are  well  known, 
and  need  not  be  dwelt  on  here :  their  attach- 
ment to  the  memory  of  their  deceased  friends 
is  a  striking  and  amiable  point  in  their  charac- 
ters. Menandon,  an  Oneida  chief,  who  was  a 
Christian,  and  survived  the  minister  that  con- 
verted him,  lived  to  be  a  hundred  and  twenty 
years  old.  Just  before  he  died,  he  said,  "  I  am 
an  aged  hemlock.  The  winds  of  one  hundred 
years  have  whistled  through  my  branches.  I 
am  dead  at  top  (referring  to  his  blindness). 
Why  I  yet  live,  the  Good  Spirit  only  knows. 
Pray  to  Jesus  that  i  may  wait  my  appointed 
time  to  die  ;  and  when  I  die,  lay  me  by  the  side 
of  my  minister  and  father,  that  J  may  go  up 
with  him  to  the  great  resurrection." 

The  Indians  have  afforded  instances  of  strong 
sentiment.  Schoolcraft  relates  that  "  a  noble 
minded  girl,  named  Oolaita,  being  attached  to 
a  young  chief  of  her  own  tribe,  was  commanded 
by  her  parents  to  marry  an  old  warrior,  renown- 
ed for  his  wisdom  and  influence  in  the  nation. 
It  being  impossible  to  avoid  the  match,  she  lel\, 
her  father's  house  while  the  marriage-feast  was 
preparing,  and  throwing  herself  from  an  awful 
precipice,  was  dashed  to  pieces." 

Some  of  the  Indians  believe  that  the  evil 
spirit  is  the  maker  of  spirituous  liquors,  from 
which,  notwithstanding,  too  many  of  them  can- 
not refrain.  Yet  there  have  been  numerous 
instances  to  the  contrary, 'when  drunkenness 
has  urged  them  to  commit  some  crime  which, 
in  their  sober  moments,  they  held  in  detesta- 
tion. 

"An  Indian,  who  had  been  brought  up  in 
Minisink,  near  the  Delaware  water-gap,  and  to 
whom  the  German  inhabitants  of  that  nighbor- 
hood  had  given  the  name  of  Cornelius  Rosen- 
baum,  told  Mr.  Heckewelder.  near  fifty  years 
ago,  that  he  had  once,  when  under  the  influ- 
ence of  strong  liquor,  killed  the  best  Indian 
friend  he  had,  fancying  him  to  be  his  worst 
avowed  enemy.  He  said  that  the  deception 
was  complete,  and  that  while  intoxicated,  the 
face  of  his  friend  presented  to  his  eyes  all  the 
features  of  the  man  with  whom,  he  was  in  a 
state  of  hostility.  It  is  impossible  to  express 
the  horror  with  which  he  was  struck  when  he 
awoke  from  that  delusion ;  he  was  so  shocked, 
25* 


that  he  from  that  moment  resolved  never  more 
to  taste  of  the  maddening  poison,  of  which  he 
was  convinced  the  devil  was  the  inventor ;  for 
it  could  only  be  the  evil  spirit  that  made  him 
see  his  enemy  when  his  friend  was  before  him, 
and  produced  so  strong  a  delusion  on  his  bewil- 
dered senses  that  he  actually  killed  him.  From 
that  time,  until  his  death,  which  happened 
thirty  years  afterwards,  he  never  drank  a  drop 
of  ardent  spirits,  which  he  always  called  '  the 
Devil's  Blood,' and  was  firmly  persuaded  that 
the  devil,  or  some  of  his  inferior  spirits,  had  a 
hand  in  preparing  it." 

INDIANA,  one  of  the  United  States,  bounded 
north  by  Lake  Michigan  and  Michigan  Terri- 
tory, east  by  Ohio,  south  by  the  Ohio  river, 
separating  it  from  Kentucky,  and  west  by  Il- 
linois. It  contains  36.000  square  miles,  and 
685,866  inhabitants,  of  whom  3,629  are  free 
blacks.  Near  the  Ohio,  the  country  is  hilly, 
but  farther  north,  it  is  less  broken,  and  is  gen- 
erally fertile.  The  soil  and  productions  are  not 
dissimilar  to  those  of  Illinois.  Indianoplis,  the 
seat  of  government,  was  laid  out  in  1821.  Vin- 
cennes  was  settled  by  the  French  in  1730.  In- 
diana was  erected  into  a  state  in  1816. 

INNSPRUCK,  or  Innsbruck,  the  capital  of 
the  Tyrol,  situated  on  the  Inn.  Population, 
10.800.  The  valley  in  which  it  stands  was  the 
scene  of  several  of  the  events  that  took  place 
during  the  heroic  resistance  made  by  the  Tyrol- 
ese  to  the  French  and  Bavarians  in  1809. 

INQUISITION,  The,  or  Holy  Office,  as  it 
is  called,  was  an  institution  of  the  Catholic 
church,  established  in  Spain.  Portugal,  Italy, 
and  other  Catholic  countries,  to  try  persons  ac- 
iMisi'd  of  holding  opinions,  contrary  to  those 
received  by  the  church. 

The  members  of  this  jurisdiction  were  called 
inquisitors,  because,  without  any  proof  of  a  per- 
son's being  guilty,  they  seized  him  upon  com- 
mon report,  and  investigated  his  conduct ;  they 
themselves,  deciding  upon  his  guilt  or  inno- 
cence. 

There  is  some  controversy  about  the  origin 
of  the  inquisition,  but  it  is  allowed  that  Pope 
Innocent  111  first  gave  rise  to  the  Holy  Office 
While  this  man  was  at  the  head  of  the  Catholic 
church,  the  Albigenses  of  France,  who  refused 
to  embrace  the  monstrous  doctrines  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church,  were  persecuted  and 
hunted  like  wild  beasts. 

It  was  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, that  Pope  Innocent  sent  Pierre  de  Castel- 
man,  archdeacon  of  Maguelonne,  and  Rainier, 
another  priest,  to  stir  up  a  spirit  of  zeal  and  Dvir- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


INQ 


292 


INQ 


The  last,  and  most  frightful  punishment,  was 
that  of  being  burned  alive,  sometimes  with  an 
iron  gag  in  the  mouth,  which  prevented  the 
ventits  establishment  in  different  countries;  but    agonized  sufferer  from 


secution  against  the  heretics.  Dominic,  a  fa-  disinherited  the  children  of  the  criminal ;  that 
mous  Spaniard,  founder  of  the  order  of  Preach-  is,  declared  that  if  their  father  died  a  heretic, 
ers,  fell  in  with  the  messengers  of  the  pope  in  they,  although  -Catholics,  should  not  hold  any 
the  year  1206,  and  labored,  with  energy,  to  put  of  his  property.  They  also  pronounced  the  sen- 
an  end  to  the  heresy,  as  anv  opinion  different  tence  of  infamy,  which  deprived  a  man  of  all 
from  the  doctrines  of  the  church  was  called.  his  property,  of  all  right  to  hold  an  office,  and  of 
These  priests  inquired  into  the  conduct  of  all  power. 'oven  over  his  children  and  servants, 
the  princes,  and  men  in  office,  towards  the  here-  Criminals  were  also  imprisoned.  They  in- 
tics,  and  from  the  scrutiny  to  which  they  sub-  curred  the  bann,  or  curse,  by  which  they  lost 
jected  suspected  persons,  were  called  inquisitors,  all  the  rights  of  a  human  being,  were  driven  out 
These  inquisitors  had  no  court  and  no  decisive  of  all  society,  and  might  be  falsely  accused, 
authority,  being  mere  spies  of  the  pope.  St.  beaten  and  robbed,  without  any  hope"  of  getting 
Dominic,  is  said  to  have  founded  the  first  regu-  redress.  In  fact,  if  any  lawyer  defended  them 
lar  tribunal  at  Toulouse.  Innocent  III  signi-  against  an  accusation,  he  wa's  pronounced  infa- 
fied  his  approbation,  and  authorised  the  cstab-  mous  and  deprived  of  office, 
lishment  in  the  year  1215. 

So  cruel  were  the  proceedings  of  the  Inqui- 
sition, that  even  Catholics  endeavored  to  pre- 
vent its  establishment  in  different  countries;  but  agonized  sufferer  from  uttering  an  intelligible 
Spain,  a  country  famous  for  its  devotion  to  the  crv.  Often  however,  while  burning,  they  were 
Catholic  religion,  and  for  its  ignorance,  became  left  at  liberty  to  speak,  and  supplicated  for  mer- 
its chosen  seat.  cv,  in  a  manner  which  would  have  moved  any 
The  Spanish  Inquisition  is  always  spoken  of  but  the  hardest-hearted  to  pity,  and  yet  these 
with  horror  and  indignation.  In  Spain  it  was  priestly  tyrants  dared  to  say  that  their  actions 
first  introduced  in  1478.  The  first  inquisitor-  found  favor  in  the  eyes  of  Heaven, 
general,  and  the  first  court  were  constituted  in  The  tortures  to  which  the  inquisitors  put  the 
1481.  accused,  to  make  them  confess  their  guilt,  were 
The  kings  of  Castile,  before  they  were  dreadful.  The  tortures  were  of  live  kinds. 
crowned,  took  an  oath,  that  they,  as  "well  as  First,  their  being  threatened  with  the  torture; 
their  subjects,  should  be  under  the  power  of  the  second,  their  being  carried  to  the  place  of  tor- 
Holy  Ofb.ee,  as  it  was  impiously  called.  The  lure;  third,  their  Deing  stripped  and  bound; 
inquisitors  received  their  power  from  the  pope's  fourth,  their  being  hoisted  on  the  rack  ;  fifth, 
mouth,  or  by  means  of  letters,  and  he  alone  had  squassation,  in  which  the  limbs  ;ire  all  disjointed, 
power  to  remove  them  from  office.  ,  yquassation.was  thus  performed.  The  pri- 
Nothing  could  be  rnnre  horrible  than  the  pro-  soner's  hands  being  tied  behind  his  back,  heavy 
ceedings  of  the  Inquisitors.  Without  being  weights  are  attached  to  his  feet,  and  he  is  hoist- 
permitted  to  know  who  accused  him,  a  man  ed  up  bv  a  rope,  until  his  head  touches  the  pul- 
was  suddenly  seized ;  his  dearest  friends  aban-  ley.  Hanging  in  this  awful  situation  for  some 
doned  him  at  once,  no  one  dared  to  speak  to  time,  his  Li  mod  and  joints  become  stretched 
him.  From  the  midst  of  the  luxuries  of  life,  he  frightfully;  and  when  suddenly  let  to  fall,  the 
was  hurried  to  a  loathsome  dungeon.  Upon  fill  being  checked  by  the  rope  before  he  touches 
the  slightest  pretence,  the  torture  was  applied,  the  ground,  all  his  limbs  are  disjointed.  The 
and  many  an  innocent  person,  in  the  pangs  of  horrible  pain  he  now  feels  is  increased  by  the 
death,  was  forced  to  accuse  himself.  immense  weight  hanging  at  his  feet. 

The  very  lawyer  who  plead  for  them  was  in  The  inquisition  inflicted  squassation,  when 
terror  of  the  Inquisition  and  completely  in  its  determined  on,  once,  twice,  or  even  throe  times 
power.  The  slightest  sentence  he  uttered,  in  the  space  of  an  hour.  What  could  the  poor 
which  could  possibly  be  turned  against  him,  wretch  enjoy  of  life,  if  he  gained  his  liberty  at 
was  enough  to  place  the  advocate  also  in  dan-  length  ?  How  much  did  the  inquisitors  have  of 
ger  of  his  life.  the  true  spirit  of  religion  ? 

There  were  two  classes  of  punishments,  the  When  we  examine  farther  into  the  annals  of 
ecclesiastical  or  religious  punishments,  and  the  the  inquisition,  humanity  shudders,  and  the  im- 
civil.  The  ecclesiastical  punishments  were  ex-  agination  almost  realizes  the  horn  rs  which  are 

Lovely  and  innocent  women  had 
:ate  frames  torn  to  pieces  by  the  racks 
monsters,  because  they  refused  to  ac 


communication,  loss  of  a  Christian  burial  in  con-  presented. 
secrated  ground,  and  loss  of  all  right  to  hold  their  delic 
offices.  As  civil  punishments,  the  inquisitors  of  these 


HISTORICAL 


INQ 


293 


IOGRAPHICAL. 


IRE 


sanctioned  such  enormities.-  Such  were  the 
torments  inflicted  upon  Jane  Bohorques  and 
her  attendant,  a  young  Protestant  girl.  They 
were  afterwards  burnt  at  the  auto  da  /j,  or  act 
of  faith. 


Knowledge    that    as    the    true    religion   which    entertainment,  afforded  by  the  horrid  spectacle 

of  an  auto  da  ft,  equal  to  .that  derived  from  a 
bull-fight,  or  a  dance.  In  honor  of  Elizabeth, 
tile  new  queen,  daughter  of  Henry  2d  of  France, 
a  girl  of  thirteen,  an  .let  vf  faith  was  held  in 
15(50,  in  which,  not  content  with  burning  some 
"  These  acts  of  faith,  v.-heh  a  large  number  of  human  beings,  they  consumed  a  few  effigies, 
the  condemned  were  often  collected  to  suffer  at  Napoleon-,  abolished  this  terrible  Inquisition, 
once,  were  always  held  upon  festival  days.  The  and  this  just  exercise  of  power  should  be  re- 
procession  issued  from  the  halls  of  the  inquisi-  membered.  when  many  of  his  crimes  are  brought 
lion,  the  Dominican  friars  with  the  standard  of  to  view.  When  Ferdinand  was  restored,  by  the 
their  order,  coming  first.  On  one  side  their  success  of  Napoleon's  opponents,  to  the  Spanish 
flag  had  the  picture  of  Saint  Dominic,  on  the  throne,  he  re-established  it.  There  never  was 
other,  the  motto,  ".  Justice  and  Mercy."  an  institution  of  such  dreadful  cruelty,  nor  one 

After  these  came  the  penitents,  all  in  sleeve-    in  which  the  laws  of  religion  and  mercy  were 
less  black  coats,  with  lighted  wax  tapers,  and    so  daringly  defied,  under  pretence  too,  of  vin- 
bare-footed.     Those  who  had  narrowly  escaped    dicating  morality  and  pure  piety, 
burning,  followed  next  in  order,  with   flames         If  the  Inquisition,  in  modern  days,  was  less 


pointing  downward  painted  on  their  coats. 


bloody  than  formerly,  we  are  to  attribute  it,  not 


The  relapsed  came  next,  with  habits  covered    to  the  spirit  of  the  institution,  but  to  the  increase 


with  flames  pointing  upward.  Lastly  inarched 
those  who  are  peculiar  enemies  to  the  Romish 
doctrines.  Their  habits  were  covered  with 


of  know-ledge,  which  will  finally,  we  trust,  put 
an  end  to  all  abuses. 

IONIA,  a  district  of  Asia  Minor.  Ionia  was 
flames,  pointing  upward,  and  on  their  breasts  divided  into  twelve  small  states  which  formed 
they  bore  a  likeness  of  themselves,  in  the  act  of  a  celebrated  confederacy  often  spoken  of  by  the 
being  devoured  by  wild  beasts,  and  serpents.  ancients.  These  states  were  Priene,  Miletus, 
At  Lisbon,  the  place  where  they  were  burned,  Colophon,  Clazomeno3,  Ephesus,  Lebedos,  Leos, 
was  the  Ribera.  containing  as  many  stakes  as  Erylhra;,  Phocrea,  Smyrna,  and  the  capitals  of 


there  were  condemned  criminals,  surrounded 
with  furzs.  The  stakes  of  th*  professed,  as 
ihey  were  called,  were  about  four  yards  high,, 
with  a  seat  for  the  prisoner  upon  aboard,  with- 
in a  yard  of  the  top.  The  negative  and  relapsed 


Samos  and  Chios.  After  they  had  enjoyed,  fo 
some  time,  their  freedom  and  independence, 
they  were  made  tributary  to  the  power  of  Lydia 
by  CHBSUS.  The  Athenians  assisted  them  to 
shake  off  the  yoke  of  the  Asiatic  monarchs,  but 


prisoners  were  first  strangled  and  burned  ;  liie  they  soon  forgot  their  duty  and  relation  to  their 

professed  then  ascended  the  ladder  with  a  Je-  mother  country,  and  joined  Xerxes  when  he 

suit  upon  each  side,  who  exhorted  them  to  con-  invaded   Greece.      They   were  delivered  from 

less  their  sins  and  return  to  the  Romish  church,  the   Persian   yoke   by  Alexander, .  and   finally 

If  they  refused,  the  priests  descended  the  ladder,  were  reduced'by  the  Romans  under  the  dictator 

and  the  executioner  going  up,  chained  them  Sylla. 

to  the  stake.     After  an  interval  the  priests  again  IONIAN  ISLANDS,  a  republic  in  the  south 

ascended  and  if  the  prisoners  proved  still  obsti-  of  Europe  under  the  protection  of  Great  Brit- 

nate.  they   were    forsaken   and  the  spectators  ain.     The  seven  chief  islands  are  Corfu,  Paxos, 

called  out  "Let  the  dogs'  beards  be  mode!"  Santa  Maria,   Ithaca,  Cephalavia.  Zante,  and 

The   operation   alluded    to  was   performed  by  Cengo.     Population  180,000   Greeks,  Italians, 

thrusting  poles, having  flaming  bunches  of  furze  and  Jews,  with  a  few  English 
end,  against  the  faces 


at  the 


of  the  criminals.          IOWA  TERRITORY,  lies  between  the  Mis 


These  were  generally  held  against  them  until  sissippi  and  Missojri  rivers,  and  directly  north  of 
their  faces  were  burnt  to  a  coal,  the  whole  pro-  the  State  of  Missouri.  It  is  rich  in' minerals, 
ceeding-eliciting  shouts  of  approbation  and  joy.  Dubuq;ie,  on  the  Mississippi  contains  1,500  souls, 


After  this  the  furze  at  the  foot  of  the  stake 
was  fired,  and,  in  general,  reached  no  higher 
than  the  knees  of  the  condemned,  so  that  they 
were  literally  roasted  to  death.  In  a  calm  they 
might  die  in  half  an  hour,  in  a  hi^h  wind  sel- 
dom under  two  hours. 


1  bank,  and  3  churches.     The  ether  villages  are 
Davenport,  Bloomington,  and  Burlington"on  the 
same  river,  ;md  Farming-ton  on  the  DCS  Moines. 
i  in  1840,  43,035.     See  North  West 
Territory. 
IRELAND,  this  fertile  island,  which  has  an 


In  ancient  times,  the  Spaniards  thought  the    area  of  33^'  square  m-leaj  form3  part  of'  lhe 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


IRE  294  IRE 

kingdom  of  Great  Britain.     It  is  divided  into'  great  obscurity,  and  it  is  impossible  to  distin- 

four  large  provinces,  viz.,  Ulster,  Leinster,  Con-  guish  fact  from  fiction  in  the  talcs  of  its  early 

naught,  and  Munster,  which  are  sub-divided  historians-.     There  is  strong  evidence,  however, 

into  32  counties.     The  face  of  the  country  is  that  the  Irish  are  descended  from  the  Celts. 

diversified,  but  almost  all  of  it  is  susceptible  of  Strongbow,  (the  surname  of  the  earl  of  Pem- 

cultivation.   The  population,  in  1831,  amounted  broke)  at  the  request  of  Dermot  Me'  Morrogh, 

to  7,784,536.  king  of  Leinster,  invaded  Ireland,  and  a  great 

There  are  no  serpents,  or  venomous  reptiles  part  of  the  island  was  soon  conquered   by  the 

in  Ireland,  and  St.  Patrick  is  said  to  have  driven  English,  who  by  degrees  became  masters  of  the 

them  all  into  the  sea.    At  the  lake  of  Killarney,  whole  country.     A  parliament  was  summoned 

the  peasants  still  preserve   the  following  ludi-  at  Dublin,  May  1st,  153G,  which  declared  Hen- 

crous  tradition.     When  the  labors  of  St.  Patrick  ry  VIII  the  supreme  head  on  earth  of  the  church 

were  drawing  to  a  close,  there  was  one  enormous  of   Ireland,    and    annulled    the   papal    power, 

serpent  who  sturdily  refused  to  emigrate,  and  Every  person  who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 

baffled  the  attempts  of  the  good  saint  for  a  long  supremacy,  was  declared  guilty  of  high  treason, 

time.     He  haunted  the  romantic  shores  of  Kil-  But,  to  resist  the  royal  usurpations, confederacies 

larney,  and  was  so  well  pleased  with  his   place  were  formed  and  the  Reformation  was  rendered 

of  residence,  that  he  never  contemplated  the  so  odious  to  the  Irish,  that  it  made  slow  progress 

Erospect  of  removing  without  a  deep  sigh.     At  among  them.    Though  the  liturgy  of  the  church 

;ngth   St.    Patrick,   having   procured   a  large  of  England  was  performed  for  the  first  time  on 

oaken  chest,  with  nine  strong  bolts  to  secure  its  Easter  Sunday,   1551,  the  bulk  of  the  nation 

lid,  took  it  on  his  shoulder  one  fine  sunshiny  still  adhered  steadfastly  to  their  ancient  faith, 

morning,  and  trudged  over  to  Killarney,  where  and  the  cause  of  religion  became  the  cause  of 

he  found  the  serpent  basking  in  the  sun.    "Good  the  nation.     The  attempts  to  force  a  people  to 

morrow  to  ye !"  said  the  saint.     "  Bad  luck  to  renounce  the   faith  which  they  had   received 

ye  !"  replied  the  serpent.    "  Not  so,  my  friend,"  from  St.  Patrick,  and  to  receive  a  new  system 

replied  the  good  saint,  "  you  speak  unwisely —  of  religion,  with  an   English  ritual,  naturally 

I'm  your  friend.     To  prove  which,  haven't  I  become  blended  with  the  national  prejudices 

brought  you  over  this  beautiful  house  as  ashel-  against  English  oppression,  and  co-operated  in 

ter  to  you  ?     So  be  aisy,  my  darling.''     But  the  raising  the  insurrection  of  Tyrone.     A  general 

serpent,   being  a  cunning   reptile,  understood  system  of  rebellion  to  shake  off  the  English 

what  blarney  meant,  as  well  as  the  saint  him-  yoke,  was  organized   in   Ireland,  about   15!JG; 

self.     Still,  not  wishing  to  affront  his  apparently  and  the  most  formidable  of  the  rebel  chiefs  was 

friendly  visiter,  he  said,  by  way  of  excuse,  that  O'Neil,  who  disdaining  the  title  of  earl  of  Ty- 

the  chest  was  not  large  enough  for  him.     St.  rone,  had  assumed  the.- rank  and  appellation  of 

Patrick  assured  him  that  it  would  accommodate  king  of  Ulster,  and  received  a  supply  of  arms 

him  very  well.     "  Just  get  into  it,  my  darlint,  and  ammunition  from  Spain.     This   rebellion 

and   see   how   aisy  you'll   be."     The  serpent  was  finally  terminated  by  the  submission  of 

thought  to  cheat  the  saint,  so  he  whipped  into  O'Neil. 

the  chest,  but  left  an  inch  or  two  of  his  tail        The  conduct  of  James  I,  estranged  the  affec- 

hanging  out  over  the  edge.     "  I  tdd  you  so,"  tions  of  the    Irish,  and,  during  the   reign  of 

said  he,  "there's  not  room  for  the  whole  of  Chailes  I,  a  rebellion  broke  out  which  deluged 

me."     "Take  care  of  your  tail,  my  darling!"  the  country  in  blood.     The  cruelties  of  Crom 

cried  the  saint,  as  he  whacked  the  lid  down  on  well    toward    Ireland   are    almost    incredible, 

the  serpent.     In  an  instant  the  tail  disappeared,  20,000  Irishmen  were  sold  as  slaves,  and  40,000 

and  St.  Patrick  proceeded  to  shoot  all  the  bolts,  entered  into  foreign   service,  to  escape  from 

He  then  took  the  chest  on  his  shoulders.     "  Let  tyranny  at  home. 

me  out !"  cried  the  serpent.     "  Aisy"  cried  the        On  the  death  of  the  Protector,  Richard  Crom- 

saint,  "  I'll  let  you  out  tomorrow."     So  saying,  well  confirmed  his  brother  Henry  in  the  gov- 

he  threw  the  box  into  the  waters  of  the  lake,  to  ernment  of  Ireland,  by  the  new   title  of  lord- 

the  bottom  of  whiqh  it  sank  to  rise  no  more,  lieutenant.    Henry  exerted  himself  with  vigor 

But  for  ever  afterwards,  the  fishermen  affirmed  to  support  the  tottering  authority  of  his  brother ; 

that  they  heard  the  voice  of  the  poor  cozened  but,  after  the  abdication  of  Richard,  Charles  II 

reptile  eagerly  inquiring,  "  Is  tomorrow  come  was  proclaimed  with  every  manifestation  of  joy 

yet?     Is  tomorrow  come  yet ?"  in  all  the  great  towns  of  Ireland.     On  the  ac- 

The  early  history  of  Ireland  is  involved  in  cession  of  James  II  to  the  throne  of  England, 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


IRE 


295 


IRE 


Ormand  was  succeeded  in  the  government  of 
Ireland,  by  the  earl  of  Clarendon.  The  earl  of 
Tirconnel  was  appointed  cornmander-in-chief 
of  the  army,  and  made  independent  of  the  lord- 
lieutenant.  This,  and  other  proceedings  in 
favor  of  the  Catholics,  alarmed  the  Protestant' 
part  of  the  kingdom,  and  most  of  the  traders, 
and  those  whose  fortunes  were  transferable  lied 
from  the  country.  The  distracted  state  of  this 
unhappy  kingdom,  at  the  period  of  the  revolu- 
tion, in  1688,  can  hardly  be  described.  The 
Protestants  in  the  north  proclaimed  William 
and  Mary.  James,  who  had  sailed  from  Brest, 
with  a  large  armament,  landed  at  Kinsale,  in 
March,  1(589.  He  was  opposed  by  an  English 
army  'commanded  by  William  in  person.  A 
dreadful  civil  war  took  place,  but  at  length,  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne,  on  the  1st  of  July,  1699, 
decided  the  fate  of  James,  who  fled  to  France. 
The  Irish  subjects  outlawed  for  the  rebellion 
of  1688,  amounted  to  300.978,  and  their  Irish 
possessions  comprised  1.600,000  acres.  In  179(5, 
the  injured  Irish,  denied  the  enjoyments  of  their 
dearest  rights,  and  condemned  to  political  dis- 
ability on"  account  of  professing  the  Catholic 
religion,  once  more  rebelled.  The  French  fa- 
vored them,  but  only  a  small  French  force  ever 
landed,  and  they  surrendered  to  the  superior 


of  Cornwallis.     The  insurgents  being 
,vcre  pun 
with  great  slaughter      On  the  first  of  January, 


army  ol  I 
eluded  fr 


otn  all  quarters,  fled,  and  were  pursued 


1801,  the  union  of  Great  Britain  with  Ireland 
was  effected.  The  political  disabilities  of  the 
Catholics  have  been  recently  removed,  but  still 
the  condition  of  Ireland  is  unhappy. 

One  cause  of  tiie  distresses  of  Irelind,  is  absen- 
teeism, the  absence  in  England  of  great  landed 
proprietors,  whose  estates  are  underlet  bv  rapa- 
cious agents  that  grind  the  poor  tenants  without 
mercy 

In  spite  of  reli<nous  intolerance  and  civil  dis- 
qualifications— of  statutes  which  rendered  com- 
merce a  crime,  and  laws  which  made  industry 
penal;  of  abuses  of  power  under  William,  and 
of  taxes  quadrupled  under  the  last  of  the  Stuarts 
and  the  first  of  the  Brunswicks,  still  something 
like  a  counterpoise  was  found  to  balance  these 
political  evils,  in  tho  home  residence  of  the-  edu- 
cated gentry,  and  in  the  political  bustle  and  ac- 
tivity of  an  Irish  parliament.  As  soon  as  the 
positive  calamities  of  war  and  confiscation  ceas- 
ed, as  soon  as  an  approach  was  made  to  Euro- 
pean habits  and  policy,  and  industry  was  per- 
mitted to  find  a  scope  and  a  reward  for  its  ex- 
ertions, the  nation  made  a  sudden  and  a  rapid 
progress  in  civilization  and  comfort,  simply 


through  the  efficiency  of  its  own  resources,  and 
the  demands  of  its  own  market.  It  was  in  vain 
that  the  talismanic  words  "  Irishmen"  and  "Pa- 
pist" were  employed  to  arm  passion  and  preju- 
dice against  the  country  ;  it  was  in  vain  that 
commercial  jealousy  threw  shackles  round  its 
infant  manufactures.  In  spite  of  these  and 
many  other  obstacles,  the  moral  strength  of  a 
country  always  distinguished  for  the  natural 
endowments  of  its  population,  rose  superior  to 
the  cruel  pressure  of  its  political  inflictions; 
and  the  domestic  activity  and  intellectual  im- 
provement of  the  people — slow  and  limited  as 
they  appear,  when  compared  with  the  advances 
of  the  sister  kingdom — proceeded  with  a  rapid- 
ity little  short  of  miraculous,  under  so  stultifying 
a  system  of  legislation  and  government.  It  was 
then  that  the  light  of  national  genius  concen- 
trated its  long-scattered  rays  to  a  point,  and 
shining  steadily  from  its  proper  focus,  threw 
out  those  inextinguishable  sparks  of  moral  lus- 
tre, 

"  Which  are  wont  to  give 

Light  to  a  world,  and  mak«e  a  nation  live." 
It  was  then  that  the  powerful  collision  of  active, 
ardent,  and  energetic  minds  produced  that 
brilliant  burst  of  talent  which,  for  something 
more  than  a  century,  flung  over  the  political 
darkness  of  the  land  a  splendor  to  which  her 
struggles  and  her  misfortunes  served  only  to 
give  a  stronger  relief  and  more  brilliant  effect. 
It  was  then  that,  after  ages  of  mental  depres- 
sion, the  Irish  intellect  broke  out.  like  the  Irish 
rebellion,  "  threescore  thousand  strong,"  when 
none  expected  or  were  prepared  for  the  splendid 
irruption.  The  old  mart  of  learning  was  re- 
opened to  the  erudite  of  Europe,  as  in  those 
times  when,  if  a  sage  was  missing,  it  was  said 
"  cinandatus  cst  ad  disciplinam  in  Hibernia;" 
and  the  rich  stream  of  native  humor  which, 
like  a  caverncd  river,  had  hitherto  ';  kept  the 
noiseless  tenor  of  its  way."  darkened  by  im- 
pending shadows,  now  rushed  forth  with  the 
rapidity  of  a  torrent,  pure,  sparkling,  and 
abundant,  at  the  first  vent  afforded  to  its  pro- 
gress. 

Even  the  arts,  in  these  stirring  times  of  social 
concentration,  awakened  from  their  long  and 
deadly  slumbers  ;  and  the  slowly  reviving  school 
of  painting  in  England  received  some  of  its  most 
noted  disciples  from  Ireland,  a  country  so  little 
adapted,  by  its  miseries  and  its  commotions,  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  most  tranquil  and  medita- 
tive of  intellectual  pursuits. 

The  absence  of  great  proprietors  in  Ireland, 
necessarily  brings  with  it,  or  if  not  necessarily, 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


ISP 


296 


IT  A 


has  actually  brought  with  it  the  employment 
of  middle-men,  which  forms  one  standing  and 
regular  Irish  grievance.  It  is  the  common 
method  in  Ireland  to  extort  the  last  farthing 
which  the  tenant  is  willing  to  give  for  land 
rather  than  quit  it,  and  the  machinery  by  which 
such  a  practice  is  carried  into  effect,  is  that  of 
the  middle-man.  He  gives  high  prices  that  he 
may  obtain  higher  from  the  occupant ;  more  is 
paid  by  the  actual  occupant  than  is  consistent 
with  the  preservation  of  the  land;  it  is  injured, 
run  out,  and  the  most  shocking  consequences 
ensue  from  it.  There  is  little  manufacture  in 
Ireland ;  the  price  of  labor  is  low ;  the  demand 
for  labor  irregular.  If  a  poor  man  is  driven, 
by  distress  of  rent,  from  his  potatoe  garden,  he 
has  no  other  resource — all  is  lost ;  he  will  do 
the  impossible  (as  the  French  say)  to  retain  it — 
subscribe  any  bond,  and  promise  any  rent.  The 
middle-man  has  no  character  to  lose ;  and  he 
knew  when  he  took  up  the  occupation  that  it 
was  one  with  which  pity  had  nothing  to  do. 
On  he  drives,  and  backward  the  poor  peasant 
recedes,  losing  something  at  every  step,  till  lie 
comes  to  the  very  brink  of  despair,  and  then 
he  recoils,  and  murders  his  oppressor,  and  is  a 
White  Boy,  or  a  Right  Boy  ; — and  the  soldier 
shoots  him,  and  the  judge  hangs  him. 

Ireland  may  yet  be  liberated,  and  raised  to  its 
just  rank  among  the  nations  of  the  earth  ;  but 
not  by  the  exertions — the  public  talk  and  clamor 
of  her  politicians.  They  are  rigid  and  inflexi- 
ble in  little  things,  but  very  flexible  and  ac- 
commodating in  great  things.  You  would  think, 


to  hear  them,  tl 


contain  them  and  the  oppressors  of  their  coun- 


try— perhaps  no 
for  money,  clare 
countenance,  as 


at  the  same  planet  could  not 


the  same  solar  system.  Yet 
,  and  patronage,  they  lend  their 
"stance,  and  friendship  to  her 


sternest  enemies. 

IROQUOIS,  or  the  Six  Nations,  a  confedera- 
cy of  Indian  nations,  who  supported  the  British 
interest  during  the  revolutionary  war.  They 
were  brave  and  heroic. 

ISAAC,  the  son  of  Abraham.  (See  Mr  a /IH  in.) 

ISMAIL,  or  Ismailow,  a  town  in  Russia,  in 
Bessarabia,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Danube,  33 
miles  from  the  Black  Sea.  It  is  memorable  for 
its  siege,  in  17!K),  by  the  Russians  under  Souva- 
roff  or  Suwarrow.  It  was  taken  by  a  terrible 
assault,  on  the  23d  of  December.  Of  the  Turks 
30,000  were  massacred  in  cold  blood,  and  10,000 
made  prisoners.  The  Russians  lost  5.000  men 
on  the  day  of  capture,  and  twice  that  number  in 
previous  operations. 

ISP  A  HAN,  or  Spahawn,  anciently  Aspadona, 


formerly  the  capital  of  Persia.  At  one  time  it  is 
said  to  have  contained  1.000,000  inhabitants; 
;it  present  it  has  about  200^000.  In  1387  the  in- 
habitanis  were  massacred  when  the  place  was 
taken  by  Timur  Beg.  It  contains  some  hand- 
some buildings,  but  retains  few  vestiges  of  its 
former  splendor. 

ITALY,  since  the  downfall  of  Rome,  has 
been  divided  into  different  states,  and  has  lost 
that  power  which  it  formerly  enjoyed.     Its  his- 
torical remains,  its  schools  of  art.  its  delicious 
climate,  give  it  an  undying  interest.     It  now 
contains  21,400,000  inhabitants. 
The  following  are  its  political  divisions : 
Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
Kingdom  (if  Sardinia, 
States  of  the  Church, 
Grand-duchy  of  Tuscany, 

SS  bf'KSSna,  with    Jlassa  and  j- Independent 

Carrara, 

Duchy  of  Lucca, 
Principality  of  !^t.  Marino, 
Principality  of  Monaco,  j 

Austrian  Italy,  (Venice,  and  Lorn-] 

hardy  1, 

French  Italy,  (Corsica),  Subject  of 

Swi.ss  Italy",  (canton  of  Tessin,  part  (  Foreign  Powers 

uftlie  Prisons  and  Valais), 
Knplish  Italy, (jironp  of  Malta),  j 

Italy  has  borne,  at  different  periods,  the  dif- 
ferent" names  of  Saturnia.  ./Enotria,  ilcsperia, 
Ausonia,  Tyrrhenia.  It  has  been  called  the 
garden  of  Europe  ;  and  the  panegyric  which 
Plinv  bestows  upon  it.  does  not  seem  in  any 
degree  exaggerated.  The  ancient  inhabitants 
called  themselves  Aborigines,  offspring  of  the 
soil,  and  the  country  was  soon  after  peopled  by 
colonies  from  Greece.  Italy  has  been  the 
mother  of  arts  as  well  as  of  arms,  and  the  im- 
mortal monuments  which  remain  of  the  elo- 
quence and  poetical  genius  of  its  inhabitants 
are  universally  known.  The  early  part  of  the 
history  of  this  country,  is.  however,  involved 
in  the  greatest  obscurity.  The  first  light  thrown 
on  this  land  of  darkness  was  by  the  settlement 
of  Greek  colonies  in  the  south,  where,  eventu- 
ally, a  large  tract  of  country  was  called  Magna 
Gra'cia.  The  annals  of  Rome  are  said  to  go 
back  750  years  B.  C.  (See  Rome.) 

Italy  continued  subject  to  one  power  for  more 
than  HOO  years;  until  the  fifth  century,  when 
the  Goths  crossed  the  barriers  of  the  Alps.  To- 
wards the  year  n(>0  A.  D.  the  Lombards  entered 
the  north  of  Italy,  took  Milan  ai.d  Pavia,  and 
founded  a  kingdom  which  continued  during 
two  centuries,  until  overthrown  by  Charle- 
magne. 

After  his  death  Italy  belonged  to  his  succes- 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ITA 


297 


JAC 


sors  on  the  imperial  throne,  but  their  tenure  Grimoald 663 

was  precarious;  the  great  barons  laboring  to  ^^reVtored    ^'Uir/.i'.-fr.^r.I'/.US 

assert  their  independence,  and  the  popes  to  ex-  Cunibert,  bis  son  680 

tend  their  temporal  dominions.    The  subsequent  Cunibert'  alone 1 691 

history  is  little  more  than  a  succession  of  mill-  J^uipertus 701 

tary  struggles,  of  little  interest,  until  960,  when  Arulma'"3  '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  [i;!^"***!."?!! 702 

Otho  I  repaired,  in  person,  to  the  north  of  Italy,  Alisprandiisl '.'.'.  '.'.'.  '.712 

granted  municipal  rights  to  the  cities,  and  im-  Luitpramlus   713 

proved   the    interior  government    in   general.  Hildebrand 742 

The  whole  was  united  to  the  German  Empire;  ^Ifus  ^          ""   750 

but  from  this  compact  fresh  feuds  and  conuno-  Desiderius'  or'u'idier.' .' .' .' .' .' ................'...... '. .756 

tions  followed  ;  the  Italian  nobility  were  jealous        Jn  774   Desiderius  the  last  of  the  Lombards, 

of  their  privileges ;  conspiracies  were  formed,  WM  taken  prisoner  by  Charlemagne ;  and  the 

detected,  and  suppressed,  and  no  constant  aile-  kingdom  o£  ltaly  WJJ  united    fir°  t  to  France, 

giance  was  exhibited  to  the  German  govern-  an(fafterwards  to  the  Empire,  till  886,  when  it 

ment  or  the  magistracy  put  into  authority  by  wag  soparated  from  the  ia^ter  on  the  'death  of 

it.     A  series  ot  wars  continued  for  several  ages.  pK.-iJ,  thP  Fit 

In  the  14th  century,  Italy  was  divided  into  the  „ 

kingdom  of  Naples,  the  estates  of  the  Church,  Lambert.  .!        !' . . '. '.  1 '.'.'. '. '. '.'.'.'. '.""'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'."  lie 

Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Lombardy,  the  Genoese  Louis. ...!!!!!.'"....!....".!.!!!!!."!!.'!.'!.'..!!!.'899 

and  the  Venetian  territories,  and  other  petty  Berenger  1  restored 904 

states.     For  two  centuries  the  Venetians  and  Rodolph,  king  of  Brandy 92-3 

Genoese  were  the  most  considerable  commer-  LB3^7T,:..^.."/.'."."/."t".*.*"'.*'.".*/.'."/.'.I"'.Iw7 

cial  people  in   Europe,  and  Venice,  in  particu-  Berenger  ii .....'.'.'.  .350 

lar,  possessed  large  foreign  colonies;  and,  in        In  963,  Berenger  was  deposed,  by  pope  Leo 

1194,  took  Constantinople  and   held  in   sore-  VIII,  and  next  year  the  emperor  Otho  I  reduced 

reignty  portions  of  what  now  constitutes  Tur-  itaiy  and  reunited  it  to  the  empire  ;  to  which  it 

key  in  Europe  and  Greece.     The  foundation  of  continued  nominally  to  belong  till  1805.  when 

the  temporal  power  of  the  popes  was  laid  about  Bonaparte  revived  the  ancient  title  of  king  of 

1080,  by  Matilda,  countess  of  Tuscany,  who  Italy. 

bequeathed  a  large  portion  of  her  dominions  to         ITHACA,  now  Thiaki.  an  island  in  the  gulf 

pope  Gregory  VII.     After  that  time  the  popes  Of  patras,  belonging   to  'the    Ionian  republic, 

successively  made  great  acquisitions  of  territo-  Population  8000.     It  is  celebrated  as  the  resi- 

ry  :  but,  in  1798,  Rome  was  taken  by  Berliner,  dence  of  Ulysses. 

and  Bonaparte  annexed  the  papal  dominions  to        IVICA,  Iviza,  or  Ibiza  (anciently  Ebusus)  a 

France.      They    were,    however,    restored    in  fertile  and  valuable  island  in  the  Mediterranean, 

1814.     (See  articles,  Genoa,  Milan,  Piedmont,  belonging  to  Spain.      It  contains  190  square 

Rome,  &c.)  mije^  and  2ij094  inhabitants.     It  fell  into  the 

Odoacer,  Chief  of  the  ™S™'. A.47,l  hands  f  *«  Spaniards  in  1294,  and  submitted 

Theodoric,  the  Ostrogoth  493  to  bir  John  Leake,  with  a  British  squadron,  in 

Athalaric 52u  170G.     It  has  generally  followed  the  fortunes  of 

vStow tlM  5'36  the  neiSaboring  islands,  Majorca  and  Minorca. 

Araric '. !s40 

Totila    541  J- 

Teias,  the  last  of  the  Goths   553 

Narses,  governor        554        JACKSON,  James,  an  officer  in  our  revolu- 

Cleophis  "".:'.'."""."":: 570  tionary  army,  was  born  in  England,  in  1 757, 

Interregnum' ofia  year's  iii  which  t'lie  Loni-'j „  and  settled  in   Georgia  in   1772.     He  was  en- 
bards  were  governed  by  dukes,            j '"  gaged  in  the  attack  on  Savannah,  when  but 

^n.tllij'!is  ^  nineteen  years  old,  and  a  few  years  afterwards 

Adehvaid,'  w'ith'hiV  mo'the'r'Theodeiinda: '.'.'.     '. '. '.  >,16  was  chosen  brigade-major  of  the  Georgia  militia. 

Anvald 026  After  tne  close  of  the  war.  tiiroughout  which  lie 

Rotharis  638  displayed    great   gallantry   and    prudence,   he 

5ribSidt  653  commenced  the  P^tice'  of  law,  and  in  1783, 

PertharithuV  V ' "  became  a  member  of  the  legislature.     In  1788 

Gondibert      j  "  he  was  chosen  governor  of  Georgia,  but  de 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


JAiM 


298 


JAM 


clined  the  honor,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  major-general  of  the  militia  of  the  state.  He 
was  afterwards  chosen  senator  to  Congress,  and 
died  in  Washington,  Jan.  l!),  IdOG. 

JACOB,  the  son  of  Isaac,  and  the  Jast  of  the 
patriarchs.  For  his  history  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  Scriptures. 

JAFFA,  anciently  Joppa,  a  town  of  Syria,  in 
the  Pachalic  of  Damascus,  12  leagues  N.  W.  of 
Jerusalem.  Population  3,<550.  It  was  taken  by 
Bonaparte  in  17U9. 

JAMAICA,  one  of  the  West  India  islands 
belonging  to  Great  Britain.  It  is  about  150 
miles  long,  and  40  broad  ;  and  lies  30  leagues 
west  of  Hay  ti.  It  is  less  fertile  Ulsoi  some  other 
of  the  West  India  islands,  but  is  a  rich  and  val- 
uable country.  It  is  subject  to  earthquakes. 
Sugar,  rum,  molasses,  indigo,  coflee,  cotton, 
cocoa,  pimento,  and  ginger  are  the  most  valua- 
ole  articles  of  export.  The  present  population 
is  about  4]  4,000  of  whom  30,000  are  free  people 
of  color,  and  37,000  whites.  The  island  was 
discovered  by  Columbus,  May  3,1494.  In  1  Coo 
it  was  taken  from  the  Spanish  by  the  English 
under  the  command  of  Benn  and  Venables.  In 
1795  a  war  commenced  between  the  maroons, 
the  runaways  of  the  Spanish  settlers,  and  the 
white  inhabitants,  when  the  barbarous  expedi- 
ent of  using  bloodhounds  being  resorted  to,  for 
the  purpose  of  tracing  the  haunts  of  the  negroes, 
they  were  at  last  compelled  to  surrender  at  dis- 
cretion to  their  enemies  the  whites. 

JAMES  I,  king  of  Scotland,  was  born  in 
13l>4.  At  the  age  of  eleven  years,  he  was  sent 
to  France,  that  he  might  escape  the  danger  to 
which  he  was  exposed  by  the  ambition  of  his 
uncle,  the  duke  of  Albany  ;  but,  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  English,  he  and  his  retinue  were 
confined  in  the  tower,  where,  however.  the 
young  prince  received  an  excellent  education. 
His  talents  were  of  a  high  order.  Our  distin- 
guished countryman,  Washington  Irving,  has 
given  an  interesting  account  of  him  in  one  of 
the  papers  of  the  Sketch  Book,  which  we  must 
be  permitted  to  condense  and  copy  below  : 

"  1  visited  the  ancient  keep  of  the  castle, 
where  James  the  First  of  Scotland,  the  pride 
and  theme  of  Scottish  poets  and  historians,  was 
for  many  years  of  his  youth  detained  a  prisoner 
of  state.  It  is  a  large  gray  tower,  that  has  stood 
the  brunt  of  ages,  and  is  still  in  good  preserva- 
tion, it  stands  on  a  mound  which  elevates  it, 
above  other  parts  of  the  castle,  and  a  great  flight 
of  steps  into  the  interior.  In  the  armory,  which 
is  a  Gothic  hall,  furnished  with  weapons  of  va- 
rious kinds  and  ages,  I  was  shown  a  coat  of 


armor  hanging  against  the  wall,  which  I  was 
told  had  once  belonged  to  James.  From  hence 
1  was  conducted  up  a  staircase  to  a  suite  of 
apartments  of  faded  magnificence,  hung  with 
storied  tapestry,  which  formed  his  prison,  and 
the  scene  of  that  passionate  and  fanciful  amour, 
which  has  woven  into  the  web  of  his  story  the 
magical  hues  of  poetry  and  fiction. 

"  The  whole  history  of  this  amiable  but  un- 
fortunate prince  is  highly  romantic.  The  in 
teliigence  of  his  capture,  coming  in  the  train  of 
many  sorrows  and  disasters,  proved  fatal  to  his 
unhappy  father. 

"  The  news,  we  are  told,  was  brought  to  him 
while  at  supper,  and  did  so  overv.helm  him 
with  grief,  that  he  was  almost  readv  to  give  up 
the  ghost  into  the  hands  of  the  servants  that 
attended  him.  But  being  carried  into  his  bed- 
chamber, he  abstained  from  all  food,  r.r.d  in  three 
days  died  of  hunger  and  grief  at  Rothesay. 

-  James  was  detained  in  captivity  above  eigh- 
teen years ;  but,  though  deprived  of  personal 
liberty,  he  was  treated  with  the  respect  due  to 
his  rank.  He  was  well  learnt,  we  are  told,  to 
fight  with  the  sword,  to  joust,  to  tournay.  to 
wrestle,  to  sinsr  and  dance,  he  was  an  expert 
mediciner,  right  crafty  in  playing  both  of  lute 
and  harp,  and  sundry  other  instruments  of  mu- 
sic, and  was  expert  in  grammar,  oratory,  and 
poetry." 

In  prison  he  wrote  the  king's  Quhair  (Book.) 
"  The  subject  of  the  poem  is  his  love  for  the 
lady  Jane  Beaufort,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Somerset,  and  a  princess  of  the  blood  royal  of 
England,  of  whom  he  became  enamored  in  the 
course  of  his  captivity."  "  His  passion  for  the 
lady  Jane,  as  it  was  the  solace  of  his  captivity, 
so  it  facilitated  his  release,  it  being  imagined 
by  the  Court,  that  a  connection  with  the  blood 
royal  of  England  would  attach  him  to  its  own 
interests.  lie  was  ultimately  restored  to  his 
liberty  and  crown,  having  previously  espoused 
the  Lady  Jane,  who  accompanied  him  to  Scot- 
land, and  made  him  a  most  tender  and  devoted 
wife. 

"  He  found  his  kingdom  in  great  confusion, 
the  feudal  chieftains  having  taken  advantage  of 
the  troubles  and  irregularities  of  a  long  inter- 
regnum, to  strengthen  themselves  in  their  pos- 
eefflHons,  and  j.lnr-  themselves  alu.ve  the  power 
of  the  laws.  James  Bought  to  found  the  basis 
of  his  power  in  the  iiU'ecti'inH  of  his  people. 
He  attached  the  lower  orders  to  him  by  Hie  re- 
formation of  abuses,  the  temperate  and  equable 
administration  of  justice,  the  encouragement  of 
the  arts  of  peace,  and  the  promotion  of  every 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


JAM 


299 


JAM 


thing  that  could  diffuse  comfort,  competency, 
and  innocent  enjoyment,  through  the  humblest 
ranks  of  society.  He  mingled  occasionally 
among  the  common  people  in  disguise  ;  visited 
their  firesides ;  entered  into  their  cares,  their 
pursuits,  and  their  amusements,  informed  him- 
self of  the  mechanical  arts,  and  how  they  could 
best  be  patronized  and  improved  ;  and  was  thus 
an  all-pervading  spirit,  watching  with  a  benevo- 
lent eye  over  the  meanest  of  his  subjects.  Hav- 
ing in  this  generous  manner  made  himself 
strong  in  the  hearts  of  the  common  people,  he 
turned  himself  to  curb  the  power  of  the  factious 
nobility  ;  to  strip  them  of  those  dangerous  im- 
munities which  they  had  usurped ;  to  punish 
such  as  had  been  guilty  of  flagrant  offences ; 
and  to  bring  the  whole  into  proper  obedience  to 
the  crown.  For  some  time  they  bore  this  with 
ontward  submission,  but  with  secret  impatience 
and  brooding  resentment  A  conspiracy  was 
at  length  formed  against  his  life,  at  the  head  of 
which  was  his  own  uncle,  Robert  Stewart,  Earl 
of  Athol,  who  being  too  old  himself  for  the  per- 
petration of  the  deed  of  blood,  instigated  his 
grandson.  Sir  Robert  Stewart,  together  with  Sir 
Robert  Graham,  and  others  of  less  note,  to  com- 
mit the  deed.  They  broke  into  his  bed-cham- 
ber at  the  Dominican  convent  near  Perth,  where 
he  was  residing,  and  barbarously  murdered  him 
by  oft-repeated  wounds.  His  faithful  queen, 
rushing  to  throw  her  tender  body  between  him 
and  the  sword,  was  twice  wounded  in  the  inef- 
fectual attempts  to  shield  him  from  the  assas- 
sin ;  and  it  was  not  until  she  had  been  forcibly 
torn  from  his  person,  that  the  murder  was  ac- 
complished." 

This  tragedy  was  acted  Feb.  20. 1437.  When 
the  footsteps  of  the  ruthless  assassins  were  heard 
approaching  the  door  of  the  royal  apartment, 
Catharine  Douglas,  one  of  the  queen's  ladies, 
secured  it  for  a  moment,  by  thrusting  her  arm 
through  the  staple,  and  sustaining,  will), unwa- 
vering fortitude,  the  shocks  of  the  assailants, 
till  her  arm  was  broken,  and  the  door  forced. 

The  sentiments  with  which  Mr.  Irving  con- 
cludes his  sketch  of  James,  are  best  conveyed 
in  his  own  beautiful  language.  "  Others  may 
dwell  on  the  illustrious  deeds  of  James  as  a 
warrior  and  a  legislator  ;  but  I  have  delighted 
to  view  him  merely  as  the  companion  of  his 
fellow  men,  the  benefactor  of  the  human  race, 
stooping  from  his  high  estate  to  sow  the  sweet 
flowers  of  poetry  and  song  in  the  paths  of  com- 
mon life.  He  was  the  first  to  cultivate  the  vigor- 
ous and  hardy  plant  of  Scottish  genius,  which 
has  since  been  so  prolific  of  the  most  wholesome 
26 


and  highly  flavored  fruit.  He  carried  with  him 
into  the  sterner  regions  of  the  north,  all  the  fer- 
tilizing arts  of  southern  refinement.  He  did 
every  thing  in  his  power  to  win  his  country- 
men to  the  gay,  the  elegant,  and  gentle  arts, 
which  soften  and  refine  the  character  of  a  peo- 
ple, and  wreathe  a  grace  round  the  loftiness  of 
a  proud  and  warlike  spirit.  He  wrote  many 
poems,  which,  unfortunately  for  the  fulness  of 
his  fame,  are  now  lost  to  the  world ;  one  which 
is  still  preserved,  called  "  Christ's  Kirk  of  the 
Green,"  shows  how  diligently  he  had  made 
himself  acquainted  with  the  rustic  sports  and 
pastimes,  which  constitute  such  a  source  of 
kind  and  social  feeling  among  the  Scottish 
peasantry;  and  with  what  simple  and  happy 
humor  he  could  enter  into  their  enjoyments. 
He  contributed  greatly  to  improve  the  national 
music;  and  traces  of  his  tender  sentiment,  and 
elegant  taste,  are  said  to  exist  in.  those  witching 
airs,  still  piped  among  the  wild  mountains  and 
lonely  glens  of  Scotland.  He  has  thus  con- 
nected his  image  with  whatever  is  most  gracious 
and  endearing  in  the  national  character  ;  he  has 
embalmed  his  memory  in  song,  and  floated  hia 
name  down  to  after  ages  in  the  rich  stream  of 
Scottish  melody.  The  recollection  of  these 
things  was  kindling  at  my  heart,  as  I  paced  the 
silent  scene  of  his  imprisonment.  I  have  visited 
Vancluse  with  as  much  enthusiasm  as  a  pil- 
grim would  visit  the  shrine  at  Loretfo ;  but  I 
have  never  felt  more  poetical  devotion  than 
when  contemplating  the  old  tower  and  the  little 
garden  at  Windsor,  and  musing  over  the  ro- 
mantic loves  of  the  lady  Jane,  and  the  Royal 
Poet  of  Scotland." 

JAMES  VI,  king  of  Scotland,  and  I  of  Eng 
land,  was  the  son  of  the  unfortunate  Mary,  by 
her  cousin  Lord  Darnley,  and  was  born  at  Ed- 
inburgh, in  JIHJC,  1550.  He  had  Buchanan 
for  his  instructer,  who,  when  accused  of  hav- 
ing made  his  pupil  a  pedant,  replied,  "  that  he 
could  make  nothing  else  of  him."  In  1589, 
he  married  Anne,  daughter  of  Frederick,  king 
of  Denmark,  whom  he  brought  from  Copen- 
hagen. In  1600,  while  hunting,  an  attempt, 
was  made  to  seize  his  person  by  the  earl  of 
Gowrie,  who,  with  his  brother,  was  slain,  while 
the  king  escaped  unhurt.  In  1603,  he  succeed- 
ed to  the  English  throne ;  and,  the  year  follow- 
ing, the  Hampton  court  conference,  between 
the  divines  of  the  established  church  and  the 
Puritans,  was  held  in  his  presence.  The  next 
year  the  gunpowder  plot  was  discovered.  The 
condemnation  and  death  of  Raleigh  was  the 
greatest  blot  on  the  character  and  reign  of  James, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


JAN 


300 


JAY 


who  also  lessened  his  popularity  by  undertak- 
ing the  defence  of  the  Protesiants  of  Germany, 
and  then  abandoning  their  (Ruse.  He  died  in 
March,  1G25. 

JAMES  II,  king  of  England,  succeeded  his 
brother  Charles  if,  in  1685.  A  conspiracy  set 
on  foot  by  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  was  the 
first  disturbance  in  his  reign.  Monmouth  had 
ever  been  the  darling  of  the  people,  and  some 
averred  that  Charles  had  married  his  mother, 
and  owned  his  legitimacy  on  his  death-bed.  The 
duke  of  Argyle  in  the  north,  seconded  his  views, 
and.  with  Monmoiith,  planned  a  double  insur- 
rection, but  both  were  defeated  and  executed. 
James  suspended  the  exercise  of  the  protestant 
religion,  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the 
pope,  and  allowed  the  Jesuits  to  establish  them- 
selves in  the  kingdom.  The  indignation  of  the 
people  was  now  roused,  and  they  hailed  with 
joy  the  arrival  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  before 
whom  James  fled.  He  was  hospitably  received 
by  the  king  of  France,  who  aided  him  in  his 
subsequent  unsuccessful  attempts  to  regain  his 
throne.  James  died  at  St.  Germain  in  France, 
1701. 

JAMESTOWN,  Virginia,  situated  on  an  isl- 
and in  James  river,  32  miles  above  its  mouth. 
It  was  the  first  English  settlement  in  Virginia, 
and  was  established  in  1608.  It  is  now  nearly 
deserted.. 

JANIZARIES ;  these  formidable  foot  soldiers, 
at  first  the  guards  of  the  Ottoman  monarchs, 
and  for  a  long  time  the  arbiters  of  their  fate, 
were  finally  broken  up  in  1826,  the  date  of 
their  last  rebellion.  They  were  established  by 
Amurath  I,  and  originally  consisted  of  the  fin- 
est looking  Christian  slaves,  educated  in  the 
Mohammedan  religion  and  arms.  When  first 
formed,  this  new  militia  was  consecrated  in  the 
presence  of  the  sultan,  by  a  dervish,  who  stand- 
ing in  the  front  of  their  ranks,  stretched  the 
Bleeve  of  hia  gown  over  the  head  of  the  foremost 
soldier,  and  delivered  his  blessing  in  these  woids 
— "Let  them  be  called  Janizaries  (yinrri  cheri, 
or  new  soldiers)  ;  may  their  countenances  be 
ever  bright;  their  hand  victorious;  their  swords 
keen ;  may  their  spear  always  hang  over  the 
heads  of  their  enemies;  and,  wheresoever  they 
go,  may  they  return  with  a  white  face.'  White 
and  black  face  are  common  and  proverbial  ex- 
pressions of  praise  and  reproach  in  the  Turkish 
language. 

JANUS,  a  deity  believed  by  the  Romans  to 
have  the  double  office  of  opening  and  shutting 
the  gate  of  heaven.  He  was  represented  with 
two  faces,  his  temple  at  Rome  was  built  in  the 


form  of  a  square,  and  was  opened  in  time  of 
war,  and  shut  in  time  of  peace. 

JAPAN ;  an  empire  to  the  east  of  China, 
composed  of  a  great  number  of  islands.  The 

Srincipal  are  Niphon,  Kiusin  or  Ximo,  and 
icoco,  or  Sicof.  The  Japanese  have  nominal- 
ly two  emperors,  one  is  the  Dairi,  the  supreme 
pontiff,  and  oracle  of  religion,  and  the  other  the 
Cubo,  a  secular  emperor,  who  is  invested  with 
absolute  authority.  His  residence  is  at  Jeddo, 
a  large  citv.  the  capital  of  the  empire,  in  the 
island  of  Niphon.  The  Japanese  are  enterpris- 
ing, hardy,  and  warlike,  but  treacherous  and 
proud.  Their  religion  is  idolatrous.  Francis 
Xavier  established  a  catholic  congregation  here, 
which  was  destroyed  by  the  Dutch,  in  1637. 
The  soil  is  fertile  and  the  productions  various. 
The  silks,  cottons,  porcelain,  lackered  wares, 
&c.  are  in  high  repute.  The  population  of 
Japan  is  about  225  millions. 

JASON,  son  of  JEson,  king  of  Solchos,  in 
Thessaly,  famous  for  his  share  in  the  Argo- 
nautic  expedition. 

JAVA;  a  large  island  in  the  eastern  seas, 
642  miles  long,  and  128  broad.  In  1815  the 
population  amounted  to  5,000,000.  Java  was 
discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1510.  But  the 
Dutch  obtained  their  possessions,  and  the  island 
was  divided  between  them,  and  the  native  prin- 
ces. It  is  exceedingly  fertile,  producing  rice, 
cotton,  coffee,  pepper,  sugar,  drugs  of  all  kinds, 
and  various  fruits.  The  coffee  of  this  island  is 
renowned.  There  are  also  mines  of  gold,  rubies, 
diamonds,  and  emeralds.  Batavia  is  a  strongly 
fortified  city,  the  centre  of  the  Dutch  East  In- 
dia Company,  and  the  residence  ofa  governor. 
In  1811  the  island  was  taken  by  the  British,  but 
it  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1M4. 
The  natives  are  much  oppressed,  and  have  sev- 
eral times  revolted. 

JAY,  John,  an  American  statesman  and  jurist, 
was  bcxn  in  the  city  of  New  York.  Dec.  1, 1745, 
O.  S.,  and  was  educated  at  King's  (now  Colum- 
bia) college.  In  1768,  he  was  admitted  to  prac- 
tice law,  and  in  1774  was  chosen  a  delegate  to 
the  first  provincial  congress  which  met  at  Phil- 
adelphia. Two  years  aYlerwards  )]<•  was  chosen 
president  of  congress.  In  1778  he  \vas  chosen 
chief  justice  of  New  York,  the  constitution  of 
which  he  had  been  instrumental  in  framing. 
The  next  year  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Spain,  to  procure  aid  and  a  recognition  of  our  in- 
dependence. In  17r'J  lie  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners appointed  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  Great  Britain.  On  his  return,  Mr.  Jay  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  department  for  foreign 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL 


JEF 


301 


JER 


affairs,  in  which  office  he  continued  until  ap- 
pointed Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States.  In 
1784  he  was  sent  as  envoy  extraordinary  to 
Great  Britain,  and  on  his  return  entered  on  the 
duties  of  office  of  governor  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  to  which  he  had  been  elected  during  his 
absence.  He  died  May  17,  1829. 

JEFFERSON,  Thomas,  the  third  president 
of  the  United  States  of  America,  was  born  at 
Shadwell,  Virginia,  April  2,  1743,  O.  S.  He 
spent  two  years  at  William  and  Mary's  college, 
and  then  commenced  the  study  of  the  law, 
which  he  was  admitted  to  practice  in  1767.  In 
1769  he  took  his  seat  in  the  general  assembly 
of  Virginia,  which  the  governor  of  Virginia  dis- 
solved. He  was  then  elected  to  fill  the  place  of 
Peyton  Randolph  in  the  congress,  and  assumed 
his  seat  in  that  body,  June  21,  1775.  He  was 
one  of  the  committee  appointed  to  draw  up  a 
Declaration  of  Independence,  and  that  docu- 
ment, with  a  few  alterations,  is  his  own  compo- 
sition. June  1,  1779,  Mr.  Jefferson  was  chosen 
governor  of  Virginia,  but,  after  two  years,  he 
resigned,  being  of  opinion  that  a  military  man 
would  be  better  suited  for  the  emergencies 
of  the  times.  On  July  5,  1784.  Mr.  Jefferson 
sailed  for  Paris,  having  been  appointed  by  con- 
gress a  third  commissioner  to  negotiate  treaties 
of  commerce  with  other  nations,  Mr.  Adams 
and  Dr.  Franklin  being  the  other  two.  He  was 
actively  engaged  until  1789  when  he  returned 
to  the  United  States  and  was  appointed  Secre- 
tary of  State.  Dec.  1st,  1790,  he  resigned  this 
office,  and  lived  in  retirement  until  17b'7,  when 
he  was  chosen  Vice  President  of  the  United 
States.  In  1801  he  was  chosen  president  by  a 
majority  of  one,  Mr.  Adams  being  hLs  competi- 
tor. He  filled  the  office  of  chief  magistrate  fur 
eight  years,  when  he  retired  to  his  seat  at  M.m- 
ticello,  where  he  died  on  the  (4th  of  July,  Ir^, 
the  same  day  on  which  Mr.  Adams  expired. 
He  made  himself  known  as  an  author  in  1781, 
by  his  Notes  on  Virginia.  In  private  life  he 
was  hospitable,  and  pleasing  in  his  manners; 
in  public,  the  unyielding,  sagacious  and  tal- 
ented leader  of  the  demorcratic  party.  A  monu- 
ment of  his  enterprise  and  benevolence  remains 
in  the  college  established  at  Charlotlesville,  itf 
which  he  filled  the  office  of  rector  for  some  years. 

JEFFREYS,  George,  baron  Wem,  was  born 
at  Acton  in  Denbighshire.  He  was  not  regu- 
larly admitted  to  the  bar,  but  being  at  Kings- 
ton assizes  in  the  year  of  the  plague,  lGb'6, 
when  there  were  scarcely  any  barrister's  pres- 
ent, he  was  permitted  to  plead,  and  from  that 
time  continued  to  do  so.  without  having  his 


title  questioned.  In  1683  he  was  made  chief 
justice  of  the  King's  Bench.  At  the  accession 
of  James  II  he  was  created  baron  Jeffreys  of 
Wem,  in  the  county  of  Salop ;  and,  on  the  sup- 
pression of  the  duke  of  Monmouth's  rebellion, 
he  was  sent  to  try  the  prisoners  in  the  west, 
where  he  committed  the  most  shocking  cruel- 
ties, for  which,  at  his  return,  he  was  constituted 
lord  chancellor  of  England.  When  the  prince 
of  Orange  arrived,  Jeffreys,  knowing  his  unpop- 
ularity, endeavoured  to  escape  in  the  disguise 
of  a  seaman,  but  \vas  detected  in  Wapping,  car- 
ried before  the  council,  by  the  mob,  and  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower,  where  he  died  April  18, 

JENA,  a  town  of  Saxe-Weimar,  in  Thurin- 
gia,  containing  5.000  inhabitants,  memorable 
for  the  battle  between  the  French  and  Prus- 
sians, on  the  14th  of  October,  1806.  The  em- 
peor  Napoleon  headed  the  French  troops,  and 
prince  Hohenlohe  the  Prussians.  The  battle 
was  sanguinary  in  the  extreme ;  250.000  or 
300,000  men,  of  which  the  two  armies  were 
composed,  with  700  or  800  pieces  of  artillery , 
scattered  death  in  every  direction,  and  exhibited 
one  of  the  most  awful  scenes  recorded  in  his- 
tory. The  result  was  decisive  in  favor  of 
the  French.  The  Prussians  lost,  according  to 
the  bulletins  of  the  French,  20,000  killed  and 
wounded,  and  from  30,000  to  40.000  prisoners, 
with  300  pieces  of  cannon,  60  standards,  and 
immense  magazines  of  warlike  stores  and  pro- 
visions. 

JEROME  of  Prague,  a  Bohemian  reformer, 
was  the  scholar  of  Wickliffe,  and  John  Huss. 
and  began  to  publish  their  doctrines.  In  1415, 
he  was  examined  before  the  council  of  Con- 
stance, when  John  Huss  was  in  prison.  He 
contrived,  however,  to  escape,  but  was  taken, 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  a  macristrate,  and 
burned.  May  30.  1416. 

JERUSALEM,  or  HIEROSLYMA,  (in  He- 
brew, Salem,  in  Turkish,  Solyman)  a  celebrated 
city  of  Palestine,  subject  to  the  pacha  of  Damas- 
cus. Its  environs  are  barren  and  mountainous  ; 
and  the  town  irregularly  built.  The  number  of 
inhabitants  is  25,000,  1300  being  Mohamme- 
dans, and  4000  Jews.  There  are  61  Christian 
convents  in  the  city.  The  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  has  been  an  object  of  veneration  and 
curiosity  for  18  centuries.  The  temple  of  the 
Mohammedans  is  a  splendid  edifice.  Melchise- 
dek  is  called  the  founder  and  king  of  Jerusa- 
lem. It  was  a  long  time  in  the  hands  of  the  Jeb- 
usites  from  whom  king  David  took  it.  Solomon 
built  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  After  his  death 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


JER 


302 


JES 


Sesostris,  king  of  Egypt,  took  the  city,  and 
plundered  it,  during  Rehoboam's  reign.  In 
short,  it  was  five  times  taken.  Its  most  mem- 
orable siege  was  that  by  Titus,  B.  C.  70,  when 
the  city  and  the  temple  were  entirely  destroyed, 
and  110,UUU  persons  are  said  to  have  perished, 
and  97,000  to  have  been  made  prisoners,  and 
afterwards  either  sold  as  slaves,  or  wantouly 
exposed,  for  the  sport  of  their  cruel  victors,  to 
the  fury  of  wild  beasts.  Millman,  the  historian 
of  the  Jews,  thus  eloquently  describes  the  de- 
struction of  the  temple.  "  It  was  an  appalling 
spectacle  to  the  Roman,  what  was  it  to  the  Jew  ? 
The  whole  summit  of  the  hill  which  command- 
ed the  city  blazed  like  a  volrnno.  One  after 
another  the  buildings  fell  in,  with  a  tremen- 
dous crash,  and  were  swallowed  up  in  the  fiery 
abyss.  The  roofs  of  cedar  were  like  sheets  of 
flame ;  the  gilded  pinnacles  shone  like  spikes  of 
red  light ;  the  gate  towers  sent  up  tall  columns 
of  flame  and  smoke.  The  neighbouring  hills 
were  lighted  up ;  and  dark  groups  of  people 
were  seen  watching  in  horrible  anxiety  the  pro- 
gress of  the  destruction  :  the  walls  and  heights, 
of  the  upper  city  were  crowded  with  faces, 
some  pale  with/  the  agony  of  despair,  others 
scowling  unavailing  vengeance.  The  shouts 
of  the  Roman  soldiery,  as  they  ran  to  and  fro, 
and  the  howlings  of  the  insurgents  who  were 
perishing  in  the  flames,  mingling  with  the  roar- 
ing of  the  conflagration,  and  the  thundering 
sound  of  falling  limbers.  The  echoes  of  the 
mountains  replied,  or  brought  bark  the  shrieks 
of  the  people  on  the  heights :  all  along  the 
walls  resounded  screams  and  wailings ;  men 
who  were  expiring  with  famine,  rallied  their 
remaining  strength  to  utter  a  cry  of  anguish 
and  desolation. 

"  The  slaughter  within  was  even  more  dread- 
ful than  the  spectacle  from  without.  Men  and 
women,  old  and  young,  insurgents  and  priests, 
those  who  fought  and  those  who  entreated 
mercy  were  hewn  down  in  indiscriminate  car-' 
nage.  The  numbers  of  the  slain  exceeded 
that  of  the  slayers.  The  legionaries  had  to 
clamber  over  heaps  of  dead,  to  carry  on  the 
work  of  extermination.  John,  at  the  head  of 
some  of  his  troops,  cut  his  way  through,  first 
into  the  outer  court  of  the  temple,  afterwards 
into  the  upper  city.  Some  of  the  priests  upon 
the  roof  wrenched  off  the  gilded  spikes  with 
their  sockets  of  lead,  and  used  them  as  missiles 
against  the  Romans  beknv.  Afterwards  they 
fled  to  a  part  of  the  wall,  about  fourteen  feet 
wide  :  they  were  soon  summoned  to  surrender  ; 
but  two  of  them,  Matr,  son  of  Belgo.  and  Jo- 


seph, son  of  Delia,  plunged  headlong  into  the 
flames  !" 

In  the  7th  and  8th  centuries,  the  crusaders 
contended  fiercely  for  toe  possession  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  it  was  taken  by  Godfrey  of  Bou- 
illon. The  Christians  founded  a  kingdom  there 
which  was  ended  by  the  Turks  in  1187. 

JESUITS,  The  ;  the  religious  order  of  the 
Jesuits  was  founded  by  a  military  gentleman  of 
Biscay  named  Ignatius  Loyola.  The  order  was 
sometimes  called  Loyolists,  and  sometimes  Ini- 
ghists,  from  the  founder's  Spanish  name,  Inigo 
de  Cyuipuscoa.  Ignatius  assembled  at  Rome 
ten  of  his  companions,  chosen,  for  the  most  partr 
from  the  University  of  Paris,  in  the  year  1538. 
He  submitted  the  plan  of  his  institution,  which 
he  said  was  inspired  by  divinity,  to  Pope  Paul 

A  committee  appointed  by  that  pontiff  to  ex- 
amine the  character  of  the  institution,  declared 
it  inimical  to  the  interests  of  the  church,  as  well 
as  unnecessary.  The  opposition  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  order  was  overcome  by  the  Loyo- 
lites  agreeing  in  addition  to  the  three  vows  of 
poverty,  celibacy,  and  monastic  obedience,  to 
take  an  oath  of  submission  to  the  pope,  agree- 
ing to  go  whithersoever  he  should  direct,  and 
to  claim  nothing  for  their  support  from  the  holy 
see. 

In  the  very  charter,  however,  by  which  the 
followers  of  Ignatius  bound  themselves  to  the 
interests  of  the  pope,  they  agreed  blindly  to 
obey  their  general.  The  pope  finally  confirmed 
the  institution  by  a  bull  or  decree,  in  the  year 
1540.  The  founder  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  beinw 
originally  an  uneducated  soldier,  it  is  snpposea 
that  he  was  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  artful 
men,  and  that  he  was  not  in  reality  the  author 
of  the  writings  which  bear  his  name.  The  order 
was  confirmed  under  the  title  of  the  "  Company 
of  Jesus." 

At  first  the  number  of  members  was  limited 
to  sixty,  but  this  restriction  was  removed,  and 
the  Jesuits  multiplied  rapidly.  In  the  year 
17JO.  the  order  had  24  professed  houses;  5!) 
houses  of  probation  ;  340  residences  ;  fi!2  col 
leges  ;  200  missions  ;  150  seminaries  and  board 
ing  schools;  arid  consisted  of  19,998  Jesuits. 
The  code  of  laws  by  which  the  Jesuits  were 
governed  was  perfected  by  Layner  and  Aqua- 
viva,  who  succeeded  Loyola  as  generals  of  the 
order,  and  were  possessed  of  far  more  talent 
than  their  predecessor. 

Many  causes  contributed  to  ensure  the  sue 
cess  of  the  institution.  The  Jesuits  were  re- 
quired to  be  more  active  than  other  monks,  hav- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


JES 


303 


JES 


ing  little  to  do  with  the  usual  monastic  func- 
tions. They  were  soldiers  devoted  to  the  ser- 
vice of  God  and  the  pope.  They  cultivated 
the  acquaintance  of  the  great,  and  were  deeply 
imbued  with  the  spirit  of  intrigue.  Loyola 
made  the  government  of  the  institution  purely 
monarchical.  The  general  was  chosen  for  life 
by  deputies  from  the  different  provinces.  His 
power  was  absolute,  and  no  case  and  no  indi- 
vidual were  exempt  from  it.  The  general  had  a 
despotic  power  over  the  members  of  the  institu- 
tion ;  a  much  greater  power  than  the  head  of 
any  monastic  order  had  ever  before  exercised. 
The  Jesuits  were  obliged  to  obey  their  general, 
not  only  in  outward  observances,  but  to  him 
they  submitted  the  direction  of  their  minds. 
Every  novice  was  obliged,  every  six  months, 
to  manifest  his  conscience  to  his  superior  or  to 
some  one  appointed  by  him ;  and  these  novices 
were  closely  watched  by  others  of  the  order, 
who  were  directed  to  give  notice  to  the  general 
of  any  thing  important. 

The  heads  of  the  several  houses  were  obliged 
to  transmit  frequent  reports  of  the  character.and 
conduct  of  the  departments  over  which  they 
presided,  to  the  superior,  and  these  reports  were 
carefully  kept  and  arranged,  that  the  general 
might  refer  at  once  to  the  account  of  particular 
houses  at  any  period.  The  provincials  and' 
heads  of  departments  of  the  order  transmitted 
full  and  minute  accounts  of  the  civil  state  of 
the  respective  countries  in  which  they  resided. 

The  number  of  reports  annually  received  was 
fi584,  or  177  reports  to  each  province  of  which 
there  were  37.  The  education  of  youth  was 
an  object  which  the  Jesuits  were  particularly 
anxious  to  promote  and  direct,  and  the  business 
of  education  was  soon  almost  entirely  conduct- 
ed by  them.  Jn  spite  of  their  vow  of  poverty, 
they  contrived  to  amass  vast  possessions,  and  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies  carried  on  a  very  lu- 
crative commerce. 

They  were  the  confessors  to  monarchs  and 
men  of  rank,  and  the  influence  they  acquired 
was  very  great.  They  sought  to  acquire  and 
enlarge  property,  and  in  South  America,  being 
possessed  of  wealthy  dominions,  they  ruled  over 
some  hundred  thousand  subjects,  as  monarchs. 
They  favored  the  passions  of  mankind  by  sanc- 
tioning unbridled  license  of  manners,  by  the 
moral  code  they  taught.  Regular  and  severe 
in  their  own  habits,  they  were  enabled  to  make 
a  selfish  use  of  the  irregularities  they  counte- 
nanced. 

The  principal  end  aimed  at  by  the  Jesuits, 
was  the  establishment  of  the  doctrines  of  the 


Romish  Church,  and  they  are  said  to  have 
shrunk  from  no  crime  which  could  further  their 
endeavors.  They  were  not  unacquainted  with 
the  persuasive  power  of  the  tortures  of  the  in- 
quisition, in  making  proselytes.  One  of  their 
most  noted  missionaries  was  Francis  Xavier, 
called  the  "  apostle  of  India."  He  sailed  for 
the  Portuguese  settlements  in  India,  in  1542. 
and  soon  spread  the  doctrines  of  the  Romish 
church  over  the  continent  and  surrounding  isl- 
ands. 

It  is  not  our  intention  to  detail  the  proceed- 
ing of  the  Jesuits  in  the  process  of  making  for- 
eign proselytes,  nor  the  controversies  to  which 
it  gave  rise.  They  were  accused  of  making 
compromises  with  some  sects,  permitting  them 
to  retain  profane  customs  and  improper  rites, 
in  consideration  of  their  publicly  embracing  the 
doctrines  of  the  Romish  church.  Asweliave 
before  hinted,  it  is  quite  as  probable  that  as 
many  converts  were  made  by  terror  as  by  mild- 
ness, since  the  Jesuits  were  willing  to  do  any- 
thing to  maintain  a  show  of  success. 

They  took  possession  of  the  fertile  province 
of  Paraguay,  in  the  17th  century,  and  labored 
to  disseminate  military  arts  and  improvements 
among  the  Indians.  They  introduced  the  com- 
forts of  civilization  among  the  inhabitants,  and 
thus  in  the  first  place  gained  their  affection  and 
esteem.  Proceeding  in  this  manner,  they  grad 
ually  strengthened  their  influence,  so  that  a  few 
priests  readily  ruled  some  hundred  thousand 
Indians. 

But  these  priests  did  not  maintain  the  purity 
of  conduct,  which  they  had  given  reason  at  first 
to  suppose  would  be  their  constant  guide  in  all 
their  actions.  They  soon  manifested  schemes 
of  the  most  daring  ambition  and  insatiable  ava- 
rice. They  yearly  sent  home  to  the  European 
Jesuits,  immense  quantities  of  gold,  which 
they  procured  principally  from  Paraguay.  They 
armed  the  Indians,  and  excited  them  to  hatred 
against  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  evident- 
ly showing  their  intentions  of  making  a  separate 


jvereignty  of  Paraguay. 
In  1750,  the   coun 


irts  of  Madrid  and  Lisbon 
entered  into  a  treaty  for  fixing  the  boundaries 
of  their  respective  possessions,  in  South  Amer- 
ica. When  this  treaty  came  to  be  executed  in 
the  year  1752,  the  Jesuits  opposed  it,  and  an- 
imated the  Indians  strenuously  to  resist  the 
Portuguese  and  Spaniards,  in  the  war  which 
followed.  The  disgrace  of  the  Jesuits  at  the 
Portuguese  Courts  originated  in  their  conduct 
on  this  occasion. 

The  Jesuits  had  no  particular  habit.    They 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


JES 


304 


JES 


•were  divided  into  five  classes;  professed  fa- 
thers, spiritual  coadjutors,  approved  scholars,  lay 
brothers,  also  termed  temporal  coadjutors,  and 
novices.  Some  writers  add  a  sixth  class,  called 
adjuncts,  which  are  said  to  have  been  numer- 
ous, distinguished  by  different  garments,  and 
incorporated  with  the  other  classes.  The  pro- 
fessed father j  publicly  took  the  three  vows  of 
their  order,  and  the  fourth  regarding  obedience 
to  the  pope,  missions,  &c. 

The  spiritual  coadjutors  made  public  vows  of 
poverty,  submission  and  celibacy,  but  omitted 
the  vow  of  obedience  to  the  head  of  the  church. 
Approved  scholars  were  those  who  after  a  novi- 
ciate of  two  years,  were  admitted,  and  had 
declared  the  three  religious  vows,  but  had  not 
mat'.e  them  solemnly  and  publicly.  These  ap- 
proved scholars  were  on  their  way  to  become 
spiritual  coadjutors,  but  were  only  admitted  to 
that  degree,  and  the  degree  of  professed  fathers, 
after  two  years'  noviciate,  seven  years'  study, 
seven  years'  regency ,  an  additional  year  of  no- 
viciate, and  thirty-three  years  of  age,  at  which 
time  of  life  our  Savior  was  crucified.  The 
vows  were  binding  on  the  part  of  the  scholars, 
but  the  general  could  dispense  with  them  if  he 
saw  proper. 

The  order  was  divided  into  assistances,  the 
assistances  into  provinces,  and  the  provinces 
again  into  houses.  The  general  resided  at 
Rome,  was  invested  with  absolute  authority  for 
life,  and  had  under  him  five  assistants,  named 
from  the  kingdom  or  country  to  which  they 
belonged.  These  were  the  assistants  of  Italy, 
France,  Germany,  Portugal,  and  Spain.  These 
assistants  put  their  departments  in  the  way  of 
preparing  and  forwarding  their  affairs. 

Each  province  had  four  sorts  of  houses  :  The 
professed  houses,  which  had  no  lands  connected 
with  them ;  colleges,  where  instruction  was  given 
in  the  sciences ;  residences,  w  here  people  em- 
ployed in  any  thing  connected  with  confessions, 
preaching,  or  missions,  resided,  and  the  houses 
of  the  novices.  Some  of  the  buildings  appro- 
priated to  instruction  were  called  seminaries, 
in  which  young  Jesuits  went  through  a  course 
of  theology  and  philosophy.  Each  province 
was  governed  by  a  provincial,  and  each  house 
by  a  superior,  who  was  called  Rector  in  the  col- 
leges, but  superior  elsewhere. 

Members  of  this  order  could  receive  no  pre- 
ferment, except  it  was  enjoined  upon  them  by 
the  pope,  who  did  so  in  many  instances,  eight 
cardinals  having  been  chosen  from  the  Jesuits. 
When  Henry  IV,  of  France,  was  assassinated 
by  Jean  Catel,  a  Jesuitical  scholar,  this  act  and 


the  writings  of  Guignard,  one  of  the  order,  in 
favor  of  regicide,  caused  them  to  be  expelled 
by  several  parliaments,  and  denounced  as  cor- 
rnptors  of  youth  and  enemies  of  government. 

Louis  XIII  again  countenanced  them,  and 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  Louis  XIV  showed 
them  favor.  In  the  reign  of  the  latter  monarch, 
they  obtained  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes,  in  favor  of  the  Protestants.  The^y 
gained  an  almost  complete  triumph  over  their 
enemies,  the  Jansenists,  when  among  other 
things,  their  refusal  to  administer  the  sacra- 
ment to  the  Jansenists,  created  a  turn  of  the 
tide  against  them,  which  ended  in  their  dissolu- 
tion. 

The  Jesuits  were  tried  before  the  grand 
chamber  of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  lost 
their  case,  which  grew  out  of  a  desire  to  com- 
pound their  debts,  when,  having  carried  on 
great  commerce  in  Martinico,  they  had  sus- 
tained heavy  losses  by  war.  An  examination 
into  their  own  books,  only  proved  the  charges 
against  them.  Professing  poverty,  they  were 
found  to  possess  riches ;  pretending  to  modera- 
tion and  justice,  they  were  convicted  of  incul- 
cating principles  which  endangered  the  well 
being  of  the  king  and  realm. 

The  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  Portugal  in 
1759;  from  France  in  1764;  and  their  society 
was  abolished  by  pope  Clement  XIV,  in  1773. 
Had  they  adhered  to  the  principles  they  pro- 
fessed, in  the  outset,  and  merely  aimed  at  civil 
izing  and  converting  savages,  and  increasing 
knowledge  at  home,  the  institution  would  have 
been  as  justly  celebrated,  as  it  is  now  de- 
nounced for  ambition,  avarice,  cruelty,  and 
corruption. 

JESUS,  called  also  CHRIST  (the  anointed), 
was  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  at  Bethlehem,  in 
the  12th  year  of  the  consulate  of  Augustus, 
four  or  five  years  before  the  commencement  of 
the  vulgar  era.  Angels  had  announced  his  birth 
as  tidings  of  great  joy  to  mankind.  He  was 
circumcised  upon  the  8th  day.  Three  Magi, 
learned  in  the  science  of  astronomy,  having 
perceived  in  the  firmament  a  singular  star, 
knew  that  it  was  the  miraculous  luminary  of 
which  the  prophet  Balaam  had  spoken,  and 
immediately  left  the  east,  and  journeyed  to 
Bethlehem  to  do  him  homage,  and  present 
their  offerings.  Joseph,  the  husband  of  Mary, 
having  received  divine  warnings  and  directions 
in  a  dream,  carried  the  infant  and  his  mother 
into  Egypt,  to  escape  the  fury  of  Herod,  who 
ordered  an  inhuman  massacre  of  all  the  child- 
ren in  the  land.  After  the  death  of  Herod,  the 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


JOA 


305 


JOH 


parents  of  Jesus  dwelt  at  Nazareth,  and  they 
brought  him,  every  year,  to  Jerusalem,  to  the 
feast  of  the  Passover.  When  he  was  but  twelve 
years  old,  Joseph  and  Mary  found  him,  after  an 
absence  from  them  of  three  days,  in  the  Temple, 
seated  in  the  midst  of  the  doctors,  listening  to 
them,  and  propounding  questions.  All  who 
heard  him  were  filled  with  admiration  at  the 
wisdom  of  his  answers. 

Jesus  commenced  his  public  life  in  the  thir- 
tieth year  of  his  age.  For  the  various  acts  of  it 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  New  Testament. 
The  close  of  his  life  affectingly  displayed  the 
love  of  God  for  men.  On  the  eve  of  his  death, 
after  having  supped  with  his  disciples,  he  insti- 
tuted the  Eucharist,  and,  having  been  betrayed 
by  Judas,  whose  designs  he  had  explained  to 
one  of  his  disciples,  he  suffered  himself  to  be 
taken  and  bound,  condemned  to  death  before 
the  Jewish  tribunal,  scourged  and  crowned  with 
thorns,  and  crucified  upon  Mount  Calvary.  The 
body  of  our  Lord  was  placed  in  a  sepulchre  of 
stone,  sealed  and  guarded  by  the  Jews,  but  on 
the  third  day.  according  to  prediction,  his  resur- 
rection from  the  grave"  took  place.  He  dwelt 
upon  the  earth  forty  days,  which  he  passed  in 
the  company  of  his  disciples,  teaching  them 
how  to  spread  the  light  of  his  pure  religion 
through  the  nations  of  the  earth.  On  the  forti- 
eth day  he  ascended  to  heaven  in  the  presence 
of  more  than  five  hundred  of  his  disciples, 
where  he  is  seated  at  the  rio-ht  hand  of  the 
Father. 

JEWS  (See  Hebrews}. 

JOAN  OF  ARC,  (Jeanne  d'Jlre),  called  the 
Maid  of  Orleans,  was  born  of  low  parentage  at 
Domremig,  a  village  on  the  borders  of  "Lor- 
raine. When  the  affairs  of  France  were  in  a 
deplorable  state,  and  the  city  of  Orleans  was  so 
closely  besieged  by  the  duke  of  Bedford  that 
its  fall  appeared  inevitable,  Joan  pretended  to 
have  received  a  divine  commission  to  expel  the 
invaders.  At  this  time,  a  belief  in  the  super- 
natural endowments  was  by  no  means  uncom- 
mon, and.  far  from  being  confined  to  the  lower 
classes,  pervaded  the  minds  of  the  loftiest  and 
most  pretending.  Joan,  on  being  introduced  to 
king  Charles  VII,  offered  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Orleans,  and  conduct  her  prince  to  Rheims, 
there  to  be  crowned  with  the  usual  solemnities ; 
at  the  same  time  demanding  for  herself  a  con- 
secrated sword,  which  had  long  hung  suspended 
in  the  church  of  St.  Catharine.  Her  request 
wag  granted,  and  she  fulfilled  her  promises, 
entered  Orleans  in  triumph,  and  appeared,  clad 
in  a  splendid  suit  of  armor,  at  the  coronation  of 


Charles,  which  took  place  in  the  Cathedral  of 
Rheims.  The  gallant  maid,  her  mission  done, 
now  sought  to  retire  into  private  life,  but  she 
was  urged  to  stay.  She  yielded  to  the  general 
wish  with  fatal  facility — fatal,  because,  having 
been  taken  with  the  garrison  of  Compeigne, 
she  was,  to  the  disgrace  of  Bedford  and  the 
English,  condemned  to  death,  and  expired  at 
the  stake,  in  the  market  place  of  Rouen,  May 
30,  1431.  She  was  never  a  servant,  as  English 
writers  have  represented ;  and  was  a  lovely 
girl  of  eighteen,  when  she  first  sought  an  audi- 
ence of  Charles.  An  authentic  portrait,  yet 
extant,  shows  that  she  possessed  a  face  and 
figure  of  exquisite  loveliness;  a  countenance  to 
which  a  beaming  eye,  and  a  tender  expression 
of  melancholy,  imparted  an  interest,  which 
rendered  her  fascination  irresistible. 

JOHN  I.  king  of  England,  the  youngest  son 
of  Henry  It,  by  Eleanor  of  Guienne,  ascended 
the  throne  in  1199.  The  first  act  of  his  reign 
was  to  secure  the  provinces  on  the  continent, 
which  had  revolted  in  favor  of  young  Arthur, 
his  nephew,  whom  he  murdered  with  his  own 
hand  in  prison.  John  having  resisted  the  pope's 
nomination  of  Stephen  Langton  to  the  see  of 
Canterbury,  the  pope  revenged  himself  by  giv- 
ing away  "his  kingdom  to  the  king  of  France. 
This  circumstance  created  a  war,  and  John 
advanced  to  Dover  with  60,000  men,  to  meet 
the  French  king,  who  was  preparing  an  army 
to  take  possession  of  England.  In  this  posture 
of  affairs,  the  pope,  whose  high  authority  in 
temporal  as  well  "fl  spiritual  concerns,  was  con- 
sidered to  be  then  almost  omnipotent,  intimated 
to  John,  by  his  legate,  that  there  was  but  one 
way  to  secure  himself  from  the  threatened  dan- 
ger :  which  was,  to  put  himself  entirely  under 
the  papal  protection,  and  to  perform  whatever 
the  pope  should  command.  Accordingly,  John 
took  the  most  extraordinary  oath  recorded  in 
history,  in  the  presence  of  his  subjects,  upon 
his  knees,  and  with  his  hands  held  up,  between 
those  of  the  legate.  By  this  most  scandalous 
concession,  John  once  more  averted  the  threat- 
ened blow  :  but  he  had  now  incurred  the  detes- 
tation of  his  subjects. 

The  barons  of  England  formed  a  confederacy 
against  him,  and  compelled  him,  on  the  19th 
of  June,  1215,  to  sign  that  famous  bulwark  of 
English  liberty ,  the  Magna  Charta.  John ,  how 
ever,  refused  to  be  governed  by  this  charter 
This  produced  a  second  civil*war,  in  which  the 
barons  had  recourse  to  the  king  of  France  for 
assistance.  John  directed  his  rout  toward  Lin- 
colnshire with  an  army,  but  being  obliged  to 


\ 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


JOH 


keep  too  close  to  the  sea-shore,  and  not  being 
apprised  of  the  influx  of  the  tide  at  a  particular 
place,  he  lost  all  his  carriages,  treasure,  and 
baggage.  Grief  for  the  loss  he  had  sustained, 
threw  him  into  a  fever,  of  which  he  died,  at 
Newark,  in  the  51st  year  of  his  age,  and  the 
18th  of  his  detested  rei<rn,  A.  D.  1216. 

JOHN,  Sobieski,  or  John  III,  king  of  Poland, 
was  born  in  1029,  and  distinguished  himself  in 
arms,  particularly  by  his  brilliant  victory  over 
the  Turks  at  Choczim,  and  by  his  repulse  of 
the  same  enemies  when  they  threatened  Vienna 
in  16S3.  He  died  in  169(1 

JOHNSON,  Samuel,  L.  L.  D.,  one  of  the 
most  eminent  literary  men  of  the  18th  century, 
was  born  at  Lichfield,  in  Staffordshire,  in  1709, 
and  was  the  son  of  a  bookseller.  He  entered 
Pembroke  college  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  and 
passed  three  years  there  without  taking  a  de- 
gree. For  some  years  after  leaving  college,  he 
was  unsettled  in  his  views,  which,  however, 
chiefly  turned  to  literature.  In  1735,  he  mar- 
ried Mrs.  Porter,  a  mercer's  widow  of  twice  his 
own  age,  probably  for  her  fortune  of  £800, 
although  he  describes  the  affair  as  a  "  love 
match  on  both  sides."  In  1737,  he  came  to 
London  in  company  with  David  Garrick,  who 
had  been  one  of  his  pupils,  to  seek  his  fortune. 
Here  he  supported  himself  by  his  pen,  his  first 
publication  in  London  being  a  poem  in  imita- 
tion of  one  of  Juvenal's  satires.  He  was  for 
many  years  a  contributor  to  the  Gentlemans' 
Magazine.  In  1747,  he  issued  his  plans  for  an 
English  Dictionary,  a  worL  which,  when  pub- 
lished, fully  equalled  the  high  expectations 
which  had  been  formed  of  it.  His  periodical 
papers,  the  Rambler,  and  Idler,  displayed  in  a 
favorable  light,  the  talents  of  the  author.  The 
moderate  success  of  the  tragedy  of  Irene  con- 
vinced Dr.  Johnson  that  he  was  incapable  of 
producing  dramas  which  would  reflect  honor 
on  his  pen.  His  fine  romance  of  Rasselas, 
Prince  of  Abyssinia,  was  wiitten  in  the  even- 
ings of  one  week  to  defray  his  mother's  funeral 
expenses.  In  1762,  he  received  a  government 
pension  of  £300  per  annum.  He  published 
some  political  pamphlets,  which .  however,  do 
not  display  very  great  argumentative  powers. 
His  last  undertaking,  the  Lives  of  the  Poets, 
was  completed  in  1781.  He  died  December 
Kith,  1784,  and  was  interred  in  Westminster 
Abbey ,  where  a  slatue  is  erected  to  his  memory. 
His  biography,  by  his  friend  Boswcll,  is  one  of 
the  most  amusing  works  of  the  kind  ever  writ- 
ten, and  still  continues  to  enjoy  high  popu- 
arity. 


306  Jos 

JONES,  John  Paul,  was  the  son  of  a  gar- 
dner,  and  was  born  in  Scotland,  July  6th,  1747. 
His  father's  name  was  Paul,  and  that  of  Jones 
was  added  by  his  son  for  some  unknown  rea- 
son. Jones,  at  the  age  of  twelve,  engaged 
in  the  merchant-service,  but  on  the  break- 
ing out  of  the-American  war,  having  been  for 
some  time  a  resident  here,  he  offered  his  ser- 
vices to  the  colonies,  and  was  appointed  first 
lieutenant  of  the  Alfred.  He  contributed  more 
than  any  one  else,  to  inspire  confidence  in  our 
infant  navy,  and  extend  the  terror  of  our  arms. 
His  capture  of  the  British  ship  of  war  Serapis, 
in  a  bloody  engagement  off  Flambourgh-head, 
September  23,  1779.  filled  the  world  with  admi- 
ration at  his  bravery.  The  Bonne  llomme 
Richard,  Jones'g  vessel,  sank  soon  after  the  en- 
gagement. When  his  services  were  no  longer 
required  by  this  country,  he  entered  the  service 
of  Russia,  but  retired  in  disgust,  and  died  at 
Paris  in  poverty,  July  18,  1792. 

JOSEPH  II,  emperor  of  Germany.  (See 
Austria.) 

JOSEPHINE,  (Rose  Taschcr  de  la  Pagerie), 
was  born  in  Martinique,  June  24,  1763,  and 
married  at  an  early  age  to  viscount  Beauhar- 
nais,  who  was  executed  in  the  reign  of  terror. 
Josephine  married  Bonaparte  in  1796.  She 
lived  to  see  Napoleon  raised  to  the  zenith  of  his 
power,  and  then  hurled  from  the  summit  he 
had  gained.  But  at  that  hour  of  affliction  the 
affectionate  Josephine  had  no  longer  a  right  to 
be  near  the  man  she  adored,  for  he  had  divorced 
her  to  marry  Maria  Theresa,  from  motives  of 
policy.  Josephine  had  been  crowned  at  Paris, 
and  Milan,  and  retired  to  her  beautiful  seat  of 
Malmaison  vith  the  title  of  empress-queen- 
dowager.  She  was  called  the  Star  of  A'apolcon., 
and  his  better  destiny  forsook  him  when  he 
cast  off  his  amiable  and  lovely  wife.  She  died 
May  29th,  1814,  her  last  words  being,  L'ile  de 
Elbe — Nupoletm !  The  poor  mourned  in  her  a 
faithful  friend,  the  artists  of  the  capital  a  kind 
and  munificent  patron,  and  the  lovers  of  Napo- 
leon the  peerless  woman  who  had  graced  his 
throne  in  the  brightest  moments  of  his  career. 
Truly  did  the  emperor  say ;  "  If  I  win  battles, 
Josephine  wins  heart." 

JOSEPHUS,.  Flavius,  a  Jewish  historian, 
born  A.  D.  37.  He  signalized  himself  by  sup- 
porting a  siege  of  47  days  against  Vespasian 
and  Titus  in  a  town  of  Judea.  The  city  was 
finally  taken  by  treachery,  and  40,000  of  the 
inhabitants  were  slain,  the  number  of  captives 
being  only  1200.  Jost-phus  saved  his  life  by 
flying  into  a  cave,  and  finally  surrendered  to 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


JUL 


307 


JU11 


Vespasian,  who  gave  him  his  liberty,  and  treat- 
ed him  with  great  favor.  Josephus  was  present 
at  the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  He  died  A.  D.  93,  in 
the  56th  year  of  his  age. 

JUBA,  the  second  of  that  name,  was  the  son 
of  Juba  I.  king  of  Numidia,  and  was  among  the 
captives  led  to  Rome  to  grace  the  triumph  of 
the  victorious  Caesar.  He  gained  the  hearts  of 
the  Romans  by  the  courteousness  of  his  man- 
ners, and  Augustus  rewarded  his  fidelity  by 
giving  him  in  marriage  Cleopatra,  the  daughter 
of  Antony,  and  conferring  upon  him  the  title 
of  king,  and  making  him  master  of  all  the  ter- 
ritories which  his  father  once  possessed.  His 
popularity  was  so  great  that  the  Athenians  rais- 
ed a  statue  to  him,  and  the  Ethiopians  worship- 
ped him  as  a  divinity. 

JUDAEA.    (See  Palestine.) 

JUGGERNAUT,  or  Jaganath  (lord  of  the 
world),  a  celebrated  temple  in  Hindostan,  on 
the  coast  of  Orissa.  The  idol  is  a  shapeless 
block  of  wood,  with  a  hideous  black  face,  and 
crimson  jaws  yawning  open.  This  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  Vishnu,  the  preserver  of  the  world. 
On  days  of  festival,  the  idol  is  placed  on  a 
tower,  60  feet  high,  moving  on  wheels,  beneath 
which  the  blinded  Hindoos  throw  themselves 
on  the  ground  and  are  crushed  by  the  progress 
of  the  car. 

JUGURTHA,  son  of  Mastanabal  murdered 
Hiempsal,  the  son  of  his  uncle  Micipsa,  and  ex- 
iled Adherbal,  the  brother  of  Hiempsal.  to  seat 
himself  on  the  throne  of  Numidia.  Adherbal 
supplicated  the  aid  of  the  Romans,  but  the  gold 
of  Jugurtha  procured  a  decision  in  his  favor. 
Adherbal,  who  surrendered  to  the  usurper,  was 
inhumanly  murdered,  and  the  Roman  people 
breathing  vengeance  against  the  murderer,  the 
senate  were  constrained  to  declare  war  upon 
him.  The  Jugurthine  war  required  an  im- 
mense expenditure  of  blood  and  treasure,  but 
Jugurtha  was  finally  defeated  by  Marius,  and 
starved  to  death  in  a  Roman  prison.  Numidia 
then  became  a  Roman  province. 

JULIAN,  the  Apostate,  (Flavius  Claudianus) 
son  of  Julius  Constans,  the  brother  of  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  was  born  at  Constantinople. 
The  massacre  which  attended  the  elevation  of 
Constans,  son  of  Constantine  the  Great  to  the 
throne,  nearly  proved  fatal  to  Julian  and  his 
brother  Gallus.  The  two  brothers  were  private- 
ly educated  together,  and  taught  the  doctrines 
of  the  Christian  religion.  Gallus  received  the 
instructions  of  his  teachers  with  deference  and 
submission,  but  Julian  showed  his  dislike  for 
Christianity  by  secretly  cherishing  a  desire  to 


become  one  of  the  votaries  of  Paganism.  He 
was  appointed  to  rule  over  Gaul,  with  the  title 
of  Cesar,  by  Constans,  and  there  he  showed 
himself  worthy  of  the  imperial  dignity  by  his 
prudence,  valor,  and  the  numerous  victories  he 
obtained  over  the  enemies  of  Rome  in  Gaul 
and  Germany.  His  mildness,  as  well  as  his 
condescension,  gained  him  the  hearts  of  his 
soldiers ;  and  when  Constans,  to  whom  Julian 
became  an  object  of  suspicion,  ordered  him  to 
send  part  of  his  forces  to  the  east,  the  army  im- 
mediately mutinied,  and  promised  eternal  fidel- 
ity to  their  leader,  refusing  to  obey  the  order 
of  Constans.  They  even  compelled  Julian,  by 
threats  and  entreaties,  to  accept  the  title  of  em- 
peror, and  the  death  of  Constans,  which  soon 
after  happened,  left  him  sole  master  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  A.  D.  361. 

His  immediate  disavowal  of  the  doctrines 
of  Christianity  procured  Julian  the  title  of  the 
Apostate.  His  change  of  religious  opinion  was 
attributed  to  the  austerity  with  which  he  had 
been  taught  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  or, 
according  to  others,  to  the  literary  conversation 
and  persuasive  eloquence  of  some  of  the  Athe- 
nian philosophers.  After  he  had  made  his  pub- 
lic entry  into  Constantinople,  he  determined  to 
continue  the  Persian  war,  and  check  those  bar- 
barians, who  had  for  sixty  years  derided  the 
indolence  of  the  Roman  emperors.  Having 
crossed  the  Tigris,  he  burned  his  fleet  and  bold 
ly  advanced  into  the  enemy's  country.  He  de- 
feated the  Persian  forces,  but  died  of  a  wound 
received  in  battle,  A.  D.  365,  aged  33  years. 

JUNIUS.     The  signature  under  which  some 

Kwerful  letters  were  published  in  Woodfall's 
iblic    Advertiser,   in    London,   between   the 
years  17b'(.)  and  1772.     They  were  chiefly  poli- 
tical.    After  the  greatest  scrutiny,  the  real  au- 
thor has  not  been  positively  ascertained. 

JUPITER,  the  son  of  Rhea  and  Saturn,  was 
concealed  from  his  father,  who  devoured  his 
offspring,  and  brought  up  in  Crete,  where  he 
was  nursed  by  the  nymph  Amalthca.  He  forc- 
ed Saturn  to  surrender  to  him  the  empire  of 
the  world,  which  he  shared  among  his  brothers, 
giving  the  ocean  to  Neptune,  and  hell  to  Pluto, 
remaining  himself  master  of  the  heavens ;  he 
was  called  the  father  of  gods  and  men.  The 
giants,  descended  from  his  uncle  Titan,  made 
war  upon  him,  but  were  defeated.  He  gave 
Juno,  his  wife  and  sister,  ample  cause  for  jeal- 
ousy, and  from  the  multiplicity  of  his  intrigues, 
was  almost  literally  the  father  of  his  people. 
He  is  generally  represented  with  thunderbolts 
in  his  hand,  the  eagle  at  hia  side,  his  flowing 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


KAT 


308 


KIN 


nair  encircled  with  a  diadem.  His  figure  was 
majestic,  and  a  long  beard  added  to  the  impos- 
ing aspect  of  his  lofty  countenance.  Bulls,  in 
preference  to  other  animals,  were  sacrificed  to 
him. 

JUSTINIAN  I,  surnamed  the  Great,  empe- 
ror of  the  east,  celebrated  as  a  lawgiver,  was 
born  in  483,  of  an  obscure  family.  He  snared 
the  fortune  of  his  uncle,  Justin  I,  who,  from  a 
lowly  station,  was  raised  to  the  throne.  Jus- 
tinian flattered  the  people  and  the  Senate,  and, 
in  527,  on  the  death  of  his  uncle,  was  proclaim- 
ed emperor.  He  gained  great  victories,  and 
enacted  admirable  laws,  but  he  loaded  his  sub- 
jects with  taxes,  and  was  severe  to  strangers, 
while  the  crimes  of  his  own  servants  went  un- 
punished. He  died  in  565,  in  the  83d  year  of 
his  age,  after  a  reign  of  38  years. 

JUTLAND,  a  province  of  Denmark,  contain- 
ing 9,500  square  miles  and  440.000  inhabitants. 
Its  pastures  and  woodlands  are  valuable,  and 
its  iron  mines  are  a  source  of  revenue. 

JUVENAL,  Decius  Junius,  flourished  at 
Rome  in  the  latter  half  of  the  first  century. 
He  was  sent  to  Egypt  by  Domitian,  who  dread- 
ed his  satire,  but  returned  under  Trajan,  in  the 
82d  year  of  his  age.  His  sixteen  satires  are 
powerful  and  caustic. 

JUXON,  William,  an  English  prelate,  was 
born  at  Chiche«ter,  in  1582.  In  1635  he  was 
advanced  to  the  post  of  lord  high  treasurer, 
which  no  churchman  had  held  since  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII.  This  office  he  resigned  in  1641, 
when  it  was  admitted  by  all  parties,  that  he  had 
conducted  himself  without  reproach.  After  at- 
tending his  royal  master,  Charles  I,  during  his 
imprisonment  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  on  the 
scaffold,  he  went  into  retirement ;  but,  at  the 
Restoration,  he  was  made  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, and  had  the  satisfaction  of  placing  the 
crown  on  the  head  of  Charles  the  Second.  He 
died  June  4,  1663. 

K. 

KALB,  Baron  de,  born  in  Germany  about 
1717,  was  a  major-general  in  the  American 
army.  Previous  to  serving  in  the  war  of  our 
revolution,  he  had  been  engaged  in  the  ser- 
vice of  France  42  years.  He  was  brave  and 
benevolent.  He  was  killed  at  Camden,  Aug. 
1.",.  177-. 

KATSBACH,  a  river  of  Silesia,  near  which 
a  battle  was  fought,  Aug.  26,  1813,  between 
the  Prussians  under  Blucher,  and  French  under 
Macdonald. 


KEHL,  a  small  town  of  Germany,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  which  has  been  seve- 
ral times  taken  by  the  French  and  Austrians. 

KEITH,  James,  field-marshal  in  the  Russian 
service,  was  born  in  Scotland,  in  1696.  In  1715, 
he  joined  the  pretender,  and  was  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Sheriff-muir,  but  made  his  escape 
to  France.  From  Paris  he  went  to  Spain,  and 
obtained  a  command  in  the  Irish  brigade  ;  but, 
on  accompanying  the  Spanish  embassy  to  Rus- 
sia, he  entered  into  the  service  of  that  state, 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-gen- 
eral, and  invested  with  the  order  of  the  Black 
Eagle.  By  his  skill  Oczagon  was  taken  ;  and, 
in  the  war  with  Sweden.  Immaterially  contri- 
buted to  the  victory  of  Wilmanstrand,  and  the 
taking  of  Aland.  He  had,  aflervvads,  a  share 
in  raising  the  empress  Elizabeth  to  the  throne ; 
but,  not  oeing  rewarded  according  to  his  ser- 
vices, he  leff Petersburg  for  Prussia,  where  the 
king  made  him  governor  of  Berlin,  and  field- 
marshal.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Hoch- 
kirchen,  Oct.  14,  1758. 

KENILWORTH,  a  town  of  Warwickshire, 
England,  five  miles  north  of  Warwick.  Pop- 
ulation 3,097.  Its  castle  was  founded  by  Geof- 
frey de  Clinton,  Chamberlain  and  treasurer  to 
king  Hemy  1.  Most  of  the  buildings,  of  which 
the  remains  are  still  visible,  were  raised  by  John 
of  Gaunt,  who  had  acquired  the  castle  by  mar- 
riage. Through  his  son,  Henry  IV,  the  castle 
again  reverted  to  the  crown,  and  continued  so. 
until  Queen  Eliznbeth  conferred  it  on  Robert 
Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester.  This  nobleman  spent 
immense  sums  in  enlarging  and  adorning  the 
building,  and  when  all  was  finished,  he  enter- 
tained "the  queen  here  for  fourteen  days  in  a 
style  of  extraordinary  mairnificence. 

KENTUCKY,  one  of  tlie  United  States  of 
America,  bounded  N.  by  Ohio.  Indiana  and 
Illinois,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  river 
Ohio,  E.  by  Vitginia,  S.  by  Virginia  and  Ten- 
nesse,  and  W.  by  the  river  Mississippi.  Popu- 
lation, in  1840,  776,923,  of  whom  7,309  were 
free  colored  persons,  and  165,213  slaves.  Th-- 
first  permanent  settlement  was  made  by  Dan- 
iel Boone,  in  1775.  In  1792  Kentucky  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  as  an  independent  state. 
The  eastern  parts  of  this  state  arc  mountain- 
ous, but  the  remainder  partly  level,  and  partly 
undulating.  A  large  portion  of  the  soil  is  ad- 
mirable. Education  is  by  no  means  neglected, 
and  Transylvania  University,  at  Lexington,  is 
a  flourishing  and  well-endowed  institution,  with 
which  a  medical  and  law  school  are  connected. 

KING,   Rufus,    a   distinguished    American 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


KNO 


309 


KOR 


diplomatist,  orator,  and  statesman,  born  at  Scar- 
borough. Maine,  in  1755,  and  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  college,  in  J777,  after  which  he  studi- 
ed law  under  Theophilus  Parsons  of  Newbury- 
port.  After  having  served  a  short  time  in  the 
army,  he  commenced  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession and  obtained  a  seat  in  the  congress  of 
1784.  In  1767  he  went  from  Massachusetts  to 
the  convention  assembled  for  the  purpose  of 
framing  a  constitution,  and  in  1788  removed  to 
New  York  city.  The  next  year  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  New  York  legislature,  and 
chosen  senator  of  the  United  States.  In  the 
spring  of  1796,  Mr.  King  was  appointed  by  Pres- 
ident Washington,  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to 
the  court  of  St.  James,  and  continued  in  the 
discharge  of  the  duties  of  his  office  until  180:3, 
when  he  returned  to  this  country.  He  was  de- 
feated as  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  governor 
of  New  York,  but  he  had  been  nominated  by 
his  friends  without  his  knowledge,  and  his  con- 
sent to  stand  was  (riven  with  reluctance.  He 
died  April  29,  1887,  in  the  73d  year  of  his 


°K 


LEBER,  Jean  Saptiste,  a  celebrated  French 
general,  born  at  Strasburg.  in  1754.  In  the  Aus- 
trian army  he  served  against  the  Turks,  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  He  next  en- 
rolled himself  under  the  banners  of  the  French 
republic,  and  although  he  openly  expressed  his 
detestation  of  the  policy  of  the  revolutionary 
government,  he  experienced  the  favor  of  the 
Directory,  who  were  loath  to  part  with  so  able 
a  soldier.  Of  the  nature  of  his  command  in 
Egypt,  and  the  manner  of  his  death,  June  14, 
1800,  we  have  already  spoken  (see  Egypt.) 

KNIGHTHOOD.  The  consideration  of  this 
subject  properly  belongs  to  Chivalry,  and,  as 
such,  has  been  noticed  in  the  earlier  part  of  this 
volume  by  a  few  brief  remarks.  (See  C/ii.valry.) 
There  were  various  orders  of  knights,  as  Tem- 
plars &c.  See  Templars. 

KNOX,  John,  the  celebrated  Scotch  reformer, 
was  born  in  1505,  at  Giftbrd,  in  the  county  of 
East  Lothian.  He  became  tutor  to  some  young 
gentlemen  whom  he  carefully  brought  up  in 
Protestant  principles.  Notwithstanding  his  life 
was  sought  by  Cardinal  Beaton,  and  liis  suc- 
cessor, Archbishop  Hamilton,  Knox  went  on 
propagating  the  new  doctrines  ;  and,  in  1547, 
preached  publicly  at  St.  Andrews;  but  that 
place  being  taken  the  same  year  by  the  French, 
he  was  carried  off  with  the  garrison.  In  1549 
he  recovered  his  liberty  ,  and  landed  in  England  ; 
where  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Edward 
VI.  On  the  accession  of  queen  Mary,  he  went 


to  Geneva,  and  thence  to  Frankfort,  where  he 
took  part  with  the  English  exiles  who  opposed 
the  use  of  the  liturgy  ;  but  their  adversaries 
prevailing,  Knox  returned  to  Geneva,  and  soon 
after  went  to  Scotland.  'While  engaged  in  the 
ministry,  he  received  an  invitation  to  return  to 
Geneva,  with  which  he  complied  ;  and,  in  his 
absence,  the  bishops  passed  sentence  of  death 
on  him  for  heresy.  In  1558,  he  printed  "  The 
First  Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the  Mon- 
strous Regimen  of  Women,"  intended  as  an 
attack  upon  Mary,  queen  of  England,  and  his 
own  sovereign  ;  but  it  had  afterwards  the  effect 
of  provoking  queen  Elizabeth  and  her  minis- 
ters against  the  author.  The  year  following  he 
returned  to  his  own  country,  where  he  render- 
ed the  Reformation  triumphant.  In  1567  he 
preached  the  sermon  at  the  coronation  of  James 
VI,  and  another  at  the  opening  of  the  parlia- 
ment, but  he  died  at  Leith,  Nov.  24,  1572. 

KNOX,  Henry,  a  major-general  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  army,  was  born  at  Boston,  July  25, 
1750.  He  was  a  bookseller  before  the  revolu- 
tion, but  volunteered  and  served  at  Bunker 
Hill.  Throughout  the  war  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  bravery,  but  particularly  at  York- 
town,  after  which  he  was  created  major-gen- 
eral by  Congress.  As  secretary  of  war,  he  serv 
ed  1 1  'years.  His  death  took  place  Oct.  25, 1806. 
at  Thomaston,  Mciine. 

KORAN,  or  AL  KORAN,  a  book  contain- 
ing the  precepts  of  the  Mohammedan  religion, 
a  paper  copy  of  which,  bound  in  silk  and  gems, 
was  said  to  have  been  brought  down  to  the 
lowest  heaven  by  the  angej  Gabriel. 

KORNER,  Theodore,  a  celebrated  German 
poet,  born  in  1791.  Feeble  and  sickly  during 
his  early  youth,  he  roamed  the  garden  and  for- 
est in  pursuit  of  health,  and  was  not  premature- 
ly doomed  to  study.  His  earliest  instructions 
were  received  at  FrejTburg,  but  he  afterwards 
went  to  Leipzig,  which  his  imprudent  conduct 
compelled  him  to  quit.  The  month  of  August, 
1811,  the  date  of  Korner's  arrival  at  Vienna, 
commenced  the  most  important  era  of  his  life. 
Shielded  by  the  purity  of  his  principles,  and 
the  strength  of  his  religious  convictions,  he  was 
uninfluenced  by  the  fascinating  allurements  of 
that  gayest  and  most  light-hearted  of  cities,  nor 
did  he  for  a  moment  forget  that  the  improve- 
ment of  his  literary  taste',  and  the  developement 
of  his  moral  character,  was  a  primary  object  in 
his  visit  of  Vienna.  The  brilliant  talents  which 
then  encircled  the  Viennese  theatres  with  a  halo 
of  brightness,  fired  the  imagination  of  Korner, 
and  he  resolved  to  appear  publicly  as  a  candi- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


KOR 


310 


KOS 


date  for  the  dramatic  laurel.  Sixteen  pieces,  of 
different  kinds,  composed  or  finished  in  the 
space  of  fifteen  months,  and  the  greater  part 
performed  with  a  success  which  far  exceeded 
the  expectations  of  the  youthful  poet,  were,  to- 
gether with  a  few  fugitive  poems,  the  first  fruits 
of  his  residence  in  a  world  which  was  completely 
literary,  as  well  as  the  earliest  proofs  of  his  tal- 
ent for  easy  versification.  On  the  first  repre- 
sentation of  one  of  his  tragedies,  the  audience 
demanded  the  appearance  of  the  author,  an 
honor  to  poetic  talent  which  is  rarely  accorded 
in  Vienna.  Cherished  and  admired  by  the  pub- 
lic, he  was  soon  made  the  dramatic  poet  of  the 
court.  This  appointment  secured  his  worldly 
fortune,  and,  as  if  to  fill  his  cup  of  happiness 
to  the  brim,  he  was  inspired  by  an  ardent  pas- 
sion for  a  worthy  object,  and  no  dark  shadow 
fell  upon  the  tide  of  his  affections. 

Such  was  the  enviable  situation  of  Korner, 
when,  at  the  commencement  of  the  year  1813, 
Prussia  called  upon  her  sons,  to  win  back  for 
her  the  priceless  guerdon  of  her  national  inde- 
pendence. This  appeal  found  an  echo  in  the 
bosom  of  the  poet.  From  this  moment,  all  his 
thoughts,  all  his  affections,  turned  on  the  lib- 
eration of  his  country,  to  whose  service  he  de- 
voted his  person  and  his  pen,  and  to  whom  he 
was  ready  to  sacrifice  his  life,  his  fortune,  and 
his  prospect  of  glory  and  love.  As  soon  as  he 
had  resolv 


ect  o    gory  a 
lved  to  fight 
,  warmed  wit 


for  the  emancipation  of 

Germany,  warmed  with  that  enthusiasm  which 
has  ever  been  repaid  with  victory,  he  wrote 
thus  to  his  father  :  "  The  Prussian  eagle,  ex- 
tending his  pinions,  awakes  in  every  bosom,  a 
hope  of  national  liberty  —  at  this  moment,  when 
the  stars  of  fate  are  pouring  down  on  me  a 
flood  of  brightness,  when  all  the  fascinating 
joys  of  life  are  within  my  reach,  at  this  mo- 
ment, I  swear  to  God  that  it  is  a  noble  senti- 
ment which  animates  me,  a  firm  belief,  that  no 
sacrifice  is  too  great,  for  the  greatest  of  bles- 
sings, the  liberty  of  our  beloved  country.  I  feel 
compelled  to  rush  into  the  fury  of  the  tempest. 
Shall  I,  far  from  the  path  of  my  victorious 
brethren,  send  them  hymns  and  songs  inspired 
by  a  safe  and  cowardly  enthusiasm  ?" 

He  set  out  from  Vienna  on  the  15th  of  March, 
and  at  Breslau  was  admitted  into  the  corps  of 
volunteers  commanded  by  Lutzow,  whose  care 
had  formed  the  band  that  bore  his  name.  Youth 
distinguished  by  the  high  tone  of  their  senti- 
ments, and  the  finish  of  their  education,  officers, 
already  known  by  honorable  services,  men  of 
high  rank  and  reputation,  filled  with  a  patriotic 
and  religious  enthusiasm,  had  assembled  in 


crowds  beneath  the  banners  of  Lutzow,  burning 
to  avenge  the  wrongs  of  oppressed  liberty.  A 
few  days  after  the  admission  of  Korner,  the 
ceremony  of  the  consecration  of  Lutzow's  corps 
took  place  in  the  village  church.  This  was  an 
affecting  and  inspiring  scene. 

Ardent,  brave,  and  devoted  to  his  military 
duties,  Korner  avoided  no  fatigues  and  perils, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  was  only  wearied  with  in- 
action. He  rose,  by  degrees,  to  the  post  of  ad- 
jutant to  Lutzow,  and  owed  this  advancement 
only  to  the  intrepidity  and  intelligence  which 
he  displayed  on  every  occasion.  Still  poetry 
and  song  occupied  his  leisure  moments;  but 
instead  of  being  his  recreations,  they  had  be- 
come his  arms  ;  his  lyre  was  ho  less  formidable 
than  his  sword.  The  events  of  the  day,  his  per- 
sonal emotions,  and  the  patriotism  of  his  coun- 
try are  displayed  in  his  verses. 

On  the  26th  of  August,  the  corps  of  Lutzow 
confronted  the  French  at  Kitzen.  During  an 
hour's  halt  in  a  forest,  Korner  composed  his 
famous  Sword  Song.  At  break  of  day  he  wrote 
it  in  his  port-folio,  and  was  reading  it  to  a 
friend,  when  the  signal  for  attack  was  given. 
The  enemy,  although  superior  in  point  of 
numbers,  made  but  a  brief  resistance — Korner 
showed  himself  fiercely  eager  in  the  pursuit. 
Of  a  shower  of  balls  which  the  French  artille- 
rists poured  upon  the  Prussians,  but  three  took 
effect,  and  one  of  these  carried  to  the  bosom  of 
the  poet,  at  the  age  of  22,  that  glorious  death 
which  he  had  so  poetically  prophecied,  and  so 
religiously  desired.  His  mortal  remains  were 
interred  by  the  wayside,  at  the  foot  of  an  oak 
the  tree,  whose  leaves  were  employed  by  the 
ancient  Romans,  to  form  their  civic  crowns. 

KOSCIUSKO,  Thnddeus,  a  Polish  general, 
was  born  of  a  respectable  family  of  Lithuania, 
in  175(5,  and  was  educated  at  the  military  school 
of  Warsaw,  after  which  he  went  to  France,  and 
next  to  America,  where  he  served  as  aid-de- 
camp to  Washington.  On  his  return  home 
he  was  made  major-general,  and  distinguished 
himself  greatly  in  the  war  of  17'J2,  but  without 
effect.  Two  years  afterwards  the  Poles  again 
took  up  arms,  and  were  headed  by  Kosciusko ; 
but  all  his  exertions  were  fruitless,  and  he  was 
made  prisoner  by  the  Russians.  Catharine  threw 
him  into  a  dungeon,  but  Paul  released  him  and 
tendered  him  his  own  sword,  which  the  illus- 
trious patriot  declined ;  "  I  no  longer  need  a 
sword,  for  I  have  no  longer  a  country."  Kos- 
ciusko visited  America  a  second  time,  but,  in 
1798,  returned  to  France,  where  he  settled. 
Bonaparte  vainlv  endeavored  to  procure  his  ser- 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


LAF 


311 


LAO 


vices.     His  death  was  occasioned  by  a  fall  with 
his  horse  down  a  precipice,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Vevay,  Switzerland.  Oct.  16.  1817. 
KOULI-KHAN,  (See  Xadir-Sk*k.) 


LABRADOR ;  a  country  of  North  America 
of  great  extent,  between  the  50th  and  60th  de- 
grees of  N.  latitude.  It  is  but  little  known, 
and  the  climate  is  uncommonly  severe.  The 
Esquimaux  inhabit  its  coasts.  It  belongs  to 
great  Britain  and  is  annexed  to  the  government 
of  Newfoundland. 

LAFAYETTE,  Gilbert  Mottier,  formerly 
marquis  de,  was  born  at  Chavagnac,  near  Brion 
de,  in  Auvergne.  Sept.  6,  1757.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Paris,  appointed  an  officer  in  the  guards 
of  honor,  and,  at  the  age  of  10,  married  the 
grandaughter  of  the  duke  de  Noilles.  In  1777 
fie  left  France  secretly,  and  hastened  to  Ameri- 
ca, arriving  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  at  the  age  of 
19.  He  received  a  command  in  the  continental 
army,  and  raised  and  equipped  a  body  of  men 
at  his  own  expense.  The  gallant  actio'ns  which 
he  performed  will  for  ever  live  in  the  annals  of 
our  country.  In  1779  he  returned  to  France, 
for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  cause  of  Ameri- 
ca, and  materially  influenced  the  treaty  which 
was  then  concluded  with  France.  He  returned 
and  assumed  the  command  of  a  body  of  2000 
men  whose  equipments  were  furnished  partly 
at  his  own  expense.  Congress  passed  various 
resolutions,  honorable  to  him,  and,  after  dis- 
playing a  chivalric  gallantry  at  Yorktown,  the 
young  marquis  once  more  set  sail  for  his  native 
country.  In  1784.  he  complied  with  the  vari- 
ous urgent  entreaties  to  visit  this  country,  and 
was  every  where  received  with  the  most  touch- 
ing marks  of  gratitude  and  esteem.  During  the 
French  revolution  he  appeared  the  warm  and 
consistent  friend  of  liberty,  but  the  enemy  of 
licentiousness,  and,  as  commander-in-chief  of 
the  national  guards  of  Paris,  saved  the  lives  of 
the  royal  family  at  Versailles.  He  organized 
the  club  of  Feuillans  in  opposition  to  the  infa- 
mous Jacobin  club,  the  members  of  which  he 
openly  denounced.  He  was  appointed,  in  1792, 
one  of  the  major-generals  of  the  French  armies, 
and  vainly  endeavored  to  save  the  king.  His 
exertions  in  the  cause  of  humanity,  procured 
his  denunciation  before  the  bar  of  the  assembly, 
a  price  was  set  upon  his  head,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  fly  from  France.  But  he  was  taken 
bv  the  Austrians,  and  confined  in  the  castle  of 
Olmutz,  until  Aug.  25,  1797,  when  he  was  re- 
27 


leased.  La  Fayette  opposed  the  usurpations  of 
Napoleon,  whose  conciliatory  offers  he  refused 
without  a  single  exception.  In  Aug.  1824,  La- 
fayette landed  at  New  York,  and^passed  tri- 
umphantly through  each  of  the  states,  received 
every  where  with  every  demonstration  of  de- 
light. The  war-worn  veterans  of  the  revolu- 
tion hailed  his  return  to  the  scenes  of  his  earli- 
est exploits,  and  there  was  not  one  dissentient 
voice,  in  the  acclamations  which  welcomed  him. 
Sep.  7,  1825,  the  frigate  Brandywine  restored 
him  to  his  country.  In  the  December  follow- 
ing Congress  granted  him  $200,000,  and  a 
township  of  land.  During  the  late  French  re- 
volution, Lafayette  was  appointed  general-in- 
chief  of  the  national  guards,  an  office  which  he 
resigned  in  December.  The  death  of  tkis  great 
man,  which  took  place  recently  at  Paris,  was 
duly  noticed  both  in  France  and  this  country. 
A  political  opponent  once  out  of  the  arena,  was 
to  Lafayette,  no  longer  any  thing  but  a  friend  ; 
the  circle  of  those  admitted  to  share  his  private 
hospitality  was  so  ample,  that  it  comprised  the 
partisans  of  nearly  every  doctrine,  and  almost 
the  natives  of  every  clime  ;  but  no  feeling  was 
ever  wounded,  nor  even  a  prejudice  assailed 
within  its  sacred  limits.  It  was,  doubtless,  to 
this  admirable  feature  in  his  private  character 
that  he  owed  much  of  the  affectionate  esteem 
with  which  every  party  regarded  him,  and 
which  turned  Paris  —  frivolous,  volatile  Paris  — 
into  a  citv  of  mourning  at  his  death.  He  died 
May  21,  1834,  at  the  age  of  77,  of  a  malignant 
fever,  occasioned  by  walking,  bareheaded,  and 
on  foot,  at  the  funeral  of  M.  Dulong,  a  member 
of  the  chamber  of  deputies. 

LANGDON,  John,  an  American  patriot, 
born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in  1739,  was  bred 
up  to  the  business  of  a  merchant,  but  early  en- 
tered into  the  military  service  of  the  colonies. 
In  1775  he  took  his  seat  in  the  general  congress, 
in  1776,  was  appointed  navy-agent;  in  1777, 
was  speaker  of  the  assembly  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  in  1785  president  of  the  Senate.  He  was 
afterwards  a  senator  in  Congress,  and  governor 
of  New  Hampshire.  He  died,  Sept.  18,  1819. 

LANNES,  John,  marshal  of  France,  duke  of 
Montebello,  was  born  in  1769,  and  in  1792  en- 
tered the  army  as  sergeant-major.  In  Italy, 
Egypt,  and  Austria,  he  raised  himself  in  the 
estimation  of  Napoleon,  and  was  created  by 
him  marshal  of  the  emire.  At  the  battle  of 


Esslingen,  May  22,  1809,  he  lost  both  his  legs 
by  a  cannon-ball  and  expired  a  few  days  after. 

LAOCOON,  a  priest  of  Neptune  at  Troy, 
who,  with  his  two  sons,  was  destroyed  by  two 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


LAT 


312 


LAD 


enormous  serpents,  sent  by  Minerva  to  punish 
him  for  his  impiety.  There  is  an  antique  group 
of  statuary  extant  representing  this  event. 

LAPEROUSE,  John  Francis  Galaup  de,  a 
French  navigator,  born  in  Lanoruedoc,  in  1741, 
who,  after  making  a  successful  voyage  of  dis- 
covery, was  probably  wrecked  at  Mallicolo,  1 1° 
4'  S.  latitude,  169°  20'  E.  longitude. 

LAPLAND,  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Arctic 
ocean,  E.  by  the  White  Sea,  S.  by  Sweden,  and 
W.  by  Norway,  and  the  Atlantic.  It  is  divided 
into  Russian.  Swedish,  Danish,  and  Norwegian 
Lapland.  The  country  is  generally  broken  and 
mountainous,  and  the  climate  intensely  cold. 
The  villages  are  small  and  scattered,  and  the 
country  is  thinly  inhabited.  The  Laplanders 
are  illiterate  and  unrefined,  but  attached  to  their 
country,  hardy,  and  persevering.  Their  aver- 
age height  is  four  feet.  The  rein-deer  supplies 
them  with  food  and  clothing,  and  transports 
their  light  sledges  at  a  rapid  rate. 

LATIMER.  Hugh,  was  born  at  Thurcaston, 
in  Leicestershire  about  1470.  and  was  the  son 
of  a  respectable  yeoman.  Being  an  admired 
preacher,  his  influence  was  of  great  importance, 
and  in  consequence  he  soon  became  obnoxious 
to  the  papal  party.  The  martyrdom  of  Bilney, 
at  Norwich,  served  only  to  animate  Latimer, 
who  had  the  courage  to  write  a  letter  of  remon- 
strance to  the  king,  on  the  evil  of  prohibiting 
the  use  of  the  Bible  in  England.  Henry  (the 
Eighth)  took  this  in  good  part,  and  presented 
the  writer  to  the  living  of  West  Kington,  in 
Wiltshire,  but  this  only  redoubled  the  malice 
of-his  enemies,  who  were  still  more  provoked  at 
his  elevation,  in  1535,  to  the  bishopric  of  Wor- 
cester, for  which  he  was  indebted  to  the  good 
offices  of  Anne  Bullen  and  Thomas  Cromwell. 
Of  his  plain  dealing,  the  following  circumstance 
is  a  proof.  It  was  then  the  custom  for  the  bish- 
ops to  make  presents,  on  new  year's  day.  to  the 
king,  and  among  the  rest,  Latimer  waited  at 
court  with  his  girt,  which,  instead  of  a  pursr  of 
gold,  was  a  New  Testament,  having  the  leaf 
turned  down  at  a  passage  denouncing  the  ruling 
passion  of  the  king.  Henry,  however,  was  not 
offended  by  this  bluntness ;  and  when,  some 
time  afterwards.  Latimer  was  called  before  him 
to  account  for  a  sermon  which  he  had  preached 
at  court,  he  justified  it  so  honestly,  that  the 
monarch  dismissed  him  with  a  smile. 

But,  after  the  fall  of  Cromwell,  his  adversa- 
ries prevailed,  and  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower  f-ir 
speaking  against  some  measures  of  the  king ; 
and  there  he  remained  for  the  rest  of  Henry's 
reign.  On  the  accession  of  Edward, lie  was  re- 


leased ;  but  though  he  was  now  in  favor  at  court, 
no  arguments  could  induce  him  to  resume  the 
episcopal  function.  He  resided  with  Cranmer 
at  Lambeth ;  and  when  Mary  ascended  the 
throne,  "  Father  Latimer,"  as  he  was  generally 
called,  was  cited  to  appear  before  the  privy- 
council,  by  whom  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower. 
On  passing  through  Smithfield,  he  said,  "this 
place  has  long  groaned  for  me  ; "  but  he  was 
not  sacrificed  there  ;  the  triumphant  party  or- 
dering him  to  be  conveyed  to  Oxford,  with  his 
friends,  Ridley  and  Cranmer.  There,  after  a 
mock  conference  and  degradation,  Latimer  and 
Ridley  were  brought  to  the  stake,  Oct.  10. 1555. 
On  coming  to  the  spot,  Latimer  said  to  his  com- 
panion, "  Be  of  good  cheer,  brother  ;  we  shall 
this  day  kindle  such  a  torch  in  England  as.  1 
trust,  shall  never  be  extinguished." 

LATINUS,  a  son  of  Fannus.  by  Marcia,  and 
king  of  the  Aborigines  in  Italy,  who  were  called 
from  him  Latini.  He  married  Amata,  by  whom 
he  had  a  son  and  a  daughter.  The  son  died  in 
his  infancy,  and  the  daughter.  Lavinia.  was  se- 
cretly promised  in  marriage  by  her  mother,  to 
Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutuli,  one  of  her  most 
powerful  admirers.  The  gods  opposed  this 
union,  and  the  oracle  declared  that  Lavinia 
must  become  the  wife  of  a  foreign  prince.  The 
arrival  of  ^Eneas  in  Italy  seemed  favorable  to 
this  prediction,  and  Latinus.  by  offering  his 
daughter  to  the  foreign  prince,  and  making  him 
his  iriend  and  ally,  seemed  to  have  fulfilled  the 
commands  of  the  oracle.  Turnus,  however, 
disapproving  of  the  conduct  of  Latinus.  ch'.hned 
Lavinia  as  his  lawful  wile,  and  prepared  to  sup- 
port his  cause  by  arms.  ^Eneas  took  up  arms 
in  his  own  defence,  and  Latiur.i  was  the  seat  of 
the  war.  After  mutual  losses,  it  was  agreed 
that  the  quarrel  should  be  decided  by  the  two 
rivals,  and  Latinus  promised  his  daughter  to  the 
conqueror.  ./Eneas  obtained  the  victory,  and 
married  Lavinia.  Latinus  soon  after  died,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son-in-law. 

LAUREN'S.  Henry,  was  born  at  Charleston. 
S.  C.,in  17'J4.  He  was  a  inerchaat  and  amassed 
an  ample  fortune  by  his  industry.  He  was  in 
London  at  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolutionary 
troubles;  but  returned  to  America  in  1774.  and 
was  chosen  president  of  the  council  of  safety. 
In  1776  he  took  his  seat  in  congress,  of  which 
body  he  was  president,  and  continued  in  office 
until  177>*.  In  177:1  hi-  u;:s  appointed  minister 
plenipotentiary  of  the  United  States  to  Holland, 
but  on  his  way  was  captured  by  the  British, 
nnd  confined  14  months  m  the  tower.  He  died 
Dec.  2,  1792,  nearly  70  years  of  age. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


LAW 


313 


LEE 


LAURENS,  John,  lieutenant  colonel,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  educated  in  England,  and 
joined  the  American  army  in  1777.  In  1780  he 
was  sent  us  a  special  minister  to  France,  and  by 
his  boldness  in  presenting  to  the  king  a  memo- 
rial at  the  levee,  received  a  definitive  answer  to 
his  application  for  a  loan  which  was  satisfacto- 
rily arranged.  His  first  essay  in  arms  was  at 
Brandy  wine.  At  the  battle  of  Germantown,  he 
exhibited  prodigies  of  valor,  ia  &ttempttng  to 
expel  the  enemy  from  Chew'sKiouse,  and  was 
severely  wounded.  He  was  engaged  at  Mon- 
mouth,"and  greatly  increased  his  reputation  at 
Rhode  Island.  At  Coosahatchie,  defending  the 
pass  with  a  handful  of  men,  against  the  whole 
force  of  Provost,  he  was  again  wounded,  and 
was  probably  indebted  for  his  life  to  the  gal- 
lantry of  captain  Wigg,  who  gave  him  his  horse 
to  carry  him  from  the  field,  when  incapable  of 
moving,  his  own  having  been  shot  under  him. 
He  headed  the  light  infantry,  and  was  among 
the  first  to  mount  the  British  lines  at  Savannah ; 
displayed  the  greatest  activity  and  courage  dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Charleston  ;  entered,  with  the 
forlorn  hope,  the  British  redoubt  carried  by 
storm  at  Yorktown,  and  received  with  his  own 
hand,  the  sword  of  the  commander;  by  inde- 
fatigable activity,  thwarted  every  effort  of  the 
British  garrison  in  Charleston,  confining  them, 
for  upwards  of  1  '2  months,  to  the  narrow  limits 


the  very  close  of  the  war,  too  careless  by  ex- 
posing himself  in  a  trifling  skirmish,  near  Com- 
babee,  sealed  his  devotion  to  his  country  by 
death. 

LAVALETTE,  Marie  Chamans,  count  de, 
was  born  in  Paris,  in  1760,  of  obscure  parents  ; 
notwithstanding  which  he  received  a  good  edu- 
cation, became  the  aid-de-camp  of  Bonaparte, 
and  was  entrusted  with  several  important  offi- 
ces, besides  being1  made  a  peer  of  France.  In 
1815,  on  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  he  was 
tried,  and  condemned  to  death  as  an  accomplice 
of  Napoleon,  but,  the  day  before  the  execution, 
his  heroic  wife,  who  was  permitted  to  visit  him, 
changed  clothes  with  him  in  prison,  and  the 
count  passed  the  guard  unnoticed,  and  entered 
the  sedan-chair  with  his  daughter.  He  found 
means  to  escape  to  Munich,  but  the  govern- 
ment had  the  inhumanity  to  detain  the  count- 
ess in  prison,  which  harshness  deprived  her  of 
reason.  Her  husband  was  pardoned,  and  re- 
turned to  France  in  1821. 

LAWRENCE,  James,  a  distinguished  naval 


commander,  was  born  in  New  Jersey,  in  1781. 
In  1798  he  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman 
and,  for  his  services  iu  the  Tripolitan  war,  was 
made  first  lieutenant.  Feb.  24,  Itii:1.,  Law- 
rence, in  command  of  the  Hornet,  took  the 
British  brig  of  war  Peacock,  after  an  action  of 
15  minutes.  June  1, 181 3,  he  sailed  out  of  Bos- 
ton harbor,  in  command  of  the  frigate  Chesa- 
peake, to  accept  the  challenge  of  captain  Brooke 
of  the  Shannon.  The  result  might  have  been 
easily  foretold.  The  Chesapeake  was  an  infe- 
rior vessel,  and  her  crew  shipped  upon  the  spur 
of  the  moment,  while  the  Shannon  was  a  fine 
vessel,  well  manned,  with  a  crew  in  perfect 
training.  Lawrence  was  mortally  wounded, 
but  survived  the  action  four  days.  His  last 
words,  before  he  was  carried  below,  were, 
"  Don't  give  up  the  ship  !"  The  flag  of  the 
Chesapeake  was  not  hauled  down  until  almost 
all  her  officers  were  killed  or  wounded. 

LED  YARD,  John,  a  celebrated  American 
traveller,  born  at  Groton,  Connecticut,  in  1751 . 
At  the  age  of  19  he  entered  Dartmouth  college, 
for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  the  information 
necessary  for  his  becoming  a  missionary  among 
the  Indians.  He  acquired  knowledge  with  great 
facility,  but  so  ardent  a  desire  did  he  have  for 
travel,  that  he  soon  escaped  from  college,  shipped 
as  a.  sailor,  went  to  Gibraltar,  enlisted  there, 
produced  his  discharge,  and  returned  home  in 
one  year.  He  crossed  the  Atlantic  again,  work- 
ing his  passage  to  Plymouth,  and  thence  beg- 
ging his  way  to  London,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted %vith  captain  Cook,  whom  lie  accom- 
panied in  his  last  voyage.  In  1782  he  returned 
to  Connecticut.  Having  formed  a  plan  of 
making  the  tour  of  the  globe  on  foot,  departing 
from  London  to  the  eastward,  he  went  as  far  as 
Irkutsk,  where  he  was  arrested,  by  an  order 
from  the  empress,  as  a  French  spy,  and  con- 
ducted to  the  borders  of  Poland,  where  he  was 
liberated,  with  an  intimation  that  his  presence 
in  the  dominions  of  the  czarina  was  so  little  de- 
sirable, that  a  repetition  of  his  visit  would  pro- 
duce a  warrant  for  his  execution.  He  reached 
London,  after  an  absence  of  15  months,  in  a 
destitute  condition,  at  the  age  of  37 ;  he  imme- 
diately accepted  a  proposal  to  travel  into  the 
interior  of  Africa,  on  behalf  of  the  African  As- 
sociation, but  he  was  taken  ill  at  Cairo,  and 
died,  November,  1788. 

LEE,  Charles,  a  major-general  in  our  revo- 
lutionary army,  was  a  native  of  "North  Wales, 
and  became  an  officer  at  the  age  of  eleven. 
After  distinguishing  himself  at  Ticonderoga, 
and  under  Burgoyne  in  Portugal,  he  entered  the 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


LEE 


314 


LEP 


Polish  service.  In  1773  he  arrived  at  New 
York,  and  in  1775  received  a  commission  from 
congress.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  and  re- 
mained some  time  in  the  hands  of  the  British 
but  was  released  Oct.  17,  1777.  At  the  battle 
of  Monmouth  he  permitted  his  command  to  re- 
treat;  and  was  reproached  by  Washington,  to 
whom  he  used  disrespectful  language,  was  tried 
hy  a  court-martial,  and  sentenced  to  a  year's 
suspension,  Aug.  12,  1778.  He  died  Oct.  2, 
17fc2.  He  was  an  able  officer,  but  proud,  and 
ambitious. 

LEE,  Richard  Henry,  a  signer  of  the  De- 
claration of  Independence,  was  born  at  Stratford, 
Westmoreland  county,  Va.,  Jan.  20,  1732,  but 
received  his  education  in  England.  He  return- 
ed to  America  in  his  19th  year.  In  the  house 
of  burgesses,  he  displayed  his  talents  and  patri- 
otism, and,  in  17G5,  assisted  Patrick  Henry's 
resolutions  against  the  Stamp  Act,  with  great 
xeal.  In  1774  he  attended  the  first  general  con- 
gress which  assembled  at  Philadelphia,  as  one 
of  the  Virginia  delegation.  His  services  were 
various,  and  his  labor  incessant.  June  7,  177G, 
he  moved,  "  that  these  united  colonies  are,  and 
of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent 
states ;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegi- 
ance to  the  British  crown  ;  and  that  all  politi- 
cal connection  between  them  and  the  state  of 
Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  dissolved." 
In  1784  he  was  chosen  president  of  congress, 
and  died,  July  19,  1794. 

LEE,  Arthur,  was  born  in  Virginia,  Dec.  20, 
1740.  He.  was  educated  in  England,  at  Eton, 
and  took  the  degree  of  M.  D.  at  Edinburgh.  In 
1770  he  commenced  the  practice  of  medicine  in 
Virginia.  He  was  afterwards  a  secret  agent  of 
our  government  at  London  and  Paris,  and,  on 
the  return  of  doctor  Franklin  to  America,  be- 
came the  sole  agent  of  Massachusetts.  In  1777 
he  \va.s  appointed  by  Congress  commissioner  to 
Spain,  and  he  was  subsequently  employed  in 
Prussia.  He  returned  to  America  in  1780,  and 
the  next  year  he  was  chosen  to  the  assembly, 
from  which  he  went  to  congress.  lie  was 
called  to  the  board  of  treasury,  of  which  he  con- 
tinued to  be  a  member  from  1784  to  1789.  He 
died  at  his  farm  Dec.  IS,  1792. 

LEE,  Henry,  general,  was  born  in  Virginia, 
Jan.  29,  1756,  and  was  graduated  at  Princeton 
college  in  his  18th  year.  In  1770,  he  obtained 
the  command  of  a  troop  of  the  Virginia  light 
horse,  and,  in -1777  joined  the  main  army,  un- 
der Washington.  His  .conduct  throughout  the 
whole  revolutionary  struggle  merits  the  highest 
praise.  Ever  in  the  front  of  danger,  he  per- 


formed several  daring  feats  which  have  been 
rarely  equaled.  After  the  termination  of  the 
war.'he  was  alternately  a  member  of  Congress, 
and  of  the  assembly  of  his  state,  of  which  he 
was  governor  for  three  successive  years.  He 
died  in  1818. 

LEIPS1C,  or  properly  Leipzig,  a  large  city, 
founded  in  the  10th  century,  and  now  contain- 
ing 41,000  inhabitants.  It  is  famous  for  its 
aftairs,  being  the  centre  of  the  German  book- 
trade,  and  is  alsq  distinguished  by  its  university. 
Here  was  fought  an  important  battle  between 
the  allies  and'  the  French,  October  18th,  18l3. 
The  whole  loss  of  the  French  has  been  estima- 
ted at  60,000,  that  of  the  allies  at  45 ,000  in  killed 
and  wounded. 

LENTULUS,  a  celebrated  family  at  Rome, 
which  produced  many  great  men  in  the  com- 
monwealth. Publius  Lentulus  Sura  joined  Cat- 
iline's conspiracy,  was  convicted,  imprisoned, 
and  afterwards  executed. 

LEO  X,  (Giovanni  de'  Medici),  a  pope,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1475,  being  the  second  son 
of  Lorenzo  do'  Medici.  At  the  age  of  13  he 
was  made  a  cardinal.  He  succeeded  Julius  II 
in  101:5,  u:ul  assumed  th-:  r.":v.c  of  Leo.  Me 
was  a' patron  ot  literature,  and  particularly  en- 
couraged the  study  of  the  Greek  language. 
After  opposing  the  -king  of  France,  he  made 
peace  with  him,  and.  in  1515,  concluded  a  con- 
cordate  on  the  abolition  of  the  Pragmatic  sanc- 
tion. He  died  in  1521. 

LEOBEJN,  a  town  in  the  Austrian  duchy  of 
Styria.  where  the  convention  was  concluded 
between  the  French  and  Austrians,  on  the  20th 
of  April,  1797,  which  terminated  in  the  peace 
of  Campo  Formio. 

LEON,  anciently,  the  kingdom  of  Leon,  one 
of  the  great  divisions  of  Spain,  is  famous  for  its 
fertility,  and  contains  1.215,551  inhabitants. 

LEONIDAS,  a  celebrated  king  of  Sparta, 
sent  by  his  countrymen  to  oppose  Xerxes. 
When  the  Persian  monarch  demanded  his  arm?, 
Leonidas  answered  ;  "  Come  and  lake  them  !  " 
With  his  throe  hundred  Spartans,  and  a  few 
auxiliaries,  he  defended  the  pass  of  Thermo- 
pylae against  the  whole  Persian  army.  He  died 
surrounded  by  heaps  of  slain  enemies. 

LEPANTO,  or  Ainabachti,  a  seaport  in  Tur- 
key, on  the  gulf  of  Corinth,  now  the  gulf  of 
Lepanto,  or  gulf  of  Patras,  with  2000  inhabi- 
tants. In  1475,  the  Venetians  defended  it 
against  the  Turks  during  a  siege  of  4  months. 
The  famous  sea  fight  of  Xepnnto.  between  the 
Turks  and  Spaniards,  in  which  Cervantes  lost 
his  hand,  was  fought  Oct.  7, 1571.  The  Turks, 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


LEV 


315 


LIG 


being  at  anchor  in  the  gulf,  and  hearing  that 
the  Christians  were  bearing  down  upon  them 
from  Corfu,  reinforced  their  fleet  which  con* 
sisted  of  250  gallics,  70  frigates  and  brigantines. 
The  Christian  fleet  consisted  of  210  galleys,  28 
transports,  and  6  galeapes,  furnished  with 
heavy  artillery ,  commanded  by  John  of  Austria, 
including  the  Spanish  squadron  furnished  by 
Philip  II ;  the  Venetian,  with  the  flower  of  the 
nobility  of  Venice,  and  the  pope's  galleys.  The 
Ottoman  fleet  alone  was  stronger  than  the  three 
Christian  squadrons.  The  two  forces  engaged 
with  all  the  ancient  and  modern  weapons  of 
attack  and  defence,  viz.  arrows,  javelins,  grap- 
pling-irons, cannon,  muskets,  pikes,  and  swords. 
They  fought  hand  to  hand,  as  most  of  the  gal- 
leys grappled  together.  Don  John  of  Austria 
and  V'eniero,the  Venetian  commander,  attacked 
the  Ottoman  admiral  All,  and  having  taken  him 
and  his  galley,  immediately  struck  oiFhis  head, 
and  placed  it  on  the  top  of  his  own  flag.  The 
Turks  lost  upwards  of  150  vessels.  Their  loss 
in  killed  was  about  15,000,  and  5,000  Christian 
slaves  %vere  set  at  liberty.  The  Christians  are 
said  to  have  lost  about  5,000  men.  The  battle 
lasted  from  six  in  the  morning  till  evening, 
when  the  approaching  darkness,  and  the  rough- 
ness of  the  sea.  compelled  the  victors  to  put  into 
the  nearest  haven,  whence  they  despatched 
couriers  to  all  Christian  courts,  with  the  news 
of  the  triumph. 

LEPIDUS,  Marcus  ^milius,  celebrated  as 
being  one  of  the  triumvirs  with  Augustus  and 
Antony.  He  was  sent  against  Brutus  and  Cas- 
eius,  and  some  time  after,  leagued  with  Mark 
Antony,  who  had  gained  the  hearts  of  his  sol- 
diers by  artifice,  and  their  commander  by  Ms 
address"  He  received  Africa  as  his  portion  in 
the  division  of  the  empire  ;  but  his  indolence 
soon  rendered  him  despicable  in  the  eyes  of  his 
soldiers  and  of  his  colleagues,  and  Augustus, 
who  wa.5  well  acquainted  with  the  unpopularity 
of  LepiduS;  went  to  iiis  camp,  and  obliged  him 
to  resign  the  power  to  which  he  was  entitled  as 
triumvir.  After  this  degrading  event,  he  sunk 
into  obscurity,  and  retired,  by  order  of  Augus- 
tus to  Cerceii,  a  small  town  on  the  coast  of  La- 
tium,  where  he  ended  his  days,  B.  C.  13,  for- 
gotten as  soon  as  he  had  fallen. 

LEUCTRA,  a  village  of  Boeotia,  famous  for 
the  victory  which  Epaminondas,  the  Theban 
general,  here  obtained  over  the  superior  force 
of  Celeombrotus,  king  of  Sparta,  B.  C.  371. 
From  that  time  the  Spartans  lost  the  ascenden- 
cy ,  which  they  had  for  sometime  held  in  Greece. 

LEVEN,  Loch,  a  lake  of  Scotland,  12  miles 
27* 


in  circumference,  in  Kinrosshire.  The  cast)* 
of  Loch  Leven,  was  granted  by  Robert  III  to 
Douglas,  and  was  formerly  a  very  strong  place, 
capable  of  accommodating  a  numerous  garrison. 
It  was  in  this  castle  that  queen  Mary  was  con- 
fined after  she  had  been  separated  from  Both- 
well,  and  had  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  con- 
federate lords,  at  the  battle  of  Carberry  hill. 
After  various  ineffectual  attempts,  she  contrived 
to  make  her  escape. 

LEWIS,  Francis,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was bornin  South 
Wales  in  1715,  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits, 
and  came  to  America  at  the  age  of  21 .  In  1775 
he  was  elected  to  the  continental  congress  from 
the  state  of  New  York.  In  the  course  of  the 
war  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  and  his 
estate  was  confiscated.  He  died  Dec.  30, 1303, 
in  his  89th  year. 

LEXINGTON,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  12 
miles  N.  W.  of  Boston,  where  the  struggle  for 
liberty  was  commenced,  April  19,  1775,  the 
militia,  to  the  number  of  70,  being  drawn  out 
to  receive  the  British  detachment  sent  to  de- 
stroy the  military  stores  collected  by  the  pro- 
vincials. Seven  Americans  were  killed,  and 
three  wounded. 

LIBERIA,  a  territory  on  the  Western  coast 
of  Africa,  where  the  American  Colonization 
Society  established  a  settlement  of  free  blacks 
in  1820.  It  is  at  present  in  a  flourishing  condi- 
tion, although  it  has  had  many  obstacles  to  con- 
tend against. 

LIEGNITZ,  capital  of  the  government  of 
that  name  in  Silesia,  Prussia,  has  9.600  inhabi- 
tants. On  the  IGth  of  August,  1760,  the  king 
of  Prussia  obtained  a  victory  over  the  Austrian 
general  Landon  near  this  place. 

LIGNY,  a  village  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the 
province  of  Namur,  remarkable  as  the  scene  of 
an  obstinate  and  sanguinary  battle  between  the 
Prussians  and  the  French,  in  June,  1815,  which 
was  the  prelude  to  the  decisive  battle  of  Water- 
loo. On  the  16th  Blucher  was  attacked  by 
Bonaparte  with  his  whole  force,  except  two 
corps  under  Ney,  and  the  first  corps  under  d' 
Erlon.  A  furious  conflict  ensued,  in  which  the 
villages  of  St.  Amand  and  Ligny  fell  into  the 
possession  of  the  French.  The  combatants  dis- 
played the  most  determined  animosity,  and  no 
quarter  was  asked,  offered,  or  accepted.  A  des- 
perate attack  of  the  Prussians,  led  by  marshal 
Blucher  in  person,  suddenly  recovered  St. 
Amand  and  a  height  in  its  vicinity,  and  the 
fortune  of  the  day  seemed  to  turn  in  their  favor. 
Bonaparte  instantly  despatched  orders  to  bring 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


LIS 


316 


LOC 


np  the  corps  under  d'Erlon,  but  ere  its  arrival, 
the  French  had  recovered  the  village.  Wel- 
lington meantime  was  desirous  of  relieving  the 
Prussians,  but  he  was  himself  attacked ;  and, 
as  the  fourth  corps  under  Bulow  had  not  arrived, 
Blucher  was  obliged  to  withdraw  from  his  po- 
sition at  Lambref,  and  retire  upon  Tilly. 

LIMA,  the  capital  of  the  republic  of  Peru, 
contains  about  60,000  inhabitants.  The  manners 
of  the  inhabitants  are  loose,  although  the  higher 
classes  are  well  educated.  It  is  often  visited  by 
earthquakes,  of  which  two  recent  ones,  in  1822, 
and  1828  were  uncommonly  destructive. 

LIMERICK,  a  city  of  Ireland,  on  the  Shan- 
non, capital  of  the  county  of  Limerick,  a  well- 
built  and  thriving  manufacturing  place,  contain- 
ing 66,000  inhabitants.  It  was  taken  by  the 
English  in  1174.  In  1651  it  was  reduced  by 
Ireton,  in  the  service  of  the  parliament,  after  a 
vigorous  siege.  In  1090  it  was  unsuccessfully 
besieged  by  king  William  in  person,  but  in  1091 
it  surrendered  to  general  Ginkle,  afterwards  earl 
of  Athlone. 

LINCOLN,  Benjamin,  was  born  at  Hingham, 
Mass., Jan  13, 1733,  old  style.  Atthe  beginning 
of  the  revolutionary  war,  he  was  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  the  provincial  militia,  but  was  soon 
appointed  major-general  in  the  continental 
forces.  While  with  Gates's  army  in  the  north, 
he  was  wounded  in  the  leg,  and  part  of  the 
main  bone  was  necessarily  removed.  In  the 
attack  on  Savannah,  1779,  in  conjunction  with 
the  French,  Lincoln  was  repulsed.  He  was 
forced  to  capitulate  in  Charleston,  in  1780,  in 
consequence  of  the  discontent  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  the  troops  under  his  command.  At  York- 
town  General  Lincoln  distinguished  himself  as 
he  had  done  throughout  the  whole  of  the  revo- 
lutionary struggle.  He  afterwards  commanded 
the  militia  that  quelled  Shay's  rebellion.  In 
May,  1787.  he  was  elected  lieutenant-governor 
of  Massachusetts,  and,  in  the  summer  of  1769, 
was  appointed  collector  of  customs  in  the  port 
of  Boston.  He  died  1810. 

LISLE,  or  LILLE  (Flemish,  Kyssd)  a  large 
city  of  France,  formerly  capital  of  French  Flan- 
ders, and  now  in  the  department  of  the  Nord, 
containing  69,860  inhabitants.  Louis  XIV  took 
it  from  the  Spaniards  in  1G67 ;  but  notwith- 
standing the  vast  labor  and  expense  bestowed 
in  his  reign  on  its  fortifications,  it  surrendered 
in  1708,  after  a  long  and  sanguinary  siege,  to 
the  allies  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and 
prince  Eugene.  At  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  it 
was  restored  to  France,  and  in  1792,  was  bom- 
barded by  the  Austrians  without  success. 


LITHUANIA,  formerly  an  independent 
grand-duchy,  but  in  15G9,  annexed  to  Poland, 
seized  by  Russia  on  the  dismemberment  of 
Poland.  It  is  fertile,  and  rich  in  minerals, 
while  its  forests  abound  in  game. 

LIVINGSTON,  Philip,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declarationof  independence. born  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  January  15, 171G,  was  educated  at  Yale 
college,  and,  after  graduating,  became  a  mer- 
chant. In  1759  he  was  sent  to  the  general  pro- 
vincial assembly,  and  to  congress  in  1774.  He 
likewise  served  as  senator  in  the  legislature  of 
his  native  state,  and  died  Jan  12,  1778,  during 
the  session  of  congress  of  which  he  was  a  mem- 

eLIVJNGSTON,  Robert  R.  was  born  in  New 
York  City,  Nov.  27,  174G,  and  graduated  at 
King's  college  in  17G5.  He  studied  and  prac- 
ticed law  in  his  native  city  where  he  enjoyed  a 
very  high  reputation,  was  elected  to  the  first 
general  congress,  was  one  of  the  committee  to 
draw  up  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
in  1780.  was  appointed  secretary  of  foreign  af- 
fairs. He  held  for  several  years  the  office  of 
chancellor  of  New  York.  and.  in  1801,  was  ap- 
pointed by  president  Jefferson,  minister  pleni- 
potentiary to  France.  Bonaparte  distinguished 
him  by  peculiar  favor.  In  lb(;5  Mr.  Livingston 
returned  to  the  United  States,  and  died  March 
2G,  1813.  He  devoted  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
to  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

LIVINGSTON,  Brockholst,  son  of  William 
Livingston,  governor  of  New  Jersey,  was  born 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  Nov.  25.  1757,  and 
served  with  great  distinction  under  Schuyler 
and  Arnold.  He  went  to  Spain  in  1779,  as 
private  secretary  of  Mr.  Jay.  On  his  return 
he  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  practice  in 
April.  1783.  He  was  made  judge  of  the  Su- 
prriiH'  court  «f  Now  York,  Jan.  8,  1802,  was 
raised  to  the  bench  of  the  Supreme  court  of  the 
United  States,  in  180(5.  and  died  during  the 
session  of  the  court  at  Washington,  March  18, 
l<-2:<,  in  the  66th  year  of  his  age. 

LLOYD,  James,  was  born  in  Boston,  in  1769, 
educated  at  Harvard  college,  and  commenced 
business  as  a  merchant.  In  1808  he  was  elected 
by  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts,  a  senator 
in  congress.  Throughout  the  most  trying  times 
he  displayed  great  calmness,  patriotism,  and 
ability.  He  died  at  New  York  in  1KU. 

LOCRIS.  a  country  of  Middle  Greece,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  were  divided  into  the  Locri 
OzoltE,  a  Epizephyrii,  the  Locri,  Epicnemidii, 
and  the  Locri  Opuntii.  They  were  a  brave 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


LON 


317 


LOU 


and  warlike  people  and  signalized  themselves  by 
their  efforts  to  maintain  the  liberty  of  Greece. 

LODJ,  a  large  town  in  the  government  of 
Lombardy,  belonging  to  Venice,  on  the  Adda, 
containing  17.300  inhabitants.  One  of  the 
most  daring  exploits  that  characterised  the 
commencement  of  Bonaparte's  military  career, 
was  performed  here  in  17!>6,  by  forcing  the  pas- 
sage of  the  bridge  over  the  Adda,  though  de- 
fended by  10,000  Austrians.  Napoleon  always 
spoke  of  it  as  "  that  terrible  passage  of  the  bridge 
of  Lodi." 

LOMBARDS,  also  called  Longobardi,  or 
Langobardi,  originally  a  Scandinavian  tribe, 
were  first  found  by  the  Romans  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  principality  of  Luneburg,  and  in  the 
Altmark.  At  the  close  of  the  fifth  century, 
they  made  their  appearance  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Danube,  and  about  the  middle  of  the  6th 
century,  the  king  Alboin  gained  great  advanta- 
ges over  the  Gepid®,  and  conquered  all  upper 
Italy,  and  a  part  of  Middle  Italy.  Desiderius, 
the  last  king,  was  conquered  A.  D.  774  by  Pe- 
pin  of  France,  who  subverted  the  kingdom  of 
the  Lombards  in  Italy,  after  it  had  been  in  ex- 
istence for  the  space  of  2i)6  years.  The  present 
government  of  Lombardy  belongs  to  Austria, 
contains  nearly  2.200,000  inhabitants,  and  its 
capital  is  Milan. 

LONDON.  This  vast  city,  the  metropolis 
of  Great  Britain,  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Thames,  about  GO  miles  from  the  sea.  and  stands 
in  lat.  51°  31'  N.  and  Ion.  5'  37"  W.  from  Green- 
wich. The  total  population,  including  the 
several  parishes  which  belong  to  the  city,  is 
1 ,500,000.  The  streets  of  the  city  are  generally 
wide,  the  houses  arranged  with  great  regard  to 
uniformity,  and  well  built.  The  royal  palace, 
Westminster  Abbey,  and  St.  Paul's  "Cathedral. 
are  magnificent  buildings.  The  manners  of 
the  lower  classes  are  loose,  and  intemperance 
prevails  among  them  to  an  alarming  degree. 
London  was  fortified  by  the  Romans  in  the  year 
50  ;  walled  in  294  :  made  a  bishop's  see  604";  re- 
paired by  Alfred,  885.  In  1090  it  was  not  paved. 
In  1192  an  order  to  build  the  houses  of  stone, 
and  have  them  slated,  as  they  were  then  built 
of  wood  and  thached  with  straw,  was  not  ob- 
served. In  1208  king  John  granted  a  charter 
to  the  inhabitants  to  choose  a  mayor  out  of  their 
own  body  annually  (this  office  having  been 
formerly  for  life),  to  elect  and  remove  their 
sheriffs  at  pleasure,  and  their  common  council- 
men  annually. 

LONDONDERRY.  Marquis  of,  more  gene- 
rally known  under  the  title  of  lord  Castlereagh, 


an  active  statesman  in  the  reigns  of  George 
III,  and  IV,  by  whose  influence  the  legislative 
union  of  Ireland  was  effected ;  and  who,  as 
secretary-of-state.  promoted  those  measures  by 
which  the  confederacy  of  the  European  powers 
was  concentrated  against  Napoleon.  In  August, 
1622,  he  was  appointed  minister  from  Great 
Britain  to  the  congress  at  Verona,  but  two  days 
before  his  intended  departure,  he  destroyed 
himself  in  a  fit  of  mental  distraction. 

LONG  ISLAND,  or  Nassau  island,  an  island 
belonging  to  the  state  of  New  York,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  East  river.  It  is  1 20  miles 
long,  and  from  10  to  20  broad.  The  soil  of  the 
island  is  admirably  adapted  for  agriculture. 

LORRAINE,  for  a  long  time  a  fief  of  the 
German  empire,  and  a  subject  of  contention 
between  France  and  Germany,  at  present  forma 
the  French  departments  of  the  Meuse,  the  Vos- 
ges,  the  Moselle,  and  the  Meurthe.  Square 
miles,  10,150;  pop.  1,800,000.  Its  forests  and 
mountains  contain  great  quantities  of  game,  and 
many  minerals. 

LOUDON,  or  Laudon,  Gideon  Ernest,  an 
Austrian  general,  was  born  at  Footzen,  in  Livo- 
nia, in  1716,  of  a  family  that  originally  came 
from  Scotland.  He  displayed  great  talents  in 
the  seven  years'  war,  and  was  made  a  major- 
general,  and  invested  with  the  order  of  Maria 
Theresa.  In  1757  he  contributed  to  the  victory 
of  Hochkirchen,  and  afterwaids  gained  that  of 
Kunersdorf.  He  next  defeated  the  Prussians 
at  Landshut,  and  made  himself  master  of  Glatz. 
On  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  he  was  created 
a  baron  of  the  empire  ;  in  1766,  nominated  an 
aulic  counsellor ;  and,  in  1778,  made  field-mar- 
shal. He  next  commanded  against  the  Turks ; 
and,  in  1789  took  Belgrade.  He  died,  July  14, 
1790.  His  modesty  was  proverbial.  The  duke 
of  Aremberg,  being  once  asked  by  the  empress 
at  a  court  party  where  Loudon  was,  answered — 
';  There  he  is,  as  usual,  behind  the  door,  quite 
ashamed  of  possessing  so  much  merit." 

LOUIS  IX.  king  of  France,  commonly  call- 
ed St.  Louis,  was  the  son  of  Louis  VIII,  and 
was  born  in  1215.  Being  an  infant  at  the  time 
of  his  father's  death,  the  regency  was  confided 
to  Blanche  of  Castile,  the  queen-dowager. 
Scarcely  had  Louis  attained  the  age  of  21  years, 
and  taken  the  reins  of  government  into  his  own 
hands,  when  Henry  III  of  England  demanded 
the  provinces  which  Louis  VIII  had  promised 
to  restore.  A  tender  was  made  of  Poictou,  and 
part  of  Normandy ;  but  Henry  was  resolved  to 
try  the  issue  of  a  battle,  and  his  army  was  de- 
feated on  the  banks  of  the  Charente.  In  1243 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


LOU 


318 


LOU 


Louis  undertook  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land, 
and  landed  in  Egypt ;  Damietta  was  abandoned 
by  the  Saracens  on  the  approach  of  his  troops, 
who  advanced  to  Cairo,  in  full  confidence  of 
success.  But  famine,  the  sword,  and  disease 
so  wasted  his  forces,  that  he  fell,  with  all  his 
nobility,  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  His 
ransom  was  the  city  of  Damietta,  and  400,000 
francs.  Louis  remained  five  years  in  Palestine, 
repaired  the  fortifications  of  some  cities,  ran- 
somed nearly  1200  prisoners,  but.  on  the  news 
of  his  mother's  death,  he  returned  promptly  to 
France,  and  employed  himself  in  securing  the 
enjoyment  of  peace  and  justice.  His  piety 
caused  him  to  build  many  churches  and  hospit- 
als, and  his  subjects  blessed  a  reign  which  ap- 
peared as  peaceful  as  it  was  happy,  when  ill 
news  from  Palestine  roused  the  enterprising 
spirit  of  the  king,  and  another  crusade  was  de- 
termined upon.  He  departed  with  his  three 
sons,  but  instead  of  going  directly  to  Palestine, 
landed  at  Tunis,  ana  commenced  the  siege  of 
that  place.  The  heat  of  the  climate  and  the 
plague  thinned  the  ranks  of  the  army  ;  Louis 
lost  one  of  his  sons,  and  died  himself  at  the  age 
of  55  years,  after  a  reign  of  44.  He  was  placed 
among  the  saints  by  pope  Boniface  VIII. 

LOUIS  XI,  the  son  of  Charles  VI,  was  born 
in  1423.  In  1440  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
a  faction  called  la,  Praguerie,  against  the  king, 
his  father,  with  whom  he  afterwards  became 
.reconciled.  He  was  at  the  siege  of  Tartas,  in 
]  442.  and  was  afterwards  present  at  the  raising 
of  that  of  Dieppe,  which  was  besieged  by  the 
English,  subsequently  to  which  he  defeated 
(5000  Swiss,  near  the  city  of  Basle.  His  father's 
death  took  place  July  1,  1461,  and  Louis  was 
crowned  August  15.  He  removed  from  his 
court  all  the  princes  and  nobility,  who  then  en- 
gaged the  principal  persons  of  the  kingdom  iu 
a  league,  to  -which  they  gave  the  name  of 
League  of  the  Public  good  (horiic  du  lien  public.) 
The  duke  of  Berry,  the  king's  brother,  the 
dukes  of  Bretagne  and  Bourbon,  and  the  son 
of  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  were  the  chiefs  of 
this  party.  The  king,  who  marched  to  defend 
Paris,  engaged  them  July  2, 1465,  without  much 
advantage,  but  he  broke  up  the  league  by  a 
at  Con- 


:  concluded  in  October  following 
flans,  by  which  he  agreed  to  give  Normandy  to 
his  brother ;  and  to  cede  some  territories  to 
Burgundy.  Louis,  however,  did  not  keep  his 
pledges  ;  his  brother  was  soon  poisoned,  and  it 
was  thought  that  Louis  was  the  author  of  the 
atrocious  deed.  The  young  duke  of  Burgundy 
determined  to  revenge  the  death  of  his  friend, 


but  fell  in  the  midst  of  brilliant  projects,  in  a 
battle  with  the  Swiss.  Louis  passed  his  last 
years  in  the  chauteau  of  Plessis-les-tours,  a  prey 
to  the  horrors  of  a  guilty  conscience,  and  died 
there  in  1483. 

LOUIS  XII.  born  in  1462,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  France  in  1 498.  He  became  the  dupe 
of  his  allies,  who  prevailed  on  him  to  attempt 
the  conquest  of  Genoa,  Naples,  and  Milan,  the 
issue  of  which  proved  unfortunate.  In  his  war 
.against  the  Spaniards  he  was  equally  unsuc- 
cessful ;  his  array  being  defeated,  and  his  fleet 
of  observation,  which  was  stationed  oft'  the 
coast  of  Catalonia,  driven  into  port.  Henry 
VJII  of  England,  having  waged  a  successful 
war  on  the  French  territory,  suddenly  broke 
with  his  allies,  and,  having  made  peace  with 
Louis,  bestowed  on  him  the  hand  of  his  sister. 
In  the  midst  of  his  preparations  to  recover  the 
loss  he  had  sustained  in  Italy,  Louis  died  in 
1515. 

LOUIS  XIII  was  born  in  1601,  succeeded 
his  father,  Henry  IV,  in  1610,  and,  the  state 
being  placed  under  the  regency  of  Mary  of 
Medicis,  the  widowed  queen  of  Henry  IV.  In 
1611,  Sully  retired  from  the  court,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Concini,  mariechal  d'  Ancre.  who 
gained'  unlimited  sway.  He  supported  Mary 
de  Medicis  in  all  her  prodigal  measures;  but 
his  unpopular  career  was  terminated  by  an  as- 
sassian,  and  the  queen  mother  was  exiled  to 
Blois.  Richelieu  reconciled  the  queen  and 
Louis,  and  in  1624,  was  put  at  the  head  of  the 
administration.  He  died  in  1(;42,  and  his  death 
was  soon  followed  by  that  of  Louis,  who  sur- 
vived the  Cardinal  only  a  few  months. 

LOUIS  XIV,  son  of  the  preceding,  ascended 
the  throne  in  1643,  under  the  regency  of  his 
mother,  Anne  of  Austria,  who  chose  cardinal 
Mazarin  as  her  minister.  In  the  war  against 
Spain  and  Austria,  the  duke  d'  Enghien  and 
marshal  Turenne  were  victoriors  in  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands.  By  the  peace  of  \\Vst 
phalia,  in  1648,  France  gained  Alsace,  and 
Sundgau,  Brisach.  and  the  right  to  garrison 
Phillipsburg.  In  the  same  year  began  the  civil 
war  of  the  Frondeurs,  against  Mazarin,  who 
was  relieved  by  the  great  prince  of  Condi- .  In 
1650  Conde  formed  an  independent  party,  but 
was  arrested  and  imprisoned,  and  in  Ki.i'j  was 
defeated  by  tho  royalists,  wider  Turenne,  at 
the  battle  "of  St.  Antoine.  In  1653,  Conde 
joined  the  Spaniards,  the  war  against  whom 
was  vigorously  carried  on  by  Turenne.  By  the 
peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  in 'l6f>!),  Louis  gained 
Roussillon  and  "Conflaiis,  a  great  acquisition  of 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


LOU 


319 


LOU 


territory;  and,  in  1660,  received  the  daughter 
of  Philip  IV  in  marriage.  In  1661,  Mazarin 
died,  and  Louis  took  upon  himself  the  affairs 
of  government,  appointing  Colbert  minister  of 
finance,  under  whom  the'arts,  commerce,  and 
manufactures  greatly  flourished.  On  the  death 
of  Philip  IV  of  Spain,  Louis  began  the  career 
of  those  conquests  which  acquired  him  the  title 
of  Great.  By  virtue  of  his  marriage  with  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  he  laid  claim  to  Cambresis 
Franche-Conte,  Luxembourg,  and  a  great  part 
of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  and  entered  Flan- 
ders at  the  head  of  an  army  of  35,000  men. 
However,  the  triple  alliance  of  England,  Swe- 
den, and  Holland,  compelled  the  French  mon- 
arch to  renounce  all  but  Flanders,  and  to 
conclude  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1668. 
Louvois  now  became  minister  of  war ;  and,  in 
1670,  Louis  effected  the  dissolution  of  the  triple 
alliance;  overran  great  part  of  Holland,  and 
compelled  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  to  con- 
clude a  treaty  of  neutrality,  in  1673.  In  1674, 
Louis,  being  abandoned  by  his  former  allies, 
formed  a  league  with  Sweden,  and  resolved  to 
humble  the  republic  of  Holland.  He  made  a 
sham  attack  on  Bommel  by  sea ;  but  the  prince 
of  Conde  being  compelled  to  retreat  with  his 
army,  the  united  provinces  were  lost  to  France. 

In  1675,  Turenne  perished  before  Salzbach. 
At  length,  a  treatv  was  signed  at  Nimeguen,  in 
1678,  whereby  all  the  provinces  wrested  from 
the  Dutch  were  restored,  and  Louis  gained 
Franche-Conte,  Dunkirk,  and  part  of  Flanders. 
In  1681,  the  Chambers  of  Re-union  were  erect- 
ed, and,  in  1684,  Louis  seized  Strasburg,  Lux- 
emburg, and  Deux  Fonts.  In  the  same  year, 
Louis  sent  a  fleet  against  Genoa  ;  and,  in  the 
following  year,  he  bombarded  Tripoli  and  Tu- 
nis. In  16*85  he  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
and  the  Protestants  were  compelled  to  fly  the 
kingdom  for  safety.  In  1688, he  took  possession 
of  Avignon  and  the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine, 
which  he  devastated  in  the  following  year. 
The  fortune  of  Louis  was  now  on  the  decline. 
Louvois  died  in  16'Jl,  and.  in  1692,  the  French 
fleet  was  destroyed  by  the  British  at  La  Hogue. 
The  French  were,  ho'wever,  victorious  in  Spain 
and  the  Netherlands,  under  Vendome  and  Lux- 
emburg. 

In  1696,  Louis  concluded  the  peace  of  Turin 
with  Savoy ;  and,  in  the  following  year  the 
peace  of  Rvswick  was  concluded,  whereby 
Louis  restored  his  conquests,  made  after  the 
death  of  Charles  II  of  Spain.  In  1700  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession  commenced, 
when  Louis  declared  for  Philip  of  Anjou,  in 


opposition  to  Charles,  archduke  of  Austria,  sup- 
ported by  the  European  confederates.  War 
was  now  declared  against  France ;  Louis  was 
defeated  at  Blenheim,  Ramillies,  Oudenarde, 
and  Malplaquet,  and  prince  Eugene  was  every- 
where triumphant.  Louis  sued  for  peace  in 
vain,  but  a  change  in  the  English  cabinet  gave 
a  new  turn  to  the  politics  of  Europe  ;  and,  in 
1713.  the  peace  of  Utrecht  was  concluded,  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  Radstadt,  between  marshal 
Villars  and  prince  Eugene,  when  Louis  ceded 
his  possessions  in  America  to  England,  and  his 
Italian  dominions  to  Austria  and  Savoy.  In 
1715,  Louis  died,  in  the  72d  year  of  his  reign, 
at  the  age  of  77. 

LOUIS  XV,  only  five  years  of  age  at  the 
death  of  the  preceding  monarch,  was  placed 
under  the  regency  of  the  duke  of  Orleans.  In 
172(>  the  regency  of  Cardinal  Henry  commen- 
ced, on  whose  death,  Louis  took  on  himself 
the  management  of  public  aiE:irs  and  declared 
war  against  Germany  and  Hungary.  After  a 
life  spent  in  the  greatest  voluptuousness,  he 
died,  an  object  of  general  odium,  in  1774. 

LOUIS  XVI.  (£ee  France.) 

LOUIS  XVIII,  the  brother  of  Louis  XVI, 
displayed  much  energy  and  bravery  in  his 
struggles  against  Napoleon.  After  Napoleon 
had  departed  for  Elba,  Louis  entered  Paris  on 
the  3d  of  May,  1814.  On  the  20th  of  March, 
1815,  the  king  left  the  Tuileries,  and  Napoleon 
re-entered  Paris.  On  the  8th  of  July,  Louis 
again  returned  to  Paris.  His  death  took  place 
September  16,  1824. 

LOUISBURG,  formerly  a  considerable  town 
and  fortress  of  the  island  of  Cape  Breton.  It 
was  taken  from  the  French  by  the  English  fleet 
under  Sir  Peter  Warren,  and  the  provincial 
forces  commanded  by  Sir  William  Pepperel  in 
the  year  1745;  but  afterwards  restored  to 
France  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in 
1748.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  English,  un- 
der the  command  of  admiral  Boscawen,  and 
general  Amherst,  in  1758,  and  its  fortifications 
since  demolished.  It  is  now  almost  deserted. 

LOUISIANA,  is  divided  into  three  parts. 
The  first  contains  the  parishes  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, the  second  the  parishes  bordering  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  third 
the  western  parishes.  The  southern  portion  of 
Louisiana  is  level,  and  abounds  with  swamps 
and  prairies,  the  former  of  which  are  destitute 
of  trees,  and  stretch  out  as  far  as  the  eye  can 
reach,  in  gloomy  and  unbroken  dreariness. 
But  on  the  borders  of  the  rivers  the  land  is  the 
most  fertile  imaginable,  and  yields  in  great 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


LUN 


320 


LUT 


abundance,  cotton,  sugar,  and  rice.  Besides 
New  Orleans,  the  principal  towns  are  Baton 
Rouge,  Alexandria,  Nachitoches,  St.  Francis- 
ville,  Donaldsville,  &c.  Education,  in  general, 
is-much  neglected ;  there  is  a  Catholic  college, 
at  New  Orleans,  which  enjoys  a  high  reputation, 
and  there  are  academies  in  various  parts  of  the 
state. 

Louisiana  was  discovered  in  1682  by  La 
Salle,  a  Frenchman,  and  its  name  was  bestow- 
ed in  compliment  to  Louis  XIV.  then  seated  on 
the  throne  of  France.  It  was  not  until  1G99 
that  a  regular  settlement  was  commenced  at 
Iberville.  It  passed  into  the  hands  of  Spain,  by 
treaty,  in  1702,  but  was  restored  to  France  in 
1795,  and  was  purchased  by  the  United  States 
in  1803,  for  15,000,000  'dollars  ;  the  vast  territo- 
ry thus  acquired  includes  the  state  of  Louisiana, 
the  State  of  Missouri,  the  territory  of  Arkansas, 
and  the  country  beyond  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. Louisiana  was  admitted  into  the  union  as 
an  independent  state  in  1812.  Population  345, 
590,  of  which  165,219  are  slaves. 

LOWELL,  a  large  manufacturing  town  of 
Massachusetts,  25  miles  N.  W.  of  Boston,  sit- 
uated at  the  junction  of  the  Concord  and  Mer- 
rimack  rivers,  containing,  according  to  the  last 
census,  20,981  inhabitants,  but  at  present  double 
that  number. 

LUCCA,  a  city  and  duchy  of  Italy,  originally 
a  colony  of  the  Romans.  It  has  repeatedly 
changed  masters.  The  city  contains  22,000 
inhabitants,  and  the  duchy  143,500.  The  ducal 
power  is  limited  by  that  of  the  senate  which  is 
annually  assembled. 

LUCRETIA,  a  noble  Roman  matron,  the 
wife  of  Collatinus,  who  lived  in  the  reicrn  of 
Tarquin  the  Proud.  While  other  ladies  were 
engaged  in  frivolous  amusements,  she  was 
found  at  work  in  the  midst  of  her  handmaidens. 
Sextus,  the  son  of  Tarquin,  inflamed  with  a 
base  passion,  gained  entrance  to  her  apartment 
at  midnight,  during  the  absence  of  her  husband, 
and  dishonored  her.  Lucretia,  unable  to  sur- 
vive her  shame,  killed  herself.  Brutus  (which 
see^  had  the  body  conveyed  to  the  forum,  and 
delivered  so  moving  and  inspiring  an  address, 
that  the  populace  rose  against  their  oppres- 
sors, and  the  regal  dignity  was  abolished  in 
Rome.  Brutus,  and  Collatinus,  the  husband 
of  the  matron,  were  the  first  consuls. 

LUNEVILLE,  an  open  city  of  Lorraine,  de- 
partment of  the  Me  use,  containing  12.77H  in- 
habitants. A  treaty  between  Austria  and  the 
French  republic,  was  concluded  here  in  Feb. 
1801. 


LUTHER,  Martin,  was  born  Nov.  10,  1483, 
at  Isleben,  in  Lower  Saxony.  In  1508,  he  be- 
came lecturer  in  philosophy  at  Wittemberg, 
and,  while  thus  employed,  received  orders 
from  his  superiors  to  go  to  Rome,  where  he  had 
ample  opportunity  of  observing  the  corruptions 
of  popery.  In  1517  pope  Leo  X  published  in- 
dulgences to  enable  him  to  complete  the  build- 
ing of  St.  Peters,  which  measure  proved  the 
cause  of  an  incurable  breach  in  the  Roman 
church.  Tetxel,  the  Dominican,  who  had  the 
sale  of  these  pardons  in  Germany,  behaved  so 
scandalously,  that  Luther  published  a  thesis  in 
which  he  denied  the  validity  of  papal  indulgen- 
ces. Tetzel,  who  was  then  at  Frankfort,  caus- 
ed Luther's  thesis  to  be  burnt,  and  published 
another  in  answer  to  it,  which  roused  the  indig- 
nation of  the  students  of  Wittemberg  to  such  a 
degree,  that  they  burned  his  thesis  in  return. 
Luther,  in  the  midst  of  these  proceedings, 
wrote  to  the  pope  in  terms  of  respect,  and 
though  he  did  not  retract  his  positions,  he  ex- 
pressed his  readiness  to  submit  to  authority. 
In  the  meantime,  the  contention  became  fiercer 
between  the  champions  for  indulgences,  and 
their  opponents.  The  pope  aggravated  the 
matter  by  citing  Luther  to  appear  at  Rome  ; 
but  the  latter  wisely  declined  putting  himself 
in  a  place  where  destruction  was  certain.  He 
had  now  secured  the  protection  of  the  elector 
of  Saxony,  who.  instead  of  giving  him  up,  de- 
manded that  the  cause  should  be  heard  in 
Germany.  With  this  the  pope  complied,  and 
Cajetan  was  sent  to  Augsburg,  whither  Luther 
repaired  ;  but  after  two  conferences,  he  left  the 
place,  from  an  apprehension  of  a'  design  upon 
his  life.  In  15H»  was  held  a  conference  at  Le- 
ipsic,  between  Luther  and  Eck,  professor  of 
divinity  at  Ingolstadt,  which  ended  without 
bringing  the  parties  nearer  to  each  other. 

Tne  pope,  on  his  side,  became  exasperated, 
and  issued  his  bull  of  excommunication  against 
the  reformer,  who  caused  it  to  be  publicly 
burnt  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  university 
of  Wittemberg.  On  his  way  home  from  the 
diet  of  Worms,  in  1521.  he  was  carried  off  by  a 
party  of  horsemen  to  one  of  the  castles  belong- 
ing to  his  friend,  the  elector,  who  adopted  this 
method  to  secure  him  from  his  enemies.  In 
this  Patmos,  as  he  called  it,  Luther  remained 
ten  months,  and  then  returned  to  Wittemberg, 
where  he  published  a  sharp  reply  to  I  i^nry  VIII, 
who  had  written  a  book  ajrjiinst  him,  on  the 
seven  sacraments.  In  152!)  the  emperor  as- 
sembled a  diet  at  Spires,  to  check  the  progress 
of  the  new  opinions;  and  here  it  was  that  the 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


LYC 


321 


LYD 


name  of  Protestants  first  arose,  from  the  pro- 
test made  by  the  electoral  princes  who  were  m 
favor  of  the  Reformation,  against  the  rigorous 
measures  which  were  proposed  in  this  assembly. 
In  1534,  Luther's  translation  of  the  whole  bible 
was  published  ;  and  the  same  year  he  printed 
a  book  against  the  service  of  the  mass.  At> 
length,  worn  out,  more  by  labor  than  age,  this 
illustrious  man  died  at  his  native  place,  Febru- 
ary 18,  1546,  and  his  remains  were  solemnly  in- 
terred in  the  cathedral  of  Wittemberg. 

LUTZEN,  a  small  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
in  the  government  of  Mcrseburg,  the  neighbor- 
hood of  which  is  famous  for  two  great  battles, 
one  in  1632,  in  which  the  Austrians  were  de- 
feated by  Gustavus  of  Sweden,  who  was  him- 
self killed  in  the  action  ;  and  the  other  in  1813, 
when  the  French,  under  Bonaparte,  defeated 
the  combined  forces  of  Prussia  and  Russia. 

LUXEMBURG,  a  province  of  the  Nether- 
lands, containing  293,535  inhabitants.  Its  cap- 
ital of  the  same  name,  was  besieged,  in  1794, 
by  the  victorious  armies  of  France,  and  capitu- 
lated on  the  17th  of  June,  1795. 

LYCURGUS,  a  celebrated  lawgiver  of  Spar- 
ta, the  son  of  king  Eunomus,  and  brother  to 
Polydectes,  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
9th  century  B.  C.  He  travelled  with  the  spirit 
of  a  philosopher,  and  visited  Asia  and  Egypt 
without  suffering  himself  to  be  corrupted  by 
the  licentiousness  and  luxury  which  prevailed 
there.  The  confusion  which  followed  his  de- 
parture from  Sparta,  having  made  his  presence 
necessary,  he  returned  home  at  the  earnest  so- 
licitations of  his  countrymen.  The  disorders 
which  reigned  at  Sparta  induced  him  to  reform 
the  government.  Lycurgus  found  no  difficulty 
in  reforming  the  abuses  of  the  state,  and  all 
were  equally  anxious  in  promoting  a  revolution 
which  had  received  the  sanction  of  heaven. 
This  happened  884  years  before  the  Christian 
era.  Lycurgus  first  established  a  senate,  which 
was  composed  of  28  senators,  whose  authority 
was  designed  to  preserve  the  tranquillity  of  the 
state,  and  maintain  a  due  and  just  equilibrium 
between  the  kings  and  the  people,  by  watch- 
ing over  the  encroachments  of  the  former,  and 
checking  the  seditious  convulsions  of  the  latter. 
All  distinctions  of  rank  were  destroyed,  arid  by 
making  an  equal  and  impnrtial  division  of  the 
land  among  the  members  of  the  commonwealth, 
Lycurijus banished  luxury,  and  encouraged  the 
useful  arts.  The  use  of  money,  either  of  gold 
or  silver,  was  totally  forbidden,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  heavy  brass  and  iron  coin,  brought 
no  temptations  to  the  dishonest,  and  left  every 


individual  in  possession  of  his  effects  without 
any  fear  of  robbery  or  violence.  All  the  citizens 
dined  in  common,  and  no  one  had  greater  claims 
to  indulgence  and  luxury  than  another.  The 
intercourse  of  Sparta  with  other  nations  was 
forbidden,  and  few  were  permitted  to  travel. 
The  youths  were  intrusted  to  the  public  mas- 
ter, as  soon  as  they  had  attained  their  seventh 
year,  and  their  education  was  left  to  the  wis- 
dom of  the  laws.  They  were  taught  early  to 
think,  to  answer  in  a  laconic  manner,  to  at- 
tempt to  excel  in  repartee.  They  were  encour- 
aged to  steal,  and  theft  was  only  punished  for 
bein nr  discovered.  Thus  we  are  told  that  a  youth 
who'carricd  off  a  fox  beneath  his  cloak,  permit- 
ted the  animal  to  gnaw  into  his  vitals,  rather  than 
disclose  his  theft  by  dropping  the  prize.  These 
laws  gave  rise  to  a  race  of  men  distinguished  for 
their  intrepidity,  fortitude  and  independence. 

After  promulgating  his  code,  Lycurgus  re- 
tired from  Sparta  to  Delphi,  or  according  to 
others,  to  Crete  ;  and,  before  his  departure,  he 
bound  all  the  citizens  of  Lacedtemon  by  a  sol- 
emn oath,  that  neither  they  nor  their  posterity 
would  alter,  violate,  or  abolish  the  laws  which 
he  had  established,  before  his  return.  He  soon 
after  died,  and  ordered  his  ashes  to  be  thrown 
into  the  sea,  fearful  lest,  if  they  were  carried  to 
Sparta,  the  citizens  would  consider  themselves 
freed  from  the  oath  which  they  had  taken,  and 
empowered  to  make  a  revolution.  The  wisdom 
and  the  good  effect  of  the  laws  of  Lycurgus 
have  been  fully  demonstrated  at  Sparta,  where, 
for  400  years  they  remained  in  full  force,  but 
the  legislator  has  been  censured  as  cruel  and 
impolitic.  Lycurgus  has  been  compared  with 
Solon,  the  celebrated  legislator  of  Athens,  and 
it  has  been  judiciously  observed,  that  the  former 
gave  his  citizens  morals  conformable  to  the  laws 
which  he  had  established,  and  that  the  latter  had 
given  the  Athenians  laws  which  coincided  with 
their  customs  and  manners.  The  office  of  Ly- 
curgus demanded  resolution,  and  he  showed 
himself  inexorable  and  severe.  In  Solon,  arti- 
fice was  requisite,  and  he  showed  himself  mild 
and  even  indulgent.  The  moderation  of  Lycur- 
gus is  highly  commendable,  particularly  when 
we  recollect  that  he  treated  with  the  greatest 
humanity  and  confidence  Alcander,  a  youth 
who  had  .put  out  one  of  his  eyes  in  a  seditious 
tumult.  The  laws  of  Lvcurgus  were  abrogated 
by  Philopocmen.  B.  C.  188,  but  only  for  a  little 
time,  as  they  were  soon  after  reestablished  by 
the  Romans. 

LYDIA,  anciently  Meeonia,  a  celebrated 
kingdom  of  Asia  Minor,  whose  boundaries  were 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


LYO 


322 


LYS 


different  at  different  times.  It  received  the 
name  of  Lydia  from  Lydus,  one  of  its  kings. 
It  was  governed  by  monarchs.  who,  after  the 
fabulous  ages,  reigned  249  years,  in  the  fol- 
lowing order :  Ardysus  began  to  reign  797  B. 


Aly 

quered  by  Cyrus  B.  C.  548,  when  the  kingdom 
became  a  province  of  the  Persian  empire.  1  hree 
different  races  reigned  in  Lydia,  the  Atyadte, 
the  Heraclidffl,  and  the  Mermnadae.  The  his- 
tory of  the  first  is  obscure  and  fabulous ;  the 
Heraclidae  began  to  reign  about  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  war,  and  the  crown  remained  in  their 
family  for  about  500  years,  and  was  always 
transmitted  from  father  to  son.  Caudaules  was 
the  last  of  the  Heraclidae ;  and  Gyges  the  first 
and  Croesus  the  last  of  the  Mermnadse.  The 
Lydians  were  great  warriors  in  the  reign  of  the 
Mermnadse.  They  invented  the  art  of  coining 
gold  and  silver,  and  were  the  first  who  exhibited 
public  sports,  &-c.  Lydia  remained  a  part  of  the 
eastern  Roman  empire  until  132(3,  when  it  was 
conquered  by  the  Turks.  •  . 

LYMAN,  Phinehas,  major-general,  born  at 
Durham,  about  171 G,  graduated  at  Yale  college 
in  1738.  He  was  afterwards  a  tutor  in  this 
institution,  studied  law,  and  practised  it  with 
great  success.  After  serving  as  a  member  of  the 
assembly  of  Connecticut,  he  was  elected  to  the 
council,  and,  in  1755,  appointed  major-general 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Connecticut 
forces.  In  the  battle  of  lake  George  the  com- 
mand devolved  upon  him,  and  he  also  com- 
manded the  American  forces  in  the  expedition 
to  Ilavannah.  After  spending  some  years  in 
England,  he  returned  to  America,  and,  in  1775, 
embarked  for  the  Mississippi,  followed  by  his 
family.  He  died  in  West  Florida,  I??.-1. 

LYNCH,  Thomas,  Jr.,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
South  Carolina,  Aug.  5,  1749,  and  educated  in 
England.  In  1775  he  joined  the  revolutionary 
army,  but  a  severe  sickness  compelled  him  to 
relinquish  his  plan  of  serving  his  country  in  the 
field.  He  was  elected  to  congress,  and  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  but  his  health 
failing,  he  was  advised  to  go  to  St.  Eustatia,  and 
embarked  at  the  close  of  the  year  1779,  after 
which  date  the  vt'ssel  was  not  heard  of. 

LYONS,  a  large  city  in  the  south-east  of 
France,  containing  135,793  inhabitants.  This 
city  sustained  a  siege  against  the  Jnrobins  for 
several  months  in  1793,  and  after  its  surrender 
the  principal  inhabitants  were  massacred  by  the 


terrorists  under  Collot  d'Herboia.  In  the  spring 
of  1814,  several  severe  actions  took  place  in  the 
neighborhood,  between  the  French  and  Austri- 
ans ;  on  the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  in 
March,  1815,  he  was  received  here  with  accla- 
mation. 

LYSANDER,  a  celebrated  general  of  Sparta, 
in  the  last  years  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  He 
drew  Ephesus  from  the  interest  of  Athens,  and 
gained  the  friendship  of  Cyrus  the  Younger. 
He  gave  battle  to  the  Athenian  fleet,  consisting 
of  120  ships,  at  ^Egos  Potamos,  and  destroyed 
it  all,  excepting  three  ships,  with  which  the. 
enemy's  general  fled  to  Evagorns.  king  of  Cy- 
prus. In  this  celebrated  battle,  which  happened 
405  years  B.  C.,  the  Athenians  lost  3,000  men, 
and  with  them  their  empire  and  influence  among 
the  neighboring  states.  Lysander  well  knew 
how  to  take  advantage  of  his  victory,  and  the 
following  year  Athens,  worn  out  by  a  long  war 
of  27  years,  and  discouraged  by  its  misfortunes, 
gave  itself  up  to  the  power  of  the  enemy,  and 
consented  to  destroy  the  Piraeus,  to  give  up  all 
its  ships,  except  twelve,  to  recall  all  Ihose  who 
had  been  banished,  and,  in  short,  to  submit  in 
every  thing,  to  the  power  of  Lacedopmon.  Be- 
sides these  humiliating  conditions,  the.govern- 
ment  of  Athens  was  totally  changed,  and  thirty 
tyrants  were  set  over  it  by  Lysander.  This  glo- 
rious success,  and  the  honor  of  having  put  an 
end  to  the  Peloponnesian  war.  increased  the 
pride  of  Lvsander.  He  had  already  began  to 
pave  his  way  to  universal  power,  by  establish 
ing  aristocracy  in  the  Grecian  cities  of  Asia, 
and  now  he  attempted  to  make  the  crown  of 
Sparta  elective.  The  sudden  decollation  of  war 
against  the  Thebans  saved  him  from  the  accu- 
sations of  his  adversaries,  and  he  was  sent,  to 
gethcr  with  Pausanias,  against  the  enemy.  He 
was  defeated  and  kilkd,3D4  years  B.  C.,  in  the 
Bo3otian  war. 

LYS1MACHUS,  a  son  of  Agathocles,  who 
was  among  the  generals  of  Alexander.  He 
sided  with  Cassander  and  Seleucus  against  An- 
tigonus  and  Demetrius,  and  fought  wiih  them 
at  the  celebrated  battle  of  Ipsus.  He  afterwards 
seized  Macedonia,  after  expelling  Pyrrhus  from 
the  thnnie.  15.  C.  286,  but  his  cruelty  rendered 
him  odious,  and  the  murder  of  his  son  Agatho- 
cles so  offended  his  subjects,  that  the  most  opu- 
lent and  powerful  revolted  from  him  and  ttban- 
doned  the  kingdom.  He  pursued  them  to  Asia, 
and  declared  war  against  >el:  r.i^is.  who  had 
given  them  a  kind  reception.  He  was  killed  in 
a  bloody  battle,  281  years  B.  C.  in  the  *0th  year 
of  his  age. 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MAC 


323 


MAD 


MACARTNEY,  George,  earl,  celebrated  in 
diplomatic  history,  principally  for  his  embassy 
to  China  in  17[!2.  He  died  in  180G. 

MACASSAR,  formerly  a  large  city  of  Ce- 
lebes, with  a  fine  harbor.  On  its  site  now  stands 
the  little  village  of  Vlaardingen  with  1 ,000  in- 
habitants. The  natives  in  the  vicinity  are,  in 
general,  faithful,  and  hospitable;  their  number 
is  about  10,000. 

MACBETH,  an  usurper  and  tyrant,  who  fill- 
ed the  Scottish  throne  during  a  part  of  the  llth 
century.  He  murdered  his  kinsman,  Duncan, 
to  clear  the  path  to  royalty.  He  also  put  to 
death  M'Gill  and  Banquo,  the  most  powerful 
men  in  his  dominions.  Macduff  becoming  the 
object  of  his  suspicions,  escaped  into  England, 
but  the  inhuman  tyrant  wreaked  his  vengeance 
on  his  wife  and  children,  whom  he  caused  to 
be  butchered.  MacdufF  and  Malcolm,  son  of 
Duncan,  having  obtained  assistance  from  the 
English,  entered  into  Scotland,  and  forced  Mac- 
beth to  retreat  into  the  Highlands,  where  he 
was  soon  afterwards  slain  in  battle  by  Macduff. 
Shakspeare's  Macbeth  is  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erfully drawn  characters  of  his  trao-edies. 

MACHIAVELLI,  Nicholas,  a  celebrated 
writer,  born  of  a  noble  family  of  Florence,  in 
1469.  His  first  efforts  produced  a  comedy  called 
Mandragora,  which  proved  so  popular,  on  ac- 
count of  its  satire,  at  Florence,  that  Leo  X  sent 
for  the  actors  to  exhibit  it  to  a  Roman  audi- 
ence. Machiavelli  acquired-^however,  greater 
fame  by  his  political  writings.  By  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Medicis,  and  as  a  recompense  for 
the  suffering  he  had  endured  on  the  rack  on  sus- 
picion of  a  conspiracy  with  the  Soderini  against 
Julius,  afterwards  Clement  VII,  he  was  made 
Secretary  and  Historiographer  to  the  republic 
of  Florence.  He  died  in  1527,  of  a  medicine 
which  he  had  taken  by  way  of  prevention. 

MACCABEES.    (See  Hcbrvcs.) 

MACEDONIA,  now  Makdonia,  or  Filiba  Vil- 
ajeti,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Europe,  found- 
ed by  Caranus  and  Perdiccas,  B.  C.  800.  It 
first  became  powerful  under  Philip  and  his  son 
Alexander  the  Great,  the  last  of  whom  gave  it 
new  splendor,  subdued  the  neighboring  states, 
destroyed  the  liberties  of  Greece,  338,  and  con- 
quered the  Persian  empire.  Macedonia  con- 
tinued in  the  family  of  Alexander,  or  of  his 
generals,  until  168  B.  C. ;  when  by  the  defeat 
of  Perseus  it  became  a  Roman  province ;  it  con- 
tinued to  belong  to  the  Eastern  empire  until 
1393,  when  the  Turks  under  Bajazet  IV  invad- 


ed the  country,  which  was  finally  conquered  by 
them  in  1429.  The  present  inhabitants  are  a 
hardy  race.  Their  country  is  rich,  well-wooded 
and  mountainous.  Population,  about  700,000; 
square  miles,  15.250. 

MACKEAN,  Thomas,  was  born  March  19, 
1734,  in  the  county  of  Chester,  Pennsylvania, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1757.  For  seventeen 
successive  years  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  assembly.  He  was  sent  to  the  congress 
held  at  New  York  in  1765,  took  an  active  part 
in  the  revolutionary  proceedings,  and  served  in 
arms  in  New  Jersey,  where  he  greatly  distin- 
guished himself.  In  1777  he  was  chosen  chief- 
justice  of  Pennsylvania,  and  was  afterwards 
elected  governor  of  the  state.  He  died  June 
24,  1817,  in  his  84th  year. 

MACPHERSON,  James,  a  Scottish  writer, 
was  born  in  1738.  His  fame  rests  upon  his 
tianslation  from  the  Gaelic  of  the  poems  of 
Ossian,  the  authenticity  of  which  has  been 
denied  by  many  writers,  but  was  finally  par- 
tially allowed  after  a  severe  literary  investiga- 
tion. The  question  gave  rise  to  warm  dispute 
between  Macpherson  and  Dr.  Johnson.  Mac- 
pherson  died  in  1796. 

MADAGASCAR,  a  large  island  of  Africa, 
900  miles  long,  and  from  120  to  300  broad.  Pop. 
3,000,000.  It  is  extremely  fertile.  It  was  first 
visited  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  beginning  of 
the  16th  century.  It  is  situated  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  near  the  southern  part  of  Africa,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mozambique  chan- 
nel. Madagascar  yields  in  abundance  wheat, 
rice,  sugar,  grapes,  honey,  and  excellent  fruits. 
Almost  all  the  European  animals  are  found 
here  in  abundance.  The  forests  are  composed 
of  a  prodigious  variety  of  trees,  and  furnish 
vast  quantities  of  ornamental  wood.  Among  the 
gums  of  the  woods,  is  the  valuable  gum  elastic. 
The  islanders  are  warmly  attached  to  liberty, 
but  licentious  and  indolent.  The  island  is  di- 
vided among  many  petty  kings  or  chiefs.  The 
religion  is  Mohammedan,  mingled  with  idola- 
try and  Judaism.  The  climate  is  very  hot,  but 
the  air  is,  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  health- 
ful. The  French  have  several  times  attempted 
to  form  settlements,  but  in  general  unsuccess- 
fully. 

MADEIRA,  an  island  off  the  western  coast 
of  Africa,  belongs  to  Portugal.  Pop.  100,000. 
It  is  situated  between  the  straits  of  Gibraltar 
and  the  Canaries,  is  15  leagues  long ;  60  in  cir- 
cumference. It  was  discovered  by  Zarco,  a 
Portuguese,  in  1419.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  ex- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


MAH 


324 


MAH 


cellent  wines,  the  best  of  which  is  known  under 
the  name  of  London  particular.  Its  other  pro- 
ductions are  sugar,  grain,  fruits,  and  cattle. 
Funchal  is  the  capital. 

MAECENAS,  Caius  Cilnius,  the  intimate 
friend  of  Augustus,  and  so  great  a  patron  of 
men  of  letters,  that  his  name  is  proverbially 
used  to  characterize  persons  of  the  same  dispo- 
sition. According  to  Horace,  he  was  descend- 
ed from  the  kings  of  Etruria.  Augustus,  one 
day,  being  on  the  tribunal,  passing  sentence  of 
death  on  several  persons,  Maecenas  sent  him 
a  paper,  with  this  inscription,  "  Come  down, 
butcher  !"  which  struck  the  emperor  so  forcibly 
that  he  immediately  descended  from  his  seat. 
Mcecenas  was  the  patron  of  Virgil  and  Horace, 
who  immortalized  him  in  their  works.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  also  in  the  field,  particularly 
at  the  battles  of  Modena  and  Philippi.  When 
Augustus  and  Agrippa  went  to  Sicily,  Mcece- 
nas assumed  the  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment, though  he  was  not  ambitious  of  power. 
He  died  8  years  B.  C.  In  private  life  his  char- 
acter was  stained  by  a  devotion  to  sensual  plea- 
sures. 

MAGHELHAENS,  or  MAGELLAN,  Fer- 
nando de,  a  Portuguese  navigator,  who,  having 
served  under  Albuquerque,  obtained  the  com- 
mand of  a  fleet  from  the  emperor  Charles  V, 
and  discovered  the  straits  at  the  extremity  of 
South  America,  which  bear  his  name.  He  took 
possession  of  the  Philippine  islands,  where  he 
was  slain  in  a  skirmish  with  the  natives  in  1521. 

MAGNA  CHARTA  (the  Great  Charter), 
the  charter  extorted  from  king  John  by  the 
English  barons  at  Runnemede,  June  15,  1215, 
which  laid  the  foundation  of  the  public  rights 
of  the  people  of  England. 

MAHMOUD  I,  emperor  of  the  Turks,  raised 
from  the  dungeon  to  the  throne  in  1731 ;  con- 
cluded the  peace  of  Belgrade  in  1739,  by  which 
he  kept  Belgrade,  Servia,  and  Wallachia,  and 
obtained  Azof. 

MAHMOUD  II,  present  emperor  of  the 
Turks,  began  his  reign  in  1808.  His  reign  has 
been  a  good  deal  disturbed.  His  introduction  of 
the  European  dress  and  discipline  among  his 
troops  is  said  to  be  a  fatal  innovation. 

MAHOMET,  or,  according  to  the  orthog- 
raphy and  pronunciation  of  the  orientals,  Mo- 
hammed (the  Glorified)  surnamed  Aboul  Cas- 
nem,  the  founder  of  the  Arabic  empire,  and  of 
the  religion  to  which  he  gave  his  name,  was 
bom  at  Mecca,  the  10th  of  November,  570,  A. 
D-,  according  to  the  most  probable  opinion. 
He  was  of  the  tribe  of  the  Korashites,  the  no- 


blest and  the  most  powerful  of  the  country.  He 
lost  his  father  before  he  was  two  years  old,  and 
his  mother  before  he  was  eight,  but  their  affec- 
tionate attention  was  supplied  by  the  care  of  his 
uncle,  Abu  Taleb,  a  merchant.  In  the  family 
of  this  friendly  protector,  he  was  employed  to 
travel  with  his  camels  between  Mecca  and  Sy- 
ria, till  his  25th  year,  when  he  entered  into  the 
service  of  Cadiga,  a  rich  widow,  whom,  though 
12  years  older  than  himself,  he  married  three 
years  after.  Thus  suddenly  raised  to  afflu- 
ence and  consequence  above  his  countrymen, 
he  formed  the  secret  plan  of  obtaining  for  him- 
self the  sovereign  power,  and  judging  there 
was  no  way  so  likely  to  gain  his  end  as  by  ef- 
fecting a  change  in  the  religion  of  his  country- 
men, he  adopted  that  as  his  instrument. 

He  now  spent  much  of  his  time  alone  in  a 
cave  near  Mecca,  employed  as  he  gave  out,  in 
meditation  and  prayer,  though  it  is  said  that  in 
reality  he  called  to  his  aid  a  Persian  Jew,  well 
versed  in  the  history  and  laws  of  his  sect,  and 
two  Christians,  one  of  the  Jacobite,  and  the 
other  of  the  Nestorian  sect.  With  the  help  of 
these  men  he  framed  his  Koran,  or  the  book 
which  he  pretended  to  have  received  at  differ- 
ent times  i'rom  heaven  by  the  hands  of  the  angel 
Gabriel.  At  the  age  of  forty  he  publicly  as- 
sumed the  prophetic  character,  calling  himself 
the  Apostle  of  God.  His  disciples  were  at  first 
very  lew,  consisting  only  of  his  wife,  nephew, 
and  servant,  but  in  "the  course  of  three  years  he 
had  greatly  increased  the  number  of  his  follow- 
ers. On  these  he  imposed  tales  but  too  well 
adapted  to  deceive  ignorant  and  superstitious 
minds.  He  pretended  to  have  passed  into  the 
highest  heavens  in  one  night,  on  the  back  of  a 
beautiful  ass  called  Al  iiorak,  and  accompa- 
nied by  the  angel  Gabriel :  that  he  there  had  an 
interview  with  Adam,  Abraham.  Moses,  and 
Jesus  Christ,  who  acknowledged  his  superior- 
ity, which  was  confirmed  to  him  by  the  Deity 
himself.  This  romance  staggered  even  some 
of  his  best  friends,  and  a  powerful  party  being 
formed  against  him,  he  was  forced  lo  quit 
Mecca,  and  to  seek  refuge  in  Medina.  This  ex- 
pulsion dates  the  foundation  of  his  empire,  and 
of  his  religion.  The  Mohammedans  adopt  it  as 
their  chronological  era.  calling  it  the  Hegira, 
being  the  NJtlfday  of  July,  A.  D.  C22. 

Mahomet  had  still  a  number  of  disciples, 
upon  whom  he  inculcated  the  principle,  that 
they  were  not  to  dispute  for  their  religion  by 
woids,  but  by  the  sword.  No  doctrine  could 
possibly  be  better  suited  to  a  law  le*s  and  wan- 
dering people  ;  it  was  soon  carried  into  practice, 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


MAH 


325 


MAI 


and  the  Jewish  Arabs  were  the  first  to  experi- 
ence its  effects.  Upon  them  Mahomet  com- 
mitted the  most  shocking  cruelties,  numbers 
were  put  to  death,  others  were  sold  for  slaves, 
and  their  goods  distributed  among  the  soldiers. 

.A  faith,  thus  propagated,  could  not  but  suc- 
ceed in  a  country  like  Arabia.  His  adherents 
were  not  only  rewarded  by  plunder  here,  but 
had  held  out  to  them  a  felicity  of  the  most  sen- 
sual kind  hereafter.  In  027  Mahomet  made  a 
treaty  with  the  inhabitants  of  Mecca,  which 
within  two  years  he  violated,  and  captured  the 
place.  Having  made  himself  master  of  Arabia, 
he  extended  his  conquests  into  Syria,  where  he 
took  several  cities,  and  laid  some  of  the  princes 
under  tribute.  His  career  was  stopped  only  by 
his  death,  which  was  supposed  to  be  occasioned 
by  poison,  administered  to  him  by  a  Jewess,  and 
sprinkled  on  a  shoulder  of  mutton,  of  which 
the  prophet  partook  with  a  high  relish.  When 
.the  woman  was  examined,  she  declared  that 
she  had  perpetrated  the  deed,  on  purpose  to  try 
whether  he  was  a  true  prophet ;  an  answer 
somewhat  remarkable,  as  the  innoxiousness  of 
poison  was  one  of  the  privileges  promised  by 
our  Lord  to  his  disciples.  The  poison  is  said  to 
have  taken  effect  three  years  after  it  had  been 
administered.  When  he  found  himself  dying, 
Mahomet  caused  himself  to  be  supported  to  the 
mosque,  where  he  celebrated  the  praise  of  God, 
demanded  pardon  for  his  sins,  and  then,  mount- 
ing his  throne,  said  :  "  If  any  one  complaineth 
that  I  have  stricken  him  unjustly — lo  !  here  is 
ray.  back,  let  him  return  the  blows.  If  I  have 
injured  the  reputation  of  any  one,  let  him  treat 
me  in  the  same  manner.  If  I  have  taken  money 
from  any  one,  I  am  here  ready  to  restore  it." 
H.d  last  words  were,  "  Lord,  pardon  me ;  and 
place  me  among  those  whom  thou  hast  raised 
to  grace  and  favor."  He  died  the  8th  of  June, 
A.  D.  6:32,  having  lived  63  years. 

He  was  of  small  stature,  and  of  a  sanguine 
temperament :  he  had  a  large  head,  regular  and 
decided  features;  his  eyes  were  large,  black, 
and  full  of  fire  ;  his  forehead  was  large,  his  nose 
aquiline,  his  cheeks  full,  and  his  mouth  large. 
His  teeth  were  white,  but  set  a  little  apart  from 
each  other,  and  between  his  eye-brows  was  a 
vein  which  swelled  when  he  was  in  anger. 
Notwithstanding  his  corpulency,  his  gait  was 
easy  and  graceful.  After  the  death  of  Cadiga, 
lie  had  several  wives  and  concubines,  by  whom 
he  had  many  children,  but  left  only  one  daugh- 
ter named  Fatima,  who  married  his  successor 
AH,  having  lived  to  see  his  doctrines  and  his 
power  extended  over  Arabia,  Syria,  and  Persia. 


MAHOMET  I.  emperor  of  the  Turks,  was 
the  son  of  Bajazct  1,  and  succeeded  his  brother 
Moses,  in  1413.  He  reestablished  the  glory  of 
the  Ottoman  empire,  which  had  been  ravaged 
by  Tamerlane,  and  fixed  the  seat  of  government 
at  Constantinople. 

MAHOMET  IV  was  born  in  1(142,  and  be- 
came emperor  in  1649,  after  the  tragical  death 
of  his  father,  Ibrahim  I.  He  inarched  in  person 
against  Poland,  and  having  taken  several  places, 
made  peace  with  that  country  on  condition  of 
receiving  an  annual  tribute.  Sobieski,  however, 
defeated  him  near  Choczim,  and  obtained  so 
many  other  advantages,  that  a  peace  favorable 
to  Poland,  was  concluded  in  1676.  The  Janis- 
saries, attributing  this  and  other  misfortunes, 
to  the  indolence  of  the  sultan,  deposed  him  in 
1687,  and  sent  him  to  prison  where  he  died  in 
16JU. 

MAHRATTAS,a  powerful  nation  of  moun- 
taineers in  India,  who  have  maintained  a  series 
of  wars  with  the  British  and  native  powers. 
Their  capital,  Poona,  was  taken  in  1817.  The 
possessions  of  the  Mahrattas  formerly  extended 
from  the  coast  of  Malabar  to  that  of  Orissa,  in 
the  Ghaut  mountains,  but  have  been  much  nar- 
rowed. 

MAINE,  one  of  the  United  States,  bounded 
N.  W.  and  N.  by  Lower  Canada;  E.  by  New 
Brunswick  ;  S.  E.  and  S.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  W.  by  New  Hampshire.  The  population, 
in  1840,  was  501,793  The  Penobscot  is  the  prin- 
cipal river;  and  the  Kennebec,  a  noble  river, 
waters  a  large  extent  of  fertile  country.  The 
commerce  of  Maine  is  greatly  facilitated  by 
uncommon  natural  advantages.  The  principal 
article  of  export,  however,  is  timber,  as  a  large 
portion  of  Maine  is  uncultivated,  and  covered 
with  forests.  Portland,  now  a  city,  is  the  largest 
place  in  Maine.  The  next  in  importance  are 
Bangor,  Thomaston,  Bath,  Hallowcll,  Bruns- 
wick, and  Eastport.  At  Brunswick,  there  is  a 
flourishing  institution,  called  Bowdoin  college, 
which  has  .a  medical  school  connected  with  it. 
There  is  a  Baptist  college  at  Waterville,  and  at 
Bangor  there  is  a  literary  and  theological  sem- 
inary, supported  by  the  Congregationalists.  The 
first  European  settlers  in  Maine  were  the  Eng- 
lish, who  established  themselves  at  York  in  1630. 
Until  1820,  Maine  formed  a  part  of  Massachu- 
setts, under  the  title  of  the  district  of  Maine, 
but  at  the  above-mentioned  period  it  was  erect- 
ed into  an  independent  state. 

MA1NTENON,  Frances  d'Aubigne,  March- 
ioness de,  grand  daughter  of  Theodore  Agrippa 
d'Aubigne,  was  born  in  1G35,  in  the  prison  of 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


HAL 


326 


MAL 


Niort,  where  her  father  was  confined.  On  his 
death,  Frances  was  sent  to  France,  being  pat- 
ronised by  her  paternal  aunt,  Madame  de  Vil- 
lette.  From  her,  however,  she  was  removed  by 
an  order  of  court,  lest  she  should  be  brought  up 
a  Protestai.t.  In  1051  she  married  the  celebrat- 
ed Scarron,  from  whom  she  learned  the  Latin, 
Spanish,  and  Italian  languages.  On  his  death, 
being  in  straitened  circumstances,  she  accepted 
a  pension  from  the  queen,  which  was  renewed 
to  her  after  the  death  of  that  princess,  through 
the  favor  of  Madame  de  Montespan  ;  and  under- 
took the  education  of  Louis's  children  by  that 
iady. 

In  this  situation  she  acquired  the  esteem  of 
the  king,  who  in  1674  purchased  for  her  the 
estate  of  Maintenon,  which  name  she  assumed. 
In  1685,  the  king,  over  whom  she  had  a  com- 
plete ascendency,  made  her  his  wife;  but  the 
marriage  was  never  publicly  avowed.  She  has 
been  accused  of  moving  him  to  revoke  the  edict 
of  Nantes ;  but  this  is  improbable,  as  it  is  cer- 
tain she  exerted  all  her  influence  in  behalf  of 
the  suffering  Protestants. 

Her  better  actions  deserve,  beyond  all  doubt, 
much  of  the  notice  which  has  been  given  to 
the  meaner  part  of  her  story.  She  exhibited 
all  the  characteristics  of  a  woman  striving  to  be 
great  beyond  the  sphere  of  her  sex.  and  the 
usual  inconsistencies  of  famous  women  were 
very  conspicuous  in  her :  yet  many  of  her  acts 
were  undoubtedly  great.  The  royal  institution 
of  St.  Louis,  for  the  young  and  indigent  female 
nobility,  was  founded  by  Madame  de  Mainte- 
non, and  liberally  endowed  by  the  king.  This 
was  afterwards  called  the  Society  of  St.  Cyr, 
and  was  distinguished  by  many  excellent  regu- 
lations. To  her  influence  has  been  attributed 
the  settlement  of  that  peace  so  salutary  to  the 
French  affairs,  after  the  destructive  effects  of 
the  seven  years'  war,  carried  against  all  the 
ambitious  designs  and  mortified  impatience  of 
the  French  generals.  For  a  considerable  time 
she  lived  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  Fenelon, 
and  on  his  recommendation  patronised  Madame 
Guon;  but  afterwards  she  joined  the  persecu- 
tors of  that  excellent  man.  On  the  death  of 
Louis  she  retired  to  St.  Cyr,  where  she  died  in 
17J8. 

MALACCA,  a  country  of  India  beyond  the 
Ganges,  consisting  of  a  peninsula,  170  miles 
long,  and  120  broad.  It  abounds  in  forests,  and 
contains  many  fruit  trees,  which  render  it  very 
valuable. 

MALESHERBES,  Christian  William  La- 
moignon,  an  eminent  Fiench  counsellor,  was 


born  at  Paris  in  1721.  In  1775  he  was  made 
minister  of  state  for  the  interior.  Under  his  ad- 
ministration numerous  abuses  were  removed; 
but  the  year  following  he  resigned,  and  travel- 
led into  different  countries,  in  a  plain  attire,  and 
under  an  assumed  name.  Of  the  revolution, 
he  conceived  a  hope  that  it  would  be  produc- 
tive of  good ;  yet  he  voluntarily  pleaded  the 
cause  of  Louis  XVI,  and  defended  him  with  all 
the  ardor  of  conscious  rectitude.  He  was  con- 
demned to  death,  with  his  daughter  and  grand- 
daughter, by  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  April 
22, 17! «. 

MALPLAQUET,  Battle  of.  This  memora- 
ble battle  was  fought  on  the  llth  of  September, 
1709.  Of  the  allied  troops,  altogether  amount- 
ing to  almost  120,000  men,  two  armies  had 
been  formed  :  one  commanded  by  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough,  and  the  other  by  Prince  Eugene, 
of  Savoy.  They  were  found  to  consist  01  165 
battalions  and  270  squadrons.  The  French 
troops  were,  for  the  most  part,  new-raised  men, 
ill  clothed,  and  ill  mounted,  but  in  great  num- 
bers. To  reinforce  their  army  in  Flanders,  they 
had  drawn  15,000  men  from  Germany ;  these, 
and  others  from  the  Moselle,  &c  ;  made  their 
troops  amount  to  150  battalions  and  300  squad- 
rons. Marshal  Villars  was  commander-in-chief ; 
Marshal  Boufflers  had  been  sent  to  assist  him 
at  the  battle,  but  without  encroaching  upon  his 
authority. 

The  manner  in  which  the  French  were  post- 
ed may  be  thus  described.  Their  right  wing 
was  covered  by  the  wood  of  Taisniere  on  one 
side,  and  bv  that  of  Jansart  on  the  other.  The 
latter  had  "behind  it  thick  hedges,  with  three 
ditches  and  artificial  entrenchments  one  be- 
hind another  ;  the  access  also  was  difficult,  be- 
cause of  a  marshy  ground  which  lay  before 
them.  Against  tins  wing  the  Dutch  "infantry 
were  to  make  their  attack."  Their  centre  took 
up  all  the  open  space  between  the  wood  of  Jan- 
sari  and  that  of  Sart.  A  hamlet  towards  the 
middle  covered  the  depth  of  this  centre,  which 
was  also  defended  by  aline  extending  from  one 
wood  to  the  other.  Their  loft  wing  was  posted, 
partly  in  the  wood  of  Sart  and  partly  behind,  in 
the  plain  ;  the  wood  served  as  a  natural  covert, 
besides  which  they  had  felled  trees,  and  raised 
banks  of  earth  and  fascines,  fortified  with  can- 
non. In  the  lines  of  their  centre  were  open- 
ings, to  let  their  cavalry  advance.  Their  artil- 
lery was  posted  on  advantageous  eminences, 
and  they  had  nothing  in  their  camp  to  encum- 
ber then). 
»  The  signal  for  the  attack  was  given,  by  the 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MAL 


327 


MAM 


discharge  of  50  pieces  of  cannon.  Prince  Eu- 
gene then  advanced  with  his  right,  to  penetrate 
into  the  wood  of  Sart.  In  the  charges  of  this 
wing,  General  Shulemburg,  the  Duke  of  Ar- 
gyle,  and  other  generals,  led  on  86  battalions, 
and  Count  Loweem  22  other  battalions,  to  at- 
tack the  intrenchments  in  the  woods  of  Sart 
and  Taisniere.  General  Withers  also,  with  19 
battalions,  attacked  the  enemy  in  another  in- 
trenchment  beyond  the  woods  of  Taisniere  and 
in  Great  Blagniere.  The  design  in  both  succeed- 
ed :  the  fight,  however,  was  long  and  obstinate, 
the  enemy  defending  themselves  with  equal  vig- 
or. The  allies  were  repulsed  more  than  once,  but 
notwithstanding  the  barricadoes  of  felled  trees 
and  other  impediments,  the  action  wavering 
almost  two  hours,  they  saw  themselves  at  last 
masters  of  the  wood,  and  had  penetrated  so  far 
that  they  could  see  the  hind  part  of  the  in- 
trenchments of  the  enemy's  centre. 

The  attack  of  the  left  wing  did  not  begin  till 
half  an  hour  after  that  of  the  right,  but  it  last- 
ed longer,  and  was  much  more  bloody.  Thirty 
battalions,  sustained  by  15  others,  Prussians, 
Hanoverians,  or  Hessians,  engaged  with  above 
70.  These  thirty  battalions  were  commanded  by 
Prince  Friso  of  Nassau,  general  of  the  foot,  and 
by  Baron  Fagel.  Following  his  example,  the 
troops  of  liis  attack  advanced  as  far  as  the  third 
intrenchment.  But  these  they  could  not  force, 
as  the  enemy  were  well  seconded  by  fresh  bat- 
talions drawn  from  their  centre.  The  assail- 
ants were  even  driven  back  to  their  own  post. 
Nevertheless  the  prince  led  on  his  troops  a  sec- 
ond time,  to  attack  those  intrenchments  which 
he  had  once  gained  and  lost  again.  They  re- 
covered the  two  first,  but  the  third  still  remain- 
ed impregnable.  When  the  enemy's  left  retir- 
ed, the  Duke  directed  the  Earl  of  Orkney,  with 
15  battalions,  to  attack  and  post  himself  in  the 
intrenchments  in  the  plain  between  the  woods 
of  Sart  and  Jansart.  This  was  executed,  and 
gave  the  horse  an  opportunity  to  enter  them, 
and  advance  into  the  plain.  The  first  squad- 
rons, led  by  the  Prince  of  Hesse  and  the  Prince 
D'Auvergne,  were  put  into  disorder  by  the 
household  troops,  but  rallied,  under  the  fire  of 
those  battalions.  Advantages  and  disadvantages 
succeeded  alternately  six  times,  till  the  Prince 
of  Hesse  turning  to  the  left,  fell  upon  the  rear 
of  the  infantry  that  had  been  engaged  with  the 
Prince  of  Nassau.  This  was  the  decisive  stroke. 
On  the  sight  of  the  diversion  made  by  the  Prince 
of  Hesse,  the  Dutch  battalions  recovered  new 
strength,  broke  through  the  third  and  last  in- 
trenchment, and  drove  all  opposition  before 


them.  In  general,  the  French  made  their  re- 
treat in  good  order;  but  three  regiments  of 
Danish  cavalry  made  a  terrible  slaughter  among 
several  battalions  of  their  right  that  had  been 
surrounded.  The  allies  pursued  as  far  as  the 
village  of  Quievrain  ;  the  enemy  lost  16  of  their 
cannon,  20  colors,  26  standards,  and  left  other 
indisputable  marks  of  victory,  including  a  num- 
ber of  prisoners.  Many  were  taken  next  morn- 
ing in  Bavay  and  the  neighboring  places,  weari- 
ness or  their  wounds  not  permitting  them  to 
follow  their  army. 

MALTA,  anciently  Melita,  and  formerly  de- 
pendent on  Sicily,  is  7  leagues  long  and  4  broad, 
with  a  population  of  80,000  inhabitants.  Gozo 
and  Comino  are  two  small  islands  in  its  vicinity. 
Its  capital,  La  Valette,  is  one  of  the  strongest 
places  in  the  world,  and  has  a  valuable  harbor 


of  great  importance  in  the  commerce  of  the 
Archipelago  and  the  Levant.  The  island  for- 
merly belonged  to  the  order  of  Malta,  or  knights 


of  St.  John,  whose  head  was  a  grand  master, 
the  sovereign  of  this  little  state.  The  French 
gained  possession  of  it  in  1798,  but  the  English 
took  it  in  1800.  The  soil  of  this  island,  which 
is  rock  covered  with  a  light  bed  of  earth,  pro- 
duces all  sorts  of  vegetables,  excellent  fruits. 
the  oranges,  in  particular,  being  famous,  silk, 
sugar,  and  cotton.  The  climate  is  mild  and  the- 
air  uncommonly  salubrious.  The  Maltese  are 
sober,  fine  seamen,  and  devoted  to  commerce. 

MAMALUKES,  MAMLOUKS,or  MAME- 
LUKES, from  the  Arabic  Memalik,  a  slave,  a 
body  of  cavalry,  formed  in  Egypt  1214,  from 
Georgian  and  Circassian  slaves,  chosen  for 
their  beauty  and  strength  ;  from  1254  they  gov 
erned  that  country  for  263  years,  and  expelled 
the  Christians  from  Palestine  in  1291.  They 
remained  a  military  body  in  Egypt,  till  the  year 
1810.  but  their  chiefs  were  treacherously  de- 
stroyed by  Mohammed  Ali  in  1811.  They  were 
mounted  on  superb  Turkish  horses,  which  al- 
though spirited  and  full  of  fire,  were  docile,  and 
obedient  to  the  word  and  bit.  The  prevailing 
color  of  this  breed  is  gray,  and  the  unfailing 
tenderness  with  which  "the  horses  of  the  Turks 
are  treated,  is  repaid  by  astonishing  fidelity  on 
the  part  of  these  fine  animals.  The  horses  of 
the  Mamelukes  were  splendidly  caparisoned, 
and  their  studded  trappings  and  rich  bits  rang 
in  their  gallop.  The  saddles  had  high  pum- 
mels and  cruppers,  and  the  huge,  shovel  stir- 
rups were  occasionally  gilded  and  curiously  or- 
namented. The  riders  wore  full  turbans,  light 
jackets,  loose  short  sleeves,  and  flowing  trow- 
sers.  Their  arms  were  an  ataghan  or  sabre  of 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


MAN 


328 


MAR 


Damascus  steel,  which  is  so  finely  tempered  that 
a  blade  composed  of  it  breaks  in  the  hand  of  an 
unskilful  swordsman.  The  Mamelukes  were 
skilled  in  the  use  of  these  sabres  and  never 
gave  slight  wounds.  Besides  the  ataghan,  the 
Mameluke  nad  a  carbine  slung  at  his  back,  and 
a  brace  of  pistols  at  his  saddle-bow. 

At  the  famous  battle  of  the  pyramids,  the 
Mamelukes  were  almost  annihilated  by  the 
French  infantry  under  Bonaparte.  The  im- 
penetrable squares  of  the  French  regiments 
received  them  with  a  most  galling  fire.  The 
horses  reared  and  plunged,  and  the  riders  fell 
by  hundreds.  In  the  very  agony  of  death,  while 
expiring  upon  the  ground,  some  of  the  dis- 
mounted Moslem  dragged  themselves  to  the 
feet  of  the  French  troops,  and  cut  at  their  legs 
with  their  long  crooked  sabres.  Some  backed 
their  chargers  upon  the  infantry,  and  caused 
them  to  strike  the  soldiers  with  their  heels. 
But  their  rout  was  complete.  Many  perished 
in  the  Nile,  and  but  a  remnant  escaped  to  Up- 
per Egypt.  Although  individually  the  finest 
cavalry  in  the  world,  they  were  incapable  of 
acting  in  concert. 

MANCO  CAPAC,  the  fictitious  founder  of 
the  Peruvian  monarchy,  a  deity,  who  appeared 
to  the  Peruvians,  and  taught  them  the  arts  of 
civilized  life. 

MANLIUS,  Marcus  Capitolinus,  a  celebrated 
Roman  consul  and  commander ;  who,  when 
Rome  was  taken  by  the  Gauls,  retired  into  the 
capitol  and  preserved  it  from  a  sudden  attack 
made  upon  it  in  the  night.  The  dogs  which  were 
kept  in  the  capitol  made  no  noise  ;  hut  the  geese, 
by  their  cry,  awoke  Manlius,  who  had  just  time 
to  repel  the  enemy.  Geese  from  that  period 
were  always  held  sacred  among  the  Romans, 
and  Manlius  was  honored  with  the  surname  of 
Capitolinus.  He  afterwards  endeavored  to  sub- 
vert the  liberties  of  his  country,  and  was  thrown 
down  the  Tarpeian  rock,  3d3  B.  C. 

MANLIUS,  Titus  Torquatus,  a  famous  Ro- 
man, who  displayed  great  courage  in  his  youth 
as  military  tribune.  In  the  war  against  the 
Gauls  he  accepted  a  challenge  given  by  one  of 
the  enemy  ;  and  having  slain  him,  took  his  col- 
lar from  his  neck,  on  which  account  he  assum- 
ed the  name  of  Torquatus.  He  was  the  first 
Roman  advanced  to  the  dictatorship  without 
being  previously  a  consul.  But  he  tarnished  his 
glory  by  putting  his  son  to  death,  for  defeating 
the  enemy  without  having,  received  orders  to 
attack  them.  This  gave  great  disgust  to  the 
Romans  ;  and  on  account  of  his  severity  in  his 
government,  all  edicts  of  extreme  rigor  were 


called  Manliana  Edicta.  He  flourished  B.  C. 
340. 

MANTINEA,  a  village  of  Greece,  where, 
in  363  B.  C.  a  battle  was  fought  between  the 
Thebans  and  Lacedemonians,  in  which  Epami- 
nondas  was  killed. 

MARAT,  Jean  Paul.  The  name  of  this  mon- 
ster revives  the  recollection  of  the  worst  atro- 
cities of  the  French  revolution.  He  wrote 
strongly  in  favor  of  the  worst  of  parties,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  convention.  Marat,  who 
belonged  to  the  Mountain  party,  and  was  deep- 
ly implicated  in  their  sanguinary  proceedings, 
was  assassinated  by  Charlotte  Corday,  in  1793. 

MARATHON,  a  village  of  Greece,  15  miles 
N.  E.  of  Athens.  It  is  famous  for  the  battle 
fought  in  its  plains  in  4!>0  B.  C.,  in  which  Mil- 
tiades,  with  a  small  Grecian  force,  totally  de- 
feated the  numerous  army  sent  by  Dr.rius,  king 
of  Persia,  to  conquer  Greece. 

MARENGO,  a  village  in  the  Sardinian  duchy 
of  Montferrat.  celebrated  for  the  victory  of  Bo- 
naparte over  the  Austrians  in  1800.  Some  de- 
tails of  this  most  severe  conflict,  which,  per- 
haps beyond  all  others,  established  the  military 
character  of  Bonaparte,  then  consul,  are  well 
entitled  to  a  place  in  a  compendium  of  history. 
The  French  head-quarters  were  removed  to 
Voghera.  which  the  army  passed  through  on  its 
way  to  Tortona,  and  took  up  a  position  round 
Tortona  to  blockade  it  by  divisions;  the  ad- 
vance-guard quietly  went  round  the  town,  and 
passed  without  any  thing  remarkable  having 
taken  place.  If  the  Austrian  commander  was 
doubtful  as  to  what  line  of  conduct  he  ought 
to  pursue,  this  was  his  time  to  determine;  the 
possession  of  Genoa  gave  him  choice  either  to 
fight,  or  shut  himself  up  in  the  garrison  he 
held ;  and  he  should  not  have  forgotten  that  so 
long  as  he  held  Genoa,  his  army  had  a  retreat 
from  the  port,  and  to  have  kept  the  communi- 
cation open  with  that  city  should  have  been  his 
chief  concern.  The  French  fought  for  Genoa 
from  a  knowledge  of  its  value,  and  Bonaparte 
hastened  to  derive  advantage  from  the  neglect 
of  the  Austrians ;  he  ordered  the  banks  of  the 
Po  opposite  Valenza  to  be  guarded,  lest  they 
should  escape  that  way ;  and  the  passes  be- 
tween Piedmont  and  Genoa  to  be  gained.  Mas- 
sena  and  Suchet  wore  rapidly  advancing  to 
annoy  the  rear  of  the  Austrians,  and  the  con- 
sul in  his  letter  to  the  inferior  consuls,  does  not 
seern  ignorant,  of  the  movements  in  his  favor 
by  the  army  of  Italy. — The  French  army  un- 
derstood that  Mi-las'  had  evacuated  Turin,  and 
was  advancing  to  meet  them  with  60,000  men. 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MAR 


329 


MAR 


General  Gardanne  retired  to  take  post  at  Ma- 
rengo, on  the  plain  of  which  his  great  body  of 
cavalry  would  be  of  much  service. — The  con- 
sul Bonaparte  skirted  Marengo,  and  was  seen 
examining  the  ground  with  attention,  by  turns 
meditating  and  giving  orders. 

The  army  passed  that  night  at  St.  Julian's, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  plain  of  Marengo  :  on  the 
morning  of  the  14th  June,  some  discharges  of 
cannon  roused  them  from  their  repose  ;  all  was 
soon  in  readiness.  Gardenne  was  attacked  at 
seven  o'clock ;  the  enemy  showed  much  vigor 
of  preparation  ;  a  few  weak  points  were  touched 
on,  but  his  intentions  were  unknown  till  late 
in  the  morning.  Berthier  was  first  in  the  field, 
and  wounded  soldiers  arriving,  owned  that  the 
Austrians  were  in  force.  General  Victor's  di- 
vision was  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle.  Gen- 
eral Lannes'  division  formed  the  right  wing. 
The  French  army  was  in  two  lines,  and  the 
cavalry  supported  its  wings. — The  consul  Bona- 
parte, about  1 1  o'clock  hastened  to  the  field  of 
battle.  General  Desaix  was  ordered  to  support 
Victor.  The  Austrians  were  careful  of  their 
position  near  the  bridge,  on  the  Bormida  ;  but 
the  principal  point  of  action  was  at  St.  Ste- 
fano,  from  hence  they  could  cut  off  the  retreat 
of  the  French,  and  they  gave  their  attention  to 
this  point.  The  division  under  Victor  began  to 
give  way,  and  many  corps  of  cavalry  and  in- 
fantry were  drove  back.  The  firing  came  nearer, 
and  a  sudden  and  dreadful  discharge  was  heard 
on  the  Bormida ;  the  French  were  soon  after  seen 
retreating,  carrying  the  wounded  on  their  shoul- 
der.?, and  the  Austrians  gained  upon  them.  Bo- 
naparte advanced,  and  urged  all  he  met  with  ; 
his  presence  encouraged  them ;  his  own  guards 
no  longer  continued  about  his  person,  but  near 
him  shared  in  the  battle.  The  grenadiers  of  the 
consular  guard  advanced  against  the  enemy : 
although  they  were  only  about  500  men,  they 
still  advanced,  and  forced  every  thing  in  their 
passage  ;  they  were  three  times  charged  by  the 
enemies'  cavalry ;  they  surrounded  their  colors 
and  wounded,  and  having  exhausted  all  their 
ammunition,  they  then  slowly  fell  back,  and 
joined  the  rear  guard. 

The  army  fought  retreating  in  all  directions  ; 
the  Austrians  turned  the  right  wing,  the  gar- 
rison of  Tortona  made  a  sortie,  and  the  French 
were  thus  surrounded.  The  consul,  in  the  cen- 
tre, encouraged  the  gallant  corps  that  defended 
the  defile  which  crossed  the  road,  shut  up  on 
one  side  by  a  wood,  and  on  the  other  by  some 
thick  vineyards  of  lofty  growth;  the  village  of 
Marengo  was  on  the  left.  Of  the  French  artil- 


lery,  the  few  that  remained  had  but  little  am- 
munition left.  Thirty  pieces  of  cannon,  well 
served  by  the  enemy,  cut  up  the  French.  In 
the  midst  of  this  slaughter,  the  consul  appeared 
to  brave  death.  The  ground  was  ploughed  up 
by  the  enemies'  shot,  even  between  the  legs  of 
his  horse ;  but  undaunted,  and  with  th'e  greatest 
coolness,  he  gave  his  orders  as  events  requir- 
ed :  he  was  urged  to  retire,  but  discovered  no 
change.  Marengo  seemed  the  prize  for  which 
both  parties  contended.  Gardanne  flanked  the 
corps  going  to  attack  it ;  the  Austrians  for  a  mo- 
ment gave  way,  but  being  reinforced,  marched 
on.  General  Kellerman,  the  younger,  support- 
ed the  left ;  a  regiment  of  dragoons  routed  a 
column  of  Austrian  cavalry,  but  was  charged 
by  superior  numbers,  and  was  giving  way, 
when  two  more  columns  advanced  to  his  as- 
sistance, and  took  100  prisoners. 

The  consul  being  informed  that  the.  reserve 
of  General  Desaix  was  not  yet  arrived,  hasten- 
ed to  the  division  of  General  Lannes  to  slacken 
its  retreat :  he  tells  them  it  was  his  practice 
to  sleep  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  enemy, 
however,  advanced ;  the  retreat  was  absolute- 
ly necessary,  which  took  place  in  good  order, 
though  eighty  pieces  of  cannon  were  playing 
on  them  :  this  did  not  annoy  the  firmness  of  the 
French,  they  manoeuvred  as  though  they  were 
on  a  parade.  At  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon, 
not  more  than  6000  infantry  stood  to  their  col- 
ors, and  six  pieces  of  cannon  only  could  be 
made  use  of;  one-third  of  the  army  was  unable 
to  combat,  and  more  than  another  third  was 
occupied  in  removing  the  sick  and  wounded, 
owing  to  the  want  of  carriages. 

Every  circumstance  was  eminently  discourag 
ing  to  the  French  army,  but  their  fortitude  and 
courage  changed  their  situation  in  the  course 
of  two  hours  afterwards.  The  divisons  of 
Mounier  and  Desaix  showed  themselves ;  they 
arrived  on  a  gallop,  after  a  forced  march  often 
leagues,  anxious  to  avenge  their  fallen  com- 
rades. The  crowd  of  dead  and  wounded  might 
well  have  damped  their  ardor,  but  one  opinion 
only  reigned  among  them,  and  they  rushed  on 
to  glory.  General  Melas,  being  ignorant  of 
what  passed  in  the  French  line,  and  also  igno- 
rant of  the  reinforcements  that  had  timely  ar- 
rived to  their  succor,  changed  that  disposition 
which  had  given  him  success,  and  which  it  was 
his  interest  as  well  as  duty  to  have  followed 
up.  He  extended  his  wings,  thinking,  by  this 
manoEuvre,  to  have  cut  the  enemy  off,  but  it 
only  brought  on  his  own  disaster.  "Bonaparte, 
whom  nothing  escaped,  seized  on  this  favor- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


MAR 


330 


MAR 


able  opportunity,  and  altered  his  plan  accord- 
ingly. 

When  Desaix  reached  the  heights,  the  con- 
sul, the  generals,  and  the  staff  went  through 
the  ranks  inspiring  confidence.  This  took  up 
near  an  hour,  while  the  Austrian  artillery  was 
bearing  upon  their  ranks,  and  many  were  thus 
killed  without  moving,  except  to  cover  their 
comrades'  dead  bodies.  The  signal  for  charg- 
ing was  at  length  heard.  Desaix,  at  the  head  of 
alight  battalion,  threw  himself  upon  the  Aus- 
trians,  and  charged  with  the  bayonet :  all  the 
French  were  in  motion  at  once,  in  two  lines, 
their  fire  carried  every  thing  before  it;,  the  ene- 
my were  in  every  position  overthrown.  The 
French  line  now  presented  a  formidable  front ; 
as  quick  as  the  cannon  was  brought  up,  they 
made  dreadful  havoc  among  the  affrighted  Aus- 
trians  ;  they  fell  back,  and  their  cavalry  charg- 
ed with  fury  ;  a  powder  wagon  blew  up,  and 
their  alarm  increased;  in  iact,  all  gave  way 
and  fled.  The  French  cavalry  rushed  into  the 
plain,  and  advanced  towards  the  enemy.  De- 
saix trampled  on  all  obstacles  which  opposed 
him.  Victor  carried  Marengo,  and  flew  towards 
the  Bormida.  The  centre,  under  Murat advanc- 
ed into  the  plain  ;  he  much  annoyed  the  Aus- 
trian centre,  and  kept  a  great  body  of  cavalry 
in  check.  Desaix  cut  off  the  left  wing  of  the 
Austrians  completely,  and  in  the  moment  of 
his  victory  received  a  mortal  wound.  General 
Kellerman  made  GOOO  prisoners,  with  two  gen- 
erals and  officers  of  the  staff.  Night  com- 
ing on,  the  Austrians  were  all  in  disorder ;  all 
crowded  together  near  the  centre,  and  many 
were  thrown  into  the  river,  off  the  bridge  ;  their 
artillery  intercepted  their  retreat.  The  third 
line  of  Austrian  cavalry,  wishing  to  save  the 
infantry,  came  up ;  a  ditch  separated  the  com- 
batants; the  French  cnossed  it,  and  immediate- 
ly surrounded  the  two  first  platoons.  The  Aus- 
trians were  thrown  into  disorder ;  the  pursuit 
continued,  and  they  made  a  great  many  pris- 
oners ;  the  Austrian  rear  guard  was  cut  to 
pieces.  Night  setting  in,  and  the  extreme  fa- 
tigue of  the  horses,  made  Murat  determine  not 
to  expose  his  troops  more  after  so  succesful  a 
day's  work.  The  armies  had  been  fourteen 
hours  within  musket-shot  of  each  other,  and 
wanted  rest.  Victory  waved  on  each  side  four 
times  during  the  day,  and  sixty  pieces  of  can- 
non were  alternately  won  and  lost.  When  the 
battle  ended,  the  French  had  taken  12  stand- 
ards, 2G  pieces  of  cannon,  and  7000  prisoners. 
The  Auslrians  lost  seven  generals,  400  officers, 
and  6000  men  killed  or  wounded.  The  French 


lost  Generals  Desaix  and  Watrin  killed,  four 
generals  of  brigade  wounded,  and  3000  men 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners.  The  French 
army,  when  the  battle  commenced,  was  reck- 
oned at  about  45,000  strong,  with  about  thirty 
pieces  of  artillery.  The  Austrian  army  was 
from  55  to  60,000  men,  including  near  18,000 
cavalry,  and  an  immense  train  of  artillery  well 
provided. 

MARGARET  OF  ANJOU,  daughter  of 
Rene,  king  of  Sicily,  and  wife  of  Henry  VI, 
king  of  England.  The  duke  of  Gloucester  hav- 
ing opposed  her  marriage,  she  effected  his  ruin, 
and  he  was  strangled  in  prison.  In  the  wars 
of  the  rival  roses,  she  displayed  the  character 
of  a  heroine.  Her  husband  having  been  taken 
prisoner  in  1455  by  the  duke  of  York,  she  levied 
forces,  defeated  the  duke,  set  Henry  at  liberty, 
and  entered  Lcndon  in  triumph.  In  1460,  her 
army  was  defeated  at  Northampton  by  the  earl 
of  Warwick,  and  Henry  again  became  a  pris- 
oner. The  queen,  however,  escaped,  and  gath- 
ered another  army,  with  which  she  inarched 
against  the  duke  of  York  who  fell  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Wakefield.  She  next  defeated  Warwick 
at  St.  Albans  ;  but  was  routed,  after  a  bloody 
contest  at  Towton  :  on  which  she  fled  to  France 
to  implore  succor  from  Louis  XI,  who  refused 
her  any  assistance.  This  intrepid  woman  then 
returned  to  England,  where  she  joined  -several 
of  her  party,  but  was  defeated  at  Hexham.  In 
1471  she  was  taken  prisoner,  and  in  1475  she 
purchased  her  liberty  by  a  large  ransom.  She 
then  returned  to  France,  where  she  died  in 
1482,  aged  59. 

MARGARET,  queen  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way, commonly  called  the  Femiramis  of  the 
north,  vanquished  Albert  at  Falkoping  in  13bi), 
and  died  in  1412.  Albert  had  contemptuously 
termed  her"  the  king  in  petticoats." 

MARIAMNE,  the  wife  of  Herod  the  Great, 
by  whom  she  had  two  sons.  Alexander  and  Aris- 
tobulus,  and  two  daughters.  Herod  was  very 
fond  of  Mariamne ;  but  she  had  little  regard 
for  him,  especially  after  he  put  to  death  her  bro- 
ther Aristobulus.  When  Herod  went  to  Rome 
to  court  the  favor  of  Augustus,  he  left  secret 
orders  with  Joseph  us,  and  Sohemus,  to  destroy 
Mariamne,  and  her  mother,  if  any  misfortune 
should  happen  to  him.  Mariamne  having  ob- 
tained the  secret  from  Sohemus,  upbraided 
Herod  at  his  return,  with  his  inhumanity,  for 
which  he  put  her  to  death,  together  with  So> 
hemus,  B.  C.  22. 

MARINO  SAN,  an  Italian  republic  in  the 
ancient  duchy  of  Urbino.  It  is  one  of  the  small- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MAR 


331 


MAR 


est  states  in  Europe,  and  contains  but  7000  in- 
habitants, dispersed  through  a  number  of  small 
villages. 

MARIUS,  Caius,  a  celebrated  Roman  gen- 
eral. He  conquered  Jugurlha,  kingofNumidia, 
and  afterwards,  for  several  successive  years,  car- 
ried on  war  with  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones,  bar- 
barous nations,  who  attempted  to  subdue  Italy. 
In  his  old  age  he  engaged  in  a  civil  war  with 
Sylla,  and  was  compelled  to  flee  to  Africa, 
where  he  was  found  seated  amidst  the  ruins  of 
Carthage.  His  party  becoming  victorious,  he 
returned  to  Rome,  where  he  died,  86  B.  C. 

MARLBOROUGPI,  (Churchill,  John)  duke 
of,  prince  of  the  Roman  empire,  was  born  at 
Ashe,  in  Devonshire,  in  1(550,  and  received  an 
indifferent  education,  for  his  father  took  him  to 
court  at  the  age  of  12  years.  About  1666,  he 
was  made  an  ensign  in  the  guards,  and  served 
for  sometime  at  Tangier.  In  1672  he  was  with 
the  duke  of  Monmouth,  who  served  with  the 
French  against  the  Dutch,  and  was  made  cap- 
tain of  grenadiers.  The  conduct  of  Mr.  Chur- 
chill at  the  battle  of  Nimeguen  gained  the  par- 
ticular notice  of  Marshal  Turenne,  who  called 
him  the  handsome  Englishman.  At  the  siege 
of  Maestricht,  his  bravery  was  so  distinguished 
that  the  French  king  thanked  him  particularly 
at  the  head  of  the  line.  Pie  was  made,  on  his 
return  to  England,  lieutenant-colonel,  gentle- 
man of  the  bed-chamber,  and  master  of  the  robes 
to  the  duke  of  York.  He  attended  that  prince 
to  Holland,  and  into  Scotland,  and  about  this 
time  married  Miss  Jennings,  a  lady  in  waiting 
of  Anne,  afterwards  queen  of  Great  Britain. 
In  1682  he  was  made  a  peer,  by  the  title  of 
Baron  Eymouth  in  Scotland ;  and  when  James 
came  to  the  crown,  he  was  sent  ambassador  to 
France  to  announce  the  event.  In  1685  he 
was  created  Lord  Churchill  of  Sandridge  in  the 
county  of  Hertford.  The  same  year  he  sup- 
pressed Monmouth's  rebellion,  and  took  him 
prisoner,  and  continued  to  serve  king  Jame 
with  great  fidelity,  until  the  arrival  of  the  princ 
of  Orange,  when  he  left  him,  but  without  tak 
ing  any  soldiers  with  him.  The  prince  wa 
proud  of  this  acquisition,  gave  his  lordship 
gracious  reception,  and  intrusted  him  with  th 


sole  regulation  of  the  army.  In  1689  he  was 
sworn  of  the  privy  council,  and  made  one  of 
the  gentlemen  of  the  bed-chamber  of  the  king, 


and  created  earl  of  Marlborough.  The  same 
year  he  was  sent  to  Holland  as  commander  of 
the  English  forces.  He  next  served  in  Ireland, 
and  reduced  Cork  with  other  strong  places.  But 
notwithstanding  these  important  services,  he 


was  dismissed  from  his  employments,  and  com- 
mitted to  the  tower;  from  which,  however,  he 
was  soon  released.  The  cause  of  this  injustice 
has  never  been  explained. 

At  the  commencement  of  queen  Anne's  reign, 
the  earl  came  to  England,  whence  he  had  been 
sent  ambassador  to  Holland,  and  recommended 
a  speedy  war  with  France  and  Spain,  which 
advice  was  followed.  He  then  went  to  the  con- 
tinent, as  captain-general  of  the  English  forces, 
and  performed  many  brilliant  actions  through- 
out his  various  campaigns,  too  numerous  in- 
deed to  be  detailed  here.  At  the  battle  of  Ram- 
illies,  May  12,  1706,  he  narrowly  escaped  death, 
a  cannon-shot  taking  off  the  head  of  Colonel 
Singly,  as  he  was  helping  the  duke  to  his  horse. 
In  1711  he  returned  to  England,  but  was  soon 
deprived  of  his  employments  by  queen  Anne, 
whose  successor,  however,  restored  him  his 
military  appointments.  He  died  June  15,  1722. 

A  distinguished  poet  thus  mentions  this  great 


"  :T\vas  then    great  Marlb'rough's  mighty  soul  was 

proved, 

That  in  the  shock  of  charging  hosts  unmoved, 
Amidst  confusion,  horror,  and  despair, 
Examined  all  the  dreadful  scenes  of  war  ; 
In  peaceful  thought  the  field  of  death  surveyed, 
To  fainting  squadrons  sent  the  timely  aid  ; 
Inspired  repulsed  battalions  to  engage, 
And  taught  the  doubtful  battle  where  to  rage. 
So  when  an  angel,  by  divine  command, 
With  rising  tempests  shakes  a  guilty  land, 
(Such  as  of  late  o'er  pale  Britannia  past,) 
Calm  and  serene  he  drives  the  furious  blast, 
And  pleased  th'  Almighty's  wonders  to  perform, 
Rides  on  the  whirlwind,  and  directs  the  storm." 

MARMONTEL,  John  Francis,  an  eminent 
French  writer,  born  at  Bort,  in  Limousin,  in 
1719.  Pie  was  the  son  of  a  tailor,  but  educated 
at  the  college  of  Toulouse,  and  afterwards 
made  an  abbe.  He  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bas- 
tille for  writing  a  satire  on  an  influential  per- 
son, but  escaped  the  revolutionary  fury.  He 
died  in  1798  at  Abbeville.  His  literary  char- 
acter depends  chiefly  on  his  Moral  Tales. 

MARS,  in  ancient  mythology,  the  son  of 
Juno,  and  the  god  of  war.  He  is  represented 
with  a  helmet  on  his  head,  a  spear  in  his  hand, 
often  on  a  car,  animated  with  the  ardor  of  bat 
tie.  The  Romans  honored  him  most,  and  erect 
ed  many  temples  to  him.  His  priests,  the  Salii, 
celebrated  his  festivals  by  dancing,  and  beating 
their  bucklers  in  accord  to  music.  He  was  the 
favorite  of  Venus,  and  completely  supplanted 
Vulcan,  who,  however,  revono-ed  himself. 

MARTINlCO.or  MARTINIQUE,  the  larg- 
est of  the  Carribee  islands,  belonging  to  France, 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


MAR 


332 


MAR 


contains  332.865  inhabitants.  The  productions 
are  sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  cassava,  &c.  The 
climate  is  very  warm. 

MARY  STUART,  queen  of  Scots,  daughter 
of  James  V,  of"  Scotland,  and  Mary  of  Lorraine, 
was  born  in  1532,  and  eight  days  afler  her  birth, 
inherited  the  throne  by  the  death  of  her  father. 

The  regency  refused  the  politic  offer  of  Hen- 
ry VIII,  to  unite  both  kingdoms  by  the  marriage 
of  his  son  Edward  with  the  heiress  of  Scotland. 
At  six  years  of  age,  she  was  contracted  to  the 
dauphin  of  France,  and  resided  at  Paris  till  the 
marriage  was  solemnized  in  1548.  There  she 
committed  her  first  political  error,  in  deference 
to  the  wishes  of  her  father-in-law ;  assuming 
the  title  of  queen  of  England,  on  the  ground  of 
Elizabeth's  illegitimacy  from  the  unlawfulness 
of  Catharine's  divorce."  Such  an  act  could  not 
be  forgotten  by  a  woman  of  Elizabeth's  feelings  ; 
and  accordingly,  on  Mary's  arrival  in  Scotland, 
on  the  death  of  Francis,  Elizabeth  never  left 
unemployed  a  single  opportunity  of  ruining 
her.  Mary  was  also  a  formidable  rival  in  point 
of  female  attraction,  and  Elizabeth  could  not 
forgive  her  competitor  in  being  surpassed  by 
her  in  beauty. 

Through  the  intrigues  of  Eli/.abeth,  Mary, 
who  had  many  offers  much  more  suited  to  her 
rank,  gave  her  hand  to  Lord  Darnley,  a  weak  but 
impetuous  man,  who  was  noway  calculated  to 
retain  her  affections.  Mary,  in  return  for  his 
slighting  and  capricious  conduct,  gave  unbe- 
coming countenance  to  an  Italian  musician, 
named  Rizzio,  who  was  invidiously  supposed 
to  share  the  privileges  of  her  husband.  Darnley 
joined  some  other  nobles,  who  getting  privately 
into  the  palace,  burst  into  the  queen's  room, 
and  murdered  Rizzio  before  her  face. 

She  now  transferred  her  favors  to  James 
Hepburn,  earl  Both  well,  to  whom,  although  at 
first  disagreeable  to  her,  she  seems  to  have 
given  herself  away,  principally  to  accomplish 
her  revenge  upon  her  husband.  Darnley  was 
soon  after  killed  by  an  explosion  of  his  house 
from  gunpowder,  and  the  general  voice  of  his- 
tory attributes  the  design  to  the  Queen.  Her 
subsequent  conduct  confirmed  the  belief:  Both- 
well  was  publicly  impeached  for  the  murder, 
and  the  Q,ueen  markedly  implicated ;  yet  afler 
a  scene  of  mock  violence  and  plotted  detention, 
she  gave  her  hand  to  the  alleged  murderer  of 
her  husband.  Neither  party,  however,  was 
long  allowed  to  reap  the  advantage  of  the  con- 
nexion. Both  well,  being  opposed  by  a  powerful 
confederacy  of  the  nobles,  fled,  and  perished 
miserably  in  Norway 


The  confederate  lords  then  obliged  Mary  to 
sign  a  renunciation  of  her  crown  in  favor  of  her 
son,  and  she  herself  was  committed  as  a  prisoner, 
and  secluded  from  her  friends.  The  place  of 
her  confinement  in  the  castle  of  Lochleven  was 
all  but  inaccessible  ;  but  Mary's  beauty  had  pro- 
cured her  a  friend  in  one  of  her  attendants,  and 
by  his  means  she  contrived  to  escape.  She 
found  herself  very  speedily  at  the  head  of  a  con- 
siderable body  of  troops,  who  proclaimed  her 
pretensions,  and  prepared  to  maintain  them 
against  those  of  the  regent.  They  were,  how- 
ever, worsted  in  an  engagement  which  ensued  ; 
and  Mary,  panic-struck,  fled  towards  England, 
and  put  herself  under  the  protection  of  one  of 
Elizabeth's  governors. 

This  was  exactly  what  that  princess  had  hoped. 
She,  however,  disguised  her  designs  under  the 
mask  of  friendship ;  affected  to  pity  the  forlorn 
condition  of  the  fugitive  queen;  and,  under  the 
idea  of  granting  her  an  asylum,  betrayed  her 
into  a  prison.  Elizabeth  thus  became  the  arbi- 
ter between  Mary  and  her  late  subjects,  and  a 
sort  of  court  was  appointed  to  hear  both  parties, 
and  decide  between  them  ;  but  the  proceedings 
were  stopped  by  Mary  refusing  to  answer  the 
accusations  brought  against  her. 

During  Mary's  continuance  in  confinement, 
she  engaged  the  affection  of  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
folk, a  favorite  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  but  who 
seems  very  readily  to  have  entered  into  those 
ambitious  views  which  such  an  alliance  would 
naturally  open  to  him.  The  design,  however, 
was  discovered,  and  Norfolk  was  committed  to 
the  Tower.  On  the  promise  of  renouncing  his 
scheme  he  was  released ;  but  on  violating  it, 
was  again  committed,  tried,  and  executed. 
Mary  had,  by  the  countenance  she  gave  to  this 
plan,  rendered  herself  sufficiently  odious  to  a 
people  who  almost  adored  the  woman  she  was 
endeavoring  to  suppJant;  and,  on  the  discovery 
of  a  traitorous  correspondence  with  Spain,  in 
which  Mary  had  coolly  acceded  to  the  plot  of 
assassinating  the  Queen,  the  anger  and  violence 
of  the  Kno-lish  people  knew  no  bounds;  and 
though  it  may  wett  be  doubted  whether  even 
this  act  co'uld  justify  the  subjecting  of  an  inde- 

Cdent  princess  to  trial  and  punishment  by  a 
•ign  people,  the  general    exasperation   pre- 
vailed, and  Elizabeth,  with  well-feigned  reluc- 
tance, signed  the  warrant  for  her  cousin's  exe- 
cution. 

Mary's  character  ever  rose  with  her  misfor- 
tunes, and  now  at  their  climax  displayed  a  firm- 
ness and  an  energy  of  which  her  impetuous 
temper  and  fluctuating  policy  had  excited  little 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MAR 


333 


MAR 


suspicion.  After  a  long  confinement  at  Cov- 
entry, she  was  removed*  to  Fotheringay  Castle, 
to  undergo  the  formality  of  a  trial.  When 
brought  before  the  commissioners  she  disclaimed 
their"  authority,  and  asserted  her  innocence. 
The  commissioners,  after  hearing  her  defence, 
declared  her  guilty  of  conspiring  the  death  of 
Elizabeth,  and  condemned  her  to  death.  Mary 
received  the  tidings  with  complacency.  Many 
foreign  powers  interested  themselves  in  her 
behalf;  and  her  son  James  endeavored  to  save 
her  life,  but  in  vain. 

A  warrant  was  sent  down,  and  read  to  the 
royal  captive,  who  only  entreated  that  she  might 
be  permitted  the  consolations  of  her  own  reli- 
gion ;  but  even  this  favor  was  inhumanly  re- 
fused. She  was  beheaded  in  the  castle  of  Foth- 
eringay, Feb.  8,  1587,  after  praying  to  God  to 
forgive  all  who  had  thirsted  for  her  blood.  Her 
remains  were  interred  in  Peterborough  cathe- 
dral, from  whence,  with  filial  piety,  th'ey  were 
afterwards  removed  by  her  son,  and  deposited 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 

The  last  letter  the'Queen  of  Scots  ever  ad- 
dressed to  Elizabeth,  as  well  as  the  base  man- 
ner in  which  she  treated  it,  may  prove  interest- 
ing. 

';  Madam,  I  thank  God  from  the  bottom  of 
my  heart  that,  by  the  sentence  which  has  been 
passed  against  me,  he  is  about  to  put  an  end  to 
my  tedious  pilgrimage.  1  would  not  wish  it 
prolonged,  though  it  were  in  my  power,  having 
had  enough  of  time  to  experience  its  bitterness. 
I  write  at  present  only  to  make  three  last  re- 
quests, which,  as  I  can  expect  no  favor  from 
your  implacable  ministers,  1  should  wish  to  owe 
to  your  majesty  and  to  no  other.  First,  as  in 
England  I  cannot  hope  to  be  buried  according 
to  the  solemnities  of  the  Catholic  church  (the 
religion  of  the  ancient  kings,  your  ancestors 
and  mine,  being  now  changed),  and  as  in  Scot- 
land they  have  already  violated  the  ashes  of  my 
progenitors.  I  have  to  request,  that  as  s'oon  as 
my  enemies  have  bathed  their  hands  in  my  in- 
nocent blood,  mv  domestics  may  be  allowed  to 
inter  my  body  "in  some  consecrated  ground ; 
and  alnve  all,  that  they  may  be  permitted  to 
carry  it  to  France,  where  the  bones  of  the 
Queen,  my  most  honored  mother,  repose.  Thus, 
that  poor  frame  which  has  never  enjoyed  repose 
so  long  as  it  has  been  joined  to  my" sou],  may' 
find  it  at  last  when  they  will  be  separated. 
Second,  as  I  dread  the  tyranny  of  the  harsh  men 
to  whose  power  you  have  abandoned  me,  I  en- 
treat your  majesty  that  I  may  not  be  executed 
in  secret,  but  in  the  presence  of  my  servants 


and  other  persons  who  may  bear  testimony  of 
my  faith  and  fidtelity  to  the  true  church,  and 
guard  the  last  hours  of  my  life  and  my  last 
sighs  from  the  false  rumors  which  my  adversa- 
ries may  spread  abroad.  Third,  I  request  that 
my  domestics,  who  have  served  me  through  so 
much  misery  and  with  so  much  constancy,  may 
be  allowed  to  retire  without  molestation  where- 
ever  they  choose,  to  enjoy  for  the  remainder  of 
their  lives  the  small  legacies  which  my  poverty 
has  enabled  me  to  bequeath  to  them.  I  conjure 
you,  madam,  by  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ,  by 
our  consanguinity,  by  the  memory  of  Henry 
VI!,  our  common  father,  and  by  the  royal  title 
which  I  carry  with  me  to  death,  not  to  refuse 
rne  those  reasonable  demands,  but  to  assure  me, 
by  a  letter  under  your  own  hand,  that  you  will 
comply  with  them  ;  and  I  shall  then  die  as  I 
have  lived,  your  affectionate  sister  and  prisoner, 
MARY  Queen  of  Scots." 

Whether  Elizabeth  ever  answered  this  letter 
does  not  appear ;  but  it  produced  so  little  effect, 
that  epistles  from  her  to  Sir  Amias  Paulet  still 
exist,  which  prove  that  in  her  anxiety  to  avoid 
taking  upon  herself  the  responsibility  of  Mary's 
death,  she  wished  to  have  her  privately  assas- 
sinated or  poisoned.  Paulet,  however,  though 
a  harsh  and  violent  man,  positively  refused  to 
sanction  so  nefarious  a  scheme.  Yet  in  the 
very  act  of  instigating  murder,  Elizabeth  could 
close  her  eyes  against  her  own  iniquity,  and 
affect  indignation  at  the  alleged  offences  of 
another.  But  perceiving,  at  length,  that  no  al 
ternative  remained,  she  ordered  her  secretary 
Davidson  to  bring  her  the  warrant  for  Mary's 
execution,  and  after  perusing  it,  she  deliberately 
affixed  her  signature.  She  then  desired  him 
to  carry  it  to  Walsingham,  saying,  with  an  iron- 
ical smile,  and  in  a  "  merry  tone,"  that  she 
feared  he  would  die  of  grief  when  he  saw  it. 
Walsingham  sent  the  warrant  to  the  chancellor, 
who  affixed  the  great  seal  to  it,  and  despatched 
it  by  Beal,  with  a  commission  to  the  Earls  of 
Shrewsbury,  Kent,  Derby,  and  others,  to  see  it 
put  in  execution.  Davidson  was  afterwards 
made  the  victim  of  Elizabeth's  artifice, — who, 
to  complete  the  solemn  farce  she  had  been 
playing,  pretended  he  had  obeyed  her  orders 
too  quickly,  and  doomed  him  in  consequence 
to  perpetual  imprisonment. 

From  tyrants  like  these  who  would  have  ex- 
pected either  mercy  or  justice  ?  Mary  was  per- 
fectly resigned  to  her  fate,  and  met  it  like  one 
who  placed  the  most  unwavering  reliance  in 
the  efficacy  of  the  religion  she  professed .  After 
hearing  the  warrant  for  her  execution,  she  said 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


MAR 


334 


MAR 


that  though  "  she  was  sorry  it  came  from  Eliza- 
beth, she  had  long  been  expecting  the  man- 
date for  her  death,  and  was  riot  unprepared  to 
die."  "  For  many  years,"  she  added,  "  I  have 
lived  in  continual  affliction,  unable  to  do  good 
to  myself  or  to  those  wh'o  are  dear  to  me  ;  and 
as  I  shall  depart  innocent  of  the  crime  which 
has  been  laid  to  my  charge,  I  cannot  see  why 
1  should  shrink  from  the  prospect  of  immortal- 
ity." She  then  laid  her  hand  on  the  New  Tes- 
tament, and  solemnly  protested  that  she  had 
never  either  devised,  compassed,  or  consented 
to  the  death  of  the  Queen  of  England.  Before 
leaving  the  world,  Mary  felt  a  natural  curiosity 
to  be  informed  upon  several  subjects  of  public 
interest,  which,  though  connected  with  herself, 
and  generally  known,  had  not  penetrated  the 
walls  of  her  prison.  She  asked  if  no  foreign 
princes  had  interfered  in  her  behalf, — if  her 
secretaries  were  still  alive, — if  it  was  intended 
to  punish  them  as  well  as  her, — if  they  brought 
no  letters  from  Elizabeth  or  others, — and,  above 
all,  if  her  son,  the  King  of  Scotland,  was  well, 
and  had  evinced  any  interest  in  the  fate  of  a 
mother  who  had  always  loved  and  never  wrong- 
ed him.  Being  satisfied  upon  these  points,  she 
proceeded  to  inquire  when  her  execution  was 
to  take  place  ?  Shrewsbury  replied  that  it  was 
fixed  for  the  next  morning  at  eight.  She  ap- 
peared startled  and  agitated  for  a  few  minutes, 
saying  that  it  was  more  sudden  than  she  had 
anticipated,  and  that  she  had  yet  to  make  her 
will,  which  she  had  hitherto  deferred,  in  the 
expectation  that  the  papers  and  letters  which 
had  been  forcibly  taken  from  her  would  be  re- 
stored. She  soon,  however,  regained  her  self- 
possession;  and"  informing  the  commissioners 
that  she  desired  to  be  left  alone  to  make  her 
preparations,  she  dismissed  them  for  the  night. 
Upon  Bourgoine  making  the  remark  that 
'  more  than  a  few  hours  was  allowed  to  the 
meanest  criminal,' she  said  "she  must  submit 
with  resignation  to  her  fate,  and  learn  to  regard 
it  as  the  will  of  God."  She  then  requested  her 
attendants  to  kneel  with  her,  and  she  prayed 
fervently  for  some  time  in  the  midst  of  them. 
Afterward,  while  supper  was  preparing,  she 
employed  herself  in  putting  all  the  monby  she 
had  by  her  into  separate  purses,  and  affixed  to 
each,  with  her  own  hand,  the  name  of  the  per- 
son for  whom  she  intended  it.  At  supper, 
though  she  sat  down  to  table,  she  ate  little.  1  ler 
mind,  however,  was  in  perfect  composure  ;  and 
during  the  repast,  though  she  spoke  little,  placid 
smiles  were  frequently  observed  to  pass  over 
her  countenance. — The  calm  magnanimity  of 


their  mistress  only  increased  the  distress  of  her 
servants.  They  saw  her  sitting  among  them 
in  her  usual  health,  and  with  almost  more  than 
her  usual  cheerfulness,  partaking  of  the  viands 
that  were  set  before  her ;  yet  they  knew  that  it 
was  the  last  meal  at  which  they  should  ever  be 
present  together  ;  and  that  the  interchange  of 
affectionate  service  upon  their  part,  and  of  con- 
descending attention  and  endearing  gentleness 
on  hers,  which  had  linked  them  to  her  for  so 
many  years,  was  now  about  to  terminate  for 
ever.  Far  from  attempting  to  offer  her  conso- 
lation, they  were  unable  to  discover  any  for 
themselves.  As  soon  as  the  melancholy  meal 
was  over.  Mary  desired  that  a  cup  of  wine  should 
be  given  to  her  ;  and  putting  it  to  her  lips,  drank 
to  the  health  of  each  of  her  attendants  by  name. 
She  requested  that  they  would  pledge  her  in 
like  manner;  and  each,  falling  on  his  knee,  and 
mingling  tears  with  the  wine,  drank  to  her, 
asking  pardon  at  the  same  time  for  all  the  faults 
he  had  ever  committed.  In  the  true  spirit  of 
Christian  humility,  she  not  only  willingly  for- 
gave them,  but  asked  their  pardon  also.  The 
inventory  of  her  wardrobe  and  furniture  was 
then  brought  to  her ;  and  she  wrote  in  the  mar- 
gin opposite  each  article  the  name  of  the  person 
to  whom  she  wished  it  should  be  given.  She 
did  the  same  with  her  rings,  jewels,  and  all  her 
most  valuable  trinkets ;  and  there  was  not  one 
of  her  friends  or  servants,  either  present  or  ab- 
sent, to  whom  she  forgot  to  leave  a  memorial. 

These  duties  being  discharged,  Mary  sat 
down  to  her  desk  to  arrange  her  papers,  to  finish 
her  will,  and  to  write  several  letters.  J?he  then 
drew  up  her  last  will  and  testament;  and  with- 
out ever  lifting  her  pen  from  the  paper,  or  stop- 
ping at  intervals  to  think,  she  covered  two  large 
sheets  with  close  writing,  forgetting  nothing  of 
any  moment,  and  expressing  herself  with  all 
that  precision  and  clearness  which  distinguished 
her  style  in  the  very  happiest  moments  of  her 
life.  She  named  as  her  four  executors-1— the 
Duke  of  Guise,  her  cousin-german  ;  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Glasgow,  her  ambassador  in  Trance; 
Lesley,  Bishop  of  Ross;  and  Monsiour'do  Huys- 
seau,  her  chancellor.  She  next  wrole  a  Idler 
to  her  brother-in-law,  the  King  of  France,  in 
which  she  apologized  for  not  being  able  to  enter 
into  her  affairs  at  greater  length,  as  she  had 
only  an  hour  or  two  to  live,  and  had  not  been 
informed  till  that  day  after  dinner  that  she  was 
to  be  executed  next  morning.  '•  Thanks  be 
unto  God,  however,"  she  added,  "  I  have  no 
terror  at  the  idea  of  death,  and  solemnly  declare 
to  you  that  I  meet  it  innocent  of  every  crime 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MAR 


335 


MAR 


The  bearer  of  this  letter,  and  my  other  servants, 
will  recount  to  you  how  I  comported  myself  in 
my  last  moments."  The  letter  concluded  with 
earnest  entreaties  that  her  faithful  followers 
should  be  protected  and  rewarded. — Her  anx- 
iety on  their  account  at  such  a  moment  indi- 
cated all  that  amiable  generosity  of  disposition 
which  was  one  of  the  leading  features  of  Mary's 
character.  About  two  in  the  morning  she  sealed 
up  all  her  papers,  and  said  she  would  now  think 
no  more  of  the  affairs  of  this  world,  but  would 
spend  the  rest  of  her  time  in  prayer  and  com- 
mune with  her  own  conscience.  She  went  to 
bed  for  some  hours ;  but  slse  did  not  sleep.  Her 
lips  were  observed  in  continual  motion,  and  her 
hands  were  frequently  folded  and  lifted  up  to- 
wards heaven. 

On  the  morning  of  Wednesday,  the  8th  of 
February,  Mary  rose  with  the  break  of  day  ;  and 
her  domestics,  who  had  watched  and  wept  all 
night,  immediately  gathered  round  her.  She 
told  them  that  she  had  made  her  will,  and  re- 
quested that  they  would  see  it  safely  deposited 
in  the  hands  of  her  executors.  She  likewise 
besought  them  not  to  separate  until  they  had 
carried  her  body  to  France  ;  and  she  placed  a 
sum  of  money  in  the  hands  of  her  physician  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  the  journey.  Her  earnest 
desire  was,  to  be  buried  either  in  the  church  of 
St.  Denis,  in  Paris,  beside  her  first  husband 
Francis,  or  at-Rheims,  in  the  tomb  which  con- 
tained the  remains  of  her  mother.  She  ex- 
pressed a  wish,  too,  that,  besides  her  friends 
:ind  servants,  a  number  of  poor  people  and 
children  from  different  hospitals  should  be  pres- 
ent at  her  funeral,  clothed  in  mourning  at  her 
expense,  and  each,  according  to  the  Catholic 
custom,  carrying  in  his  hand  a  lighted  taper. 

She  now  renewed  her  devotions,  and  was  in 
the  midst  of  them,  with  her  servants  praying 
and  weeping  round  her,  when  a  messenger  from 
the  commissioners  knocked  at  the  door,  to  an- 
nounce that  all  was  ready.  She  requested  a 
little  longer  time  to  finish  her  prayers,  which 
was  granted.  As  soon  as  she  desired  the  door 
to  be  opened,  the  sheriff,  carrying  irt  his  hand 
the  white  wand  of  office,  entered  to  conduct  her 
to  the  place  of  execution.  Her  servants  crowded 
round  her,  and  .  insisted  on  beinor  allowed  to 
accompany  her  to  the  scaffold.  But  contrary 
orders  having  been  given  by  Elizabeth,  they 
were  told  that  she  must  proceed  alone. — Against 
a  piece  of  such  arbitrary  cruelty  they  remon- 
strated loudly,  but  in  vain ;,  for  a*  soon  as  Mary 
passed  into  the  gallery,  the  door  was  closed, 
and  believing  that  they  were  separated  from 
29 


her  for  ever,  the  shrieks  of  the  women  and  the 
scarcely  less  audible  lamentations  of  the  men 
were  heard  in  distant  parts  of  the  castle. 

At  the  foot  of  the  staircase  leading  down  to 
the  hall  below,  Mary  was  met  by  the  Earls  of 
Kent  and  Shrewsbury  ;  and  she  was  allowed  to 
stop  to  take  farewell  of  Sir  Andrew  Melvil,  the 
master  of  her  household,  whom  her  keepers  had 
not  allowed  to  come  into  her  presence  for  some 
time  before.  With  tears  in  his  eyes  Melvil 
knelt  before  her,  kissed  her  hand,  and  declared 
that  it  was  the  heaviest  hour  of  his  life.  Mary 
assured  him  that  it  was  not  so  to  her.  "  I  now 
feel,  my  good  Melvil,"  said  she,  "  that  all  this 
world  is  vanity.  When  you  speak  of  me  here- 
after, mention  that  I  died  firm  in  mv  faith,  wil- 
ling to  forgive  my  enemies,  conscious  that  I  had 
never  disgraced  Scotland  my  native  country, 
and  rejoicinir  in  the  thought  that  I  had  always 
been  true  to  France,  the  land  of  my  happiest 
years.  Tell  my  son."  she  added,  and  when 
she  named  her  only  child,  of  whom  she  had 
been  so  proud  in  his  infancy,  but  in  whom  all 
her  hopes  had  been  so  fatally  blasted,  her  feel- 
ings for  the  first  time  overpowered  her,  and  a 
flood  of  tears  flowed  from  her  eyes — "  tell  my 
son  that  I  thought  of  him  in  mv  last  moments, 
and  that  I  have  never  yielded,"either  by  word 
or  deed,  to  aught  that  might  lead  to  his  preju- 
dice ;  desire  him  to  preserve  the  memory  of  his 
unfortunate  parent,  and  may  he  be  a  thousand 
times  more  happj;  and  more  prosperous  than 
she  has  been." 

Before  taking  leave  of  Melvil,  Mary  turned 
to  the  commissioners,  and  told  them  that  her 
three  last  requests  were,  that  her  secretary  Curl, 
whom  she  blamed  less  for  his  treachery  than 
Naw,  should  not  be  punished;  that  her  servants 
should  have  free  permission  to  depart  to  France ; 
and  that -some  of  them  should  be  allowed  to 
come  down  from  the  apartments  above  to  see 
her  die.  The  earls  answered ,  that  they  believed 
the  two  former  of  these  requests  would  be  grant- 
ed ;  but  that  they  could  not  concede  the  last, 
alleging,  as  their  excuse,  that  the  affliction  of 
her  attendants  would  only  add  to  the  severity 
of  her  sufferings.  But  Mary  was  resolved  that 
some  of  her  own  people  should  witness  her  last 
moments.  "  I  will  not  submit  to  the  indignity," 
she  said,  "of  permitting  my  body  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  strangers.  You  are  the  servants 
of  a  maiden  queen,  and  she  herself,  were  she 
here,  would  yield  to  the  dictates  of  humanity, 
and  permit  some  of  those  who  have  been  so  long 
faithful  to  me  to  assist  me  at  my  death.  Re- 
member, too,  that  I  am  cousin  to  your  mistress, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


MAR 


336 


MAS 


and  the  descendant  of  Henry  VII ;'  I  am  the 
dowager  of  France,  and  the  anointed  queen  of 
Scotland."  Ashamed  of  any  farther  opposition, 
the  earls  allowed  her  to  name  four  male  and 
two  female  attendants,  whom  they  sent  for,  and 
permitted  to  remain  beside  her  for  the  short 
time  she  had  yet  to  live. 

The  same  hall  in  which  the  trial  had  taken 
place  was  prepared  for  the  execution.  At  the 
upper  end  was  the  scaffold,  covered  with  b'lack 
cloth,  and  elevated  about  two  feet  from  the  floor. 
A  chair  was  placed  on  it  for  the  Queen  of  Scots. 
On  one  side  of  the  block  stood  two  executioners, 
and  on  the  other  the  Earls  of  Kent  and  Shrews- 
bury ;  Deal  and  the  sheriff  were  immediately 
behind.  The  scaffold  was  railed  off  from  the 
rest  of  the  hall,  in  which  Sir  Amias  Paulet  with 
a  body  of  guards,  the  other  commissioners,  and 
some  gentlemen  of  the  neighborhood,  amounting 
altogether  to  about  two  hundred  persons,  were 
assembled.  Mary  entered,  leaning  on  the  arm 
of  her  physician,  while  Sir  Andrew  Mi'lvil  car- 
ried the  train  of  her  robe.  She  was  in  full  dress, 
and  looked  as  if  she  were  about  to  hold  a  draw- 
ingroom,  not  to  lay  her  head  beneath  the  axe. 
She  wore  a  gown  of  black  silk,  bordered  with 
crimson  velvet,  over  which  was  a  satin  mantle  ; 
a  long  veil  of  white  crape,  stiffened  with  wire, 
and  edged  with  rich  lace,  hung  down  almost,  to 
the  ground  ;  round  her  neck  was  suspended  an 
ivory  crucifix,  and  the  beads  which  the  Catho- 
lics use  in  their  prayers  were  fastened  to  her 
girdle.  The  symmetry  of  her  fine  figure  had 
long  been  destroyed  by  her  sedentary  life ;  and 
years  of  care  had  left  many  a  trace  on  her  beau- 
tiful features.  But  the  dignity  of  the  queen 
was  still  apparent;  and  the  calm  grace  of  men- 
tal serenity  imparted  to  her  countenance  at 
least  some  share  of  its  former  loveliness.  With 
a  composed  and  steady  step  she  passed  through 
the  hall,  and  ascended  the  scaffold,— ami 
listened  unmoved  while  Deal  read  aloud  the 
warrant  for  her  death,  even  the  myrmidons  of 
Elizabeth  looked  upon  her  with  admiration. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  died  in  the  forty-fifth 
year  of  her  age.  Her  remains  now  repose  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  about  ten  yards  from  the 
tomb  of  Elizabeth. 

MARYLAND,  one  of  the  southern  states, 
divided  into  two  parts  by  Chesapeake  bay 
which  extends  from  north. to  south,  and  thus 
forms  the  Eastern  shore  and  the  Western  sluore. 
Population  469,232.  The  eastern  shore,  which 
is  low  and  level,  is  sandy,  and,  below  the  falls 
of  the  rivers,  the  western  shore  is  similar.  But 
above  these  the  ground  gradually  rises  until 


the  western  part  of  the  state  is  quite  mountain- 
ous. Annapolis  is  the  seat  of  government,  but 
Baltimore  is  the  largest  place  in  the  state,  and 
the  third  city  in  the~union.  The  university  of 
Alary  land,  tSt.  Mary's  college,  and  Jlutger's  col- 
lege, are  all  well  endowed  and  respectable  in- 
stitutions. There  are  many  other  seminaries  in 
different  parts  of  the  state.  The  most  important 
articles  of  export  are  flour  and  tobacco.  Charles 
I,  in  1C32,  made  a  grant  of  this  country  to  lord 
Baltimore,  a  Catholic,  who  commenced  a  settle- 
ment here  with  about  2'M  Catholics,  in  1034. 

MASHAM,  Abigail,  bed-chamber  woman  to 
queen  Anne,  in  which  situation  she  supplanted 
the  duchess  of  Marlborough,  and  procured  the 
dismissal  of  the  whig  ministry,  which  led  to  the 
peace  of  Utrecht  in  J713. 

MASIN1SSA,  king  of  a  small  country  in  Af- 
rica, took  part  with  the  Carthaginians  against 
Rome,  but  afterwards  became  the  ally  of  the 
Romans,  who  were  indebted  to  him  for  many 
victories.  At  his  death  he  made  Scijiio  ^Emi- 
lianus  guardian  of  his  kingdom.  He  died  B.  C. 

MASK,  IRON,  or  Man  in  the  Iron  Mask,  tin: 
most  singular  prisoner  ever  confined  within  the 
walls  of  the  Bastile  ;.  of  whom,  notwithstanding 
all  the  curiosity  and  conjecture  that  have  been 
employed  to  ascertain  his  quality  and  pedigree, 
nothing  authentic  has  transpired  to  the  present 
time.  In  1098  he  was  brought  from  the  island 
of  bt.  Marguerite  by  Mows,  de  St.  Mars,  the 
newly-appointed  governor  of  the  Bastile,  was  at- 
tended with  the  greatest  respect,  maintained  a 
sumptuous  table,  and  had  every  possible  indul- 
gence shown  him  until  the  time  of  his  death  in 
Nov.  19, 1703.  This  mysterious  prisoner,  on  his 
removal  to  the  Bastile.  was  carried  in  a  litter, 
accompanied  by  several  men  on  horseback,  v.'ho 
had  orders  to  put  him  to  deatti.  if  he  made  the 
slightest  attempt  to  show  his  face  or  otherwise 
discover  himself.  His  face  was  concealed  with 
a  mask  of  black  velvet  with  springs  of  steel, 
which  were  so  constructed  that  he  could  eat 
without  taking  it  off.  A  physician  of  the  Bas- 
tile, who  had  often  attended  him,  said  he  had 
never  seen  his  face,  though  he  had  frequently 
examined  his  tongue  and  other  parts  of  his  body  ; 
but  added,  that  he  was  admirably  well  made, 
that  his  skin  was  brown,  his  voice  interesting, 
that  he  was  very  accomplished,  read  much 
played  on  the  guitar,  and  had  an  exquisite  taste 
for  lace  and  fine  linen. 

The  pains  taken  in  his  concealment  show 
that  he  was  a  person  of  considerable  iiuality  and 
importance,  and  from  the  following  circum- 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


MAS 


337 


MAS 


stances  it  appears  singular  that  he  was  never 
discovered.  Whilst  at  St.  Marguerite,  he  one 
day  wrote  something  with  his  knife  on  a  silver 
plate,  which  he  threw  from  the  window  towards 
a  boat,  lying  near  the  tower.  A  fisherman  took 
up  the  plate  and  brought  it  to  the  governor,  who, 
with  great  astonishment,  asked  the  man  if  he 
had  read  the  writing  or  showed  it  to  any  one  ; 
and,  although  the  fisherman  answered  in  the 
negative,  kept  him  in  confinement  until  he  was 
perfectly  satisfied,  after  which  he  dismissed 
him,  saying,  "  It  is  lucky  for  you  that  you  can- 
not read."  The  abbe  Papon  says,  in  the  year 
177d,  I  had  the  curiosity  to  visit  the  apartment 
of  this  unfortunate  prisoner :  it  looks  towards 
the  sea.  I  found  in  the  citadel  an  officer  in  the 
independent  company  there,  79  years  of  age. 
He  told  me  that  his  father  had  often  related  to 
him  that  a  young  lad,  a  barber,  having  seen  one 
day  something'whiie-floaUngon  the  water,  took 
it  up.  It  was  a  very  fine  shirt,  written  almost 
all  over;  he  carried  it  to  Mons.  de  St.  Mars, 
who,  having  looked  at  some  parts  of  the  writing, 
asked  the  lad,  with  an  appearance  of  auxiely, 
if  he  had  not  had  the  curiosity  to  read  it .'  He 
assured  him  he  had  not,  but  two  days  after- 
wards the  boy  was  found  dead  in  his  bed. 

Immediately  after  the  prisoner's  death,  his 
npparel,  linen,  clothes,  mattresses,  and  every- 
thing that  had  been  used  by  him,  were  burnt ; 
the  walls  of  his  room  were  scraped,  the  floor 
was  taken  up,  and  every  precaution  used  that 
no  trace  of  him  might  be  left  behind ;  and  yet 
there  are  traces.  When  he  was  on  the  road 
from  St.  Marguerite  to  his  last  residence,  Mons. 
de  St.  Mars  was  overheard  to  reply  to  a  question 
of  the  prisoner,  relative  to  any  design  against  his 
life.  "No,  prince,  your  life  is  in  safety;  you 
must  only  allow  yourself  to  be  conducted." 

A  prisoner  told  M.  la  Grange  Chancel  that 
he  was  lodged,  with  other  prisoners,  in  the  room 
immediately  over  this  celebrated  captive,  and 
found  means  of  .speaking  to  him  by  the  vents  of 
the  chimney  ;  but  he  refused  to  inform  them 
who  he  was,  alleging,  that  it  would  cost  him 
his  own  life,  as  well  as  the  lives  of  those  to 
whom  the  secret  might  be  revealed.  Various 
have  been  the  individuals  supposed  to  have 
been  the  masked  prisoner ;  particularly  the  duke 
de  Beaufort,  the  count  de  Vermandois,  a  foreign 
minister,  and  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  have  been 
conjectured  in  turn.  Collateral  facts,  neverthe- 
less, demonstrate  that  neither  of  these  could 
have  been  the  person.  Voltaire,  who  has  ex- 
pressly written  on  this  mysterious  affair,  says, 


that  the  secret  was  known  to  Monsieur  de 
Chamillard,  and  that  the  son-in-law  of  that 
minister  conjured  him  on  his  death  bed  to  tell 
him  the  name  of  the  man  with  the  mask  ;  but 
he  replied  it  was  a  state  secret,  which  he  had 
sworn  never  to  divulge. 

From  the  account  given  in  a  work  published 
in  Paris,  in  1790,  it  appears  that  this  unfortu- 
nate person  was  the  twin  brother  of  Louis  XIV, 
born  eight  hours  after  this  monarch,  and  who 
was  Hie  unhappy  victim  of  superstition  and 
cruelty.  His  father  Louis  XIII,  being  weak 
enough  to  give  credit  to  the  prediction  of  some 
impostors,  that  if  the  queen  should  be  delivered 
of  twins,  the  kingdom  would  be  involved  in 
civil  war,  ordered  the  birth  of  this  prince  to  be 
kept  a  profound  secret;  and  had  him  privately 
educated  in  the  country  as  the  illegitimate  son 
of  a  nobleman  :  but  on  the  accession  of  Louis 
XIV  the  young  man  gave  indications  of  having 
discovered  his  parentage,  of  which  his  brother 
being  informed,  ordered  him  to  be  imprisoned 
for  life,  and  to  wear  a  mask  in  order  to  prevent 
his  beincr  recognised. 

MASSACHUSETTS,  one  of  the  New  Ens- 
land  states,  contains  737,699  inhabitants,  accord- 
ing to  the  last  census.  Parts  of  the  state  are 
very  hilly.  The  Green  mountains  cross  the 
western  part  of  the  state  from  N.  to  S.  Massa- 
chusetts is  the  most  commercial  state  of  the 
Union,  and  the  third  as  regards  manufactures 
which  are  rapidly  increasing.  Boston  is  the 
capital,  and  the  literary  and  commercial  me- 
tropolis of  the  state.  Other  large  and  impor- 
tant towns  are  Salem,  Lowell,  New-Bedford, 
Newburyport,  Marblehead,  Beverly,  Charles- 
town,  Cambridge,  Plymouth,  Lynn.  Nantucket, 
Springfield,  Worcester,  &c.  The  literary  in- 
stitutions of  Massachusetts  rank  deservedly 
high.  Harvard  university  at  Cambridge,  is  the 
oldest,  and  best  endowed  "institution  in  the  Uni- 
ted States.  Witli  it  are  connected,  a  theologi- 
cal, a  law,  and  a  medical  school.  Its  library  is 
the  largest  in  the  United  States,  containing  about 
40,000  volumes.  Williams  college  at  Williams- 
town,  the  Collegiate  Charity  institution  at  Am- 
herst.  and  the  theological  seminary  at  Andover, 
are  all  valuable  institutions,  and  worthy  of  the 
patronage  they  •receive. 

This  state  comprises  the  two  former  colonies 
of  Plymouth  and  Massachusetts  Bay,  which 
were  united  under  one  government  in  lf>92. 
The  first  English  settlement  was  made  at  Ply- 
mouth, by  101  Puritans,  who  fled  from  religious 
persecution,  and  landed  on  the  iron-bound  coast 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


MAT 


338 


MAZ 


in  the  severity  of  mid-winter,  December  22d, 
lu'20.  The  men  of  Massachusetts  were  lore- 
most  in  the  expeditions  undertaken  by  the  Brit- 
ish against  the  French  in  America.  Their  blood 
was  shed  before  Quebec  and  at  Louisburg.  and 
their  best  and  bravest  were  ever  ready  m  the 
field  to  support  the  interests  of  their  parent 
country.  At  length,  when  the  oppressive  meas- 
ures of  Britain  could  no  longer  be  submitted  to, 
Massachusetts  was  the  seat  of  the  earliest  con- 
flicts in  favor  of  liberty.  The  plains  of  Lexing- 
ton and  Concord,  and  the  heights  of  Charles- 
town,  have  become  hallowed  by  the  American 
blood  that  bedewed  them,  and  the  glorious  ex- 
ample of  Massachusetts  was  speedily  followed 
by  the  sister  colonies. 

In  1780,  an  insurrection  broke  out  under  one 
Shays,  but  he  was  defeated  at  Springfield,  in 
1787.  Since  then  nothing  has  occurred  to  dis- 
turb the  tranquillity,  or  affect  the  prosperity  of 
this  flourishing  and  wealthy  Slate. 

MASSANIELLO,  a  contraction  for  Thomas 
Aniello,  the  name  of  a  Neapolitan  fisherman, 
who  headed  a  revolt  of  his  countrymen,  and 
threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke.  Like  many  men 
of  low  origin  who  have  suddenly  risen  to  sove- 
reign power,  he  became  bewildered  bv  chano-e 
of  his  fortunes,  and  his  frenzy  was  "probabTv 
heightened  by  his  intemperate  habits,  which 
impelled  him  to  commit  many  acts  of  sanguin- 
ary viplence,  and  he  was  killed  A.  D.  1G4G. 

MASSENA,  Andre,  duke  of  Rivoli,  and 
prince  of  Esslingen,  marshal  of  France,  born  at 
Nice  in  1753,  was  a  favorite  general  of  Napo- 
leon, and,  in  consequence  of  his  success  during 
his  Italian  campaign,  was  called  by  the  emperor 
the  darling  of  victory.  In  1790,  he  defeated  the 
Russians  at  Zurich,  and  in  the  following  year 
defended  Genoa  during  a  protracted  siege.  In 
1810  he  was  frustrated  in  his  pursuit,  of  lord 
Wellington  before  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras. 
He  died  in  1817. 

MATHIAS  CORVINUS,  called  the  great, 
king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  was  Hie  son  of 
John  Huuniades.  The  enemies  of  his  father 
confined  him  in  prison  in  Bohemia  ;  but  on  re- 
gaining his_  liberty  he  was  elected  king  of  Hun- 
gary in  1458.  His  election,  however,  was  op- 
posed by  many  of  the  Hungarian  lords,  who 
olFere..!  the  crown  to  Frederick  111.  The  Turks 
profiting  by  these  divisions  invaded  the  coun- 
try, but  were  expelled  by  Mathias,  who  com- 
pelled Frederick  to  yield  to  him  the  crown  of 
St.  Stt-jiliPii,  of  which  he  had  obtained  posses- 
sion. The  war  was  afterwards  rc-ncwcd,  and 
Mathiaa  overrunning  Austria,  took  Vienna  and 


Neustadt,  on  which  the  emperor  was  obliged  to 
make  a  peace  in  1487. 

Mathias  reformed  many  abuses,  particularly 
with  respect  to  duels  and  law-suits,  and  was 
preparing  an  expedition  against  the  Turks  when 
he  died  of  an  apoplexy  in  141)0. 

MATILDA,  or  Maud,  the  daughter  of  Henry 
I,  king  of  England,  and  wife  of  Henry  IV. 
Emperor  of  Germany,  was  nominated  in  1135 
successor  to  the  English  throne  by  her  father  ; 
but  in  her  absence  Stephen  usurped  the  title. 
Arriving  in  England  with  a  large  army  in  113'J 
she  defeated  Stephen,  and  was  acknowledged 
queen  in  a  parliament  held  in  1141. 

Stephen  afterwards  defeated  the  empress,  on 
which  the  national  synod  declared  for  him,  and 
Matilda  was  obliged  to  leave  the  kingdom.  On 
the  death  of  the  emperor  she  married  Geoffrey 
Plantagenet,  earl  of  Anjou,  by  wlmm  she  had  a, 
son,  afterwards  Henry  II,  king-  of  England. 
Matilda  died  in  11U7,  aged  G7. 

MAXENTIUS,  Marcus  Aurelius  Valerius, 
Roman  emperor,  was  the  son  of  Maximianus 
Hercules,  and  declared  himself  Augustus  in 
3CKJ.  He  was  opposed  by  Galcrius  Muximianus, 
who  was  defeated,  and  slew  himself.  Muxen- 
tius  then  marched  into  Africa,  where  he  be- 
came odious  by  his  cruelties.  Constantino  af- 
terwards defeated  him  in  Italy,  and  he  was 
drowned  in  crossing  the  Tiber  in  312. 

Before  the  battle,  Constantino  adopted  the 
cross  as  his  standard,  and  after  the  victory, 
made  Christianity  the  religion  of  the  empire. 

31 AX1MINUS,  Caius  Julius  Verus,  Emperor 
of  Rome,  was  the  son  of  a  peasant  in  Thrace, 
and  having  displayed  great  courage  in  the  Ro- 
man armies,  he  rose  to  command.  On  the  death 
of  Alexander  Severus,  he  caused  himself  to  be 
proclaimed  emperor  A.  D.  235.  He  was  a  great 
persecutor ;  and  put  to  death  above  4000  per- 
sons, on  suspicion  of  their  being  concerned  in  a 
conspiracy  against  him.  His  soldiers  assassi- 
nated him  near  Aquileia,  A.  D.  25ti.  His  stat 
tire  and  strength  were  very  extraordinary  ;  and 
his  disposition  proportionably  brutal.  Forty 
pounds  of  meat,  and  eighteen  bottles  of  wine, 
were  his  ordinary  allowance  for  a  day.  His 
strength  was  such  that  he  is  said  to  have  stopped 
a  chariot  in  full  speed  with  one  of  his  fingers. 

MAZARIN.  Julius,  a  Roman  cardinal  and 
minister  of  state,  was  born  in  Piscina  jn  Italy,  in 
1602.  Being  appointed  Nuncio  Extraordinary 
to  France,  he  acquired  the  friendship  of  Riche- 
lieu and  the  confidence  of  Louis  XIII.  In  Ki41, 
Pope  Urban  VIII  made  him  cardinal  ;  and  on 
the  death  of  Richelieu,  Louis  appointed  him 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MEC 


339 


MEN 


Minister  of  State.  He  was  also  nominated  one 
of  the  executors  of  the  king's  will,  and  had  the 
principal  management  of  att'airs  during  the  mi- 
nority of  Louis  XIV;  but  at  length  the  mur- 
murs of  the  people  rose  so  much  against  him, 
that  he  found  it  expedient  to  quit  the  kingdom, 
and  a  price  was  set  on  his  head. 

He  afterwards  recovered  his  power,  and  con- 
tinued to  reader  the  state  the  most  important 
Bervic.es,  the  principal  of  which  was  the  restor- 
ing peace  between  France  and  Spain  in  1659. 
His  application  to  business  produced  a  disease, 
of  which  he  died  ;n  1601.  . 

MAZfc:PPA,  JoLu,  a  Polish  gentleman,  born 
in  the  palatinate  of  Pod  ilia,  was  educated  as  the 
page  of  Jean  Ciisimir,  aii'l,  <u  his  court,  became 
acquainted  wifh  letter:.'.  An  intrigue  in  his 
youth  with  the  wift  of  &  Poi-si1*  gentleman 
caused  him  to  be  bound,  ru.ki-d,  t\>  'he  back  of 
a  wild  horse. 

"' Bring  foith flu  hcrsfl  ! '—  th«  Kirv'e  "as  brought ; 
In  trutii,  he  was  a  nnble  s'.eid, 
A  Tartar  ol  th<5  Ukraine  breed  ; 

Who  lixik'd  as  ti'oiis;!'  t!:e  rpeed  oft!,'  igln 

Were  in  his  limbs  ;  nut  he  was  w;ld, 

Wild  as  the  wild  desr,  aiid  -intaught : 

With  spur  and  bridle  tindcfiled— 

'Twas  but  a  day  he  had  been  caught ; 

And  snorting,  with  erected  inane, 

And  struggling  fiercely,  but  in  vain, 

In  the  full  foam  of  wratli  and  dread, 

To  him  the  desert-born  was  led."  Byron. 

On  being  loosed,  the  horse,  which  was  of  the 
Ukraine,  returned  thither,  bearing  Mazeppa, 
who  arrived,  half  dead  with  hunger  and  fatigue. 
Some  peasants  afforded  him  succor,  and  he 
remained  a  long  time  among  them,  signalizing 
himself  in  many  exertions  against  the  Tartars. 
The  superiority  of  his  understanding  acquired 
him  the  respects  of  the  Cossacks,  and,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  increasing  reputation,  the  czar 
was  constrained  to  make  him  Prince  of  the 
Ukraine.  He,  however,  joined  Charles  XII, 
and  fought  for  him  at  the  fatal  battle  of  Pultawa. 
In  some  parts  of  Germany,  during  the  feudal 
times,  an  infringement  of  the  forest-laws,  was 
punished  by  chaining  the  offender  to  the  back 
of  a  wild  stag,  which  bounded  away  with  him, 
through  thorny  thickets,  and  wild  passes,  until 
death°relieved  him  of  his  sufferings. 

MECCA,  a  large  city  of  Arabia,  formerly 
containing  100,001)  inhabitants;  the  present 
population  is  about  GO ,000.  It  derives  its  cele- 
brity from  being  the  birth-place  of  Mahomet, 
and  the  seat  of  his  power,  and  accordingly  every 
pious  Mussulman  makes  a  pilgrimage  to  it  at 
least  once  in  his  life.  Here  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  the  prophet,  and  flight  was  his 


only  resource.  After  an  exile  of  seven  years, 
however,  the  fugitive  missionary  was  enthroned 
as  the  prince  and  prophet  of  his  native  country. 

MEDIA,  a  celebrated  country  of  Asia.  It 
was  originally  called  Aria,  till  the  age  of  Medus, 
the  son  of  Medea,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Me- 
dia. The  province  of  Media  was  first  raised 
into  a  kingdom  by  its  revolt  from  the  Assyrian 
monarchy,  B.  C.  e2J  ;  and,  after  it  had  for  some 
time  enjoyed  a  kind  of  republican  government, 
Deioces.  by  artifice,  procured  Himself  to  be  called 
king,  700  B.  C.  After  a  reign  of  53  years,  he 
Was  .succeeded  by  Phraotes,  B.  C.  (J47;  who 
was  succeeded  by  Cyaxares,  B.  C.  0^5.  His 
successor  was  Astyages,  B.  C.  585,  in  whose 
reign  Cyrus  became  master  of  Media,  B.  C. 
551  ;  and  ever  after  the  country  was  occupied 
by  the  Persians. 

The  Medes  were  warlike  in  the  primitive 
ages  of  their  power ;  they  encouraged  poly- 
gamy, and  were  remarkable  for  the  homage 
which  they  paid  to  their  sovereigns,  who  were 
styled  kings  of  kings.  This  title  was  afterwards 
adopted  by  their  conquerors,  the  Persians ;  and 
it  was  still  ia  use  in  the  age  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors. 

MEDICIS,  Cosmo,  called  the  elder,  the  foun- 
der of  an  illustrious  family  at  Florence,  was  a 
merchant,  and  was  born  in  1389.  He  acquired 
great  wealth,  which  he  appropriated  to  the  nor 
ble  purposes  of  advancing  learning,  and  sup- 
porting learned  men.  He  collected  a  noble 
library,  which  he  enriched  with  inestimable 
manuscripts.  The  envy  excited  against  him 
by  his  riches,  raised  him  many  enemies,  by 
whose  intrigues  he  was  obliged  "to  quit  his  na- 
tive country.  He  then  retired  to  Venice,  where 
he  was  received  as  a  prince.  His  fellow-citizens 
afterwards  recalled  him,  and  he  bore  a  prin- 
cipal share  in  the  government  of  the  republic 
thirty  years.  He  died  in  14G4.  On  his  tomb 
was  engraved  this  inscription  :  The  Father  of 
his  people,  and  the  Deliverer  of  his  Country. 

MEDINA,  or  Medina  el  Nebi,  a  city  of  Ara- 
bia, celebrated  from  its  containing  the  tomb  of 
Mahomet ;  during  his  residence  there  it  was  at- 
tacked by  an  army  of  10,000  enemies,  but  the 
prudence  of  Mahomet  declined  a  general  en- 
gacrement,  and  the  confederates  at  leno-th  retired. 

MEDINA  SIDONIA,  Alfonso  Perez  Gag- 
man, Duke  de,  commander  of  the  celebrated 
Spanish  armada  in  1588. 

MENZIKOFF,  Alexander,  a  prince  of  the 
Russian  empire,  was  the  son  of  a  peasant,  and 
the  servant  of  a  pastry-cook,  who  employed  him 
to  cry  pies  about  the  streets.  His  appearance 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


MEX 


340 


MEX 


pleasing  Peter  the  Great,  he  took  him  into  his 
service.  Menzikoff  soon  insinuated  himself 
into  the  confidence  of  his  sovereign,  who  made 
him  governor  of  Ingria,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  and  at  length  conferred  on  him  the  title 
of  prince.  In  1713  he  was  accused  of  pecula- 
tion, and  condemned  to  pay  a  heavy  fine,  which 
the  czar  remitted  and  restored  him  to  favor. 
Under  the  czarina  Catharine  he  had  still  more 
power,  and  his  daughter  was  married  to  Peter 
II,  who  made  Menzikoff  duke  of  Cozel,  and 
grand  master  of  the  imperial  hotel.  But  by  the 
intrigues  of  Dolgorucki,  mistress  of  the  czar,  lie 
fell  into  disgrace,  and  was  banished  to  his  es- 
tate ;  where  he  lived  in  such  magnificence,  that 
Peter  was  persuaded  to  send  him,  for  his  own 
safety,  into  Siberia,  where  he  died  in  a  poor  hut, 
in  1729. 

MESSALINA,  Valeria,  daughter  of  Messala 
Barbatus,  and  wife  of  the  Emperor  Claudian.  an 
abandoned  woman.  Having  espoused  her  fa- 
vorite Silius,  in  the  lifetime  of  her  husband, 
she  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  emperor, 
A.  D.  4(i.  There  was  another  of  this  name, 
who  was  the  third  wife  of  Nero,  after  her  first 
husband  Atticus  had  been  put  to  death  by  that 
tyrant.  On  the  death  of  Nero  she  devoted  the 
remainder  of  her  days  to  study,  and  acquired  a 
great  reputation 

MESOPOTAMIA,  or  Diarbekr,  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Assyria,  which  was  founded  by  Pul 
in  7'.!0  B.  C.  It  underwent  all  the  revolutions 
of  this  and  the  Persian  empire,  till  it  was  con- 
quered by  Trajan  in  10G  ;  after  which  it  several 
times  changed  masters  betwixt  the  Romans  and 
the  Persians,  but  generally  belonged  to  the  lat- 
ter, till  it  was  conquered"  by  the  Saracens,  to- 
gether with  the  rest  of  Persia,  in  651.  It  was 
seized  by  the  Seljuks  in  104G,  and  by  Genghis 
Khan  in  1218.  In  1360  Tur  Ali  Beg,  the  Turk- 


high.  The  climate  on  the  coast  is  hot,  and,  in 
general,  unhealthy,  but  upon  the  high  table- 
land, it  is  uncommonly  salubrious.  A  large 
portion  of  the  soil  is  fertile,  producing  maize, 
wheat,  sugar,  indigo,  tobacco,  agave,  different 
kinds  of  fruits,  bananas,  manioc,  vanilla,  cocoa, 
cochineal,  logwood  and  mahogany.  The  an- 
nual produce  of  the  rich  gold  and  silver  mines, 
for  which  Mexico  is  "celebrated,  is  about 
20,000.000  dollars.  One  of  these  mines  is  eight 
miles  in  length,  and,  in  one  place,  1G40  feet  in 
depth.  The  religion  is  Roman  Catholic.  Ed- 
ucation is  generally  neglected,  although  there  is 
a  university  in  the  city  of  Mexico,  "iThe  city  is 
well  built. "its  streets  are  wide  and  airy,  and  il 
contains  many  splendid  public  buildings.  Pop- 
ulation about  168,800.  A  large  portion  of  the 
population  is  composed  of  subdued  Indians. 

When  the  Spaniards,  under  Cortez,  com- 
menced the  conquest  of  Mexico,  they  found  the 
native  Indians  far  advanced  in  civilization, 
wealthy,  hospitable,  liberal,  and,  in  general,  in- 
offensive. They  appeared  to  have  an  instinc- 
tive dread  of  the  ibreisrners,  and  vet  treated 
them  with  kindness.  They  were  willing  to 
share  their  wealth  with  the  Spaniards,  but  noth- 
ing less  than  the  whole  would  satisfy  the  cu 
pidity  of  the  Christians.  Alter  scenes  of  cruel- 
ty and  treachery  the  Spanish  leader  completed 
the  conquest  in  1521 .  The  country  continued 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  Spanish  viceroy,  un- 
til it  declared  itself  independent  in  1820.  The 
following  description  < ;'  a  Mexican  dinner  is 
given  by  a  recent  traveller.  At  dinner  nothing 
seemed  so  strange  to  me  as  the  manner  in  which 
the  lady  of  the  house  leaves  the  table.  It  must 
be  premised  that  the  dining-tnbles  are  so  high, 
that  little  men  are  much  perplexed  about  get- 
ting their  food.  Our  hostess,  who  was  small 
and  pretty  fat.  was  sealed  so  that  her  mouth  was 
at  the  edge  of  her  plate  and  her  shoulders  under 
the  table.  As  soon  as  her  appetite  was  satisfied, 
she  left  the  table  at  which  we  remained  seated. 
In  the  centre  of  the  room  was  suspended  a  ham- 
mock into  which  she  flung  herself  with  great 
nonchalance,  and  giving  herself  a  slight  push 


man,  founded  the  dynasty  called  Ak  Koyunlu 
or  the  white  sheep,  in  this  country. 

It  submitted  to  Timur  Begin  1400,  but  he  did 
not  retain  the  conquest.  In  1514  it  was  con- 
quered by  Ismacl  Son,  the  Persian,  was  half 
conquered  by  the  Turks  in  1554,  recovered  by 

the  Persians  in  1(11 3,  but  completely  reduced  by  by  applying  her  foot  to"  a  pillar,  she  swung  to 
the  Turks  in  1637,  when  the  emperor  Morad  and  fro  in  this  position.  Soon  after,  one  of  her 
t«»k  B. -ii.nl :,t. 

MEXICO,  or  New  Spain;  a  republic  of  North 
America,  formerly  belonging  to  Spain, and  gov- 
erned by  a  viceroy.  The  land  attains  an  un- 
common elevation  in  the  interior,  Mexico,  the 
capital,  being  7,000  feet  above  the  ocean.  The 
highest  summit  of  the  Cordilleras  of  Mexico,  is 
the  volcanic  peak  of  Popocatepetl,  17,716  feet 


waiting  maids  brought  her  a  cigar  rolled  up  in 
paper,  and  after  having  lighted  it.  began  to 
smoke  it  herself  and  then  stuck  it  in  her  mis- 
tress' mouth.  This  operation  W;IK  performed  so 
skilfully  that  the  motion  of  the  hammock  did 
not  for"  a  moment  cease.  Our  pretty  hostess 
gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  her  dormitory,  and 
when  the  see-sawing  motion  had  ceased,  the 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MIL 


341 


MIL 


cigar  was  smoked  up,  the  lady  asleep,  and  our 
dinner  ended. 

MICHIGAN,  one  of  the  United  States,  con- 
sists of  two  Peninsulas,  one  lying  between  lakes 
Superior  and  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin  Territory  ; 
the  other,  between  lake  Michigan  on  the  west, 
Huron  on  the  east,  and  Ohio  and  Indiana  on 
the  south,  the  two  containing  at  least  60,000 
square  miles.  Both  are  well  watered.  Monroe, 
on  the  Raisin,  is  a  thoroughfare  for  travellers. 
The  principal  villages  arc  Pontiac,  Ypsilanti  and 
Ann  Arbor.  Population  in  1840,  212,267. 

MIDDLETON,  Arthur,  a  distinguished 
American  patriot,  was  born  in  S.  Carolina,  in 
1743, but  was  educated  in  England.  As  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress,  he  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  and  lost  a  great  part  of  his  prop- 
erty during  the  revolution.  He  died  Jan.  1, 1787. 

MILAN,  a  duchy  in  the  north  of  Italy,  con- 
tains 2,250,000  inhabitants.  It  was  comprised, 
with  several  other  districts  under  the  general 
name  of  Lombardy.  until  the  14th  century,  when 
Visconti,  a  Milanese  nobleman,  purchased  the 
ducal  title  from,  the  reigning  emperor;  the 
marriage  of  his  daughter  to  the  duke  of  Or- 
leans, gave  rise  to  the  pretensions  of  the  kings 
of  France  to  this  duchy.  After  the  death  of  the 
last  duke  of  this  line.  Francis  Sforza,  a  man  of 
family  and  talents,  so  ingratiated  himself  with 
the  people,  that  he  was  unanimously  chosen 
duke  in  !4.")0. 

On  the  extinction  of  the  Sforza  family  a  cen- 
tury after,  the  emperor  Charles  V  gave  the 
Milanese  as  a  fief  of  the  empire  to  his  son  Philip 
II,  king  of  Spain,  and  it  remained  an  appendage 
to  that  crown  till  170(5,  when  a  brilliant  cam- 
paign of  Prince  Eugene,  put  it  in  possession  of 
the  house  of  Austria,  to  which,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Sardinian  Milanese,  it  continued 
subject  during  !'0  years,  until  the  victories  of 
Bonap:irle  in  17iX>"  On  the  formation  of  the 
Cisalpine  republic,  the  whole  of  Milan,  divided 
into  four  departments,  was  comprised  in  it ;.  but 
on  the  restoration  of  the  old  order  of  things,  in 
1814,  the  part  belonging  to  the  king  of  Sardinia, 
was  restored,  and  the  remainder  incorporated 
with  Austrian  Italy. 

MILAN,  capital  city  of  the  duchy  of  the 
same  name,  contains  "many  splendid  public 
buildings,  and  1:30,000  inhabitants.  The  French 
made  themselves  masters  of  it  in  17%:  but 
were  driven  out  in  1799  by  the  victorious 
army  of  the  Auslrians  and  Russians.  After 
the  battle  of  Marengo,  Milan  a^ain  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  French,  and  continued  the 


seat  of  their  viceroy  until  the  fall  of  Bonaparte 
in  1814. 

MILTIADES,an  Athenian,  married  Hege- 
sipyla,  the  daughter  of  Olorus,  the  king  of  the 
Thracians.  In  the  third  year  r>f  his  government 
his  dominions  were  threatened  by  an  invasion 
of  the  Scythian  Nomades.  whom  Darius  had 
some  time  before  irritated  by  entering  their  coun- 
try. He  fled  before  them  ;  but,  as  their  hostili- 
ties were  but  momentary,  he  was  soon  restored 
to  his  kingdom.  Three  years  after  he  left  Cher- 
sonese, and  set  sail  for  Athens,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  applause. 

He  was  present  at  the  celebrated  battle  of 
Marathon,  in  which  all  the  chief  officers  ceded 
their  power  to  him,  and  left  the  event  of  the 
battle  to  depend  upon  his  superior  abilities.  He 
obtained  an  important  victory  over  the  more 
numerous  forces  of  his  adversaries ;  and  when 
he  had  demanded  of  his  fellow-citizens  an  olive 
crown,  as  the  reward  of  his  valor  m  the  field 
of  battle,  he  was  not  only  refused,  but  severely 
reprimanded  for  presumption.  Some  time  after 
Miltiades  was  intrusted  with  a  fleet  of  70  ships, 
and  ordered  to  punish  those  islands  which  had 
revolted  to  the  Persians. 

He  was  successful  at  first ;  but  a  sudden  re- 
port that  a  Persian  fleet  was  coining  ir>  attack 
him.  changed  his  operations  as  he  was  besieg- 
ing Paros. 

He  raised  the  siege  and  returned  to  Athens, 
where  he  was  accused  of  treason,  and  particu- 
larly of  holding  a  correspondence  with  the  ene- 
my. The  falsity  of  these  accusations  might  have 
appeared,  if  Miltiades  had  been  able  to  come  into 
the  assembly.  A  wound  which  he  had  received 
before  Paros  detained  him  at  home  ;  and  his 
enemies,  taking  advantage  of  his  absence,  be- 
came more  eager  in  their  accusations,  and  louder 
in  their  clamors.  He  was  condemned  to  death  : 
but  the  rigor  of  the  sentence  was  retracted  on 
the  recollection  of  his  great  services  to  the  Athe- 
nians, and  he  was  put  into  prison  till  he  had 
paid  a  fine  of  50  talents  to  the  state.  His  ina- 
bility to  discharge  so  great  a  sum  detained  him 
in  confinement,  and  soon  after  his  wounds  be- 
came incurable,  and  he  died  about  4~'.>  vears  be- 
fore the  Christian  era.  The  crimes  of  Miltindis 
were  probably  aggravated  in  the  eyes  of  his 
countrymen,  when  they  remembered  how  he 
made  himself  absolute  in  Chersoncsus ;  and  in 
condemning  the  barbarity  of  the  Athenians  to- 
wards a  general  who  was  the  source  of  their 
military  prosperity,  we  must  remember  th  •  jea- 
lousy which  ever  reigns  among  a  free  and  in- 
dependent people,  and  how  watchful  they  axe 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


MIR 


342 


MIS 


in  defence  of  the  natural  rights  which  they  see 
wrested  from  others  by  violence  and  oppression. 
M1NDEN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  containing 
8,960  inhabitants.  Here  Prince  Ferdinand  gain- 
ed a  victory  over  the  French  in  the  campaign 
of  1759.  The  merit  of  the  victory  is  principally 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  valor  and  steadiness  of  the 
British  troops  engaged.  Minden  surrendered 
on  the  next  day  ;  and  the  French  retreated  to 
the  other  side  of  the  Weser. 

MINORCA,  the  second  of  the  Balearic  isl- 
ands in  the  Mediterranean,  contains  30,000  in- 
habitants. It  produces  abundance  of  vegeta- 
bles, some  wines,  and  oil;  and  has  mines  of 
iron,  lead,  and  admirable  marble.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  devoted  to  commerce,  and  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  persuasion.  The  climate,  al- 
though hot,  is  agreeable.  In  1708  the  English 
took  possession  of  it,  and  retained  it  till  1758, 
when  it  was  retaken  by  a  French  fleet  and 
army,  after  the  failure  of  an  attempt  to  relieve 
it,  which  led  to  the  sentence  of  the  unfortunate 
Admiral  Byng.  At  the  peace  of  17G3  Minorca 
was  restored  to  Britain  :  but  in  1782  it  was  re- 
taken by  the  Spaniards.  It  was  once  more  taken 
by  the  British  in  1798  ;  but  was  restored  at  the 
peace  of  Amiens  in  1802. 

MINOS,  a  king  of  Crete,  who  gave  laws  to 
his  subjects,  B.  C.  1406,  which  still  remained  in 
full  force  in  the  age  of  the  philosopher  Plato. 
His  justice  and  moderation  procured  him  the 
appellation  of  the  favorite  of  the  gods,  the  wise 
legislator,  in  every  city  of  Greece  :  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  poets,  he  was  rewarded  for  his  equity, 
after  death,  with  the  office  of  supreme  and  ab- 
solute judge  in  the  infernal  regions. 

M1RABKAU,  Honore  Gabriel,  Count  de,  a 
French  nobleman  was  born  in  1749.  He  was 
born  witli  a  club  foot,  a  defect  which  has  given 
rise  to  a  comparison  with  Byron  more  distin- 
guished for  ingenuity  than  accuracy.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  detect,  his  tongue,  fastened  liy  the 
fro3num.  gave  little  promise  of  oratorical  success. 
But  the  size  and  vigor  of  his  limbs,  and  the  cir- 
cumstance of  two  molar  teeth  being  already 
formed  in  his  mouth,  were  sufficiently  extraor- 
dinary. He  was  also  early  attacked  with  the 
small  pox  which  left  its  usual  impress  on  his 
face.  In  a  letter  from  the  marquis,  his  father, 
to  the  countess  of  Rochefort,  the  following  pas- 
sage occurs :  i;  A  fete  is  this  day  given  in  honor 
of  my  mother  (the  dowager-marchioness,  widow 
of  Jean-Antoine  de  Mirabeati,  then  72  years  of 
age).  It  is  the  production  of  my  son's  tutor  (an 
indefatigable  author  and  actor  of  such  follies.) 
You  will  see  a  little  monster  perform  therein, 


whom  they  call  my  son ;  but  who,  were  he 
the  son  of  La  Thorrillere,  could  not  display  a 
greater  aptitude  for  all  sorts  of  dcri!  merit."  In 
another  letter,  dated  '21  st  of  September,  1758,  he 
writes  thus;  i;  My  son, whose  size,  prattle,  and 
ugliness  are  wonderfully  on  the  increase,  grows 
more  exquisitely  and  peculiarly  ugly  from  day 
to  day ,  and,  withal,  a  most  indefatigable  speech- 
ifier." 

At  an  early  age  he  quarreled  with  his  father, 
and  fled  from  the  paternal  mansion,  but  the  old 
count  procured  a  lettrc  de  cachet,  and  imprisoned 
him.  He  however  escaped,  and  lived  for  a  long 
time  in  habits  of  dissipation  :  in  proof  of  which 
the  following  anecdote  is  related.  Mirabeau,  one 
day,  called  up  his  valet  to  discharge  him.  The 
fellow  asked  the  reason.  <;  It  is  this,"  said  Mi- 
rabeau ;  "  You  were  drunk  yesterday,  as  I  my- 
self was.  Now,  sir,  you  remember  you  agreed 
to  get  drunk  only  on  days  when  I  was  sober." 
';  1  remember  it,"  replied  the  vulet;  '•  but  you 
will  excuse  me  when  you  reflect  upon  the  im- 
possibility of  my  obeying  you — for  you  are 
drunk  every  day."  Mirabeau  reflected  a  mo- 
ment, and  retained  the  domestic. 

He  went  to  Berlin  towards  the  close  of  the 
reign  of  Frederic,  and  was  there  when  the 
French  revolution  commenced,  on  which  he 
returned  home,  and  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  states-general.  He  rendered  his  name  me- 
morable by  the  display  of  the  most  polished  and 
powerful  eloquence.  In  17!)1  he  became  pres- 
ident of  the  national  assembly  ;  but  died  of  a 
fever  on  the  2d  of  April  following. 

MISSISSIPPI,  one  of  the  United  States,  con 
taining,  in  1840, 375,051  inhabitants.  The  nci  th- 
em paitof  the  country  is  uneven,  but  not  moun- 
tainous, while  the  southern  part  is  a  swampy 
level.  Cotton  is  the  staple  production.  After 
Natchez,  tin-  largest  town,  come  Jackson,  Wash- 
injrlon.  Woodville,  Port  Gibson,  Monticello,  «fcc. 

There  are  two  colleges  in  this  state,  one  at 
Washington,  and  one  at  Shieldsborough.  There 
are  but  few  Indians  in  Mississippi — most  of  the 
Chickasaws  and  Choctaws  having  been  remov- 
ed beyond  the  Mississippi.  The  first  settlement 
in  this  state  was  commenced  at  Natch'  ?.  in  1710. 
In  1817  Mississippi  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
as  an  independent  state. 

MISSOURI,  one  of  the  United  States,  con- 
tains 383,702  inhabitants.  It  is  well  watered, 
and  the  face  of  the  country  greatly  diversified. 
The  highest  peaks  of  the  Ozark  mountains 
reach  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet.  The  soil  upon 
the  rivers  is.  in  general,  highly  productive,  and 
the  staple  productions  are  Indian  corn,  grain, 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MIT 


343 


MIT 


hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco.  The  lead  mines  of 
Missouri  are  very  valuable,  and  yield  annually 
about  4,000,000  pounds  of  lead.  Jefferson  is  the 
seat  of  government.  St.  Louis  is  a  large  and 
flourishing  town.  Education  has  been  provided 
for  by  liberal  allowances. 

MITHRIDATES  I,  was  the  third  king  of 
Pontus.  He  was  tributary  to  the  crown  of  Per- 
sia, and  his  attempts  to  make  himself  independ- 
ent proved  fruitless.  He  was  conquered  in  a 
battle,  and  obtained  peace  with  difficulty.  Xen- 
ophon  calls  him  merely  a  governor  of  Cappa- 
docia.  He  was  succeeded  by  Ariobarzanes,  13. 
C.  363. 

The  second  of  that  name,  King  of  Pontus, 
was  grandson  to  Mithridates  I.  He  made  him- 
self master  of  Ponlus,  which  had  been  conquer- 
ed by  Alexander,  and  had  been  ceded  to  Anti- 
gonus  at  the  general  division  of  the  Macedonian 
empire  among  the  conqueror's  generals.  He 
reigned  about  26  years,  and  died  at,  the  advanc- 
ed age  of  84  years,  B.  C.  302. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Mithridates  III. 
This  enterprising  and  powerful  monarch  en- 
larged his  paternal  possessions  by  the  conquest 
of  Cappadocia  and  Paphlagonia,  and  died  after 
a  reign  of  thirty -six  years. 

The  fourth  succeeded  his  father  Ariobarzanes, 
who  was  the  son  of  Mithridates  III. 

The  fifth  succeeded  his  father  Mithridates 
IV,  and  strengthened  himself  on  his  throne  by 
an  alliance  with  Antiochus  the  Great,  whose 
daughter,  Laodice,  he  married.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Pharnaces. 

The  sixth  succeeded  his  father  Pharnaces. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  kings  of  Pontus  who 
made  alliance  with  the  Romans.  He  furnished 
them  with  a  fleet  in  the  third  Punic  war.  and 
assisted  them  against  Aristonicus,  who  had  laid 
claim  to  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus.  He  was 
murdered  B.  C.  123. 

The  seventh,  surnamed  Eupator,  and  The 
Great,  succeeded  his  father  Mithridates  VI, 
though  only  at  the  age  of  11  years.  The  b^gin- 
ning  of  his  reign  was  marked  by  ambition,  cru- 
elty and  artifice.  He  murdered  the  two  sons 
whom  his  sister  Laodice  had  had  by  Ariarathes, 
King  of  Cappadocia,  and  placed  one  of  his  own 
children,  only  eight  years  old,  on  the  vacant 
throne.  These  violent  proceedings  alarmed  Ni- 
comedes,  King  of  Bithynia.  who  had  married 
Laodice.  the  widow  of  Ariarathes. 

He  suborned  a  youth  to  act  as  King  of  Cap- 
padocia, as  the  third  son  of  Ariarathes,  and  La- 
odice was  sent  to  Rome  to  impose  upon  the  sen- 
ate, and  assure  them  that  her  third  son  was  still 


alive,  and  that  his  pretensions  to  the  kingdom 
of  Cappadocia  were  just  and  well  grounded. 
Mithridates  used  the  same  arts  of  dissimula- 
tion. He  also  sent  to  Rome  Gordius,  the  gov- 
ernor of  his  son,  who  solemnly  declared  before 
the  Roman  people,  that  the  youth  who  sat  on 
the  throne  of  Cappadocia,  was  the  third  son  and 
lawful  heir  of  Ariarathes,  and  that  he  was  sup- 
ported as  such  by  Mithridates. 

This  intricate  affair  displeased  the  Roman 
senate,  and  finally  to  settle  the  dispute  between 
the  two  monarchs,  the  powerful  arbiters  took 
away  the  kingdom  of  Cappadocia  from  Mithri- 
dates, and  Paphlagonia  from  JNicomedes.  These 
two  kingdoms  being  thus  separated  from  their 
original  possessors,  were  presented  with  their 
freedom  and  independence ;  but  the  Cappado- 
cians  refused  it,  and  received  Ariobarzanes  for 
king.  Such  were  the  first  seeds  of  enmity  be- 
tween Rome  and  the  King  of  Pontus. 

Mithridates.  the  more  effectually  to  destroy 
the  power  of  his  enemies  in  Asia,  ordered  all 
the  Romans  that  were  in  his  dominions  to  be 
massacred.  This  was  done  in  one  night,  and 
no  less  than  150,000  according  to  Plutarch,  or 
80,000  Romans,  as  Appian  mentions,  were 
made,  at  one  blow,  the  victims  of  his  cruelty. 
This  universal  massacre  called  aloud  for  revenge. 
Aquilius,  and  soon  after  Sylla,  inarched  against 
Mithridates  with  a  large  army.  The  former 
was  made  prisoner  ;  but  Sylla  obtained  a  victory 
over  the  king's  generals,  and  Another  decisive 
engagement  rendered  him  master  of  all  Greece, 
Macedonia.  Ionia,  and  Asia  Minor,  which  had 
submitted  to  the  victorious  arms  of  the  mon- 
arch of  Pontus.  This  ill  fortune  was  aggra- 
vated by  the  loss  of  about  200,000  men,  who 
were  killed  in  the  several  engagements  that 
had  been  fouo-ht,  and  Mithridates,  weakened 
by  repeated  ill  success  by  sea  and  land,  sued 
for  peace  from  the  conqueror,  which  he  ob- 
tained on  condition  of  defraying  the  expenses 
which  the  Romans  had  incurred  by  the  war, 
and  of  remaining  satisfied  with  the  possessions 
which  he  had  received  from  his  ancestors. 

While  these  negotiations 'of  peace  were  carri- 
ed on,  Mithridates  was  not  unmindful  of  his  real 
interests.  His  distress,  and  not  his  inclinations, 
obliged  him  to  wish  for  peace.  He  immediate- 
ly-took  the  field  with  an  army  of  140,000  in 
fantry  and  1(5.000  horse,  which  consisted  of  his 
own  forces  and  those  of  his  son-in-law  Tigranes, 
King  of  Armenia.  With  such  a  numerous  ar- 
my, he  soon  made  himself  master  of  the  Ro- 
man provinces  in  Asia;  none  dared  to  oppose 
his  conquests,  as  the  Romans,  relying  on  his 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


MIT 


344 


MON 


fidelity,  had  withdrawn  the  greatest  part  of  their 
armies  from  the  country 

The  news  of  his  warlike  preparations  was 
no  sooner  heard,  than  Lucullus,  the  consul, 
inarched  into  Asia,  and  without  delay  block- 
ed up  the  camp  of  Mithridates,  who  was  then 
besieging  Cyzicus.  The  Asiatic  monarch  es- 
caped from  him,  and  fled  into  the  heart  of 
his  kingdom.  Lucullus  pursued  him  with  the 
utmost  celerity,  and  would  have  taken  him 
prisoner  after  a  battle,  had  not  the  avidity  of  his 
soldiers  preferred  the  plundering  of  a  mule  load- 
ed with  gold,  to  the  taking  of  a  monarch  who 
had  exercised  such  cruelties  aginst  their  coun- 
trymen, and  shown  himself  so  faithless  to  the 
most  solemn  engagements. 

The  appointment  of  Glabrio  to  the  command 
of  the  Roman  forces,  instead  of  Lucullus,  was 
favorable  to  Mithridates,  and  he  recovered  the 
greatest  part  of  his  dominions.  The  sudden 
arrival  of  Pompey,  however,  soon  put  an  end 
to  his  victories.  A  battle,  in  the  night,  was 
fought  near  the  Euphrates,  in  which  the  troops 
of  Pontus  labored  under  every  disadvantage. 

An  universal  overthrow  ensued,  and  Mith- 
ridates, bold  in  his  misfortunes,  rushed  through 
the  thick  ranks  of  the  enemy,  at  the  head  of 
800  horsemen,  500  of  whom  perished  in  the 
attempt  to  follow  him.  Mithridates  found  a  safe 
retreat  among  the  Scythians  ;  and,  though  des- 
titute of  power,  friends,  and  resources,  yet  he 
meditated  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, by  penetrating  into  the  heart  of  Italy  by 
land. 

These  wild  projects  were  rejected  by  his  fol- 
lowers, and  he  sued  for  peace.  It  was  denied 
to  his  ambassadors,  and  the  victorious  Pompey 
declared,  that  to  obtain  it,  Mithridates  must  ask 
it  in  person.  He  scorned  to  trust  himself  in 
the  hands  of  his  enemy,  and  resolved  to  conquer 
or  to  die.  His  subjects  refused  to  follow  him 
any  longer,  and  they  revolted  from  him.  and 
made  his  son  Pharnaces  king.  The  son  show- 
ed himself  ungrateful  to  his  father,  and  even, 
according  to  some  writers,  he  ordered  him  to 
be  put  to  death. 

This  unnatural  treatment  broke  the  heart  of 
Mithridates  ;  he  obliged  his  wife  to  poison  her- 
self, and  attempted  to  do  the  same  himself.  It 
was  in  vain  ;  the  frequent  antidotes  he  had 
taken  in  the  early  part  of  his  life  strengthened 
his  constitution  against  the  poison,  and  when 
this  was  unavailing,  he  attempted  to  stab  him- 
self. The  blow  was  not  mortal ;  and  a  Gaul, 
who  was  then  present,  at  his  own  request  gave 
him  the  fatal  stroke,  about  63  years  B.  C.,  in 


the  72d  year  of  his  age.  This  prince,  who 
made  war  against  the  Romans  forty  years,  and 
was  never  entirely  vanquished  but  by  Pompey, 
although  he  had  lost  many  battles  against  Lu- 
cullus, has  been  much  praised.  Cicero  calls 
him  the  greatest  of  kings  since  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great. 

MODENA,  a  duchy  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
containing  375.000  inhabitants.  In  1796  the 
duke  of  Modena  was  expelled  from  his  domin- 
ions by  the  French  :  and  at  the  peace  of  Cam- 
po  Formio,  in  1797,  the  Modenese  possessions 
were  incorporated  with  the  Cisalpine  republic  ; 
but  in  1814  they  were  restored  by  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  to  the  duke. 

MOLUCCAS,  or  SPICE  ISLANDS,  are  be- 
tween the  Sunda  isles,  the  Philippines  and  New 
Holland.  These  islands  were  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese  in  loll,  but  now  belong  to  the 
Dutch,  who  obtain  from  them  sandal  wood, 
musk, cloves. and  spices.  There  are  also  mines 
of  copper  and  silver,  which  are  very  productive, 
and  delicious  fruits. 

JIOXGULS,  or  MONGOLS,  The.  An  Asi- 
atic tribe,  who  inhabited  the  central  regions  of 
the  continent,  and  were  little  known  till  Gen- 
ghis Khan,  by  his  conquests,  immortalized  their 
name.  He  extended  his  dominions  through  a 
ppnce  of  more  than  800  leagues  from  east  to  west, 
and  above  J  .0(10  from  north  to  south,  over  the 
most  powerful  and  wealthy  kingdoms  of  Asia. 
It  is  with  justice,  therefore,  that  he  is  acknow- 
ledged to  have  been  the  greatest  prince  who 
ever  filled  the  eastern  throne.  He  was  the 
son  of  Pisuka,  who  first  brought  under  his 
command  the  greater  part  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
Mongul  nations,  and  who  designated  his  son  by 
the  naii'.e  of  Temujin,  from  a  vanquished  khan 
so  called. 

After  the  death  of  his  father,  Temnjin  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  the  great  Khan,  who,  har- 
boring suspicions  to  the  prejudice  of  hisson-in- 
l;i\\',  w;is  dethroned,  and  Temujin  took  posses- 
sion of  the  empire.  Temujin  was  at  that  time 
forty  years  of  age,  when,  seeing  himself  master 
of  very  extensive  dominions,  he  adopted  the 
resolution  of  rendering  his  power  in  some  de- 
gree lawful,  by  the  public  homage  of  all  the 
princes  within  the  precincts  of  his  empire.  Ac- 
cordingly, he  convoked  them  at  Kar.ikorom, 
his  capital ;  and,  with  the  diadem  encircling  his 
brow,  he  advanced  into  the  midst  of  this  au- 
gust assemtilv,  seated  himself  on  his  throne, 
and  received  the  compliments  of  the  khans  and 
other  nobilitv.  who  offered  up  prayers  for  his 
health  and  prosperity.  They  then  confirmed  to 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MON 


345 


MON 


him  and  his  successors  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Mongul  empire. 

After  some  subsequent  victories,  a  similar  in- 
auguration took  place  at  the  head  of  his  army, 
when  Kockja,  one  of  his  relatives,  who,  by 
strictly  practising  the  rigid  duties  of  religion, 
had  obtained  the  reputation  of  being  inspired, 
approached  the  prince,  and  informed  him,  that 
it  was  the  pleasure  of  God  that  he  should  hence- 
forth assume  the  name  of  Genghis  Khan. 

However,  it  is  probable  th.it  the  ambition  of 
Genghis  Khan  mifht  have  been  satisfied  with 
his  dominions,  had  not  the  sovereign  of  the 
Kin,  or  northern  part  of  China,  imprudently 
demanded  of  him  the  same  tribute  as  was  paid 
him  by  princes  whom  he  had  dethroned,  and 
whose  authority  he  had  usurped.  This  claim 
irritated  the  haughty  conqueror,  whose  troops 
poured  like  a  torrent  over  China,  routed  its 
armies,  desolated  the  country,  and  amassed  im- 
mense tre^kres.  The  cities,  and  even  the  royal 
residence,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Genghis  Khan, 
who.  in  the  short  space  of  five  years,  found  him- 
self master  of  all  that  extensive  territory,  and 
who  appointed  Muhuli,  his  experienced  gen- 
eral, governor  and  lieutenant,  with  the  title  of 
king,  which  was  to  descend  to  his  posterity. 

Genghis  Khan  had  determined  to  make  the 
domains  of  Mohammed,  Sultan  of  Karazm,  the 
boundary  of  his  empire ;  but  a  disagreement 
taking  place  with  that  sovereign,  the  great  khan 
assembled  all  his  forces,  and,  after  defeating  the 
sultan,  besieged  and  took  Bochara,  the  centre 
of  his  dominions,  where  all  his  wealth  was 
lodged.  Though  Mohammed  possessed  a  great 
part  of  Turkestan,  was  master  of  Great  Bukha- 
ria,and  Karazm.  whence  his  monarchy  derived 
its  name,  and  held  in  possession  all  Persia,  Per- 
sian Irak,  and  the  frontiers  of  India,  he  could 
make  no  effectual  opposition. 

The  celerity  and  military  exploits  of  Genghis 
Khnn  resembled  a  torrent  spreading  devasta- 
tion, or  rather  a  thunderbolt  ^bursting  over 
several  countries  at  once,  and  involving  them 
in  flames  and  ruin.  Though  the  sultan  made 
every  effort  in  his  power  to  succor  his  wretched 
dominions,  his  armies  were  constantly  defeated 
in  general  engagements;  and,  after  eluding  his 
pursuers,  he  landed  on  a  small  island  in  the 
Caspian  Sea.  where  an  acute  disease,  added  to 
his  grief,  speedily  terminated  his  life. 

His  son  Jalaloddin  endeavored,  but  in  vain, 
to  avenge  the  cause  of  his  father  on  the  Mon- 
guls.  While  Genghis  Khan,  on  one  side  of  his 
empire,  had  fixed  the  Indus  as  its  limits,  his 
lieutenants  on  the  other  subjugated  Persia,  en- 


closed the  Caspian  Sea  within  his  dominions, 
and  carried  their  victorious  arms  as  far  as  Ico- 
nium,  whose  sultans,  with  some  pther  Turkish 
sovereigns,  they  rendered  tributary.  The  fur- 
ther enterprises  of  this  aspiring  monarch  were 
always  crowned  with  victory.  He  was  constant- 
ly attended  by  prosperity,  which  never  quitted 
him  to  his  tomb. 

He  died  A.  D.  1227,  at  the  age  of  seventy, 
after  a  reign  of  twenty-two  years,  preserving  to 
the  last  an  undiminished  authority  over  all  the 
surrounding  nations.  The  qualities  of  Genghis 
Khan  characterized  a  conqueror.  He  possessed 
a  genius  capable  of  conceiving  great  and  ardu- 
ous designs,  and  prudence  equal  to  their  execu- 
tion ;  a  natural  and  persuasive  eloquence ;  a  de- 
gree of  patience,  which  enabled  him  to  endure 
and  overcome  fatigue ;  an  admirable  temper- 
ance ;  a  superior  understanding,  and  a  penetrat- 
ing mind,  that  instantly  conceived  the  measure 
proper  to  be  adopted  on  every  occasion.  His 
military  talents  appeared  in  his  successfully  in- 
troducing a  strict  discipline  and-  severe  police 
amonjj  the  Tartars,  who  till  that  time  were 
unuse~d  to  any  restraint.  His  laws  were  sirn- 

Ele,  and  suitable  to  a  newly-formed  people,  who 
ave  few  complex  social  connections. 
Though  some  of  his  own  children,  and  princes 
of  the  blood  were  Christians,  and  seme  Jews 
and  Mohammedans,  they  incurred  no  marks  of 
his  disapprobation.  He  instituted  a  grand  hunt- 
ing-match, the  model  of  which  he  left  to  his 
successors.  Though  Genghis  Khan  had  declar 
ed  his  son  Octa  his  successor,  this  prince  refus- 
ed to  accept  the  crown  till  it  was  delegated  to 
him  by  the  states,  which  did  not  assemble  till 
two  years  after  the  death  of  his  father.  He  com- 
mitted the  general  management  of  affairs  to 
Yelu,  a  man  of  integrity  and  extensive  know- 
ledge ;  and  he  placed  at  the  head  of  his  armies 
his  own  brother  Toley,  whose  talents  were  of 
singular  utility  in  the"  war  which  his  father  had 
left  him  to  prosecute  against  the  inhabitants  of 
Southern  China.  Quay-yew,  or  Kayuk  had  a 
great  respect  for  his  mother,  who,  therefore, 
still  retained  a  considerable  share  of  the  govern- 
ment. His  beneficence  and  courage  are  deserv- 
edly applauded  ;  and  he  commanded  the  armies 
in  person  at  the  conquest  of  Corea,  and  of  the 
nations  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  A. 
'  D.  J247.  He  died  at  the  age  of  43,  after  a  reign 
of  eight  years. 

On  the  first  day  of  the  year  13G8,  Chu  was 
solemnly  proclaimed  Emperor  of  China,  amid 
the  greatest  demonstrations  of  joy.  Touhante- 
mur,  naturally  a  coward,  determined  to  retire 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


MON 


346 


MON 


into  Tartary,  and,  surrounded  by  his  guards, 
his  wives,  and  others  of  his  court,  took  his 
course  towards  the  north.  Thus  ended  the  em- 
pire of  the  Monguls  in  China,  after  they  had 
continued  in  possession  of  that  vast  country 
during  a  term  of  162  years.  Touhantemur  re- 
tained his  sovereignty  over  the  Monguls  in  Tar- 
tary, where  he  was  succeeded  A.  D.  1370  by  his 
son,  Ayyewshilitata,  against  whom,  and  his  suc- 
cessors, the  Chinese,  sustained  many  sanguin- 
ary wars,  notwithstanding  the  great  wall  which 
separated  them.  At  length,  however,  they  ceas- 
ed to  disturb  each  other,  and  lived  quietly  with- 
in their  own  territories.  In  this  interval  the 
Manchoos  became  formidable,  and  in  the  end 
subdued  both  the  Monguls  and  the  Chinese. 

MONK,  George,  Duke  of  Albemarle,  was 
descended  from  the  Plantagenets,  and  born  in 
Devonshire  in  1608.  At  the  age  of  17  he  serv- 
ed under  his  relation,  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  in 
an  expedition  against  Spain;  and.  in  1630,  he 
went  as  an  ensign  to  the  Low  Countries,  where 
he  obtained  a  captain's  commission.  In  1639,  he 
attended  Charles  I  to  Scotland,  and  was  made 
lieutenant-colonel ;  afterwards  he  went  to  Ire- 
land, and  for  his  services  in  the  rebellion,  was 
appointed  governor  of  Dublin.  On  his  return 
to  England  with  his  regiment,  in  1643,  he  was 
made  major-general  in  the  Irish  brigade,  then 
employed  in  the  siege  of  Nautwich.  in  Cheshire, 
where  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  to  the 
Tower.  After  remaining  in  confinement  about 
three  years,  he  was  induced  to  accept  a  com- 
mission under  the  parliament  against  the  Irish 
rebels;  in  which. service  he  performed  several 
great  exploits,  but  at  last  fell  under  censure,  for 
concluding  a  treaty  with  O'Neil.  Upon  this  he 
gave  up  the  command,  and  retired  to  his  estate ; 
But  was  soon  called  to  serve  with  Cromwell  in 
Scotland,  where  he  bore  a  part  in  the  battle  of 
Dunbar ;  after  which  he  was  left  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  English  forces  in  that  kingdom. 

In  1653,  he  was  joined  with  Blake  and  Dean 
in  the  naval  service  against  the  Dutch  fleet, 
commanded  by  Van  Tromp,  with  whom  two 
desperate  battles  were  fought  that  year,  in  both 
of  which  the  English  were  victorious.  Peace 
being  soon  after  concluded,  Monk  returned  to 
Scotland,  where  he  remained  during  the  usurp- 
ation of  Cromwell,  who  regarded  him  with  jeal- 
ousy, and  even  imparted  to  him,  in  a  letter',  the 
suspicions  which  he  entertained  of  his  design 
to  restore  the  king.  Monk  took  no  notice  of 
this,  but  watched  his  opportunity  -.  and  when 
the  authority  of  Richard  Cromwell  declined,  he 
began  his  movements,  and  conducted  them  with 


so  much  judgment  as  to  bring  about  that  im- 
portant event  without  bloodshed  or  confusion. 
Alter  this  he  was  created  Duke  of  Albemarle, 
and  knight  of  the  garter.  The  remainder  of  his 
life  was  not  spent  inactively ;  for  when  hostili- 
ties broke  out  with  the  Dutch,  he  again  com- 
manded the  fleet,  and  fought  De  Rujter  and 
Van  Tromp  in  a  tremendous  battle,  which  last- 
ed three  days.  The  duke  had  scarcely  returned 
into  port  before  he  was  called  to  London,  in 
consequence  of  the  dreadful  fire  which  laid  the 
greatest  part  of  the  capital  in  ashes  ;  and  so 
dear  was  he  to  the  people,  that  when  lie  passed 
along,  they  cried  out,  "  If  his  Grace  had  been 
there,  the  city  would  not  have  been  burned." 
•  He  died  Jan.  3,  1670;  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  By  his  duchess,  who  survived 
him  but  a  few  months,  he  had  one  son,  Christo- 
pher, who  died  governor  of  Jamaica,  without 
issue,  in  1688. 

MONMOUTII,  Duke  of,  son  (^Charles  II 
by  Lucy  Waters,  to  whom  it  was  said  that  mon- 
arch was  secretly  married.  He  was  early  placed 
in  the  army,  and  served  some  campaigns  in 
Flanders  with  great  reputation.  His  supposed 
claims  to  the  crown  placed  him  in  enmity  with 
the  Duke  of  York,  and  lie  lived  in  intimate 
connection  with  the  party  that  promoted  the 
famous  succession  bill,  and  with  the  patriots  of 
that  ajro. 

On  "the  death  of  his  father  he  went  abroad, 
and  soon  after  landed  in  the  west  of  England, 
publishing  a  proclamation,  in  which  he  took 
the  regal  title,  and  made  noble  professions  in 
favor  of  liberty.  Numbers  flocked  to  his  stand- 
ard, but  his  forces  were  overcome  by  the  geniua 
of  Marlborough  at  Bridgewater.  A  terrible  pro- 
scription followed  in  the  western  counties,  in 
which  General  Kirk  and  Judge  Jefferies  com- 
mitted frightful  cruelties;  and  Monmouth  him- 
self being  taken  to  London,  was  tried  and  exe- 
cuted. 

MONTAGUE,  Edward,  Earl  of  Sandwich, 
was  the  son  oif  Sir  Sidney  Montague,  and  born 
in  1625.  At  the  age  of  18  he  raised  a  regiment 
in  the  service  of  parliament,  and  was  present 
in  several  battles;  but  in  the  Dutch  war  he  left 
the  army  for  the  navy,  and  was  associated  with 
Blake  in  the  Mediterranean.  Afterwards  he 
commanded  the  fleet  in  the  North  Sea ;  but  at 
his  return  was  deprived  of  it  on  suspicion  of 
being  in  the  royal  interest.  Monk,  however, 
procured  him  to  be  replaced  ;  and  lie  conveyed 
the  king  to  England  ;  after  which  lft>  was  cre- 
ated Earl  of  Sandwich.  In  the  war  of  1664  he 
commanded  under  the  Duke  of  York,  and  had 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MON 


347 


MOO 


fi  principal  ^hare  in  the  great  battle  of  June  3, 
1605.  Soon  after  this  he  went  to  Spain,  where 
he  negotiated  a  peace  between  that  country  and 
Portugal.  On  the  renewal  of  the  Dutch  war 
in  1672,  he  commanded  a  squadron  under  the 
duke  of  York  ;  but  his  ship  taking  fire,  he  jump- 
ed overboard,  and  was  drowned. 

MONROE,  James,  a  president  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  April  28,  1758,  in  Virginia, 
and  educated  in  William  and  Mary  College. 
He  entered  the  revolutionary  army  as  a  cadet 
in  1776.  Throughout  the  revolution  he  served 
with  distinction,  and  at  the  age  of  24,  was 
elected  a  member  of  congress.  In  1794,  he  was 
appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  to  France. 
On  his  return  he  filled  the  post  of  governor  of 
Virginia,  and  afterwards  was  minister  to  France, 
to  London,  and  to  Spain,  successively.  On  his 
return,  he  was  chosen  governor  of  Virginia,  and 
in  1811  was  appointed  Secretary  of  fetate.  In 
1817  he  succeeded  James  Madison  in  the  presi- 
dency, from  which  office  he  retired  at  the  end 
of  his  second  term.  He  died  on  the  4th  of  July , 
1831. 

MONTEZUMA,  the  king  of  Mexico,  at  the 
time  of  the  invasion  of  the  Spaniards.  At  a 
short  distance  from  the  city  of  Mexico,  they 
were  met  by  Montezuma  at  the  head  of  his 
nobles,  and  surrounded  by  his  guards  and  cour- 
tiers. Cortez  was  received  by  the  emperor  with 
hospitality  and  confidence  which  he  soon  for- 
feited :  for  having  learned  that  a  traditionary 
prophecy  was  current  that  a  powerful  nation, 
children  of  the  sun,  would  chastise  the  country, 
as  a  punishment  for  their  sins,  he  readily  turn- 
ed the  idea  to  his  own  advantage.  Cortez  came 
to  the  determination  of  seizing  Montezuma  in 
his  palace,  which  he  entered  with  10  officers 
and  soldiers.  He  requested  Montezuma,  to 
take  up  a  temporary  residence  with  the  Span- 
iards, to  which  demand  the  monarch  reluctant- 
ly consented.  Here  he  suffered  every  indig- 
nity ;  and  Cortez,  on  a  frivolous  pretext  that  the 
monarch  was  the  instigator  of  some  tumults, 
ordered  him  to  be  fettered  and  thrown  into 
prison. 

Montezuma  remained  a  prisoner  six  months, 
during  which  period  Cortez  was  actively  em- 
ployed in  furthering  his  own  views.  The  for- 
mer now  acknowledged  himself  in  form  a  vas- 
sal of  the  Spinish  king,  and,  a  tumult  arising, 
Cortez  placed  him  in  view  of  his  enraged  sub- 
jects', but  in  vain.  The  forlorn  monarch  was 
pierced  by  an  arrow,  and  died  broken-hearted 
and  despairing. 

MONTGOMERY,  Richard,  a  major-general 


in  the  army  of  the  United  States,  born  in  Ire- 
land, in  1737.  He  settled  in  this  country,  after 
serving  under  Wolfe  ;  and  having  embraced  the 
American  cause,  was  killed  in  an  attack  upon 
Quebec,  in  1776. 

MONTGOMERY,  Gabriel,  Count,  a  French 
nobleman,  who,  in  1559,  had  the  misfortune  to 
kill  Henry  II,  by  accidentally  striking  him  in 
the  eye  at  a  tournament.  He  then  quitted 
France  ;  but  returned  during  the  civil  wars,  and 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Protestants. 
After  many  vicissitudes  he  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  beheaded  at  Paris  in  1574. 

MONTREAL,  a  city  of  Lower  Canada,  situ- 
ated on  an  island  in  the  St.  Lawrence,  180  miles 
above  Quebec,  arid  200  below  lake  Ontario,  at 
the  head  of  ship  navigation.  The  streets  are 
regular,  the  houses  are  built  of  gray  stone,  and 
present  a  singular  appearance  from  being  cov- 
ered with  tin.  Montreal  College  is  a  very  flour- 
ishing institution.  Pop.  35,000. 

MONTROSE,  Marquis  of,  one  of  the  most 
chivalrous  partisans  of  Charles  I,  who  after  the 
cause  of  the  Stuarts  appeared  to  be  hopeless, 
persevered  in  exciting  insurrections  in  Scot- 
land, but  being  taken  he  was  brought  to  Edin- 
burg,  tried,  and  executed_on  a  gibbet  40  feet 
high,  on  the  23d  of  September,  1650. 

MOORE,  Sir  John,  was  born  at  Glasgow  in 
1761 .  At  the  age  of  15  he  obtained  an  ensigncy 
in  the  51st  regiment  of  foot;  of  which,  in  1790, 
he  became  lieutenant-colonel,  and  served  with 
his  corps  in  Corsica,  where  he  was  wounded  in 
storming  the  Mozello  fort  at  the  siege  of  Calvi. 
In  1796  he  went  out  as  a  brigadier-general  to 
the  West  Indies,  under  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby, 
who  appointed  him  to  the  government  of  St. 
Lucie,  in  the  capture  of  which  he  had  a  princi- 
pal share. 

On  his  return  home,  m  1797,  he  was  employ- 
ed in  Ireland  during  the  rebellion,  and  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  In  1799 
he  went  on  the  expedition  to  Holland,  where 
he  was  again  wounded  severely ;  notwithstand- 
ing which,  he  soon  afterwards  went  to  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  and  at  the  battle  of  Alexandria  re- 
ceived a  cut  from  a  sabre  on  the  breast,  and  a 
shot  in  the  thigh.  On  his  return  to  England 
he  was  made  a  knight  of  the  Bath;  and  in  1808 
was  appointed  to  command  an  army  in  Spain, 
where,  after  a  signal  retreat  before  a  superior 
force,  he  fell  under  the  walls  of  Corunna,  Jan. 
16th,  1809. 

The  description  of  the  battle  of  Corunna,  and 
of  the  death  of  Sir  John  Moore,  is  thus  briefly 
given  b'y  Bisset.  The  British  army  reached 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


MOR 


348 


MOR 


Corunna  on  the  12th  of  Jan.  1800,  having  lost 
one  fourth  of  its  numbers.  Their  situation  was 
so  disadvantageous  that  some  officers  suggested 
the  proposal  of  terms  to  Soult,  on  condition 
that  he  should  permit  the  troops  to  embark  un- 
molested. Sir  John  Moore  rejected  the  advice, 
and  declared  his  resolution  to  accept  no  terms 
which  should  be  in  the  least  dishonorable  to  the 
army  or  to  his  country.  In  the  evening  of  the 
14th  the  transports  from  Vigo  hove  in  sight. 
After  the  embarkation  of  the  troops  on  the  llith, 
orders  were  issued,  that  if  the  French  did  not 
move,  the  embarkation  of  the  reserve  should 
commence  at  four  in  the  afternoon. 

At  mid-day,  the  general  received  information 
that  the  enemy  were  getting  under  arms.  Two 
columns  of  the  enemy  directed  their  march  on 
the  right  wing  of  the  British,  which  was  dis- 
advantageously  posted.  Sir  John  Moore  hast- 
ened to  this  part  of  the  field,  when  the  4th  regi- 
ment on  the  right  flank  was  menaced  by  a  body 
of  the  enemy  who  were  hastening  up  the  valley 
to  turn  it.  He  proceeded  to  direct  the  move- 
ments of  the  other  regiments  in  this  division, 
and  was  in  the  act  of  ordering  up  the  guards  to 
support  the42d  Highlanders,  when  he  was  struck 
from  his  horse  by  a  cannon-ball,  which  carried 
away  his  left  shoulder  and  part  of  the  collar- 
bone, leaving  the  arm  hanging  by  the  flesh.  He 
was  borne  away  by  six  soldiers  of  the  42d. 

The  troops  continued  to  fight  bravely  under 
Sir  John  Hope,  on  whom  the  command  devolv- 
ed, and  at  night-fall  remained  masters  of  the 
field.  This  victory  was  obtained  under  great  dis- 
advantages ;  the  French  force  exceeded  20,000 
men,  well  appointed  and  provided  with  cannon. 
The  British  scarcely  amounted  to  15,000,  ex- 
hausted by  harassing  marches,  and  discouraged 
by  the  loss  of  their  military  chest,  their  stores, 
their  baggage,  their  horses,  their  sick,  their 
wounded,  their  wives  and  children. 

General  Moore  lived  to  hear  that  the  battle 
was  won  ;  and  in  his  last  moments,  after  an  af- 
fecting reminiscence  of  his  mother,  expressed 
a  hope  that  his  country  would  do  him  justice. 
His  body  was  removed  at  midnight  to  the  cita- 
del of  Corunna,  wrapped  in  a  military  cloak 
and  blankets,  and  buried  in  a  grave  dug  in  the 
ramparts. 

MORAVIA.  The  present  population  of  this 
province  of  the  Austrian  empire,  is  1,91)0,464. 
Its  history  is  briefly  as  follows.  It  was  ancient- 
ly named  Quadia,  and  was  part  of  the  territory 
of  the  Quadi  and  Marcomanni,  for  several  cen- 
turies the  terror  of  the  Roman  frontier.  Not- 
withstanding the  many  checks  they  received 


from  the  Romans  and  their  barbarian  neighbors, 
these  tribes  maintained  their  independence  till 
they  were  overpowered  by  Attila,  in  the  fifth 
century.  The  Sclavonians  next  founded  a 
republic  here;  and  maintained  a  precarious  inde- 
pendence, till  Swatopluk  united  the  whole  of 
the  Sclavonic  republics,  and  founded  the  king- 
dom of  Moravia ;  which  comprehended  Bohe- 
mia, Lusatia,  Brandenburg,  Pomerania,  Silesia, 
Dalmatia,  &c. 

On  the  death  of  this  prince,  in  894,  his  pos- 
sessions were  divided  among  his  three  sons, 
but  dissensions  arising  among  them,  the  Boii, 
or  ancestors  of  the  Bohemians,  conquered  part 
of  them,  and  threatened  the  rest.  In  a  short 
time,  the  Magyars,  or  invaders  of  Hungary, 
completely  defeated  the  Moravians  in  907,  and 
thus  crushed  their  independence.  This  fertile 
country,  after  being  almost  reduced  to  a  desert, 
Avas  seized  on  by  the  Dukes  of  Bohemia,  who 
kept  it  till  1182,  Avhen  it  again  became  a  sepa- 
rate government,  and  was  erected  into  a  mar- 
quisate.  Moravia  next  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Hungarians,  but  their  internal  troubles  soon 
obliged  them  to  relinquish  their  valuable  acqui- 
sition. 

Moravia  for  a  time  resumed  its  independence, 
but  after  various  changes,  became  again  subject 
to  the  kings  of  Bohemia  ;  and  in  1527.  Moravia 
was  added  to  the  possessions  of  the  house  of 
Austria,  and  has  since  been  subject  to  the  same 
sovereign. 

MORE,  Sir  Thomas.  Chancellor  of  Eng- 
land, was  the  son  of  Sir  John  More,  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  King's  Bench,  and  was  born  in 
London,  in  1480.  He  was  educated  in  the  family 
of  Cardinal  Morton,  archbishop  of  Canterbury: 
and  at  the  age  of  21 ,  he  obtained  a  seat  in  par- 
liament, where  he  opposed  a  subsidy  demanded 
by  Henry  VII  with  such  spirit,  as  incurred  the 
resentment  of  the  king,  who  avenged  himself  on 
the  judge  his  father,  by  causing  him  to  be  fined 
and  imprisoned.  When  admitted  to  the  bar, 
More  delivered  a  lecture  in  the  church  of  St. 
Lawrence,  Jewry,  on  part  of  St.  Augustin's 
Avorks,  and  the  reputation  he  thereby  acquired 
procured  him  to  be  chosen  law-reader  in  Fur- 
nival's  Inns.  In  1508,  he  was  made  judge  of 
the  sheriffs  court,  and  justice  of  peace. 

Henry  VIII  delighted  in  the  conversation  of 
More,  and  conferred  upon  him  the  honor  of 
knighthood;  besides  which  he  made  him  treas- 
urer of  the  exchequer.  Sir  Thomas  assisted  the 
monarch  in  his  book  against  Luther,  and  he 
afterwards  defended  it  in  a  very  able  treatise. 
In  1523,  he  was  chosen  speaker  of  the  House  of 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


MOR 


349 


MOR 


Commons  ;  and  in  1539,  he  succeeded  Wolsey 
as  loid  chancellor,  which  office  he  discharged 
three  years  with  scrupulous  integrity.  Find- 
ing, however,  that  the  affair  of  the  king's  di- 
vorce, to  which  he  was  adverse,  would  involve 
him  in  difficulties,  he  resigned  the  seals,  and 
thereby  provoked  the  anger  of  Henry,  who  was 
still  more  irritated  by  his  refusal  to  attend  the 
coronation  of  Ann  Boleyn. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  implicate  him  in  the 
practices  of  Elizabeth  Barton ;  and,  though  this 
tailed,  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  for  re» 
fusing  the  oath  of  supremacy.  After  an  impris- 
onment of  twelve  months,  he  was  brought  to 
his  trial  in  the  court  of  King's  Bench,  where, 
notwithstanding  his  eloquent  defence,  he  was 
found  guilty  of  treason,  and  sentenced  to  be 
beheaded.  His  behavior,  in  the  interval,  cor- 
responded with  the  uniform  tenor  of  his  life ; 
and,  on  July  6,  1535,  he  ascended  the  scaffold, 
with  his  characteristic  pleasantry,  saying  to  the 
lieutenant  of  the  Tower,  "  I  pray  you,  see  me 
safe  up  ;  and  as  for  my  coming  down,  you  may 
let  me  shift  for  myself."  In  the  same  spirit, 
when  he  laid  his  head  on  the  block,  he  told  the 
executioner  to  wait  till  he  had  removed  his 
beard,  "  For  that,"  said  he,  "  hath  committed 
no  treason."  Thus  fell  this  illustrious  English- 
man, whose  learning  and  virtue  entitled  him  to 
a  better  fate. 

MOREAU,  Victor,  a  French  general,  who 
gained  great  advantage  over  the  Austrians 
under  Kray  at  Mosskirk  ;  and,  notwithstanding 
their  gallant  exertions,  compelled  them  to  re- 
treat with  considerable  loss.  The  subsequent 
actions  of  Bibberach  and  Memmingen  proved 

Xally  unfortunate  to  the  Austrians.  Moreau, 
r  signalizing  himself  in  many  celebrated 
victories,  and  in  many  masterly  and  successful 
military  operations  on  the  frontiers  of  Italy  and 
Germany  in  the  campaigns  of  1796  and  1799, 
invaded  Germany  in  1SOO.  Here,  in  co-opera- 
tion with  Bonaparte,  he  resumed  an  offensive 
campaign.  He  took  possession  of  Munich,  and 
laid  the  Bavarian  territories  and  the  duchy  of 
Wirternberg  under  heavy  contributions. 

The  emperor  of  Austria  now  judged  it  expe- 
dient to  sue  for  an  armistice  ;  which  Moreau 
granted  on  the  14th  of  July.  The  armistice 
expired  in  the  November  following  ;  and  Mo- 
reau, on  the  3d  of  December,  gained  the  deci- 
sive victory  of  Hohenlinden.  By  a  turn  of 
circumstances  Moreau  is  found  in  1313  in  alli- 
ance with  Bernadotte,  his  early  companion  in 
arms,  who  commanded  the  army  of  the  north  in 
Germany  against  Napoleon.  On  the  28th  of 


August,  Napoleon  came  out  of  Dresden  with 
130,000  men  to  attack  the  allies,  having  de- 
tached a  force,  under  Vandaziane,  to  seize  the 
passes  in  their  rear.  In  the  assault  on  the  pre- 
ceding day,  Napoleon  observed  Moreau  con- 
versing with  the  emperor  Alexander  and  some 
other  officers.  Turning  to  a  cannoneer,  and 
pointing  out  the  object  of  his  displeasure,  he 
said  :  "  Send  a  dozen  balls  upon  that  man  !" 
The  officers  obeyed.  A  ball  struck  Moreau, 
shattering  both  his  legs  and  tearing  open  the 
belly  of  his  horse.  He  bore  the  amputation  of 
both  limbs  with  great  firmness,  and  was  carried 
in  a  litter,  formed  by  the  lances  of  the  Cossacks 
to  Toplite,  where  he  expired. 

MORGAN,  Daniel,  a  revolutionary  officer, 
was  born  in  New  J9rsey,  but  removed  to  Vir- 
ginia in  1755.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  His  riflemen  rendered  themselves 
formidable  to  the  British  throughout  the  strug- 
gle. Morgan  died  in  1799. 

MOROCCO,  a  large  kingdom  of  Africa,  and 
the  chief  of  the  Barbary  states.  Population, 
6,000,000.  It  was  formerly  called  Mauritania, 
and  was  then  occupied  by  a  hardy  Nomadic 
race.  It  afterwards  yielded  to  the  Saracens; 
and,  in  the  eleventh  century,  a  chief  of  Laini- 
tuna  assumed  the  character  of  a  reformer  of 
the  Mahometan  religion,  and  assembled  all  the 
neighboring  tribes  under  his  standard.  His  fol- 
lowers, called  Almoravides,  conquered  Morocco, 
and  even  Barbary  and  Spain,  thus  establishing 
a  vast  empire  entitled  that  of  Mohgreb,  or  the 
West.  In  the  following  century  they  were 
supplanted  by  the  Almohades  ;  and  in  1557,  an 
Arabian  chief,  one  of  the  descendants  of  Maho- 
met, ascended  the  throne,  which  his  posterity 
have  since  occupied. 

MORTON,  (Earl  of),  was  a  chief  actor  in 
the  transactions  of  the  reign  of  Mary,  and  in 
the  minority  of  James  VI  of  Scotland.  He 
joined  in  the  murder  of  Rizzio,  and  after  the 
death  of  King  Darnley  assisted  to  expel  Mary 
from  the  throne.  In  1572  he  was  elected  Re- 
gent, and  in  15S1  he  was  beheaded  at  Edin- 
burT. 

MORTON,  John,  born  in  Pennsylvania;  in 
the  congress  of  177G  he  gave  the  casting  vote 
in  the  Pennsylvania  delegation  in  favor  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  and  signed  the 
document.  He  died  in  1777. 

MORRIS,  Gouverneur.  was  born  at  Morris- 
ania  in  New  York,  Jan.  31,  1752.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  college  in  the  city  of  New  York  in 
his  sixteenth  year,  and  immediately  commenced 
the  study  of  law.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


MOR 


350 


MOS 


Assumed  his  pen  and  commenced  his  careef  as 
a  political  writer.  Mr.  Morris,  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  first  provincial  congress.  lie 
was  twice  elected  a  member  of  congress  by  the 
legislature  of  N.  York.  In  1780  he  established 
himself  in  I'hiladelphia  in  the  practice  of  the 
law.  In  this  year,  he  was  thrown  from  his  car- 
riage, and  his  leg  was  so  severely  injured  that 
it  was  necessary  to  perform  amputation,  an  op- 
eration which  he  bore  with  great  fortitude.  In 
1781  he  was  appointed  assistant  financier,  and 
performed  the  duties  of  his  office  with  ability 
for  three  years.  He  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention which  met  in  1787  for  the  purpose  of 
framing  a  constitution  for  the  United  States.  In 
1790,  Sir.  Morris,  being  then  in  France,  re- 
ceived credentials  from  General  Washington 
as  a  private  agent  for.  transacting  important 
business  with  the  British  ministry.  lie  pro- 
ceeded to  London  but  soon  returned  to  Paris 
without  having  effected  anything.  He  returned 
to  America  in  1798.  Here  he  served  some 
years  in  the  senate  of  the  United  States.  He 
married  in  1800,  a  daugher  of  Thomas  Randolph 
of  Virginia,  and  died  Nov.  6th,  1816,  aged  65. 

Mr.  Sparks,  in  his  interesting  life  of  Morris, 
thus  delineates  his  moral  qualities :  His  acute 
powers  of  mind,  a  thorough  consciousness  of 
his  own  strength,  and  his  quick  sense  of  the 
ridiculous,  joined  to  a  lofty  independence  of 
thought,  often  betrayed  him  into  a  forwardness 
of  manner,  a  license  of  expression,  and  an  in- 
dulgence of  his  humor,  little  suited  to  soothe 
the  pride,  or  flatter  the  vanity,  or  foster  the 
self-love  of  those  about  him.  He  might  dazzle 
by  his  genius,  surprise  by  his  novel  flights  of 
fancy,  amuse  by  his  wit,  and  confound  by  his 
arguments,  and  thus  extort  the  tribute  of  admi- 
ration, but  fail  in  gaining  the  willing  applause 
of  love.  No  man  was  better  acquainted  with 
the  forms  and  etiquette  of  society,  none  had 
moved  more  widely  in  the  circles  of  fashion  and 
rank,  or  examined  with  a  keener  scrutiny  the 
deep  fountains  of  the  human  pHs.nions,  or  knew 
better  how  to  touch  the  spring  of  men's  mo- 
tives, yet  this  rare  intuition,  this  more  rare  ex- 
perience, and  this  great  knowledge,  did  little 
towaids  modifying  the  tendencies  of  his  nature, 
or  diverting  the  lirst  bent  of  his  mind.  He  was 
sometimes  overbearing  in  conveisalion.  At 
any  rate,  when  he  spoke  he  expected  to  bo  heard. 
There  is  an  anecdote  illustrative  of  this  point. 
At  abttokfaat-table,  he  W;IH  In  el'ine  cunversatron 
with  a  gentleman,  to  v.'hos:-  harangue  he  had 
listened  patiently,  till  it  was  his  turn  to  reply. 


He  began  accordingly,  but  the  gentleman  was 
inattentive,  and  a  bad  listener.  "  Sir,"  said 
Mr.  Morris,  "  if  you  will  not  listen  to  my  argu- 
ment, I  will  address  myself  to  the  teapot,"  and 
went  on  with  much  animation  of  tone  and  ges- 
ture, till  he  had  finished  his  replication. 

But  this  defect,  after  all,  was  only  a  spot  on 
the  surface.  *****Justice,  truth,  charity,  honor, 
held  an  uncontrolled  empire  in  his  soul,  and 
never  lost  their  influence  or  authority. 

MOSCOW,  an  extensive  city  of  Russia  in 
Europe,  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  12th  cen- 
ftiry.  Present  population.  246,545.  In  1382 
it  was  besieged  by  Tamerlane,  and  it  soon  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Tartars,  who  again  attack- 
ed it  in  1571.  They  burnt  the  city;  but  it  was 
afterwards  rebuilt,  and  was  for  a  century  and 
a  half  the  capital  of  the  empire,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  the  court  till  17GO. 

In  September,  1812,  the  memorable  confla- 
gration took  place,  by  which  three-fourths  of 
the  city  was  consumed.  The  general  plan  of 


the  campaign  in  the  war  with  the  French  was 

to  abandon  and  destroy  ; 

her,  when  the  French  continued  to  advance. 


id  destroy  ;  in  August  and  Septem- 


and  it  was  thought  impossible  to  check  their 
progress,  Count  Rostopchin  forewarned  the  in- 
habitants of  the  sacrifices  they  would  be  called 
on  to  make.  The  churches  and  the  treasury 
were  stripped  of  their  ornaments  ;  the  person's 
belonging  to  the  public  establishments  were  re- 
moved to  Kasan.  and  barks,  laden  with  corn, 
were  sunk  in  the  Moskva,  to  prevent  their  fall 
ing  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  The  decisive 
battle  of  Borodino  was  fought  on  the  8th  of  Sep- 
tember, about  70  niiles  from  Moscow,  and  the 
hospitals  were  soon  filled  with  wounded.  On 
the  news  of  the  retreat  of  the  Russian  army,  a 
general  movement  took  place  in  Moscow. 

On  the  13th  of  September  the  enemy  drew 
near,  and  the  mass  of  the  population  of  Moscow 
fled  into  the  surrounding  countrv.  On  tho  l-4!h 
the  French  entered  the  city,  and  that  night  a 
firo  broke  out.  which  was  soon  got  under.  On 
the  15th  fires  burst  forth  from  the  shoj-s;  and 
on  the  following  night  a  general  conflagration 
took  place,  explosions  in  different  places,  and 
fagots  thrown  from  towers,  showed  that  moans 
were  employed  to  spread  destruction  in  evory 
quarter.  Dining  the  next  day  smoke  rolled  in 
thick  clouds  over  the  town,  aiid  at  niy  lit  a  vast 
globe  of  flame  illuminated  the  atmosphere  se~- 
era!  loan-lies  round.  The  conflagration  was 
rapidly  spread  by  a  violent  wind,  the  building" 
fell  in  wills  a  tremendous  crash,  and  the  immense 
stones,  calcinud  and  blackened,  only  remained 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MUC 


351 


MUR 


to  denote  their  site.  The  French  sentinels 
were,  however,  unable  to  detect  the  incendiaries; 
several  stragglers  were  arrested,  tried,  and  shot, 
— but  all  the  men  taken  in  attempting  to  spread 
the  flames,  declared  they  had  acted  under  the 
direction  of  Rostopchin  and  the  director  of  po- 
lice. The  French  officers,  on  finding  it  imprac- 
ticable to  extinguish  the  flames,  authorized  a 
systematic  pillage.  The  plunder  was  immense  ; 
but  the  greater  part  was  abandoned  in  the  dis- 
astrous retreat.  The  fire  raged  till  the  1  9th : 
Bonaparte  now  remained  at  Moscow  a  month, 
in  the  hope  of  prevailing  on  the  Russians  to 
conclude  a  peace.  Baffled  in  this  attempt,  he 
quitted  the  city  on  the  18th  of  October.  The 
young  guard,  which  formed  the  garrison  left 
by  Bonaparte,  intrenched  itself  in  the  Kremlin  ; 
and,  having  undermined  part  of  the  walls  and 
interior  buildings,  blew  them  up  on  the  23d 
October,  the  day  of  the  final  evacuation.  The 
rebuilding  of  the  city  proceeded  but  slowly  till 
1814,  when  the  greatest  exertions  were  made  ; 
and  by  the  beginning  of  1818  the  new  city 
seemed  to  have  risen  from  the  ruins, — and  by 
the  end  of  that  year  the  whole  was  completed. 
—(See  Russia.) 

MOSES,  a  celebrated  legislator  and  general 
among  the  Jews,  well  known  in  sacred  history. 
He  was  born  in  Egypt  1571,  B.  C.,  he  conducted 
the  Israelites  through  the  Red  Sea,  and  gave 
them  laws  and  ordinances,  during  their  pere- 
grination of  40  years  in  the  wilderness  of  Arabia. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  120. 

MOULTRIE,  William,  major-general  in  our 
revolution,  came  to  South  Carolina  from  England 
at  an  early  age.  He  served  against  the  Indians 
prior  to  1775,  and.  during  the  revolution  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Charleston,  Beaufort, 
Stono,  and  Sullivan's  island,  the  fort  of  which 
was  named  after  him.  He  died  at  Charleston, 
Sept.  27.  1805. 

MUCl'US,  ScsDvola,  (the  left-handed),  Caius 
Mucius  Cordus.  When  Porsenna,  king  of 
Etruria,  had  besieged  Rome  to  reinstate  Tar- 
quin  in  all  his  rights  and  privileges,  Mucius 
determined  to  deliver  his  country  from  so  dan- 
gerous an  enemy.  He  disguised  himself  in  the 
habit  of  a  Tuscan,  and  as  he  could  speak  the 
language  fluently,  he  gained  an  easy  introduc- 
tion into  the  camp,  and  soon  into  the  royal 
tent.  Porsenna  sat  alone  with  his  secretary 
when'  Mucius  entered.  The  Roman  rushed 
upon  the  secretary  and  stabbed  him  to  the 
heart,  mistaking  him  for  his  royal  master.  This 
occasioned  a  noise,  and  Mucius,  unable  to  es- 
cape, was  seized  and  brought  before  the  king. 


He  gave  no  answer  to  the  inquiries  of  the 
courtiers,  and  only  told  them  that  he  was  a  Ro- 
man, and  to  give  them  a  proof  of  his  fortitude, 
he  laid  his  right  hand  on  an  altar  of  burning 
coals,  and  sternly  looking  at  the  king,  and  with- 
out utterino-  a  groan,  he  boldly  told  him,  that 
300  young  Romans  like  himself,  had  conspired 
against  his  life,  and  entered  the  camp  in  dis- 
guise, determined  either  to  destroy  him  or  per- 
ish in  the  attempt.  This  extraordinary  confes- 
sion astonished  Porsenna;  he  made  peace  with 
the  Romans  and  retired  from  their  city.  Mu- 
cius obtained  the  surname  of  Scccvola,  because 
he  had  lost  the  use  of  his  right  hand  by  burning 
it  in  the  presence  of  the  Etrurian  king. 

MUNICH,  the  capital  of  Bavaria,  contains 
80,000  inhabitants.  It  surrendered  to  the  Swedes 
and  German  Protestants,  under  Gustavus  Adol 
phus,  in  1632;  in  1704,  it  fell  into  the  hands  ot 
the  Austrian*.  In  1741  it  shared  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  war,  and  in  1796,  the  French  army  under 
Moreau,  obliged  the  elector  to  make  a  separate 
treaty.  In  1800  Moreau  again  occupied  Bava- 
ria, and  secured  his  superiority  by  the  victor}' 
of  Hohenlinden ;  and  from  that  time,  to  1813, 
Bavaria  remained  in  alliance  with  the  French. 

MURAT,  an  officer  of  Napoleon's  army,  cre- 
ated grand  duke  of  Berg  and  Cleves  in  1806,  was 
the  son  of  a  pastry-cook,  and  was  born  at  Achers 
in  1771.  At  a  very  early  age  he  was  a  fine 
horseman,  and  fond  of  military  exercises.  It  is 
not  surprising,  therefore,  that  he  escaped  from 
the  convent  where  he  was  placed  to  study  the- 
ology, and  enlisted  in  a  regiment  of  dragoons. 
His  merit  raised  him  from  the  ranks  and  he 
fought  under  Napoleon  throughout  his  career. 
On  the  elevation  of  Joseph  to  the  Spanish  throne, 
in  180'J,  Bonaparte  transferred  the  crown  of 
Naples  to  Murat,  his  brother-in-law.  In  Dec. 
1812,  Murat  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  French  army  at  Wilna,  after  their  mem- 
orable but  ill-fated  retreat  from  Moscow.  In 
1814  Murat  joined  the  alliance  against  France 
by  opening  his  ports  to  the  English,  and  engag- 
ing to  assist  Austria  with  an  army  of  30,000 
men.  In  1815  Murat,  by  an  enterprise  against 
the  Austrians  in  Italy,  had  lost  the  crown  of 
Naples.  When  the  expedition  from  Elba  reach- 
ed France,  he  assembled  his  cabinet,  and  de- 
clared his  resolution  to  support  the  allies;  but 
on  learning  that  Bonaparte  had  entered  Lyons, 
he  demanded  leave  of  the  pope  to  march  a  force 
through  his  territories.  Pius  the  VII  refused : 
on  which  two  Neapolitan  divisions  penetrated 
to  Rome,  and  his  holiness,  hastily  retiring, 
placed  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  Eng- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


MUR 


352 


NAM 


lish  at  Genoa.  Murat  himself  advanced  to  An- 
cona,  and  his  army  marched  in  four  columns 
on  the  routes  of  Bologna,  Modena,  Reggio,  and 
Ferrara,  while  a  fifth  division  drove  the  Austrian 
ganisons  from  Cesena  and"Rhnini.  Harassnd 
on  all  sides  ay  the  British  and  Austrian  forces, 
and  having  in  vain  solicited  an  armistice,  he 
attacked  Bianchi,  -near  Tole'htino.  in  which 
contest  his  army  was  to^lly  rjiined.  After  a 
disastrous  retreat  of  ten  days,  he  found,  on 
approaching  Naples,  that  the  inhabitants  had 
declared  for  the  King  of  Sicily  wherever  the 
Austrians  appeared  ;  that  Colonel  Church  was 
raising  against  him-an  army  of  his  late  subjects ; 
and  that  every  thing,  in  short,  was  going  against 
him.  Leaving  his  followers,  who  were  now 
reduced  to  4000  men,  he  hastened  to  Naples,  and 
arrived  at  the  palace,  exhausted  with  fatigue. 
He  escaped  in  disguise  with  a  few  adherents  to 
the  Isle  of  Ischia,  and  embarking  thence  for 
France,  landed  on  the  25th  of  May  at  Cannes. 
Murat,  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  made  his 
retreat  in  an  open  boat  to  Corsica.  In  Septem- 
ber, proposals  were  made  to  Joachim,  that  he 
should  assume  the  name  of  a  private  person, 
that  he  should  choose  his  abode  either  in  Bohe- 
mia, Moravia,  or  Upper  Austria ;  and  that  he 
should  engage  not  to  quit  those  states  without 
the  consent  of  the  emperor.  He  rejected  this 
overture,  and  undertook,  in  imitation  of  Bona- 
parte, an  expedition  for  the  recovery  of  his 
kingdom.  When  he  landed  at  Pizzo  on  the  8th 
of  October,  he  could  only  muster  about  30  offi- 
cers. Thus  disappointed  he  proceeded  to  Mon- 
teleone.  He  was  overtaken  half-way  by  a  very 
strong  party,  and  after  fighting  d'espYrately, 
broke  through  his  pursuers,  and  hastened  to  the 
beach,  where  he  was  seized  and  conveyed  be- 
fore General  Nanziante  the  commandant  of  Ca- 
labria. On  the  15th,  pursuant  to  orders  from 
Naples,  he  was  tried  by  court-martial,  and  found 
guilty  of  having  attempted  to  excite  rebellion 
and  civil  war;  sentence  of  death  was  pronounced 
upon  him,  and  executed  on  the  same  day. 

MURRAY,  Alexander,  was  born  at  Chester- 
town,  Maryland,  in  1755.  At  the  age  of  Id  he 
commanded  a  merchant-vessel.  At  21  he  was 
appointed  a  lieutenant  in  the  navy,  but  fought 
on  shore,  until  he  could  obtain  a  vessel.  He 
commanded  several  letters  of  marque  during 
the  revolutionary  struggle,  and  served  some 
time  under  Barry.  When  in  command  of  the 
Constellation  he  beat  off  some  Tripolitan  gun- 
boats with  great  spirit  and  success.  His  last 
appointment  was  to  the  post  of  commandant 
of  the  navy-yard  at  Philadelphia.  Pie  died, 
Oct.  0,  Ib21. 


MURRAY,  (Earl  of),  was  the  natural  son 
of  James  V,  King  of  Scotland.  He  was  a  pow- 
erful supporter  of  the  reformation.  After  the 
return  of  Mary  from  France,  he  administered 
her  affairs  until  her  marriage  with  Darnley, 
which  he  opposed  by  force  of  arms,  and  was 
obliged  to  flee  into  England.  After  the  murder 
of  Rizzio.  he  was  again  restored  to  favor.  He 
went  abroad  to  France  on  the  murder  of  Darn- 
ley  in  t56(>.  and  returned  on  being  elected  re- 
gent by  his  party.  This  election  was  confirmed 
by  parliament,  and  he  soon  established  his  au- 
thority. Mary,  escaping  from  Lochleven  Cas- 
tle, collected  her  friends,  who  were  defeated  at 
Langside,  near  Glasgow,  and  she  was  compelled 
to  flee  into  England  in  1508.  He  was  support- 
ed by  the  alliance  of  queen  Elizabeth.  In  ]5t>9, 
.  he  was  murdered  by  Hamilton,  a  partisan  of 
'  Mary,  whose  life  he  had  spared.  He  dispensed 
justice  with  so  much  impartiality,  repressed  the 
licentious  borderers  with  so  much  courage, 
maintained  religion,  and  established  such  order 
and  tranquillity  in  the  country,  that  his  admin- 
istration was  extremely  popular,  and  he  was 
long  and  affectionately  remembered  by  the  name 
of  the  "  Good  Regent." 

N. 

NADIR  SHAH,  (see  Persia.} 

NAMUR,  a  province  of  Belgium.  The  soil 
is  remarkably  fertile,  and  the  earth  yields  many 
valuable  minerals.  The  city  of  Namur,  the  cap- 
ital, is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  !*ambre 
and  Meuse,  28  miles  from  Brussels,  and  con- 
tains 1!U50  inhabitants.  In  1692,  the  strength 
of  the  place  being  discovered  to  the  French  by 
the  treacherous  Baron  de  Bresse,  who,  undei 
pretence  of  being  taken,  deserted  the  Spanish 
service.  Louis  XIV,  with  80.000  men  besieged 
it :  the  town  was  taken  after  a  few  days  resist- 
ance. While  the  French  continued  t<>  Ix'sieoi? 
the  castle,  King  William  III,  of  Great  Britain, 
marched,  with  100,000  men  to  its  relief:  but 
the  French,  being  advantageously  posted,  de- 
clined battle.  His  majesty,  however,  drove 
them  from  their  posts,  and  attempted  to  pass  the 
river  by  means  of  bridges  ;  but,  in  the  mean 
time,  a  great  rain  swelled  the  river,  carried 
down  the  bridges,  prevented  his  attacking  them, 
and  gave  them  an  opportunity  to  take  the  cas- 
tle, which  made  but  a  feeble  defence  :  the  great- 
est loss  of  the  French  was  at  Coehorn  Fort, 
which  was  valiantly  defended  by  Colonel  Coe- 
horn, its  founder  and  governor,  who  was  danger- 
ously wounded.  The  fort  was  surrendered,  and 
the  castle  not  long  after,  but  were  retaken  1695. 


HISTORICAL    AND  BI  OGR  AP  HIC  AL. 


NAP 


353 


NAP 


tlantic. 
exten- 
t.  In 


NAN-KING,  or  Nankin,  or  Kiang-ning,  a 
Chinese  city,  capital  of  Kiang-nan,  500  miles  S. 
E.  of  Peking.  It  was  formerly  the  imperial 
city,  and  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  being 
12  leagues  in  circuit.  In  1645  its  magnificent 

falace  was  destroyed  by  the  Mantchou  Tartars, 
ts  principal  ornament,  the  celebrated  porcelain 
tower,  was  built  1411,  A.  D. 

NANTES,  a  city  of  France,  c 
department  of  the  Lower  Loire,  pie 
uated  on  the  Loire,  2(3  miles  from  the. 
Population  71,739.  Its  manufactur 
sive,  and  its  public  institutions  im_ 
history  it  is  celebrated  for  the  act  called  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  which  was  passed^by  Henry 
IV,  by  which  the  Protestants  enjoyed  toleration 
in  France,  1598.  It  was  revoked  by  Louis  XIV 
in  IGdo ;  by  which  bad  policy  50,000  French 
Protestants  were  induced  to  quit  France,  and 
seek  refuge  in  England. 

NAPLES,  the  capital  and  royal  residence  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  in  Terra  di  La voro,  containing 
3(31,754  inhabitants,  is  charmingly  situated  on 
the  brink  of  the  most  beautiful  bay  in  the  world, 
a  scene  on  which  is  thus  eloquently  described 
by  a  recent  traveller. 

It  is  evening  and  scarcely  a  breeze  ruffles  the 
bosom  of  the  beautiful  bay,  which  resembles  a 
mirror  reflecting  on  its  glassy  surface  the  bright 
sky  and  the  thousand  glittering  stars  with  which 
it  isstudded.  Naples,  with  its  white  colonnades, 
seen  amidst  the  dark  foliage  of  its  terraced  gar- 
dens, rises  like  an  amphitheatre  ;  lights  stream 
from  the  windows,  and  fall  over  the  sea  beneath 
like  columns  of  gold.  The  castle  of  St.  Elmo 
crowning  the  centre  ;  Vesuvius,  like  a  sleeping 
giant  in  grim  repose,  whose  awaking  all  dread, 
is  to  the  left ;  and  to  the  right  are  the  vine- 
crowned  heights  of  beautiful  Varmero,  with 
their  palaces  and  villas  peeping  forth  from  the 
groves  that  surround  them  ;  while  rising  above 
it,  the  convent  of  Camaldoli  lifts  its  head  to  the 
skies. 

Resina.  Portici,  Castel-a-Mare,  and  the  lovely 
shores  of  Sorrento,  reach  out  from  Vesuvius,  as 
if  they  tried  to  embrace  the  isle  of  Capri,  which 
forms  the  central  object;  and  Pausihppo  and 
Misenum,  which  in  the  distance  seemed  joined 
to  Procidaand  Ischia,  advance  to  meet  the  beau- 
tiful island  on  the  right.  The  air  as  it  leaves 
the  shore,  is  laden  with  fragrance  from  the 
orange-trees  and  jasmine,  so  abundant  round 
Naples ;  and  the  soft  music  of  the  guitar,  or 
lively  sound  of  the  tambourine,  marking  the 
brisk  movements  of  the  tarantella,  steals  on  the 
ear.  But  hark  !  a  rich  stream  of  music,  silenc- 


ing  all  other,  is  heard,  and  a  golden  barge  ad- 
vances; the  oars  keep  time  to  the  music,  and 
each  stroke  of  them  sends  forth  a  silvery  light ; 
numerous  lamps  attached  to  the  boat,  gives  itat 
a  little  distance*,  th?  appearance  of  a  vast  shell 
of  topaz  floating  on  a  sea  of  sapphire.  Nearer 
and  nearer  draws  this,  splendid  pageant,  the 
music  falls  more  distinctly- on  the  charmed  ear 
— and  one  sees  .that' its  dulcet  sounds  are  pro- 
duced by  a  band  of  glittering  musicians  clothed 
in  royal  liveries. 

This  illuminated  barge  is  followedby  another, 
with  a  silken  canopy  overhead,  and  the  curtains 
drawn  back  to  admit  the  balmy  air.  Cleopatra, 
when  she  sailed  down  the  Cydnus,  boasted  not 
a  more  beautiful  vessel ;  and,  as  it  glides  over 
the  sea,  it  seems  impelled  by  the  music  which 
precedes  it,  so  perfectly  does  it  keep  time  to  its 
enchanting  sounds,  leaving  a  bright  trace  be- 
hind, like  the  memory  of  departed  happiness. 
But  who  is  he  that  guides  this  beauteous  bark  ? 
His  tall  and  slight  figure  is  curved,  and  his 
snowy  locks,  falling  over  ruddy  cheeks,  show 
that  age  has  bent,  but  not  broken  him  :  he  looks 
like  one  born  to  command — a  hoary  Neptune 
steering  over  his  native  element — all  eyes  are 
fixed  on  him,  but  his  follow  the  glittering  barge 
that  precedes  him.  And  who  is  she  that  has 
the  seat  of  honor  at  his  side  ?  Her  fair,  large, 
and  unmeaning  face  wears  a  placid  smile  ;  and 
those  light  blue  eyes  and  fair  ringlets  speak  her 
of  another  land ;  her  lips,  too,  want  the  fine 
chiseling  which  marks  those  of  the  sunny  clime 
of  Italy  ;  and  the  expression  of  her  countenance 
has  more  in  it  of  earth  than  heaven.  Innume- 
rable boats,  filled  with  lords  and  ladies,  follow, 
but  intrude  not  on  the  privacy  of  this  regal  bark, 
which  passes  before  us  like  the  visions  in  a 
dream.  He  who  steered  was  Ferdinand,  king 
of  the  two  Sicilies ;  and  she  who  sat  beside  him 
was  Maria-Louisa,  ex-empress  of  France. 

The  climate  of  Naples  is  delightful,  and  such 
of  the  lazzaroni  as  are  unable  to  procure  shelter 
experience  no  painful  results  from  sleeping  in 
the  open  air.  The  nobles  are  opulent  and  lux- 
urious, and  a  love  of  pleasure  pervades  alike  all 
classes.  The  necessaries  of  life  are  easily  ob- 
tained, and  the  poor  lazzaroni,  of  whom  there 
are  30,000,  lay  by  enough  money  to  enable  them 
to  witness  the  cheap  amusements  of  their  city. 
During  the  government  of  Pandulph  II,  as 
Prince  of  Benevento,  A.D.  1003,  the" Normans 
first  arrived  in  Italy,  and  established  themselves 
in  this  country  ;  Landulph  V,  the  son  of  Pan- 
dulph,  was  expelled  from  the  government  by 
Richard  I,  the  Norman  Count  of  Aversa,  whi> 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


NAP 


354 


NAP 


caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Prince  of  Ben- 
evenlo.  Thus  the  dominion  of  the  Lombards 
in  this  principality  terminated  in  A.  D.  1059. — 
Richard  was  succeeded  in  the  government  of 
Benevento  by  Jordanus,  Richard  II,  Robert, 
Richard  III,  Jordanus  II,  Robert  II,  and  Roger, 
who  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and  obtained  the 
investiture  of  the  dukedom  of  Naples.  Some 
years  after,  Roger  having  taken  Pope  Innocent 
prisoner,  obliged  his  holiness  to  confirm  to  him 
the  title  of  king. 

To  him  succeeded  William  in  1154,  William 
II  in  11U6,  Tancred,  Count  of  Lecce,  in  1190, 
Frederick  in  1208,  who  enlarged  and  embel- 
lished the  city  of  Naples,  which  he  made  the 
chief  place  of  his  residence ;  and  Conrad  in  1250. 
Four  years  after  Conrad  died,  and  was  succeed- 
ed by  Conradin,  whose  army  was  attacked  and 
dispersed  by  Manfred.  In  1253  Manfred  as- 
sumed the  crown  of  Sicily  ;  and  in  1206  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  the  army  of  Charles  of 
Anjou,  on  whom  Pope  Urban  had  conferred  the 
title  of  king..  Soon  after  Conradin  laid  claim 
to  Sicily,  and  marched  with  an  army  into  Italy, 
but  was  entirely  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by 
Charles,  who  caused  him  and  the  Duke  of  Aus- 
tria to  be  publicly  beheaded  upon  a  scaffold  in 
the  market-place  of  Naples,  A.  D.  1269. 

Charles,  by  his  arbitrary  and  oppressive  gov- 
ernment, so  entirely  lost  the  affections  of  the 
Sicilians,  that  they  offered  their  allegiance  to 
Peter,  king  of  Arragon,  who  was  soon  after 
crowned  at  Palermo,  and  from  this  period  the 
history  of  Naples  is  one  unvaried  and  uninter- 
esting detail  of  similar  scenes  of  war  and  inva- 
sion, during  nearly  the  space  of  two  hundred 
years. 

At  length,  after  a  long  separation,  Alphonso 
of  Arragon  united  both  Sicily  and  Naples  under 
his  dominion.  Upon  the  death  of  Ferdinand, 
Charles  V  succeeded  to  Naples,  as  well  as  to 
the  rest  of  the  Spanish  monarchy.  During  his 
reign,  and  that  of  his  successors  Philip  II, 
Philip  III,  and  Philip  IV,  this  country  was 
governed  by  the  Viceroys  of  Spain,  and  suffered 
greatly  from  their  oppression.  On  the  death  of 
Philip  IV,  A.  1).  16(54,  Charles  II  succeeded  to 
the  crown  of  Spain,  and  adopted  Philip  of  An- 
jou, afterwards  Philip  V,  as  the  heir  of  all  his 
dominions. 

In  17(11)  Philip  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  Na- 
ples and  Sicily ;  but  his  title  was  opposed  by 
the  house  of  Austria,  and  a  conspiracy  procured 
the  government  of  Naples  for  Charles  II,  son 
of  the  emperor  Leopold.  However,  by  the  con- 
ditions of  the  general  peace,  Naples  again  owned 


the  sway  of  Philip  in  1719;  hut  Sicily  was  given 
to  the  duke  of  Savoy.  Some  years  after,  the 
emperor, Charles  VI.  again  seized  upon  Naples, 
and  by  cession  obtained  also  Sicily.  He  con- 
tinued to  reign  over  them  for  seven"  1  years,  till 
Don  Carlos,  being  vested  with  the  rights  of  his 
father,  who  was  yet  alive,  conquered  these  two 
kingdoms  in  1734.  and  fixed  the  seat  of  his  gov- 
ernment among  his  subjects. 

Don  Cailos  changed  the  face  of  his  kingdoms, 
which,  on  his  taking  possession  of  the  crown  of 
Spain,  he  left  in  a  flourishing  condition  to  his 
son  Ferdinand  IV,  in  1759. 

In  1767  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  Na- 
ples, and  were  all  conveyed  into  the  pope's  do- 
minions, the  vicinity  of  "whose  territories  ren- 
dered every  scheme  of  opposition  fruitless. 
During  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  French, 
after  some  immaterial  hostilities,  a  suspension 
of  arms  was  agreed  to  between  the  king  of  Na- 
ples and  the  republican  commander  in  17U6 ; 
and  soon  after  a  peace  was  concluded  between 
the  two  powers.  Naples  being  required  to  pay  a 
sum  of  eight  millions,  either  in  money  or  in  na- 
val stores. 

In  17C8  the  king  of  Naples  commenced  hos- 
tilities against  the  French,  attacked  the  new 
Roman  republic,  and  entered  Rome  in  triumph ; 
but,  in  the  year  following,  he  was  obliged  to 
conclude  an 'armistice  with  the  enemy  on  very- 
hard  conditions. '  Naples  was  reduced  under  the 
power  of  the  French  in  1799,  who  constituted  it 
a  republic,  and  established  a  provisionary  gov- 
ernment. However,  a  few  months  afterwards, 
the  great  successes  of  the  Austro-llussian  army 
forced  the  French  to  evacuate  Naples  ;  and,  by 
the  aid  of  the  English,  the  king  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  who  had  hoisted  his  flag  on  board  the 
Foudrovant,  the  English  admiral's  ship,  was  en- 
abled to  return  once  more  to  his  capital.  But 
the  victory  of  Bonaparte  at  Marengo,  and  the 
conditions  of  the  treaty  of  Luneville  gave  the 
French  a  great  ascendency  in  Italy. 

In  1805  Bonaparte  issued  a  proclamation,  de- 
claring that  the  Neapolitan  dynasty  had  ceased 
to  reign,  and  ordered  his  troops  to  subject  the 
whole  of  Italy  to  his  laws  or  those  of  his  allies. 
In  consequence  of  this,  a  French  army,  under 
the  command  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  entered  Na- 
ples, and  occupied  all  the  principal  fortresses  in 
the  kingdom.  The  king  of  Naples  and  the 
royal  family  were  obliged  to  seek  an  asylum  in 
Sicily.  Under  the  prince  of  Hesse,  (iaeta  made 
a  lonir  and  memorable  defence  against  the 
FrencTi  troops;  and  was  taken  only  in  conse- 
quence of  that  commander  being  badly  wound- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


NAP 


355 


NAP 


ed,  and  some  of  his  officers  proving  treacherous. 
On  the  translation  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  to  the 
throne  of  Spain,  in  1808,  Joachim  Murat,  who 
had  married  a  sister  of  Napoleon,  was  nominat- 
ed to  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

After  an  extraordinary  career,  in  which  some 
of  the  martial  talents  and  vigor  of  Murat  were 
displayed,  but  were  ill  seconded  by  his  troops, 
Naples  was  invested  by  land,  whilst  an  English 
naval  force  entered  its  port,  and  compelled  a 
surrender  of  the  ships  and  arsenal.  The  Nea- 
politan commanders,  and  those  of  Austria  and 
England,  signed  a  convention,  of  which  the 
prominent  feature  was  the  abdication  of  Joa- 
chim. Naples  was  occupied  by  the  allies,  who 
were  joined  by  an  armament  of  English  and 
Sicilians  ;  and  Ferdinand  IV,  king  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  after  an  absence  of  nine  years,  was  re- 
stored in  1815. 

Naples  has  suffered,  at  different  periods,  from 
earthquakes  and  eruptions  of  Vesuvius. 

NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE,  one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  characters  recorded  in  his- 
tory, and  distinguished  alike  for  his  extraordi- 
nary fortunes,  his  civil  talents,  and  his  military 
genius,  was  one  of  the  numerous  family  of  an 
advocate  of  Ajaccio,  in  Corsica,  and  was  born 
there  August  15,  17(59.  After  receiving  the 
rudiments  of  a  classical  education,  he  entered 
the  military  school  at  Brienne  where  he  was 
distinguished  by  the  gravity  of  his  character, 
and  his  sedulous  study  of  the  mathematics. 
Even  his  sports  partook  of  his  graver. pursuits, 
and  we  are  told  that  he  was  successful  in  the 
little  military  operations  which  he  undertook. 
On  the  occurrence  of  a  day  which  was  com- 
monly considered  a  holiday,  Bonaparte's  in- 
structers  confined  him  and  his  companions  to 
the  school-grounds.  The  young  engineer  con- 
structed a  mine  with  great  ingenuity ,  which,  in 
exploding,  blew  down  the  walls  and  enabled  the 
juvenile  rebels  to  escape.  When  he  could  en- 
list no  y(>un<j  recruits  in  his  mimic  army,  Na- 
poleon would  use  flints  as  substitutes  for  sol- 
diers, and  marshal  them  with  great  care.  A  boy 
who  disturbed  his  array  was  severely  punished 
by  Napoleon.  Many  years  after  when  the  im- 
perial diadem  was  on  his  head,  Napoleon  was 
informed  that  one  of  his  old  schoolmates  desired 
an  interview.  This  gentleman  assured  the 
chamberlain  that  the  emperor  would  recollect 
him  if  he  mentioned  that  there  was  a  deep  scar 
on  his  forehead.  When  the  emperor  was  in- 
formed of  this,  he  said, i(  I  do  not  forget  how  he 
got  that  scar — I  threw  a  general  at  his  head  at 
Brienne." 


At  sixteen  he  received  the  commission  of 
second  lieutenant  in  the  regiment  of  Lafere, 
which  he  joined  at  Valence.  At  ^0  he  was  pro- 
moted to  a  captaincy,  and  in  December,  1793 
obtained  the  command  of  the  artillery  in  the  at- 
tack on  Toulon,  then  occupied  by  the  English, 
and  contributed  by  the  originality  of  his  plans 
to  the  success  of  their  operations.  In  1794  he 
was  commandant  of  the  artillery  in  the  army  of 
Italy,  and  so  much  distinguished  himself,  that 
in  May  1795,  he  was  made  general  of  infantry. 
In  1795  when  some  of  the  sections  of  Paris  rose 
in  insurrection  against  the  convention,  the  com- 
mand of  the  conventional  troops  was  entrusted 
to  him  and  he  gained  a  complete  victory.  He 
was  at  that  time  very  thin,  although  distin- 
guished for  corpulency  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
life.  On  one  occasion  he  gained  a  bloodless 
victory  over,  the  rabble  whose  exertions  were 
stimulated  by  a  very  lat  old  woman.  "  There," 
cried  she,  "  look  at  the  soldiers  !  they  're  the 
wretches  thatfatten  in  idleness  while  we  starve  " 
"  Look  at  her  and  look  at  me,"  said  Napoleon, 
"  and  tell  us  which  is  the  fattest."  This  raised 
a  laugh,  and  the  populace  dispersed  quietly. 
On  this,  as  on  many  other  occasions,  his  know 
ledge  of  human  nature  was  apparent.  In  his 
twenty-sixth  year,  Napoleon  was  appointed 
commander-in  chief  of  the  army  of  Italy,  and 
commenced  his  brilliant  operations  in  that  ca 
pacity,  in  April,  1796.  He  successively  defeat 
ed  the  Austrians  and  Piedmontese  at  Monte 
notte,  Millesimo,  Mondpvi,  and  Lodi  ;  forcing 
the  king  of  Sardinia  to  make  peace,  and  over- 
running Lombardy,  the  Venetian  States,  the 
States  of  the  Church,  and  Naples,  in  spite  of 
every  exertion  of  the  Austrians  and  their  allies, 
during  which  he  gained  a  series  of  brilliant  and 
decisive  victories,  and  compelled  Austria  in 
1797,  to  make  peace  at  Campo  Formio. 

In  1798  he  took  the  command  of  the  army 
destined  against  Egypt,  and  on  his  passnge  from 
Toulon,  captured  Malta.  He  afterwards  landed 
at  Alexandria,  and  overran  Egypt  and  Syria, 
every  where  victorious  except  at  Acre  ;  where, 


for  want  of  besieging  artillery,  he  was  repulsed 
by  Sir  Sydney  Smith.     In 
^ 


Oct.  1799,  the  mis- 

government  of  P^rance,  and  the  disasters  which 
had  befallen  the  French  troops,  induced  him  to 
return  ;  and  being  received  as  a  savior  by  the 
French  nation,  on  the  !>th  of  Nov.  he  effected  a 
revolution  in  Paris,  and  was  proclaimed  first 
consul  of  the  republic.  After  offers  of  peace  to 
the  confederates  which  were  rejected,  he  crossed 
the  Alps  with  an  army  of  recruits,  and  in  June 
1800,  gained  the  battle  of  Marengo  and  re-ac 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


NAP 


356 


NAP 


quired  possession  of  Italy.  A  general  peace 
was  the  consequence,  in  1802  he  was  elected 
consul  for  life,  and  in  May,  1804,  he  assumed 
the  title  of  Napoleon  I,  emperor  of  the  French, 
and  in  Dec.  2,  was  crowned  at  Paris  by  the 
Pope.  In  March,  1805,  he  was  declared  king 
of  Italy,  and  in  May  crowned  at  Milan.  He 
had  previously  established  his  military  order  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor  and  distributed  the  crosses 
which  were  the  distinguishing  badges.  '  Of  all 
to  whom  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor  was 
tendered,  Lafayette  alone  had  the  courage  to 
decline  it.  Napoleon,  either  from  want  of  true 
perception  of  moral  greatness,  or  because  the 
detestable  servility  of  returning  emigrants  had 
taught  him  to  think,  there  was  no  such  thing  as 
honor  or  independence  in  man,  exclaimed,  when 
they  told  him  that  Lafayette  refused  the  decora- 
tion, "  What,  will  nothing  satisfy  that  man,  but 
the  chief  command  of  the  National  Guard  of  the 
Empire  ?"  Yes,  much  less  abundantly  satisfied 
him ; — the  quiet  possession  of  the  poor  rem- 
nants of  his  estate,  enjoyed  without  sacrificing 
his  principles.' 

In  September,  1805,  the  confederacy  of  Eu- 
ropean powers  being  renewed,  he  invaded  Ger- 
many, and  at  Ulm  captured  30,000  Austrian*. 
In  November,  he  entered  Vienna,  and  on  Dec. 
2,  gained  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  over  the  em- 
perors of  Russia  and  Austria,  after  which  he 
concluded  peace  with  Austria,  created  the  elec- 
tors of  Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg  kings,  and 
made  his  elder  brother,  Joseph,  king  of  Naples. 
In  October,  1806,  he  invaded  Prussia,  and  on 
the  3d  of  that  month  gained  a  decisive  victory 
at  Jena  and  Auerstadt,  by  which  the  whole 
Prussian  monarchy,  and  Germany  to  the  Baltic, 
came  under  his  authority.  The  "  Man  of  Des- 
tiny "  had  now  filled  Europe  with  the  terror  of 
his  name,  the  bare  mention  of  which  shook  .the 
crowned  heads  of  the  oldest  monarchies  of  the 
continent  with  palsied  apprehension.  In  vain 
the  dagger,  the  mine,  and  the  bowl  had  been 
prepared  for  him.  His  star  had  not  yet  begun 
to  decline  from  the  zenith.  Napoleon  wa.s  ;il- 
most  miraculously  preserved  from  poison.  It  is 
well  known  that  he  was  an  inveterate  snuff- 
taker.  When  his  mind  was  deeply  engaged  his 
snuff-box  was  in  constant  requisition.  He  once 
left  his  apartment  for  a  few  moments,  and  re- 
turned to  tike  his  box  from  the  mantel-piece. 
He  thought  the  snuff  felt  somewhat  strangely. 
and  calling  to  a  dog.  that  was  lying  nearTiimj 
administered  a  pinch.  The  poor  animal  soon 
rolled  over  in  the  agonies  of  death  ;  and  Napo- 
leon thenceforth  kept  his  snuff  in  his  waistcoat 
pockets  which  he  had  sheathed  with  tin. 


November  20th,  he  promulgated  at  Berlin  the 
famous  decree  by  which  he  proposed  to  exclude 
the  trade  of  Britain  from  all  the  ports  of  the 
continent.  In  June,  1807,  having  overrun  Po- 
land, he  totally  defeated  the  emperor  of  Russia 
at  Eglan  and  Friedland,  after  which  an  inter- 
view took  place  between  them  on  a  raft  on  the 
Niemen,  followed  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit.  In 
November  of  that  year,  he  marched  an  army 
into  Lisbon,  driving  the  Portuguese  court  to  the 
Brazils  ;  and  on  December  1.  created  his  young- 
er brother  Jerome,  king  of  Westphalia.  On 
May  5, 1808,  was  concluded  the  treaty  by  which 
Charles  IV  ceded  to  the  emperor  all  his  rights 
in  the  crown  of  Spain.  Joseph,  brother  of" the 
emperor,  was  proclaimed  king  of  Spain,  on  the 
6th  of  June.  On  the  27th  of  September,  in  the 
same  vear,  Napoleon  had  an  amicable  interview 
with  the  emperor  of  Russia  at  Erfurt,  and  they 
jointly  proposed  peace  with  England ,  which  was 
rejected.  On  the  2!)th  of  October,  the  emperor 
departed  from  Paris  and  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  army  in  Spain,  the  right  wing  of 
which  pursued  Sir  John  Moore  to  Cornnna, 
while  he  inarched  to  Madrid  and  seated  his  bro- 
ther on  the  Spanish  throne ;  but  in  the  meantime, 
the  Austrians  took  the  field ;  Napoleon  hastened 
to  oppose  them,  and  gained  successive  victories 
at  Abensburg,  Eckmuhl,  and  Ratisbon.  On  the 
16th  of  December,  180!),  he  divorced  the  em 
press  Josephine,  and  on  the  2d  of  April.  1810, 
married  Maria  Louisa,  archduchess  of  Austria. 
The  20th  of  March,  1811,  was  signalized  by  the 
birtli  of  !iis  son  who  \\  us  crowned  king  of  Rome 

In  1812,  lie  assembled  a  great  army  in  Po- 
land, and  invaded  Russia,  and  having  at  the 
Borodino,  and  at  Moskwa,  gained  two  bloody 
victories,  he  entered  Moscow  on  the  14th  of 
September  ;  that  city,  having  been  afterwards 
burned  by  the  Russians,  became  untenable,  and 
the  French  retreated  for  winter  quarters  towards 
Poland,  but  an  early  and  unusual  frost  setting 
in  during  tlieir  march,  they  lost  their  horses, 
were  compelled  to  abandon  "their  artillery,  and 
three  li  urths  of  the  army  perished  or  were  made 
prisoners.  On  this  Napoleon  returned  to  Paris, 
and  Poland  and  Prussia  were  occupied  by  the 
Russians. 

In  April  1813,  Napoleon  again  took  the  field 
against  the  Prussians,  and  gained  the  victories 
of  Lutzen,  Bantzen,and  Wartzon  ;  but  the  Aus- 
trians and  Bavarians  joined  the  confederacy 
against  him.  and  he  was  attacked  at  Leip.-ic  by 
the  combined  armies  of  the  European  nations; 
being  forced  to  abandon  that  city  with  immense 
loss,'~and  retreat  to  Metz.  thereby  abandoning 
his  German  conquests.  In  1814,  the  confede 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


NAP 


357 


NAP 


rates  having  passed  the  Rhine,  penetrated,  after 
various  battles,  to  Paris,  which,  being  surren- 
dered by  marshals  Marmont  and  Mortier,  Na- 
poleon concluded  a  treaty  with  the  allies  at 
Fontaine bleau,  by  which  he  agreed  to  retire  to 
the  island  of  Elba,  with  provision  for  himself 
and  family. 

In  March,  1815,  Napoleon  embarked  with 
GOO  of  his  guards  and  made  a  sudden  descent  in 
Provence.  On  the  10th,  he  entered  Lyons,  on 
the  23th,  Paris  in  triumph.  His  banners  flew 
from  steeple  to  steeple,  until  they  finally  waved 
in  the  wind  from  the  pinnacles  of  Notre  Dame. 
On  the  1st  of  June,  he  held  the  meeting  in  the 
Champ  de  Mai,  and  soon  joined  the  army  on 
the  Belgian  frontier,  where  on  the  16th,  he  de- 
feated Blucher  at  Ligny  with  a  loss  of  22,000 
men.  On  the  18th,  was  fought  the  bloody  bat- 
tle of  Waterloo,  in  which  the  French  army  was 
completely  defeated.  The  following  account  of 
the  conduct  of  Napoleon  at  the  battle  of  Water- 
loo is  from  the  journal  of  a  French  officer. 

He  has  ruined  us — he  has  destroyed  France 
and  himself; — yet  I  love  him  still.  It  is  im- 
possible to  be  near  him  and  not  to  love  him  :  he 
has  so  much  greatness  of  soul — such  majesty  of 
manner.  He  bewitches  all  minds;  approach 
him  with  a  thousand  prejudices,  and  you  quit 
him  filled  with  admiration  :  but  then,  his  mad 
ambition  !  his  ruinous  infatuation  !  his  obstina- 
cy without  bounds  !  Besides,  he  was  wont  to 
set  every  tiling  upon  a  cast :  his  game  was  all 
or  nothing  I  Even  the  battle  of  Waterloo  might 
have  been  retrieved,  had  he  not  charged  with 
the  guard.  This  was  the  reserve  of  the  army, 
and  should  have  been  employed  in  covering  his 
retreat  instead  of  attacking,  but,  with  him, 
whenever  matters  looked  desperate,  he  resem- 
bled a  mad  dog.  He  harangues  the  guard — he 
puts  h'nnself  at  its  head — it  debouches  rapidly — 
it  rushes  upon  the  enemy.  We  are  mowed 
down  by  grape — we  waver. — turn  our  backs — 
and  the  rout  is  complete.  A  general  disorgani- 
zation of  the  army  ensues,  and  Napoleon,  re- 
turned to  himself,  is  cold  as  a  stone.  The  last 
time  I  saw  him  was  in  returning  from  the 
charge,  when  all  was  lost.  My  thigh  had  been 
broken  by  a  musket  shot  in  advancing,  and  I 
remained  in  the  rear,  extended  on  the  ground. 
Napoleon  passed  close  to  me ;  his  nose  was 
buried  in  his  snuff-box,  and  his  bridle  fell  loose- 
ly on  the  neck  of  his  horse,  which  was  pacing 
leisurely  along.  A  Scotch  regiment  was  ad- 
vancing at  the  charge  in  the  distance.  The 
Emperor  was  almost  alone.  Lallemande  only 
was  with  him.  The  latter  still  exclaimed, 


"  All  is  not  lost,  sire ;  all  is  not  lost ; — rally, 
soldiers  !  rally  !"  The  Emperor  replied  not  a 
word.  Lallemande  recognises  me  in  passing. 
"  What  ails  you,  Raoul !"  "  My  thigh  is  shat- 
tered by  a  musket  ball."  "  Poor  devil,  how  I 
pity  you  !  how  I  pity  you  !  Adieu — adieu !" 
The  emperor  said  not  a  word  ! 

"  When,  after  the  disaster  at  Waterloo,  Na- 
poleon came  back  in  desperation  to  Paris,  and 
began  to  scatter  dark  hints  of  dissolving  the 
representatives  Chamber,  repeating  at  Paris  the 
catastrophe  of  Moscow,  and  thereby  endeavor- 
ing to  rouse  the  people  of  France  to  one  univer- 
sal and  frantic  crusade  of  resistance,  Lafayette 
was  the  first  to  denounce  the  wild  suggestion. 
fie  proposed  a  series  of  resolutions,  announcing 
that  the  independence  of  the  nation  was  threat- 
ened, declaring  the  Chambers  a  permanent 
body,  and  denouncing  'the  instant  penalties  of 
high  treason  against  all  attempts  to  dissolve  it. 
The  same  evening  he  proposed,  in  the  secret 
assembly  of  the  council  of  state,  the  abdication 
of  Napoleon.  The  subject  was  again  pressed 
the  following  day  ;  but  the  voluntary  act  of  the 
emperor  anticipated  the  decision." 

On  the  8th  of  July,  the  king  returned  to  Pa- 
ris, and  on  the  loth  of  July,  Napoleon  surren- 
dered himself  to  the  English  at  Rochefort.  He 
only  asked  permission  to  pass  the  remainder  of 
his  days  in  England,  under  an  assumed  name, 
and  in  a  private  character,  but  he  was  conveyed 
to  St.  Helena,  as  a  prisoner  of  state.  A  few 
officers  of  his  suite  accompanied  him.  In  the 
island  he  was  treated  with  great  indignity  and 
meanness  until  his  death  which  was  the  result 
of  an  intestine  disorder,  and  took  place  May  5, 
1821.  In  his  last  moments,  he  was  delirious,  and 
his  last  words — tete  <T  armee — proved  that  he 
fancied  himself,  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  watch- 
ing the  fluctuating  current  of  a  battle.  He  was 
buried  in  a  little  valley  where  a  simple  slab 
marks  the  place  of  his  repose.  Two  weeping 
willow  trees  wave  over  it,  and  an  iron  railing 
encircles  that  spot  of  ground  which  is  so  dear  to 
millions. 

Napoleon,  in  person,  was  below  the  middle 
size  ;  and,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  quite 
corpulent.  His  strait  brown  hair  fell  over  a 
broad  high  forehead ;  his  complexion  was  clear 
olive,  and  his  features  regular  and  classical.  An 
air  of  subdued  melancholy  was  the  prevailing 
characteristic  of  his  countenance  in  repose  ;  but 
he  had  the  power  of  dismissing  all  expression 
from  his  features,  when  he  chose  to  balfle  scru- 
tiny. At  such  times  the  curious  observer  might 
gaze  upon  his  still  grey  eye  and  quiet  lip  with- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


NAP 


358 


NAR 


out  finding  any  indication  of  the  thoughts  which 
were  passing  within. 

Napoleon  was  ambitious — and  committed 
some  of  the  crimes  to  which  ambition  leads. 
He  drenched  the  sands  of  Egypt  and  the  snows 
of  Russia,  and  the  plains  of  Germany,  and  Italy, 
and  Spain,  with  the  best  blood  of  France  and 
the  best  of  Europe  : — yet  he  was  not  destitute 
of  the  feelings  of  humanity,  and,  as  he  rode  over 
a  field  heaped  with  the  dead  and  dying  victims 
of  his  ambition,  his  fine  eye  would  fill  with 
tears.  But  feeling  without  repentance  is  of  no 
avail.  Yet  if  Napoleon  was  lavish  of  the  lives- 
of  others,  he  was  no  less  prodigal  of  his  own ; 
and  often  proved  that  he  possessed  a  soldier's 
soul,  amidst  the  hottest  fire  of  the  enemy.  If 
he  laid  his  grasp  upon  nations — 

"Their  ransom  did  the  general  coffers  fill." 
He  often  pardoned,  but  he  never  failed  to  re- 
ward. It  was  thus  that  he  attached  his  soldiers 
to  him  with  indissoluble  bonds.  A  thousand 
proofs  may  be  given  of  their  attachment  to  their 
emperor.  At  Waterloo,  one  man  was  seen, 
whose  left  arm  was  shattered  by  a  cannon  ball, 
to  wrench  it  off  with  the  other,  and  throwing  it 
up  in  the  air,  he  exclaimed  to  his  comrades, 
Vive  I'empereur,  jusqu'ct  la  mart!  When  he 
took  his  final  farewell  of  France,  all  wept,  but 
particularly  Savary,  and  a  Polish  officer  who 
had  been  exalted  from  the  ranks  by  Bonaparte. 
He  clung  to  his  master's  knees :  wrote  a  letter 
to  Lord  Keith,  entreated  permission  to  accom- 
pany him,  even  in  tlie  most  menial  capacity, 
which  could  not  be  admitted. 

With  men  like  these  to  follow  him,  Napoleon 
had  the  power  of  choosing  his  own  course.  Cir- 
cumstances did  not  force  him  into  the  path  he 
followed  : — he  was,  in  a  degree,  the  controller 
of  his  fate — a  free  agent,  with  ample  means  to 
gratify  his  wishes.  He  might  have  been  a 
Washington — he  preferred  to  be  a  Cassar. 

On  the  7th  of  July,  1840,  Louis  Phillipe,  king 
of  the  French,  after  obtaining  the  consent  of 
England,  sent  a  frigate  commanded  by  his  son, 
the  Prince  de  Joinville,  to  St.  Helena,  to  con- 
vey the  remains  of  Napoleon  to  France.  On  the 
30th  of  November,  they  reached  Cherbourg, 
from  whence  they  were  conveyed,  borne  with 
great  pomp  to  Paris,  and  deposited  in  the  dome  of 
the  Hospit;.!  dcs  Invalides,  on  the  15th  of  Dec. 

NAPOLI  DI  ROMANIA,  or  Naupiia,a  port 
and  city  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Morea,  on 
the  gulf  of  Naupl^ft,  or  Argolis,  containing  about 
5000  inhabitants.  It  was  taken  by  the  Greeks 
during  their  last  revolution,  and  in  1824  became 


for  a  time  the  seat  of  government.  In  1205,  it 
was  taken  by  the  French  and  Venetians  ;  and  a 
little  after  king  Giannoviza  seized  and  plun- 
dered it.  The  Venetians  bought  it  of  Peter 
Cornaro's  widow  in  1?H3,  and  defended  it  gal- 
lantly against  Mahomet  II,  in  1400,  obliging  him 
to  raise  the  siege,  as  they  did  Solyman,  1537. 
In  1086,  general  Morosini.  after  he  had  taken 
Navarin  and  Modon.  ordered  general  K(.nings- 
mark  to  possess  himself  of  Mount  Palamida, 
which  is  near  the  town,  and  commands  it ;  and 
whilst  he  battered  it  from  this  place,  general 
Morosini  gave  battle  to  the  Serasker,  who  came 
to  relieve  it;  defeated  him,  and  took  Argos 
their  fleet,  together  with  their  king  Teruis 
The  Seraskier  advanced  again  with  1000  men, 
and  fell  upon  the  Venetians  in  their  trenches, 
where  the  battle  was  dubious  for  three  hours ; 
but  at  last  the  Turks  fled,  general  Konings- 
mark,  the  princes  of  Brunswick  and  Turcnne, 
signalizing  themselves  in  the  action.  After  the 
battle,  the  siege  was  pushed  on  with  vigor,  and 
the  Turks,  having  capitulated,  were  conducted 
to  Tenedos.  The  Venetians  found  in  the  cas- 
tle 17  brass  cannons,  seven  iron  cannons,  and 
one  mnrtar. 

NARBONNE,  anciently  Narbo-Martius,  a 
city  of  France,  in  the  department  of  the  Aude, 
containing  10,097  inhabitants.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  cities  of  that  kingdom.  In  43f>, 
the  Visigoths  besieged  this  city  in  vain  ;  but  it 
was  treacherously  delivered  to  them  in  402,  by 
count  Agripin.  And  in  732,  the  Saracens  being 
admitted  into  the  city  as  friends,  took  posses- 
sion of  it,  and  slew  all  except  the  king.  In  730, 
Charles  Martel  took  it  from  the  Saracens  ;  since 
which  it  has  been  subject  to  the  crown  of 
France.  The  cathedral  church  is  very  ancient 
and  famous,  and  is  by  some  supposed"  to  have 
been  a  metropolitan  see,  since  the  year  309.  It 
is  dedicated  to  St.  Justus  and  St. "Martyr,  and 
renowned  for  its  organs,  and  the  raising  of  Laz- 
arus, painted  by  an  eminent  artist.  The  city  is 
well  fortified,  and  has  only  two  gales.  The 
dukes  of  Septima-ia,  were  also  dukes  of  Nar- 
bonne;  the  counts  of  Toulouse,  who  succeeded 
them,  Imd  the  same  title  ;  and  the  city  ;md  dio- 
cese was  governed  under  them  by  viscounts. 
Gaston  de  Foix.  king  of  Navarre,  in  1408,  be- 
stowed the  lordship  of  Narbonne  upon  John  his 
second  son,  who  married  the  sister  of  Louis 
XII. by  whom  he  had  Gaston  dr  F.-ix,  killed  at 
tin-  bail!-  of  Ravenna  in  1513.  This  Gaetcn  ex- 
changed the  city  and  lordship  of  Narbonne  with 
his  uncle,  for  "other  lands,  in  1507,  by  which 
means  it  became  united  to  the  crown  of  France 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


NAX 


359 


NEL 


NASEBY,  a  village  of  Northamptonshire, 
England,  famous  for  the  battle  fought  there  in 
1G45,  between  kin?  Charles  I  and  the  parlia- 
mentary forces.  This  decisive  and  well  dis- 
puted engagement  was  fought  with  nearly  equal 
forces  on  both  sides.  The  king  commanded  in 
person,  and  displayed  all  the  conduct  of  a  pru- 
dent general  and  stout  soldier.  Fairfax  and 
Skippon  were  his  opponents ;  and  Cromwell 
behaved  with  his  usual  prudence  and  gallantry. 
The  royal  infantry  was  entirely  discomfited ; 
and,  though  the  king  cried  aloud  to  the  caval- 
ry, •'  One  charge  more  and  we  recover  the  day  !" 
they  could  not  be  prevailed  on  to  renew  the 
combat,  and  the  king  was  obliged  to  quit  the 
field.  The  slain  on  the  side  of  the  parliament, 
however,  exceeded  those  of  the  king.  Among 
the  spoils  was  found  the  king's  cabinet,  with 
copies  of  his  letters  to  the  queen. 

NASSAU,  a  sovereign  duchy  of  the  German 
empire,  with  an  area  of  1959  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  303,470.  The  soil  is  extremely 
fertile. 

NATCHEZ,  a  city  of  Mississippi,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  280  miles  above 
New  Orleans.  Population  in  1830,  2790.  This 
city  possesses  great  commercial  advantages,  but 
unfortunately  lias  been  frequently  visited  by  the 
yellow  fever  The  place  is  well-built,  the  streets 
are  of  considerable  width. 

NATOLIA,  Annatolia,  or  Anadoli,  a  fertile 
and  productive  province  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  650 
miles  in  length,  and  400  broad,  containing 
270,000  square  miles,  and  6,000.000  inhabitants. 
It  is  also  called  Asia  Minor,  and  anciently  com- 
prised Bithynia,  Paphlagonia,  Galatia,  Pheygia, 
Mysia,  ^Eolia,  Ionia,  Lydia,  Caria,  Doris,  Pysi- 
dia,  Lycia,  Pamphylia,  Cilicia,  Cappadocia,  and 
Ponlus. 

NAVARINO  (Neocnstro;)  a  fortified  town 
on  the  S.  W.  coast  of  the  Morea,  with  a  large 
harbor.  In  1715  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Ve- 
netians who  fortified  it  against  the  Turks.  Here 
(Oct.  20,  1827)  tlie  combined  Russian,  French, 
and  English  fleet,  commanded  by  admiral  Cod- 
rington,  destroyed  the  Turco-Egyptian  fleet,  of 
214' sail,  in  three  hours. 

NAVARRE,  a  province  of  Spain,  with  the 
title  of  kingdom,  divided  formerly  into  Upper 
and  Lower  Navarre.  The  latter  is  now  in- 
cluded in  the  French  department  of  the  Lower 
Pyrenees,  and  the  former  forms  the  Spanish 
kingdom  of  Navarre.  Spanish  Navarre  con- 
tains 271,285  inhabitants. 

NAXOS,  now  Naxia,  in  very  ancient  times 
Dia  and  Stongyle,  the  largest  island  of  the  Cy- 
31 


clades,  contains  169  square  miles,  and  10,000 
inhabitants.  The  Naxians  were  anciently  gov- 
erned by  kings,  but  they  afterwards  exchanged 
this  form  of  government  for  a  republic,  and  en- 
joyed their  liberty  till  the  age  of  Pisistratus, 
who  appointed  a  tyrant  over  them.  They  were 
reduced  by  the  Persians  ;  but  in  the  expedition 
of  Darius  and  Xerxes  against  Greece,  they  re- 
volted and  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Greeks. 
During  the  Peloponnesian  war,  they  supported 
the  interest  of  Athens.  The  capital  was  also 
called  Naxos ;  and  near  it,  B.  C.  377,  the  Lace- 
daemonians were  defeated  by  Chabrias. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR  1,  or  JYabuchodono- 
sar,  king  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  with  Nabopolassar,  gov- 
ernor of  Babylon,  who  founded  the  kingdom  of 
Nineveh.  He  sent  Holophernes  against  Judea, 
who  was  slain  by  Judith. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR  II,  king  of  Assyria 
and  Babylon,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  invaded  Judea,  took  Je- 
rusalem, and  carried  the  treasures  of  the  temple, 
and  a  number  of  captives,  to  Babylon.  After 
this,  he  set  up  a  golden  statue  in  the  plain  of 
Dura,  which  he' commanded  all  his  subjects  to 
adore,  on  pain  of  being  cast  into  a  fiery  furnace. 
Three  young  Jews,  named  Shadrach.  Meshach, 
and  Abednego,  refused  to  submit  to  this  idola- 
try, and  the  sentence  was  executed  upon  them; 
but  they  were  preserved  amidst  the  flames. 
Having  lost  his  senses,  he  became  an  outcast 
from  the  society  of  men,  and  lived  among  wild 
beasts  in  the  forest ;  but  on  recovering  his  rea- 
son, he  again  ascended  the  throne  and  died,  B. 
C.  562,  after  reigning  43  years. 

NECHO,  king  of  Egypt,  called  in  scripture, 
Pharaoh  Necho,  succeeded  his  father,  Psamme- 
ticus,  B.  C.  616.  He  undertook  to  make  a  canal 
from  the  Nile  to  the  Arabian  gulf,  which  un- 
dertaking he  was  forced  to  abandon,  after  losing 
a  great  number  of  men.  The  ships  of  Necho 
sailed  from  the  Red  Sea,  round  the  coast  of 
Africa,  into  the  Mediterranean ;  and  returned 
to  Egypt,  after  a  voyage  of  three  years.  This 
monarch  invaded  Assyria,  and  on  his  march  was 
attacked  by  Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  who  was 
slain  in  the  battle.  The  king  of  Egypt  was  de- 
feated in  his  turn  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
obliged  to  return  to  his  own  country,  where  he 
died,  B.  C.  600. 

NELSON,  (Horatio,  Viscount),  an  English 
admiral,  was  the  fourth  son  of  the  rector  of 
Burnham  Thorpe  in  Norfolk,  where  Horatio 
was  born  Sept.  29, 1758.  At  the  age  of  twelve 
years  he  was  taken  to  sea  by  his  maternal  un 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


NEL 


360 


NEL 


cle,  Captain  Suckling,  of  the  Raisonable  man- 
of-war.  In  1773  in  a  voyage  undertaken  for 
the  discovery  of  a  north-west  passage,  the  young 
seaman  distinguished  himself  by  his  skill,  cour- 
age, and  promptitude.  Soon  after  his  return 
he  was  appointed  to  a  station  in  the  Seahorse, 
in  which  he  sailed  to  the  East  Indies. 

He  passed  for  a  lieutenant  in  1777,  and  re- 
ceived his  commission  as  second  of  the  Lowes- 
toff  frigate  ;  in  which  he  cruised  against  the 
Americans.  In  1779  he  obtained  the  rank  of 
post  captain,  and  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Hinchinbrooke,  with  which  he  sailed  to 
the  West  Indies,  and  while  there  essentially 
contributed  to  the  taking  of  Fort  Juan  in  the 
gulf  of  Mexico.  We  find  him  next  commanding 
the  Boreas,  having  under  him  the  Duke  of  Cla- 
rence, who  was  captain  of  the  Pegasus. 

While  thus  engaged  he  married  the  daughter 
of  William  Woodward,  judge  of  the  Island  of 
Nevis,  by  whom  he  never  had  any  issue.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  France  he  was 
nominated  to  the  Agamemnon  of  G4  guns,  on 
board  of  which  lie  sailed  to  the  Mediterranean, 
and  was  present  at  the  taking  possession  of 
Toulon.  He  was  also  present  at  the  siege  of 
Bastia,  where  he  served  at  the  batteries  with  a 
body  of  seamen  ;  as  he  afterwards  did  at  Calvi : 
and  while  employed  before  that  place  he  lost 
an  eye.  He  was  so  active  on  that  station  that 
his  name  was  dreaded  throughout  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

He  was  with  Admiral  Hothain  in  the  action 
with  the  French  fleet.  March  15, 1795 ;  and  the 
same  year  he  took  the  island  of  Elba.  In  1790! 
he  was  appointed  commodore  on  board  La  Mi- 
nerve,  in  which  frigate  he  captured  La  Sabine, 
a  forty  gun  ship.  Soon  nfter  this  he  descried 
the  Spanish  fleet,  and  steered  with  the  intelli- 
gence to  Sir  John  Jervis  off  St.  Vincent.  He 
had  scarcely  communicated  the  news,  and  shift- 
ed his  flag"  on  board  the  Captain  of  74  guns, 
when  the  enemy  hove  in  sight.  A  close  action 
ensued,  which  terminated  in  a  complete  victory 
on  the  side  of  the  British,  who  were  inferior  in 
numbers.  On  this  occasion  Commodore  Nelson 
attacked  tlie  Santissima  Trinidada  of  1:36  guns; 
and  afterwards  he  boarded  and  took  the  San 
Nicolas  of  8'J  guns,  from  whence  he  proceeded 
in  the  same  manner  to  the  San  Josef  of  112 
guns ;  both  of  which  surrendered  to  him.  For 
his  share  in  this  glorious  victorv,  the  commodore 
was  honored  with  the  order  of  the  Bath;  and 
having  soon  afterwards  hoisted  his  flag  as  rear 
admiral  of  the  blue,  he  was  appointed  to  com- 
mand the  inner  squadron  at  the  blockade  of 


Cadiz.  He  there  made  a  bold  but  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  bombard  the  city,  heading  his  men 
himself. 

The  next  exploit  in  which  he  was  engaged 
was  an  attempt  to  take  possession  of  Teneriffe, 
which  design  also  failed,  with  the  loss  of  Cap- 
tain Bowen  of  the  Terpsichore.  In  this  expe- 
dition Admiral  Nelson  lost  his  right  arm  by  a 
cannon  shot,  and  was  carried  off  to  the'  boat  by 
his  son-in-law  Captain  Nesbit.  on  his  back.  He 
now  returned  to  England  for  the  recovery  of 
his  health,  and  received  the  grant  of  a  pension 
of  WOOL  a  year.  The  brave  admiral,  however, 
did  not  long  remain  inactive:  he  rejoined  Earl 
St.  Vincent,  who.  on  receiving  intelligence  of 
the  sailing  of  Bonaparte  from  Toulon,  detached 
Sir  Horatio  Nelson  with  a  squadron  in  pursuit 
of  him. 

After  exploring  the  coast  of  Italy,  this  inde- 
fatigable commander  steered  for  Alexandria, 
where  to  his  great  mortification  not  a  French 
ship  was  to  be  seen.  He  then  sailed  to  Sicily, 
and  having  taken  in  a  fresh  supply  of  water, 
and  obtained  more  correct  information,  returned 
to  Alexandria,  which  he  descried  August  1, 
17i)e.  at  noon.  The  enemy  were  discovered  in 
Aboukir  Bay,  lying  at  anchor  in  line  of  battle; 
and  supported  by  strong  batteries  on  nn  Island, 
and  strengthened  by  gun-boats.  Notwithstand- 
ing this  formidable  appearance,  the  British  ad- 
miral made  the  signal  for  battle  ;  and.  V.y  a  ir.p.s- 
terly  and  bold  manoeuvre,  gave  directions  for 
part  of  his  fleet  to  lead  inside  the  enemy,  who 
were  thus  exposed  between  two  fires. 

The  contest  was  hot  and  bloody.  Several  of 
the  French  ships  were  soon  dismasted  :  and,  at 
last  the  admiral's  ship  1'Orient  of  120  guns  took 
fire,  and  blew  up.  The  firing,  however,  con- 
tinued, but  by  the  (lawn  of  day  only  two  sail  of 
the  line  were  discovered  with  their  colors  fly- 
ing, all  Ihe  rest  having  struck.  Soon  after  this 
he  failed  for  Sicily,  and  from  thence  to  Naples, 
where  he  quelled  a  rebellion,  and  restored  the 
king.  Having  performed  those  and  other  im- 
portant services.  Lord  Nelson  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  was  received  with  enthusiastic  joy. 
A  confederacy  of  the  northern  powers  having 
alarmed  the  government,  he  was  employed  to 
dissolve  it.  A  fleet  was  fitted  out.  the  com- 
mand of  which  was  given  t/>  Admiral  Sir  Hyde 
Parker,  assisted  by  Lord  Nclsc.n.  -On  their  ar- 
rival elf  the  CutteVat.  and  being  refused  a  pas- 
sage. Lord  Nelson  r  fie.  red  his  s.Tvl.vs.  for  con- 
duct! ncr  the  attack  on  the  Danish  force,  which 
was  stationed  to  oppose  MI  entrance.  This 
being  accepted,  he  shifted  his  flag  to  the  Ele 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


NEI 


361 


NER 


phant,  and  passed  the  Sound  with  little  loss. 
On  the  2d  of  April  the  action  commenced  at 
ten  o'clock,  and  after  a  sharp  conflict  seventeen 
sail  of  the  Danes  were  sunk,  burnt,  or  taken. 
A  negotiation  was  then  entered  into  between 
his  lordship  and  the  Crown  Prince  ;  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  admiral  went  ashore,  and 
an  armistice  was  settled. 

Having  accomplished  these  great  objects,  he 
returned  to  England,  and  was  created  a  vis- 
count. In  August  1SU1,  he  bombarded  the 
enemy's  flotilla  of  gun-boats  at  Boulogne,  but 
without  any  material  effect.  A  treaty  suddenly 
taking  place,  his  lordship  retired,  but  hostilities 
recommencing  he  sailed  for  the  Mediterranean, 
and  in  March  1803,  took  the  command  of  that 
station  on  board  the  Victory.  Notwithstanding 
all  his  vigilance,  the  French  fleet  escaped  from 
Toulon,  and  was  joined  by  that  of  Cadiz  ;  of 
which  being  apprized,  he  pursued  them  to  the 
West  Indies  with  a  far  inferior  force.  The 
combined  squadrons,  however,  struck  with  ter- 
ror, returned  without  effecting  any  thing;  and, 
after  a  partial  action  with  Sir  Robert  Calder  off 
Farrol,  re-entered  Cadiz.  Admiral  Nelson  re- 
t,urned  to  England,  but  soon  set  sail  to  join  his 
fleet  off  Cadiz. 

The  French  under  Admiral  Villeneuve,  and 
the  Spaniards  under  Gravina,  ventured  out  with 
a  number  of  troops  on  board,  October  19,  Id05, 
and  on  the  21st,  about  noon,  the  action  began 
off  Cape  Trafalgar.  Lord  Nelson  ordered  'his 
ship  the  Victory  to  be  carried  alongside  his  old 
antagonist,  the  Santissima  Trinidada,  where  he 
was  exposed  to  a  severe  fire  of  musketry ;  and, 
not  having  the  precaution  to  cover  his  coat, 
which  was  decorated  with  his  star  and  other 
badges  of  distinction,  he  became  an  object  for 
the  riflemen  placed  purposely  in  the  tops  of  the 
Bucentaur,  which  lay  on  his  quarter.  A  shot 
from  one  of  these  entered  just  below  his  shoul- 
der, of  which  he  died  in  about  two  hours.  In 
this  action  the  enemy's  force  consisted  of  thirty- 
three  ships  of  the  line,  and  several  of  extraordi- 
nary magnitude ;  while  the  British  were  only 
twenty-seven.  After  the  fall  of  Lord  Nelson, 
the  command  devolved  on  Admiral  Colling- 
wood,  by  whose  bravery  and  skijl  a  complete 
victory  was  obtained.  The  remains  of  Lord 
Nelson  were  interred  with  great  pomp  in  St. 
Paul's  cafBedral,  January  9,  following. 

NELSON,  Thomas,  junior;  a  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  American  Independence,  was 
born  at  York,  in  Virginia.  Dec.  26, 1738.  He 
received  an  excellent  education  in  England, 
and  returned  to  America  about  the  close  of  the 


year  1761.  After  having  been  a  member  of  the 
house  of  burgesses  in  his  native  state,  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  first  congress,  and  le- 
tained  his  seat  until  1777.  At  this  date,  the 
feeble  state  of  his  health  obliged  him  tempora- 
rily to  relinquish  his  seat,  and  as  soon  as  he 
recovered,  he  was  chosen  brigadier-general  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  of  the  com- 
monwealth. In  1779  he  was  re-elected  to  con- 
gress, but  obliged  by  sickness  to  return  home 
again.  However,  he  took  up  arms  against  the 
IJritish  and  distinguished  himself  in  several 
military  expeditions.  In  1761  he  succeeded 
Mr.  Jefferson  as  governor  of  Virginia,  and 
through  the  most  troubled  times  of  the  common- 
wealth, acquitted  himself  fearlessly  and  well. 
He  died  Jan.  4,  17f9.  in  his  51st  year. 

NEPTUNE,  in  ancient  mythology,  the  god 
of  the  sea,  the  brother  of  Jupiter  from  whom 
he  derived  his  sovereignty.  He  is  generally 
represented  as  a  bearded  old  man,  with  a  tri- 
dent in  his  hand,  seated  in  a  huge  marine  shell 
which  is  drawn  over  the  waters  by  sea-horses. 

NERO,  Lucius  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  after 
his  adoption  called  Claudius  Drusus,  the  son  of 
Caius  Domiluis  Ahenobarbus.  and  Agrippina, 
the  daughter  of  Germanicus,  was  born  at  An- 
tium,  A.  D.  37. 

He  was  adopted  by  the  emperor  Claudius,  A. 
D.  50,  and  four  years  after  he  succeeded  to  him 
on  the  throne.  The  beginning  of  his  reign  was 
marked  by  acts  of  the  greatest  kindness  and 
condescension,  by  affability,  complaisance,  and 
popularity.  The  object  of  his  administration 
seemed  to  be  the  good  of  his  people ;  and  when 
he  was  desired  to  sign  his  name  to  a  list  of  mal- 
efactors that  were  to  be  executed,  he  exclaimed, 
I  wish  to  kearen  I  could  not  write.  He  was  an 
enemy  to  flattery,  and  when  the  senate  had 
liberally  commended  the  wisdom  of  government, 
Nero  desired  them  to  keep  their  praises  till  he 
deserved  them.  These  promising  virtues  were 
soon  discovered  to  be  artificial,  and  Nero  dis- 
played the  propensities  of  his  nature.  He  de- 
livered himself  from  the  sway  of  his  mother, 
and  at  last  ordered  her  to  be  assassinated. 

This  unnatural  act  of  barbarity  might  Astonish 
some  of  the  Romans,  but  Nero  had  his  devoted 
adherents ;  and  when  he  declared  that  he  had 
taken  away  his  mother's  life  to  save  himself 
from  ruin,  the  senate  applauded  his  measures, 
and  the  people  signified  their  approbation.  Many 
of  his  courtiers  shared  the  unhappy  fate  of 
Agrippina.  and  Nero  sacrificed  to  his  fury  or 
caprice  all  such  as  obstructed  his  pleasure.  He 
sacrificed  to  his  wantonness  his  wife  Octavia 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


NER 


362 


NER 


Popptea,  and  the  celebrated  writers,  Seneca, 
Lucan,  Petronius,  &c.  The  Christians  also 
did  not  escape  his  barbarity. 

He  had  heard  of  the  burning  of  Troy,  and  as 
he  wished  to  renew  that  dismal  scene,  he  caused 
Rome  to  be  set  on  fire  in  different  places.  The 
conflagration  became  soon  universal,  and  during 
nine  successive  days  the  fire  was  unexttnguish- 
ed.  All  was  desolation,  nothing  was  heard  but 
the  lamentations  of  mothers  whose  children  had 
perished  in  the  flames,  the  groans  of  the  dying, 
and  the  continual  fall  of  palaces  and  buildings. 
Nero  was  the  only  one  who  enjoyed  the  general 
consternation.  He  placed  himself  on  the  top  of 
a  high  tower,  and  he  sang  on  his  lyre  the  de- 
struction of  Troy,  a  dreadful  scene  which  his 
barbarity  had  realized  before  his  eyes.  He  at- 
tempted to  avert  the  public  odium  from  his  head, 
by  a  feigned  commiseration  of  the  miseries  of  his 
subjects.  He  began  to  repair  the  streets  and 
the  public  buildings  at  his  own  expense.  He 
built  himself  a  celebrated  palace,  which  was 
profusely  adorned  with  gold,  and  precious  stones, 
and  with  whatever  was  rare  and  exquisite.  The 
entrance  of  this  edifice  could  admit  a  large  co- 
lossus of  the  emperor  120  feet  high,  the  galleries 
were  each  a  mile  long,  and  the  "whole  was  cov- 
ered with  gold. 

The  roofs  of  the  dining  halls  represented  the 
firmament  in  motion  as  well  as  in  figure,  and 
continually  turned  round  night  and  day,  show- 
ering down  all  sorts  of  perfumes  and  sweet  wa- 
ters. When  this  grand  edifice,  which  occupied 
a  great  part  of  the  city,  was  finished,  Nero  said, 
that  now  he  could  lodge  like  a  man.  His  pro- 
fusion was  not  less  remarkable  in  all  his  other 
actions.  When  he  went  a  fishing,  his  nets 
were  made  with  gold  and  silk.  He  never  ap- 
peared twice  in  the  same  garment,  and  when 
he  undertook  a  voyage,  there  were  thousands 
of  servants  to  take  care  of  his  wardrobe.  This 
continuation  of  debauchery  and  extravagance, 
at  last  roused  the  resentment  of  the  people. 
Many  conspiracies  were  formed  against  the  em- 
peror, but  they  were  generally  discovered,  and 
such  as  were  accessary  suffered  the  greatest 
punishments. 

The  most  dangerous  conspiracy  against  Ne- 
ro's life,  was  that  of  Piso,  from  which  he  was 
delivered  by  the  confession  of  a  slave.  The 
conspiracy  of  Galba  proved  more  successful ; 
and  the  conspirator,  when  he  was  informed  that 
his  plot  was  known  to  Nero,  declared  himself 
emperor.  The  unpopularity  of  Nero  favored 
his  cause,  he  was  acknowledged  by  all  the  Ro- 
man empire,  and  the  senate  condemned  the  ty- 


rant that  sat  on  the  throne  to  be  dragged  naked 
through  the  streets  of  Rome,  and  whipped  ti> 
death,  and  afterwards  to  be  thrown  down  from 
the  Tarpeian  rock  like  the  meanest  malefactor. 
This,  however,  was  not  done,  Nero,  by  a  vol- 
untary death,  having  prevented  the  execution 
of  the  sentence.  He  killed  himself,  A.  D.  G8, 
in  the  32d  year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  IIJ 
years  and  eight  months. 

Rome  was  filled  with  acclamations  at  the  in- 
telligence, and  the  citizens,  more  strongly  to 
indicate  their  joy,  wore  caps  such  as  were  gen- 
erally used  by  slaves  who  had  received  their 
freedom.  Their  vengeance  was  not  only  exer- 
cised against  the  statues  of  the  deceased  tyrant, 
but  his  friends  were  the  objects  of  the  public 
resentment,  and  many  were  crushed  to  pieces 
in  such  a  violent  manner,  that  one  of  the  sen 
ators,  amid  the  universal  joy,  said  that  he  was- 
afraid  they  should  soon  have  cause  to  wish  for 
Nero.  Though  his  death  seemed  to  be  the 
source  of  universal  gladness,  yet  many  of  his 
favorites  lamented  his  fall,  and  were  grieved  to 
see  that  their  pleasures  and  amusements  were 
stopped  by  the  death  of  the  patron  of  debauch- 
ery and  extravagance.  Even  the  king  of  Par- 
thia  sent  ambassadors  to  Rome  to  condole  with 
the  Romans,  and  to  beg  that  they  would  honor 
and  revere  the  memory  of  Nero.  His  statues, 
were  also  crowned  with  garlands  of  flowers, 
and  many  believed  that  he  was  not  dead,  but 
that  he  would  soon  make  his  appearance,  and 
take  a  due  vengeance  upon  his  enemies. 

NERO,  CLAUDIUS,  a  Roman  general  sent 
into  Spain  to  succeed  the  two  Scipios.  He  suf- 
fered himself  to  be  imposed  upon  by  Asdrubal, 
and  was  soon  after  succeeded  by  young  Scipio 
lie  was  afterwards  made  consul,  and  intercepted 
Asdrubal,  who  was  passing  from  Spain  into 
Italy  with  a  large  reinforcement  for  his  brother 
Annibal.  An  engagement  was  fought  near  the 
river  Metaurus,  in  which  5(>.000  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians were  left  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  great 
numbers  taken  prisoners,  207  B.  C. 

NKRVA  COCCEIUS.  a  Roman  emperor 
after  the  death  of  Domitian,  A.  I).  !>(5.  He 
rendered  himself  popular  by  his  mildness,  his 
generosity,  and  the  active  part  he  took  in  the 
management  of  affairs.  He  suffered  no  statues 
to  be  raised  to  his  honor,  and  he  applied  to  the 
use  of  the  government  all  the  gold  and  silver 
statues  which  flattery  had  erected  to  his  prede- 
cessor. In  his  civil  character  he  was  the  pa" 
tern  of  good  manners,  of  sobriety,  and  tempe- 
rance. He  made  a  solemn  declaration  that  no 
senator  should  suffer  death  during  his  reu/u , 


HISTORICAL  AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


NET 


363 


NEW 


and  this  he  observed  with  such  sanctity,  that 
when  two  members  of  the  senate  had  conspired 
against  his  life,  he  was  satisfied  to  tell  them 
that  he  was  informed  of  their  wicked  machina- 
tions. He  also  conducted  them  to  the  public 
spectacles,  and  seated  himself  between  them, 
and,  when  a  sword  was  offered  to  him,  according 
to  the  usual  custom,  he  desired  the  conspirators 
to  try  it  upon  his  body.  Such  goodness  of  heart, 
such  confidence  in  the  self  conviction  of  the 
human  mind,  and  such  reliance  upon  the  con- 
sequence of  his  lenity  and  indulgence,  concil- 
iated the  affection  of  all  his  subjects.  Yet,  as 
envy  and  danger  are  the  constant  companions 
of  greatness,  the  praetorian  guards  at  last  mu- 
tinied, and  Nerva  nearly  yielded  to  their  fury. 
He  uncovered  his  aged  neck  in  the  presence  of 
the  incensed  soldiery,  and  bade  them  wreak  their 
vengeance  upon  him,  provided  they  spared  the 
life  of  those  to  whom  he  was  indebted  for  the 
empire,  and  whom  his  honor  commanded  him  to 
defend.  His  seeming  submission  was  unavail- 
ing, and  he  was  at  last  obliged  to  surrender  to 
the  fury  of  his  soldiers,  some  of  his  friends  and 
supporters.  The  infirmities  of  his  age,  and  his 
natural  timidity,  at  last  obliged  him  to  provide 
himself  against  any  future  mutiny  or  tumult, 
by  choosing  a  worthy  successor.  He  had  many 
friends  and  relations,  but  he  did  not  consider 
the  aggrandizement  of  his  family,  and  he  chose 
for  his  son  and  successor,  Trajan,  a  man  of  whose 
virtues  and  greatness  of  mind  he  was  fully  con- 
vinced. This  voluntary  choice  was  approved 
by  the  acclamations  of  the  people;  and  the  wis- 
dom and  prudence  which  marked  the  reign  of 
Trajan  showed  how  discerning  was  the. judg- 
ment, and  how  affectionate  were  the  intentions 
of  Nerva  for  the  good  of  Rome.  He  died  A. 
D.  93.  in  his  72d  year,  and  his  successor  showed 
his  respect  for  h;s  merit  and  his  character  by 
raising  him  altars  and  temples  in  Rome,  and  in 
the  provinces,  and  by  ranking  him  in  the  num- 
ber of  the  gods.  Nerva  was  the  first  Roman 
emperor  who  was  of  foreign  extraction,  his  fa- 
ther beinf  a  native  of  Crete. 

NETHERLANDS,  a  kingdom  of  Europe, 
separated  from  Belgium  in  the  revolution  of 
1330,  previously  to  which  it  contained  25,375 
square  miles,  and  6.059,566  inhabitants.  The 
earliest  accounts  of  the  Netherlands  are  from 
the  Romans,  by  whom  all  the  southern  and 
central  part  (called  Belgia)  was  kept  in  subjec- 
tion till  the  decline  of  their  empire  in  the  fifth 
eentury.  It  was  formerly,  under  the  govern- 
ment of  counts,  but  being  incorporated  with  the 
extensive  possessions  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy, 
31* 


the  Netherlands  passed  to  Maximilian  of  Aus- 
tria, father  of  Charles  V,  who  united  the  17 
provinces  into  one  state ;  but  the  bigotry  of  his 
son  Philip  II.  produced  the  separation  of  the 
Dutch  provinces,  and  great  dissension  and  dis- 
tress in  the  others.  They  remained  under  the 
Spanish  crown  until  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century,  when  arduous  exertions  were  made  by 
Conde  and  Turenne  to  add  them  to  the  domin- 
ions of  Louis  XIV.  The  quadruple  alliance, 
concluded  at  the  Hague  in  1608,  however,  put 
a  stop  to  their  progress,  but  the  wars  from  1072 
to  1079,  and  1680  to  1697,  were  prosecuted 
chiefly  for  the  Netherlands.  At  length,  in  1702, 
Louis  obtained  them,  but  the  French  being  de- 
feated by  the  duke  of  Marlborough  at  the  battle 
of  Ramilies,  in  1706,  the  southern  provinces 
were  brought  under  the  powei  of  the  allies,  and 
assigned  to  Austria  at  the  peace  of  Utrecht.  A 
peace  ensued,  until  the  war  of  1741  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Netherlands,  and  the  French  un- 
der Marshal  Saxe  recovered  them.  Bergen-op- 
Zoorn  was  captured  by  the  French  in  September 
1747,  and  Maastricht  in  the  following  year, 
when  the  successes  of  the  British  navy,  and  the 
persevering  aspect  of  the  coalition  led  to  the 
peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748,  and  the  south- 
ern Netherlands  thus  became  restored  to  Aus- 
tria. By  the  treachery  of  Austria  in  1756  they 
were  once  more  nearly  ceded  to  France,  but  the 
scheme  was  not  carried  into  effect.  In  the 
campaign  of  3792  Austria  again  lost  the  Nether- 
lands, and  though  recovered  in  1793,  they  again 
passed  over  to  France  in  1794.  The  hope  of 
recovering  them  was  the  cause  of  the  coalition 
of  179!)  and  1805,  both  baffled  in  their  object. 
The  disasters  of  the  French  army  in  Russia  in 
Icl2,  at  length,  opened  the  long-wished-for 
prospect.  In  1813,  German}'  occupied  all  the 
exertions  of  the  allies,  but  in  1814  the  Nether- 
lands were  detached  by  a  consequence  of  the 
revolution  by  which  the  Bourbons  were  restored: 
and  the  British  cabinet  accomplished  the  union 
of  the  seventeen  provinces,  and  their  erection 
into  an  independent  state,  under  the  prince  of 
Orange,  in  1815.  The  prince,  therefore,  as- 
sumed the  title  of  king  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
prand  duke  of  Luxembourg. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK,  a  British  province  of 
North  America.  Population  110.000.  In  the 
interior  of  the  country  the  soil  is  admirable,  and 
the  uplands  are  well  timbered.  Grass  and  grain 
are  the  principal  agricultural  productions,  and 
the  main  exports  are  timber  and  fish.  The  river 
St.  John's  is  the  principal  stream. 
NEWFOUNDLAND,  an  island  in  the  North 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


NEW 


364 


NEW 


Atlantic  ocean  near  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1497.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  about  80,000.  It  is 
380  miles  long,  and  from  40  to  280  broad,  being 
of  triangular  shape.  The  face  of  the  country  is 
very  rugged,  but  timber  is  abundant.  The  cli- 
mate IB  cold  and  dreary.  The  fisheries  off  tho 
banks  employ  more  than  one  hundred  thousand 
men.  St.  John's,  the  capital,  contains  about 
12,000  inhabitants. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  one  of  the  United 
States,  bounded  north  by  Lower  Canada ;  east  by 
the  Atlantic  ocean  and  the  state  of  Maine ;  south 
by  Massachusetts,  and  west  by  Connecticut 
river.  It  has  an  area  of  7,491  miles,  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  284,754  There  are  numerous  rivers 
in  the  state,  which  is  very  mountainous,  the 
White  Mountains  displaying  some  of  the  most 
sublime  scenes  to  be  found  in  this  country. 
The  chief  towns  are  Concord,  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment, Portsmouth,  Dover,  Walpole,  Clare- 
mont,  Hanover,  Hopkinton,  Salisbury,  Lon- 
donderry, and  Durham.  Dartmouth  College,  in 
Hanover,  and  Philip's  Academy  at  Exeter,  are 
both  flourishing  institutions.  Agriculture  is 
the  chief  occupation  of  the  people.  John  Smith 
discovered  New  Hampshire  in  1614,  but  its 
name  was  bestowed  by  John  Mason,  to  whom, 
and  Sir  Ferdinand  Gorges,  grants  of  land  were 
made  by  the  crown  in  1622.  The  country  was 
thence  popularly  termed  the  Hampshire  Grants, 
The  first  settlements  were  made  in  1623,  at 
Dover  and  Portsmouth.  From  1641,  to  1679, 
the  settlements  formed  a  portion  of  Suffolk 
county,  Massachusetts.  Charles  II  separated 
them.  It  was  afterwards  reunited  to  Massa- 
chusetts, but  finally  separated  in  1741.  The 
present  constitution  is  that  which  was  altered 
in  1792,  from  that  of  1784. 

NEW  JERSEY,  one  of  the  United  States; 
bounded  north  by  New  York ;  east  bv  New 
York  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  south  "by  the 
Ocean,  and  west  by  Delaware  and  Pennsylva- 
nia. The  northern  part  of  the  state  is  moun- 
tainous, but  the  southern  level.  The  former 
is  the  most  fertile  and  has  soil  well  adapted  to 
agricultural  purposes.  Iron  is  found  among 
the  mountains  in  great  abundance.  The  chief 
towns  are  Trenton,  the  sent  of  government, 
Newark,  New  Brunswick,  Elizabethtown.  Bur- 
lington, Patterson,  &-c.  The  college  of  New 
Jersey  at  Princetown  is  a  deserving  Tnstitution. 
Population  in  1840,  373.308.  The  first  settle- 
ment in  this  state  was  made  at  Elizabethtown  in 
1GC4.  In  1676,  the  country  was  divided  into 
East  and  West  Jersey,  which  were  separate 


proprietary  governments,  and  not  united  until 
1702,  at  which  time  the  name  of  New  Jersey 
was  given  to  the  colony.  In  the  measures  of 
our  revolution  this  state  was  ever  active  and 
forward,  and  suffered  severely  from  the  war. 

NEW  ORLEANS,  a  great  commercial  city 
of  Louisiana,  in  the  parish  of  Orleans,  situated 
on  the  Mississippi,  105  miles  from  its  mouth, 
following  the  course  of  the  stream.  It  contains 
102, 193  inhabitants.  A  large  part  of  the  popula- 
tion are  French  and  Spaniards,  and  the  dwel- 
lings and  manners  of  the  inhabitants  are  more 
European  than  American.  It  is  built  on  ground 
lower  than  the  surface  of  the  river,  and  an  em- 
bankment, called  the  levee,  protects  the  city 
from  inundation.  This  is  1(30  miles  in  length. 
The  yellow  fever  periodically  visits  New  Or- 
leans and  commits  great  ravages. 

Early  in  December,  1815,  a  large  British 
force  entered  Lake  Pontchartrain,  near  New 
Orleans,  defeating,  after  an  obstinate  conflict, 
the  small  American  naval  force  stationed  there. 
The  British  forces  were  commanded  by  general 
Packenham,  the  American  by  Major  General 
Andrew  Jackson.  Several  skirmishes  took 
place  in  which  the  British  suffered  severely. 
On  Sunday  morning  eartv,  January  8,  a  grand 
attack  was  made  by  the  liritish  on  the  Ameri- 
can troops  in  their  entrenchments.  After  an 
engagement  of  upwards  of  an  hour,  the  enemy 
were  cut  to  pieces  to  a  degree  almost  beyond 
example,  and  fied  in  confusion,  leaving  their 
dead  and  wounded  on  the  field  of  battle.  The 
loss  of  the  British  was  700  killed,  1400  wounded, 
500  taken  prisoners,  making  a  total  of  2,600. 
The  American  loss  in  the  engagement  was  7 
killed,  and  6  wounded.  Sir  Edward  Packen- 
ham and  Major  General  Gibbs  were  amoncf  the 
slain.  Thi>  attack  was  not  renewed,  ana  in  a 
short  time  the  British  left  the  coast. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  a  British  colony 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  New  Holland.  This 
district  was  taken  possession  of  by  Captain 
Cook  on  his  first  voyage,  in  1770,  who  gave  it 
the  name  of  Botany  Bay.  The  colony,  com- 
menced in  1778,  and  composed  partly  of  con- 
victs, is  flourishing  and  promises  to  be  valuable 
to  the  mother  country.  Its  staple  commodity 
is  wool.  The  revenue,  in  16KB,  was  £  1 02,577. 

NEWTON,  Sir  Isaac,  justly  called  the  cre- 
ator of  natural  philosophy,  was  bom  at  Wools- 
thorpe,  in  Lincolnshire.  December  25,  1642.  old 
style.  lie  evinced,  in  early  youth,  a  great 
fondness  for  mechanical  pursuits,  and  a  remark' 
able  aptitude  for  drawing,  and  constructing 
machinery,  being  his  own  instructor  in  all  his 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


NEW 


365 


NEW 


pursuits.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  entered 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Here  his  fond- 
ness for  mathematical  studies  enabled  him  to 
make  a  great  proficiency  in  them,  and  before 
completing  his  23d  year,  he  made  some  great 
discoveries  in  the  science  to  which  he  was 
attached.  The  fall  of  an  apple  led  him  to  a 
train  of  reflections  which  resulted  in  his  eluci- 
dation of  the  principles  of  gravitation.  It  is 
impossible  to  folibvl"him  through  his  scientific 
career,  tracing  tfut  the  brilliant  discoveries  he 
made  in  optic3,*cheinistry,  tfcc.  In  1G38,  New- 
ton was  elected  .by  his  university  to  the  con- 
vention parliament.  In  1699,  he  was  made 
master  of  the  mint.  In  1703,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  royal  society,  and  in  1705, 
was  knighted  by  queen  Anne.  He  died  March 
20,  1727,  and  was  interred  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  when  a  monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory  by  his  family. 

The  following  is  Pope's  epitaph  on  this  great 
man ; 

Q.UEM  IMMORTALEM  CflSU,  NATURA, 

TEMPUS  OSTENDUNT, 
MoRTALEM  HOC  MARMOR  FATETUR. 
Nature  and  all  her  works  lay  hid  in  night, 
God  said,  Let  Newton  be— and  all  was  light. 

This  great  man  was  mild  and  good  natured 
in  his  private  life.  The  following  anecdote 
shows  his  character  in  a  most  amiable  light. 
"  He  had  constructed  a  small  laboratory  for 
prosecuting  his  chemical  investigations,  and 
seems,  after  his  publication  of  his  principia,  to 
have  devoted  almost  all  his  time  to  them.  One 
morning  (1692),  he  had  accidentally  shut  up  his 
little  pet  dog  Diamond  in  his  room,  and,  on 
returning,  found  that  the  animal,  by  upsetting 
a  candle  on  his  desk,  had  destroyed  the  labors 
of  several  years.  On  perceiving  his  loss,  he 
only  exclaimed,  '  Oh,  Diamond  !  Diamond  ! 
thou  little  knowest  the  mischief  thou  hast 
done  !'  " 

His  modesty  was  equal  to  his  merits.  "  When 
his  friends  expressed  their  admiration  of  his 
discoveries,  he  said, '  To  myself,  I  seern  to  have 
been  as  a  child  playing  on  the  seashore,  while 
the  immense  ocean  of  truth  lay  unexplored 
before  me.'  " 

NEW  YORK,  one  of  the  United  States,  is 
bounded  north  by  Upper  and  Lower  Canada ; 
east  by  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  and  Connect- 
icut; south  by  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania; 
and  west  by  Pennsylvania,  Lake  Erie,  and  the 
Niagara  river.  It  contains  45,058  square  miles. 
The  increase  of  the  population  is  very  rapid,  as 


may  be   perceived  from  the  following  state- 
ment. 

Population  in  1702 20,708 

in  1800 586,050 

in  1820 1,372,811 

«          in  1830 1,913,604 

in  1840 2,428,921 

New  York,  ^""^Montgoraery, 

Kings,  Hamilton, 

Queen's,  Saratoga, 

Richmond,  Washington, 

Suffolk,  Warren, 

Westchester,  Essex, 

Dutchess,  Clinton, 

Putnam,  Franklin, 

Orange,  St.  Lawrence, 

Rockland,  Jefferson, 

Ulster,  Lewis, 

Sullivan.  Herkimer, 

Delaware,  Oneida, 

Greene,  Madison, 

Columbia,  Oswego, 

Albany,  Otsego, 

Rensselaer,  Chenango, 

Schenectady,  Broome, 

Schoharie,  Cortland, 

Tompkins,  Livingston, 

Tioga,  Monroe, 

Sleuben,  Orleans, 

Onondaga,  Genesse, 

Cayuga,  Alleghany, 

Seneca,  Niagara, 

Ontario,  Erie, 

Yates,  Cattaraugus, 

Wayne,  Chautauqua. 

CITIES. 

New  York,  Brooklyn, 

Albany  (the  seat  of  government), 

Troy,  Utica, 

Hudson,  Rochester. 

Schenectady,  Buffalo. 

There  are  also  780  towns  and  180  incorpo 
rated  villages. 

New  York  contains  numerous  large  rivers, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  Hudson, 
Mohawk,  St.  Lawrence,  Delaware,  Susquehan 
na,  Tioga,  Alleghany,  Genesee,  Oswego,  Niag- 
ara. Lakes — Erie.  Ontario.  Champlain,  George, 
Cayuga,  Seneca,  Oneida,  &c. 

The  internal  navigation  of  the  state  of  New 
York  surpasses  that  of  any  other  state,  and  is 
continually  being  improved.  The  Erie  and 
Northern  Canals  are  both  great  works.  The 
surface  of  this  state  is  greatly  diversified.  In 
some  parts  the  elevation  is  great,  and  the  Kaats 
kill  mountains  presents  some  sublime  scenery. 
In  various  places  are  found  iron  ore,  gypsum, 
limestone,  marble,  slate,  lead,  &c. 

Education  is  liberally  provided  for  in  New 
York,  and  the  Columbia  College  in  the  city, 
Union  College  at  Schenectady,  and  Hamilton 
College  at  Clinton,  &c.,  are  flourishing  institu- 
tions. The  Military  Academy  at  West  Point, 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


NEW 


366 


NIN 


under  the  direction  of  the  national  government, 
is  an  admirable  institution.  These  are  but  the 
most  prominent.  The  annual  expenditure  made 
for  the  purpose  of  public  education  amounts  to 
$700,000.  The  state  finances  are  in  a  very 
flourishing  condition ;  the  annual  income  is 
$  2,000,001).  The  staple  productions  are  princi- 
pally wheat  and  other  grain,  flour,  provisions, 
salt,  pot  and  pearlashes,  and  lumber. 

New  York  was  first  discovered  by  Henry 
Hudson,  an  English  navigator,  in  1609.  He 
sailed  up  the  river  which  bears  his  name  to  the 
distance  of  150  miles,  and  on  his  return  to  Eu- 
rope, communicated  the  results  of  his  enter- 
prise to  his  employers,  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company.  Dutch  trading  establishments  were 
immediately  formed  at  \different  places.  The 
earliest  establishment  of  the  kind  was  Fort 
Orange,  founded  in  1613,  on  the  site  of  the  city 
of  Albany.  New  Amsterdam  (now  the  city  of 
New  York),  was  formed  a  few  years  later. 
The  East  India  Company  having  obtained  from 
the  government  of  Holland  a  giant  of  the  ex- 
clusive right  to  trade  in  America,  called  the 
country  which  they  settled,  New  Netherlands. 

In  1664,  Charles  II,  of  England,  granted  to 
his  brother,  the  duke  of  York  and  Albany,  an 
extensive  territory  which  included  the  colony 
of  New  Netherlands.  A  small  armament  was 
fitted  out  in  England  to  act  against  the  Dutch 
in  America,  who,  however,  speedily  submitted 
to  the  English.  The  latter  changed  the  names 
of  New  Amsterdam  to  New  York,  and  Fort 
Orange  to  Albany.  In  May,  1775,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  New  York  asserted  their  independence, 
and  through  the  revolutionary  war,  took  a  dis- 
tinguished part  in  the  struggle  for  liberty. 

NEW-YORK  CITY,  lies  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  and  is  situated  on  an  island  at  the  junc- 
tion of  Hudson  and  East  rivers,  at  the  head  of 
New- York  bay,  sixteen  miles  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  The 'island  is  about  fifteen  miles  long, 
and  one  and  a  half  broad.  The  Indian  name 
of  this  island  is  Manhattan.  The  island  con- 
stitutes a  county  of  itself.  Population  in  1840, 
312,982  The  schools  of  New  York  enjoy  a 
high  reputation.  There  are  more  than  100 
churches  in  the  city,  many  of  them  handsomely 
built  and  ornamented.  The  charitable  and  lit- 
erary institutions  are  numerous.  The  citizens 
of  New  York  came  forward  early  in  defence  of 
their  rights,  and  suffered  severely  during  the 
revolutionary  struggle.  After  the  retreat  of 
Washington  from  Long  Island,  the  city  was 
seized  by  the  British  who  held  it  until  the  25th 
of  November,  1783. 


NEY,  Michael,  duke  of  Elchingen,  prince  of 
Moscow,  marshal  and  peer  of  France,  jrrand- 
cross  of  the  legion  of  honor,  knight  of  St. 
Louis,  &c.,  was  born  in  Alsace,  in  1769.  He 
rose  from  the  ranks  to  the  chief  command  of 
armies,  but  was  more  distinguished  for  his 
bravery  than  his  tactics.  He  opposed  Welling- 
ton in  Spain,  and  pursued  the  British  army  to 
the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras.  Me  afterwards 
served  under  Napoleon  in  Russia,  and  at  the 
great  battle  of  the  Moskwa  acquired  the  name 
of  "  the  bravest  of  the  brave."  At  the  return 
of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  the  command  of  the 
royalist  army  was  confided  to  him,  but  being 
threatened  with  the  desertion  of  his  troops,  he 
went  over  to  the  emperor.  For  this  he  was 
tried  on  the  second  return  of  the  Bourbons,  con- 
demned, and  shot. 

NICARAGUA,  a  state  of  the  Guatimalcan 
confederacy,  bounded  north  by  Honduras ;  east 
by  the  Caribbean  Sea;  south  by  Costa  Rica, 
and  west  by  the  Pacific.  The  country  is  fertile, 
rich  in  forests,  and  the  precious  metals.  The 
population  is  250,000. 

NICHOLSON,  James,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  Charlestown,  Maryland,  in  1737. 
Throughout  the  revolutionary  war.  he  served 
with  distinction  in  our  infant  navy.  June  2d. 
1780,  Nicholson,  with  the  Trumbull,  a  frigate 
of  32  guns,  manned  with  only  ]!>!)  men,  fought 
a  severe  action  with  the  British  frigate  Wyatt. 
This  engagement  lasted  three  hours,  at  the  ex- 
piration of  which  the  disabled  state  of  the 
Trumbull's  masts,  compelled  Nicholson  to  with- 
draw with  a  loss  of  nine  men  killed,  and  twen- 
ty-one wounded.  This  gallant  commander  died 
in  September,  1806. 

N1GRITIA,  Soudan,  or  Takrour,  a  name 
applied  generally  to  the  interior  parts  of  Africa, 
which  are  imperfectly  known.  It  includes 
many  kingdoms  and  countries,  as  Bambarra. 
Timbuctoo,  Kong,  Houssa,  Borgou,  Yarriba, 
Nyffe.  Fonda.  Bournou,  Mandara,  &c. 

NINUS,  a  son  of  Belas,  who  built  a  city  to 
which  he  gave  his  own  name,  and  founded  the 
Assyrian  monarchy,  of  which  he  was  the  first 
sovereign.  B.  C.  205!'.  Pie  was  very  war- 
like, and  extended  his  conquests  from  Egypt  to 
the  extremities  of  India  and  Bactriana.  Ninus 
reigned  fifty-two  years,  and  at  his  death  he  left 
his  kingdom  to  the  care  of  his  wife  Semiramis, 
by  whom  he  had  a  son.  The  history  of  Ninus 
is  very  obscure,  and  even  fabulous  according 
to  the  opinion  of  some.  Ninus  after  death  re- 
ceived divine  honors,  and  became  the  Jupiter 
of  the  Assyrians  and  the  Hercules  of  the  dial 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


NOR 


367 


NOR 


deans.  The  celebrated  city,  the  capital  of  As- 
syria, built  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  by  Ninus, 
is  called  Nineveh,  in  Scripture.  It  was  taken  by 
the  united  armies  of  Cyaxares  and  Nabopolas- 
ear  king  of  Babylon.  B.  C.  606. 

NORMANDY,  an  ancient  province  in  the 
north  of  France,  now  divided  into  five  depart- 
ments, and  containing  2,000,000  inhabitants. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  century  the  Nor- 
mans settled  here,  and  were  governed  by  their 
own  dukes ;  the  most  renowned  of  whom,  was 
William,  who  achieved  the  conquest  of  Eng- 
land in  J06G.  In  1346,  Normandy  was  overrun 
by  Edward  III;  and  in  1418,  it  was  held  by 
Henry  V,  who  conquered  the  whole  province, 
and  obtained  its  formal  cession  to  England  by 
the  peace  of  1420.  It  was  wrested  from  the 
English  in  1449 ;  and  from  that  time  Normandy 
was  exempt  from  the  evils  of  war,  until  the 
religious  contests  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It 
escaped  in  the  revolution,  though,  in  1794,  a 
Vendean  army  entered  its  western  frontier; 
but  were  soon  put  to  flight.  Normandy  had, 
until  the  revolution,  its  separate  parliaments, 
which  sat  at  Rouen;  and  its  provincial  laws 
and  usages  were  preserved  under  the  name  of 
Coutumier  de  Normandie. 

NORRIS,  Sir  John,  second  son  of  Henry,  the 
first  Lord  Norris,  famous  for  his  valor,  was  first 
trained  up  in  military  exercises  under  Admiral 
Coligni  in  the  civil  wars  of  France,  next  in 
Ireland,  under  Walter,  earl  of  Essex,  then 
served  in  the  Netherlands  under  Matthias,  arch- 
duke of  Austria,  in  1579,  afterwards  under  the 
Duke  of  Lorrain,  1582  ;  next  under  William  of 
Nassau  ;  and,  in  the  27th  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
was  constituted  colonel-general  of  all  the  horse 
and  foot  sent  out  of  England  to  the  relief  of 
Antwerp,  then  besieged  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
empowered  to  treat  with  the  states-general  for 
the  entertaining  of  the  English  foot  appointed 
to  serve  in  those  parts.  In  the  30th  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  being  then  president  of  the  council 
in  the  province  of  Munster,  in  Ireland,  he  had 
a  commission  giving  him  power  to  constitute 
such  principal  officers  as  well  by  sea  and  land, 
as  he  thought  fit  for  the  defence  of  the  king- 
dom. 

In  the  33d  of  Queen  Elizabeth  he  was  con- 
stituted captain-general  of  those  English  auxil- 
iaries that  were  sent  to  King  Henry  IV,  of 
France,  against  his  rebellious  subjects  in  Bre- 
tagne  ;  and  having  deported  himself  with  great 
prudence  and  courage  in  all  these  eminent 
employments,  to  the  great  honor  of  the  English 
nation  as  well  as  of  his  own  name,  expected 


that  upon  the  re-calling  of  Sir  William  Russell, 
knight,  afterwards  Lord  Russell,  he  should  have 
been  deputy  of  Ireland ;  but,  finding  that  Thom- 
as, Lord  Borough,  was  preferred  to  that  com- 
mand, and  himserf  required  to  continue  still  in 
Munster,  he  became  so  highly  discontented,  as 
to  occasion  his  premature  death. 

NORTH,  Frederick,  second  Earl  of  Guilford, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Francis,  the  first  earl,  and 
was  born  in  1732.  He  was  educated  at  Eton, 
and  at  Trinity-college,  Oxford ;  after  which  he 
went  to  Leipsic.  On  his  return  home  he  was 
elected  into  parliament :  and  in  1759,  he  became 
a  commissioner  of  the  Treasury.  In  1763,  he 
succeeded  Lord  Bute  at  the  head  of  the  board  ; 
but  resigned  his  seat  in  1765  ;  and  the  year  fol- 
lowing he  become  joint-receiver  and  pay-master 
of  the  forces.  In  1767,  he  was  appointed  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer;  and  in  1770,  first  lord 
of  the  Treasury ;  both  which  offices  he  held 
during  the  American  war,  till  1782.  Not  long 
after  this,  the  same  statesmen  who  had  repeat- 
edly threatened  his  lordship  with  an  impeach- 
ment, formed  a  coalition  with  him;  but  this 
motley  administration  lasted  a  very  few  months. 
In  1790,  Lord  North  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  earldom,  and  died  in  1792,  having  been  blind 
some  years. 

NORTH  WEST  TERRITORY,  now  divi- 
ded into  the  Territories  of  Iowa  (see  Iowa,)  and 
Wisconsin.  The  latter  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  British  possessions,  east  by  lake  Superior. 
Michigan  State,  and  lake,  south  by  Illinois,  and 
west  by  the  Mississippi.  Its  largest  rivers  are 
the  Wisconsin  or  Porcupine,  which  falls  into  the 
Mississippi  at  Fort  Crawford,  and  the  Fox, 
which,  after  passing  through  lake  Winnebago, 
empties  into  Green  Bay,  a  large  arm  of  lake 
Michigan,  between  Fort  Howard  and  Navarino. 
Milwaukee  on  lake  Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of 
Milwaukee  river  has  the  best  harbor  in  the  Ter- 
ritory. It  is  a  prairie  country,  and  like  Iowa 
contains  mines  of  lead  and  copper.  The  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  by  the  census  of  1840, 
was  30,752. 

NORWAY,  an  extensive  kingdom  of  the 
north  of  Europe,  united  to  Sweden  in  1814. 
The  face  of  the  country  is  broken  by  mount- 
ain ridges,  the  summits  of  which  are  covered 
with  snow  and  ice.  The  climate  presents  the 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  a  great  propor- 
tion of  the  soil  is  barren.  In  fact,  the  wealth 
of  Norway  consists  in  timber,  cattle,  fisheries, 
and  minerals.  The  chief  towns  are  Bergen, 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


NOV 


368 


NOV 


Christiana,  Drontheim,  Konigsberg,  Christian- 
sand,  and  Fredericshall.  Population,  1,150,132. 
Norway  was  divided  into  petty  principalities 
until  the  ninth  century,  and  was  little  known 
till  1397,  when  it  was  incorporated  with  Den- 
mark. Their  peaceful  union  continued  till 
1814,  when  it  was  interrupted  by  the  treaty 
which  the  king  of  Denmark  was  compelled  to 
make  with  Great  Britain,  resigning  the  sove- 
reignty of  Norway  to  the  king  of  Sweden,  to 
which  Norway  was  forced  to  submit ;  but  as 
an  integral  state,  and  with  the  preservation  of 
its  constitution  and  laws. 

SUCCESSION  OF  PRINCES. 

800  Getho. 
991  Olaus  I. 
998  Sueno. 

1011  Olaus  II. 

In  1029,  Norway  was  conquered  by  Canute 
the  Great  king  of  Denmark,  and  was  woverned 
by  Sueno,  as  regent.  On  the  death  of  Canute, 
Norway  recovered  its  independence. 

1036  Magnus  I, 

1048  Harold  I, 

1066  Olaus  III, 

1077  Magnus  II, 

1110  Magnus  III, 

1138  Harold  II, 

1148  Magnus  III,  restored, 

1158  Ingo  Gibbus, 

1176  IntcrrecTium, 

1180  Magnus  IV, 

1232  Hakon  I,  the  Tyrant, 

1263  Olaus  IV, 

1280  Erick, 

1300  Hakon  II, 

1315  Magnus  V. 

1326  Hakon  III, 

1328  Magnus  VI, 

1359  Hakon  IV, 

1375  Olaus  V, 

1387  Margaret,  Queen  of  Denmark. 

In  1417,  the  kingdoms  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way were  united,  under  Erick  IX. 

NOVA  SCOTIA,  a  British  province  of  North 
America,  a  peninsula  jutting  out  into  the  Atlan- 
tic, containing  about  15,617  square  miles.  It  is 
about  250  miles  in  length,  and  partially  sepa- 
rated from  New  Brunswick  by  the  Bay  of 
Fundy.  The  country  is  somewhat  rough,  but 
the  soil  in  the  interior  is  good.  The  exports 
consist  principally  of  fish,  timber,  and  plaster 
of  Paris.  Halifax  is  the  chief  town.  Popula- 
tion, 160,000,  of  which  30,000  belong  to  Cape 
Breton,  in  which  is  a  dependancy  of  this  prov- 


ince. Nova  Scotia  was  discovered  by  John 
Cabot  in  1497.  The  French,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  Acadia,  were  the  first  settlers.  Sir 
William  Alexander  settled  in  Nova  Scotia  in 
1621,  but  it  was  surrendered  to  the  French  by 
Charles  I,  on  the  family  alliance  between  him 
and  that  court  in  1632.  It  was  recovered  by 
Major  Sedgwick,  under  Cromwell,  in  1654; 
delivered  again  to  the  French,  by  Charles  II,  in 
1662 ;  recovered  by  Sir  William  Phipps  in  1690 ; 
ceded  to  France  at  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in 
1697;  but  conquered  again  by  the  English  in 
1710,  and  confirmed  to  them  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  in  1714.  Afterward,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Indians,  the  French  gave  great  distur- 
bance to  the  English  settlers  in  this  country; 
but  their  possession  was  again  confirmed  by  the 
treaty  of  Aix-a-Chapelle  in  1748.  ' 

NOVGOROD,  a  city  of  European  Russia, 
containing  10,000  inhabitants.  It  is  the  capi- 
tal of  a  government  of  the  same  name,  and  for- 
merly enjoyed  many  privileges  under  an  inde- 
pendent prince.  It  was  once  so  rich  and  pow- 
erful, that  a  common  proverb  was,  "  Who  can 
oppose  God,  or  the  great  city  of  Novgorod?" 
Vithold,  Great  Duke  of 'Lithuania,  was  the  first, 
who,  in  1427,  obliged  this  city  to  pay  a  tribute 
of  200,000  crowns.  John  Basilowitz  Grotsdin, 
tyrant  of  Moscovy,  made  himself  master  of  it 
in  1477,  and  placed  a  governor  in  it*;  and,  some 
time  after,  came  in  person  and  plundered  the  city, 
carrying  away  with  him  to  Moscow,  300  wag- 
ons loaded  with  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones, 
and  other  rich  goods  and  furniture;  to  which 
place  he  also  transported  the  inhabitants  of  Nov- 
gorod, and  sent  Moscovites  to  inhabit  their  city. 
John  Basilowitz,  Great  Duke  of  Moscovy,  in 
1569,  upon  a  groundless  suspicion  of  their  de- 
signing to  revolt,  slew  many  of  its  inhabitants, 
besides  a  vast  number  that  were  trodden  to 
death  by  a  party  of  his  horse,  let  in  upon  thorn. 
After  having  plundered  the  rich  churcli  of 
Sancta  Sophia,  and  all  the  treasures  of  the  other 
churches,  he  also  pillaged  the  archbis-hopnc, 
and  then  commanded  the  archbishop  to  ride 
upon  a  white  horse,  with  a  fiddle  tied  about 
his  neckrand  a  flute  in  his  hand;  and  in  this 
posture  conducted  him  to  Moscow.  This  city 
was  taken  by  the  Swedes  in  1611,  and  restored 
to  the  Russians  in  1634.  In  1664,  it  was  popu- 
lous, and  a  pla.co  of  good  trade,  encompassed 
with  a  timber  wall,  well  stored  with  ammuni- 
tion and  brass  ordnance,  and  defended  by  a 
castle.  This  duchy,  once  the  greatest  in  Rus- 
sia, was  assigned  by  lot  to  Ruruk  Varegus,  their 
first  duke,  whose  posterity  enlarged  their  do- 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


NUM 


559 


mmicns  as  far  as  the  Greek  empire  on  one  side, 
and  Norway  on  the  other. 

NUMA  POMPILIUS,  a  Sabine,  the  second 
king  of  Rome,  reigned  from  714  to  672  B.  C. 
At  the  death  of  Romulus,  the  Romans  fixed 
upon  him  to  be  their  new  king ;  and  two  sen- 
ators were  sent  to  acquaint  him  with  the  deci- 
sions of  the  senate,  and  of  the  people,  Numa 
refused  their  offers  ;  and  it  was  only  at  the  re- 
peated solicitations  and  prayers  of  his  friends, 
that  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  accept  the  royalty. 
The  beginning  of  his  reign  was  popular,  and  he 
dismissed  the  300  body  guards  which  his  pre- 
decessor had  kept  around  his  person  ;  observ- 
ing, that  he  did  not  distrust  a  people  who  had 
compelled  him  to  reign  over  them.  He  was  not 
like  Romulus,  fond  of  war  and  military  expedi- 
tions ;  but  he  applied  himself  to  tame  he  feso- 
city  of  his  subjects,  to  inculcate  in  the  r  minds 
a  reverence  for  the  Deity,  and  to  qu-11  their 
dissensions,  by  dividing  all  the  citizens  .nto  dif- 
ferent classes. 

NUMANTIA,  a' town  of  Spain,  n  ar  the 
sources  of  the  river  Durius,  celebrated  for  the 
war  of  14  years,  which,  though  unprotected  by 
walls  and  towers,  it  jfcfavely  maintained  against 
the  Romans.  The  inhabitants  obtained  some 
advantages  over  the  Roman  forces,  till  Scipio 
Africanus  was  empowered  to  finish  the  war, 
and  to  see  the  destruction  of  Numantia.  He 
began  the  siege  with  an  army  of  GftSDO  men, 
and  was  bravely  opposed  by  the  bested,  who 
were  no  more  than  4,000  men  able  to-  bw^arms. 
Both  armies  behaved  with  uncommon1'  valor, 
and  the  courage  of  the  Numantines  was  soon 
changed  into  despair  and  fury.  Their  provi- 
sions began  to  fail,  and  they  fed  upon  the  flesh 
of  their  horses,  and  afterwards  of  that  of  their 
dead  companions,  and  at  last  were  necessitated 
to  draw  lots  to  kill  and  devour  one  another. 
The  melancholy  situation  of  theii  affairs  obliged 
some  to  surrender  to  the  Roman  general.  Sci- 
pio demanded  them  to  deliver  themselves  upon 
the  morrow;  they  refused,  and  when  a  longer 
time  had  been  granted  to  their  petitions,  they 
retired  and  set  fire  to  their  houses,  and  all  de- 
stroyed themselves,  B.  C.  133,  so  that  not  even 
one  remained  to  adorn  the  triumph  of  the  con- 
queror. Some  historians,  however,  deny  that, 
and  maintain  that  a  number  of  Numantines  de- 
livered themselves  into  Scipio's  hands,  and  that 
fifty  of  them  were  drawn  in  triumph  at  Rome, 
and  the  rest  sold  as  slaves.  The  fall  of  Numan- 
tia was  more  glorious  than  that  of  Carthage  or 
Corinth. 


(EDI 


O. 


GATES,  Titus,  an  infamous  character,  was 
born  about  1619.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Baptist 
preacher,  and  was  educated  at  Merchant  Tai- 
lors' school,  from  whence  he  removed  to  Cam- 
bridge, and  afterwards  took  orders.  In  1677,  he 
turned  Roman  Catholic,  and  was  admitted  into 
the  Society  of  Jesuits.  On  Bis  return  to  Eng- 
land, however,  he  declared  himself  a  Protest- 
ant, and  in  conjunction  with  one  Dr.  Ezrael 
Tongue,  gave  information  of  a  pretended  pop- 
ish plot;  which  met  with  too  ready  a  belief, and 
several  persons  were  executed.  Oates  was  re- 
warded with  a  pension  of  £1200  a  year;  but, 
when  James  II  came  to  the  throne,  he  was 
found  guilty  of  perjury,  pilloried,  whipped,  and 
ordered  to  be  imprisoned  for  life.  In  the  reign 
of  William  III  he  obtained  his  liberty,  and  a 
pension  of  £400  a  year.  He  died  in  1705. 

OAXACA,  one  of  the  states  of  the  Mexican 
confederacy,  containing  about  600,000  inhabit- 
ants. The  capital,  a  handsome  city  of  the  same 
name,  contains  40,000  inhabitants.  The  climate 
is  temperate,  and  the  soil  extremely  fruitful 
Gold  and  silver  are  found  in  abundance. 

OCTAVIA,  a  Roman  lady,  sister  to  the  em- 
peror Augustus,  and  celebrated  for  her  beauty 
and  virtues.  Her  marriage  with  Antony  was  a 
political  step  to  reconcile  her  brother  and  her 
husband.  Antony  proved  for  sometime  atten- 
tive to  her,  but  he  soon  after  despised  her  for 
Cleopatra.  After  the  battle  of  Actium  and  the 
death  of  Antony,  Octavia,  forgetful  of  the  in- 
juries she  had  received,  took  into  her  house  all 
the  children' of  her  husband,  and  treated  them 
with  maternal  tenderness.  The  death  of  Mar- 
cellus  her  son  continually  preyed  upon  the  mind 
of  Octavia,  who  died  of  melancholy  about  ten 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  Her  brqtherpaid 
great  regard  to  her  memory,  by  pronouncing 
himself  her  funeral  oration.  The  Roman  people 
also  showed  their  respect  for  her  virtues,  by 
their  wish  to  pay  her  divine  honors. 

CEDIPUS.  son  of  Laius,  kin^  of  Thrace,  and 
Jocasta.  Laius  was  induced  to  believe  that  his 
son  would  be  his  murderer,  and  the  infant  was 
accordingly  exposed  on  Mount  Cithacron.  He 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  Polybus,  king  of 
Corinth.  Being  reproached  by  a  haughty  no- 
bleman with  not  being  the  son  of  Polybus,  he 
solved  to  satisfy  himself  by  making  inquiries  at 
the  shrine  of  the  Delphic  oracle.  The  answer 
was  as  follows :  "  Avoid  thy  country  if  thou 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


OLY 


370 


OLY 


wouldst  escape  the  sin  of  murdering  thy  father 
and  marrying  thy  mother."  OZdipus,  looking 
on  Corinth  as  his  country,  fled  thence  to  Thebes, 
where  he  killed  his  father,  without  knowing  him, 
and  received  the  hand  of  his  mother  Jocasta. 
Discovering  the  horrible  calamity  which  had  be- 
fallen him,  CEdipus  put  out  his  eyes,  and  died 
far  from  the  scene  of  his  misfortunes.  Jocasta 
hanged  herself. 

OHIO,  one  of  the  United  States,  bounded 
N.  by  Michigan  territory  and  lake  Erie,  E.  by 
Pennsylvania  and  the  Ohio  river,  S.  by  the 
Ohio  river  which  separates  it  from  Virginia  and 
Kentucky,  and  W.  by  Indiana.  The  population 
of  Ohio  has  increased  and  is  increasing  with 
unexampled  rapidity.  In  1790  it  contained  but 
3,000  inhabitants.  In  1840,  1,519,467.  There 
are  several  colleges  in  Ohio,  all  of  which  are 
flourishing. 

The  rivers  are  the  Ohio,  Muskingum,  Hock- 
hocking,  Scioto,  Miami,  Maumee,  Sandusky, 
and  Cuyahoga.  The  eastern  and  southeastern 
parts  of  the  state  are  uneven,  but  not  mountain- 
ous. The  soil  is  very  fertile,  yielding  in  abun- 
nance  wheat,  maize,  rye,  and  other  kinds  of 
grain.  The  minerals  are  iron,  coal,  limestone, 
and  freestone.  Chief  towns,  Columbus,  Chilli- 
cothe,  Cincinnati,  Steubenville,  Circleville,  Ma- 
rietta, Dayton,  Cleveland,  New  Lancaster,  &c. 
The  first  permanent  settlement  in  Ohio  was 
made  at  Marietta,  April.  1788,  by  a  party  of  emi- 
grants from  New  England.  In  1791J  the  first  ter- 
ritorial legislature  was  assembled  at  Cincinnati. 
In  1802  it  was  erected  into  an  independent  state. 

OLDCASTLE,  Sir  John,  Lord  Cobham,  was 
the  head  of  the  Lollards,  and  esteemed  by 
Henry  IV  and  Henry  V.  The  latter  monarch 
at  the  instance  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, expostulated  with  him,  and  endeavored 
to  reconcile  him  to  the  Catholic  faith.  But 
Cobham  persevered  in  his  opinion,  and  was  at 
length  condemned  to  the  flames  for  his  religious 
tenets.  Cobham  escaped  from  the  tower  and 
four  years  afterwards  was  retaken,  hanged  as 
a  traitor,  and  his  body  burnt. 

OLMUTZ,f>r  HOLOMAUC;  a  city  and 
formerly  capital  of  Moravia,  with  12,800  inha- 
bitants. It  was  captured  by  the  Swedes  in  1642, 
and  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Prussians  in 
1758.  Lafayette  was  a  long  time  confined  in 
the  prisons  of  the  citadel. 

OLYMPIAS,  a  celebrated  woman,  who  was 
daughter  of  a  king  of  Epirus,  and  who  married 
Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  by  whom  she  had 
Alexander  the  Great.  Her  haughtiness,  and 
more  probably  her  infidelity,  obliged  Philip  to  re- 


pudiate her,  and  to  marry  Cleopatra,  the  niece 
of  King  Attains.  Olympias  was  sensible  of  this 
injury,  and  Alexander  showed  his  disapproba- 
tion of  his  father's  measures  by  retiring  from 
the  court  to  his  mother.  The  murder  of  Philip, 
which  soon  followed  this  disgrace,  and  which 
some  have  attributed  to  the  intrigues  of  Olym- 
pias, was  productive  of  the  greatest  extrava- 
gances. The  queen  paid  the  highest  honor  to 
her  husband's  murderer.  She  gathered  his  man- 
gled limbs,  placed  a  crown  of  gold  on  his  head, 
and  laid  his  ashes  near  those  of  Philip. 

When  Alexander  was  dead,  Olympias  seized 
the  government  of  Macedonia ;  and.  to  estab- 
lish her  usurpation,  she  cruelly  put  to  death  Ari- 
dffius,  with  his  wife  Eurydice,  as  also  Nicanor, 
the  brother  of  Cassander,  with  100  leading  men 
of  Macedon,  who  were  inimical  to  her  interest. 
Such  barbarities  did  not  long  remain  unpun- 
ished ;  Cassander  besieged  her  in  Pydna,  where 
she  had  retired  with  the  remains  of  her  family, 
and  she  was  obliged  to  surrender  after  an  obsti- 
nate siege.  The  conqueror  ordered  her  to  be 
accused;  and  to  be  put  to  death.  A  body  of  200 
soldiers  were  directed  to  put  the  bloody  com- 
mands into  execution,  but  the  splendor  and 
majesty  of  the  queen  disarmed  their  courage, 
and  she  was  at  last  massacred  by  those  whom 
she  had  cruelly  deprived  of  their  children,  about 
31()  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES,  were  celebrated  by  the 
ancient  (Greeks  in  honor  of  Jupiter  Olympius, 
on  tb*.pjain  opposite  the  modern  town  of  Lala. 
They  Occurred  once  in  every  four  years,  and 
the  Greeks  computed  time  from  them.  They 
always  commenced  on  the  llth  of  the  month 
Hecatombceon  (which  nearly  corresponds  with 
our  July.)  No  females,  except  the  priestesses 
of  Ceres,  were  permitted  to  witness  them,  death 
being  denounced  to  the  woman  who  should  be 
present.  The  competitors  prepared  themselves 
by  ten  months'  exercise  in  the  gymnasium  at 
Elis.  The  games  consisted  of  races  on  horse- 
back and  on  foot,  leaping,  throwing  the  discus, 
wrestling,  boxing,  musical  and  poetical  contests. 
The  reward  was  a  wreath  of  olives. 

Racing  was  considered  in  Greece  a  matter 
of  the  highest  national  importance  ;  had  it  not 
been  so,  Sophocles  would  have  been  guilty  of 
a  great  fault  in  his  Elect ra.  wlu-re  lie  puts 
into  the  mouth  of  the  messenger  who  comes  to 
recount  the  death  of  Orestes,  a  long  description 
of  this  sport.  Of  the  training  and  management 
of  the  Olympic  race-horse  we  are  unfortunate- 
ly left  in  ignorance — all  that  can  be  inferred 
being  the  Tact,  that  the  equestrian  candidates 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


OMA 


371 


OMA 


were  required  to  enter  their  names  and  send 
their  horses  to  Elis  at  least  thirty  days  before 
the  celebration  of  the  games  commenced,  and 
that  the  charioteers  and  riders,  whether  owners 
or  proxies,  went  through  a  prescribed  course 
of  exercises  during  the  ensuing  month.  They 
had  their  course  for  full-aged  horses,  and  their 
course  for  colts ;  and  their  prize  for  which  mares 
only  started,  resembling  in  these  respects  our 
degenerate  selves.  It  is  true  that  the  race  with 
riding-horses  was  neither  so  magnificent,  nor 
so  expensive,  and  consequently  not  considered 
so  royal,  as  the  race  with  chariots,  yet  they 
had  their  gentlemen-jockeys  in  those  days,  and 
noted  ones  too,  for  among  the  number  were 
Philip,  king  of  Macedon.  and  Hiero,  king  of 
Syracuse  (see  Hiero.)  The  want  of  stirrups 
alone  must  have  been  a  terrible  deficiency.  But 
horsemanship  was  an  art  in  which  the  Greeks 
excelled.  Homer,  although  he  mentions  only 
chariots  in  h'u  account  of  the  siege  of  Troy, 
speaks  of  riding  so  familiarly  in  some  parts  of 
his  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  that  it  must  have  been 
practised  among  the  Greeks  before  the  compo- 
sition of  either  of  these  poems.  In  the  fifteenth 
book  of  the  Iliad,  he  represents  the  strength  and 
activity  of  Ajax,  when  he  fought  in  defence  of 
the  Grecian  ships  of  war  that  were  attacked  by 


the  Trojans,  and  leaped  from  one  ship  to  an- 
other, by  the  readiness  and  address  with  which 
a  skilful  horseman  would  vault  from,  the  back 


of  one  horse  to  that  of  another  ;  and  Iiis  ability 
to  defend  many  ships  at  once  by  that  of~an  ac- 
complished rider,  who  is  capable  of  managing 
and  controlling  several  horses  at  the  same  time. 

High  on  the  decks,  with  vast  eisantic  stride, 
The  god-like  hero  stalks  from  side  to  side. 
So  when  a  horseman  from  the  watery  mead 
(Skilled  in  the  manage  of  the  hounding  steed,) 
Drives  four  fair  coursers,  practised  to  obey, 
To  some  great  city  throush  the  public  way  ; 
Safe  in  his  :irt,  as"  side  i>y  siile  they  run, 
He  shifts  his  seat,  and  vaults  from  one  to  one, 
And  now  to  this,  anil  now  to  tint  he  flies  ; 
Admiring  numbers  follow  with  their  eyes. 
[Pope's  Homer. 

The  Olympiad,  from  which  the  Greeks  began 
to  reckon,  was.  according  to  Petavius,  1777 ;  ac- 
cording to  Usher,  1772;  and  according  to  Cal- 
visius,  774  B.  C.  Gatterer,  and  most  of  the 
moderns  call  it  776. 

OMAR  I,  the  second  caliph,  or  successor  of 
Mahomet.  He  was  raised  to  this  dignity  after 
the  death  of  Abubeker  in  03-1.  Soon  after  his 
entering  upon  the  government,  he  carried  on 
wars  with  All,  who  was  the  lawful  successor 
of  Mahomet,  and  who  had  retired  into  Arabia. 
32 


Omar  having  defeated  Ali,  taken  the  city  Bosra, 
and  many  other  places  of  Arabia,  turned  his 
arms  against  the  Christians,  and  entered  Syria, 
where  he  gained  a  victory  over  Theodorus  Bo- 
gairus,  brother  to  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  and 
afterwards  returned  victorious  into  Arabia.  The 
emperor,  who  was  then  at  Jerusalem,  desirous 
to  provide  for  his  own  safety,  took  the  relics 
and  most  precious  ornaments  of  the  temple ; 
anH  leaving  Theodorus  with  Bahamus,  retired 
to  Constantinople.  In  635.  Omar  gathered  his 
forces,  and  marched  against  Damascus,  which 
he  took  the  year  following,  and  afterwards  all 
Phoanicia,  and  comrnilted~a  thousand  violences 
to  force  people  to  embrace  his  religion.  The  year 
following,  a  part  of  his  army  subdued  Alexan- 
dria, and  not  long  after  all  Egypt.  In  the  mean 
time,  Omar  went  in  person  to  attack  Jerusalem, 
and  after  two  years'  siege  entered  it  victoriously 
in  633.  Ornar  thus  reduced  all  Judea  to  his  obe- 
dience, and  Jerusalem  was,  from  that  time,  pos- 
sessed by  infidels  till  the  conquest  of  it  by  God- 
frey of  Bouillon  in  10!)9.  In  639  he  subdued 
all  Mesopotamia,  and  at  the  same  time  built  the 
city  of  Cairo,  near  the  ruins  of  Memphis,  in 
Egypt.  And  lastly,  in  643,  he  made  himself 
master  of  Persia.  From  the  time  of  his  taking 
Jerusalem  he  made  his  ordinary  residence  in 
that  city,  and  built  a  magnificent  temple  there  in 
honor  of  Mahomet ;  and,  after  having  reigned 
ten  years,  he  was  killed  by  a  Persian,  one  of  his 
domestics,  and  buried  at  Medina  in  644. 

OMAR  II,  the  tenth  caliph,  or  successor  of 
Mahomet,  was  chosen  after  the  death  of  his 
cousin,  Solyman  Hascoin,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  year  721 ,  at  the  time  that  Constantinople 
was  besieged.  He  collected  all  his  forces,  and 
attacked  that  city ;  but  the  besieged  made  so 
stout  a  resistance,  and  so  good  use  of  their  fire- 
works, that  he  was  forced  to  raise  it.  And 
scarcely  was  Marvan,  or  Masalma,  the  general 
of  the  army,  safe  out  of  the  channel  of  Con- 
stantinople, when  a  dreadful  tempest  destroyed 
most  of  his  ships,  and  many  others  were  con- 
sumed by  fire,  so  that  of  300  ships  only  fifteen 
escaped,  five  of  which  were  taken  by  the  Chris- 
tians, and  the  other  ten  proceeded  with  the 
news  of  this  defeat  to  the  caliph,  who  imagin- 
ing that  God  was  angry  with  him  for  permit- 
ting Christians  the  exercise  of  their  religion  in 
his  dominions,  made  all  those  whose-  fathers  or 
mothers  were  Mahometans,  embrace  Mahome- 
tanism  on  pain  of  death,  and  upon  great  pen- 
alties forbade  the  eating  of  swine's  flesh,  and 
use  of  wine.  He  discharged  all  Christians  that 
turned  Mahometans  from  paying  taxes  and  eus- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ORA 


372 


ORA 


toms,  and  cruelly  persecuted  the  others ;  and 
pushed  on  by  a  false  zeal,  he  sent  letters  to  Leo 
Isauricus,  the  emperor  of  Constantinople,  to 
embrace  Mahometanism,  and  sent  a  renegade 
to  instruct  him  in  the  way  of  it ;  but  he  died 
soon  after,  having  reigned  two  years. 

OPORTO,  or  PORTO,  the  second  city  of 
Portugal,  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  Duero,  about 
160  miles  north  of  Lisbon.  It  contains  70,000 
inhabitants.  It  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
French  in  1808 — 9,  and  its  commerce  has  suf- 
fered much  from  the  tyrannical  regulations  of 
Don  Miguel. 

ORACLES,  Ancient,  impostures  of  the  priest- 
hood, supported  by  the  policy  of  governments, 
and  apparently  credited  by  habit  and  education  ; 
but  constantly  used  to  impose  on  the  soldiery 
and  ignorant  multitudes. 

No  institutions  were  more  famous  than  the 
ancient  oracles  of  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome. 
They  were  impudently  said  to  be  the  will  of 
the  gods  themselves ;  and  were  consulted,  not 
only  upon  every  important  matter,  but  even  in 
the  affairs  of  private  life.  To  make  peace  or 
war,  to  introduce  a  change  of  government,  to 
plant  a  colony,  to  enact  laws,  to  raise  an  edi- 
fice, or  to  marry,  were  all  sufficient  reasons  to 
consult  the  pretended  will  of  the  gods. 

The  small  province  of  Boeotia  could  once 
boast  of  25  oracles,  and  Peloponnesus  of  the 
same  number.  Not  only  the  chief  of  the  gods 
gave  oracles,  but  in  process  of  time  heroes 
were  admitted  to  enjoy  the  same  privileges ; 
and  the  oracles  of  a  Trophonius  and  an  Anti- 
noiis  were  soon  able  to  rival  the  fame  of  those 
of  Apollo  and  Jupiter.  The  temple  of  Delphi 
seemed  to  claim  a  superiority  over  the  other 
temples ;  its  fame  was  once  so  extended,  and  its 
riches  were  so  great,  that  not  only  private  per- 
sons, but  even  kings  and  numerous  armies, 
made  it  an  object  of  plunder  and  of  rapine. 

The  manner  of  delivering  oracles  was  differ- 
ent. A  priestess  at  Delphi  was  permitted  to 
K renounce  the  oracles  of  the  god,  and  her  de- 
veryof  the  answers  was  always  "attended  with 
acts  of  apparent  madness  and  desperate  fury. 
Not  only  women,  but  even  doves,  were  the  min- 
isters of  the  temple  of  Dodona ;  and  the  sup- 
pliant votary  was  often  startled  to  hear  his  ques- 
tions readily  answered  by  the  decayed  trunk, 
or  the  spreading  branches  of  a  neighboring  oak. 
Aminon  conveyed  his  answers  in  a  plain  and 
open  manner ;  but  Ampliiaraus  required  many 
ablutions  and  preparatory  ceremonies,  and  he 
generally  communicated  his  oracles  to  his  sup- 
pliants in  dreams  and  visions.  Sometimes  the 


first  words  that  were  heard,  after  issuing  from 
the  temple,  were  deemed  the  answers  of  the 
oracles,  and  sometimes  the  nodding  or  shaking 
of  the  head  of  the  statue,  the  motions  of  fishes 
in  a  neighboring  lake,  or  their  reluctance  in 
accepting  the  food  which  was  offered  to  them, 
were  as  strong  and  valid  as  the  most  express 
and  most.jninute  explanations. 

Some  have  strongly  believed  that  all  the  ora- 
cles of  the  earth  ceased  at  the  birth  of  Christ, 
but  the  supposition  is  false.  It  was,  indeed,  the 
beginning  of  their  decline  ;  but  they  remained 
in  repute,  and  were  consulted,  though  perhaps 
not  so  frequently,  till  the  fourth  century,  when 
Christianity  began  to  triumph  over  paganism. 
The  oracles  often  suffered  themselves  to  be 
bribed.  Alexander  did  it ;  but  it  is  well  known 
that  Lysander  failed  in  the  attempt.  Herodotus, 
who  first  mentioned  the  corruption  which  often 
prevailed  in  the  oracular  temples  of  Greece  and 
Egypt,  has  been  severely  treated  for  his  remarks 
by  the  historian  Plutarch.  Demosthenes  is  also 
a  witness  of  the  corruption  ;  and  he  observed, 
that  the  oracles  of  Greece  were  servilely  sub- 
servient to  the  will  and  pleasure  of  Philip,  king 
of  Macedon,  as  he  beautifully  expresses  it  by 
the  word  Philippized. 

When  in  a  state  of  inspiration,  the  eyes  of 
the  priestess  suddenly  sparkled,  her  hair  stood 
on  end,  and  a  shivering  ran  over  all  her  body. 
In  this  convulsive  state  she  spoke  the  oracles 
of  the  god,  oflen  with  loud  howlinfs  and  cries, 
and  her  articulations  were  taken  clown  by  the 
priest,  and  set  in'order.  Sometimes  the  spirit 
of  inspiration  was  more  gentle,  and  not  always 
violent;  yet  Plutarch  mentions  one  of  the 
priestesses  who  was  thrown  into  such  an  ex 
cessive  fury,  that  not  only  those  that  consulted 
the  oracle, 'but  also  the  priests  that  conducted 
her  to  the  sacred  tripod,  and  attended  her  dur- 
ing the  inspiration,  were  terrified,  and  forsook 
the  tvmple ;  and  so  violent  was  the  fit,  that  she 
continued  fur  some  days  in  the  most  agonizing 
situation,  and  at  last  died. 

At  Delphos,  the  Pythia,  before  she  placed 
herself  on  the  tripod,  used  to  wash  her  whole 
body,  and  particularly  her  hair,  in  the  waters  of 
the  fountain  Castalia",  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Par- 
Sho  also  shook  a  laurel-tree  that  grew 
near  the  place,  and  sometimes  ate  the  leaves, 
with  which  she  crowned  herself. 

The  priest-v-ses  ahvuy-  appi  ated  in  the  gar- 
ments of  virgins,  to  intimate  their  purity  ind 
modesty;  and  they  were  solemnly  bound  to 
observe  the  strictest  laws  of  temperance  and 
chastity,  that  neither  fantastical  dresses  nor 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


ORA 


373 


ORA 


lascivious  behavior  might  bring  the  office,  the 
religion,  or  the  sanctity  of  the  place,  into  con- 
tempt. There  was  originally  but  one  Pythia, 
besides  subordinate:  priests  ;  but  afterwards  two 
were  chosen,  and  sometimes  more.  The  most 
celebrated  of  all  these  is  Phemonoe,  who  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  first  who 
gave  oracles  at  Delphi.  The  oracles  were  al- 
ways delivered  in  hexameter  verses,  a  custom 
which  was  some  time  after  discontinued.  The 
Pythia  was  consulted  only  one  month  in  the 
year,  about  the  spring.  It  was  always  required, 
that  those  who  consulted  the  oracle  should  make 
large  presents  to  Apollo,  and  from  thence  arose 
the  opulence,  splendor,  and  the  magnificence, 
of  the  celebrated  temple  of  Delphi.  Sacrifices 
were  also  offered  to  the  divinity ;  and,  if  the 
omens  proved  unfavorable,  the  priestess  refused 
to  give  an  answer.  There  were  generally  five 
priests  who  assisted  at  the  offering  of  the  sacri- 
fices ;  and  there  was  also  ariothei  who  attended 
the  Pythia,  and  assisted  her  in  receiving  the 
oracle. 

The  most  celebrated  of  the  ancient  oracles 
were  Delphos,  Delos,  Aminon,  Dodona,  the  Ro- 
man Augurs,  and  the  Sibylline  Books. 

DELPHOS,  now  called  Castri,  the  capital  of 
Phocis,  in  Greece,  was  anciently  much  celebrat- 
ed for  its  temple  and  oracle  of  Apollo.  It  was 
also  called  Pytlw  by  the  poets,  from  the  serpent 
Python,  which  Apollo  killed  in  tins-place.  1'au- 
sanias,  however,  says  that  this  name  Pytho  was 
given  to  the  city  of  Delphos  by  Pythis,  son  of 
Delphus,  and  grandson  of  Lycorus.  The  Greek 
historians  gave  to  this  city  the  name  of  Delphos, 
which  some  suppose  to  have  been  so  called 
from  Atldyhoi.  brethren,  because  Apollo  and  his 
brother  Bacchus  were  both  worshipped  there  ; 
and  others,  with  greater  probability,  derive  the 
name  from  Delphos,  single  or  solitary,  referring 
to  the  retired  situation  of  the  city  among  the 
mountains. 

Justin  questions  which  was  the  most  wor- 
thy of  admiration,  the  fortification  of  the  place, 
or  the  majesty  of  the  god  who  here  delivered 
his  oracles.  The  temple  of  Apollo  occupied  a 
large  space,  and  many  streets  opened  to  it.  The 
first  discovery  which  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
extraordinary  veneration  in  which  the  oracle 
of  Delphos  was  held,  and  of  the  riches  accu- 
mulated in  the  temple,  is  said  to  have  been 
occasioned  by  some  goats  which  were  feeding 
on  Mount  Parnassus,  near  a  deep  and  large 
cavern,  with  a  narrow  entrance.  These  jroats 
having  been  observed  by  the  goatherd,  Core- 
tas,  to  frisk  and  leap  after  a  strange  manlier, 


and  to  utter  unusual  sounds  immediately  upon 
their  approach  to  the  mouth  of  the  cavern,  he 
had  the  curiosity  to  view  it,  and  found  luinsolf 
seized  with  the  like  fit  of  madness,  skipping, 
dancing,  and  foretelling  things  to  come. 

At  the  news  of  this  discovery  multitudes 
flocked  thither,  many  of  whom  were  possessed 
with  such  frantic  enthusiasm,  that  they  threw 
themselves  headlong  into  the  opening  of  the 
cavern,  insomuch  that  it  was  necessary  to  issue 
an  edict,  forbidding  all  persons  to  approacli  it. 
This  surprising  place  was  treated  with  singular 
veneration,  and  was  soon  covered  with  a  kimi 
of  chapel,  which  was  originally  made  of  laurel 
boughs,  and  resembled  a  large  hut.  This,  ac- 
cording to  the  Phocian  tradition,  was  surround- 
ed by  one  of  wax,  raised  up  by  bees  ;  after  this 
a  third  was  -built  of  solid  copper,  said  to  have 
been  the  workmanship  of  Vulcan. 

This  last  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
or  (according  to  some  authors)  by  fire,  which 
melted  the  copper ;  and  then  a  sumptuous  tem- 
ple, altogether  of  stone,  was  erected  by  two  ex- 
cellent architects,  Trophimus  and  Agamedes. 
This  edifice  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  58th 
Olympiad,  or  548  years  B.  C.  The  Amphicty 
ons  proposed  to  be  at  the  charge  of  building 
another  ;  but  the  Alemeonides,  a  rich  family  of 
Athens,  came  to  Delphos,  obtained  the  honor 
of  executing  the  building,  and  made  it  more 
magnificent  than  they  had  at  first  proposed. 
The  riches  of  this  temple,  amassed  by  the  do- 
nations of  those  who  frequented  it,  and  consult- 
ed the  oracle,  exposed  it  to  various  depreda- 
tions. At  length  the  Gauls,  under  the  conduct 
of  Brennus,  came  hither  for  the  same  purpose, 
about  278  years  B.  C. ;  but  they  were  repulsed 
with  great  slaughter.  Last  of  all,  JVero  robbed 
it  of  five  hundred  of  its  most  precious  brazen 
and  golden  statues. 

It  nas  not  been  ascertained  at  what  time  this 
oracle  was  founded.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  Apollo  was  not  the  first  who  was  consulted 
here.  ^Eschylus.  in  his  tragedy  of  Eumenides, 
says,  Terra  was  the  first  who  issued  oracles  at 
Delphi :  after  her,  Themis,  then  Phrebe,  another 
daughter  of  Terra,  and,  as  it  is  said,  mother  of 
Latona,  and  grandmother  to  Apollo.  Pausanias 
says,  that  before  Themis,  Terra  and  Neptune 
had  delivered  oracles  in  this  place,  and  some 
say  that  Saturn  had  also  been  consulted  here. 
At  length  the  oracle  of  Apollo  became  estab- 
lished and  permanent ;  and  such  was  its  repu- 
tation, and  such  were  the  multitudes  from  all 
parts  that  came  to  consult  it,  that  the  riches 
which  were  thus  brought  into  the  temple  and 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


ORA 


374 


OKA 


city,  became  so  considerable  as  to  be  compared 
with  those  of  the  Persian  kings. 

About  the  time  when  this  oracle  was  first 
discovered,  the  whole  mvstery  requisite  for  ob- 
I. -lining  the  prophetic  gift,  is  said  to  have  been 
merely  to  approach  the  cavern  and  inhale  the 
vapor  that  issued  from  it,  and  then  the  god  inspir- 
ed all  persons  indiscriminately;  but  at  length, 
several  enthusiasts,  in  the  excess  of  their  fury, 
having  ttirown  themselves  headlong  into  the 
cavern,  it  was  thought  expedient  to  contrive  a 
prevention  of  this  accident,  which  frequently 
occurred.  Accordingly,  the  priests  placed  over 
the  hole,  whence  the  vapor  issued,  a  machine 
which  thsy  called  a  tripod,  because  it  had  three 
feet,  and  commissioned  a  woman  to  seat  her- 
nelf  in  it,  where  she  might  inhale  the  vapor 
without  danger,  because  'the  three  feet  of  the 
machine  stood  firmly  upon  the  rock.  This 
priestess  was  named  Pythia,  from  the  serpent 
Python,  slain  by  Apollo,  or  from  the  Greek  jm- 
t.hcst/tai,  signifying  to  inquire,  because  people 
came  to  Delphi  to  consult  this  deity.  The  fe- 
males first  employed,  were  virgins,  selected 
with  great  precaution  ;  but  the  only  qualifica- 
tion necessary  was  to  be  able  to  speak  and  re- 
peat what  the  god  dictated. 

This  was  done  by  placing  her  ear  close  to 
one  of  the  horns  of  the  altar,  and  listening  to 
the  voice  of  one  of  Apollo's  priests,  to  whom 
the  question  had  been  communicated. '  This 
priest,  who  stood  near  the  altar,  in  the  interior 
«f  the  temple,  having  been  assisted  by  his 
brethren  in  the  necessary  devotions  and  sacri- 
fices, opened  the  Book  of  Fate,  which  was  de- 
posited in  the  temple,  and  after  many  prayers 
worked  the  required  problems.  The  answer, 
which  from  the  nature  of  the  case  in  hand,  was 
often  conditional,  being  communicated  to  the 
priestess  on  the  tripod,  was,  after  various  cere- 
monies, delivered  to  the  inquiring  multitude, 
or  to  the  individual  who  came  privately  to  con- 
sult the  oracle. 

The  custom  of  choosing  young  virgins  con- 
tinued for  a  longtime,  till  one  of  them,  who 
was  extremely  beautiful,  was  dishonored  bv  a 
young  Thessalian.  An  express  law  was  then 
enacted,  that  none  should  be  chosen  but  wo- 
men above  fifty  years  old.  At  first  there  was 
only  one  priestess,  but  afterwards  there  were 
two  or  three.  The  oracles  were  not  delivered 
every  day ;  but  gifts  and  sacrifices  were  in 
some  cases  presented  for  a  long  time,  and  even 
for  a  whole  year;  and  it  was  only  once  a  year, 
in  the  month  bosion,  which  answered  to  the 
beginning  of  spring,  that  Apollo  inspired  the 


priestess.  Except  on  this  day,  she  was  forbid- 
den, under  pain  of  death,  to  go  into  the  sanc- 
tuary to  consult  Apollo. 

Alexander,  before  his  expedition  into  Asia, 
came  to  Delphi  on  one  of  those  days  when  the 
sanctuary  w;is  shut,  and  entreated  the  priestess 
to  mount  the  tripod;  which  she  steadily  refus- 
ed, alleging  the  Jaw  which  forbade  her.  The 
prince  became  impatient,  and  drew  the  priestess 
by  force  from  her  cell,  and  whilst  he  was  con- 
ducting her  to  the  sanctuary,  she  took  occasion 
to  exclaim,  "  J\fy  sort,  thou  art  invincible .' .'"  As 
soon  as  these  words  were  pronounced,  Alexan- 
der cried  out  that  ho  was  satisfied,  and  would 
have  no  other  oracle. 

It  is  here  to  be  observed,  however,  that  great, 
but  unnecessary,  preparations  were  often  marie, 
for  giving  mysieriousness  to  the  oracle,  and  for 
commanding  the  respect  that  was  paid  to  it. 
Among  other  circumstances  relating  to  the  sac- 
rifices that  were  offered,  the  priestess  herself 
fasted  three  days,  and  before  she  ascended  the 
tripod,  she  bathed  herself  in  the  fountain  Cas- 
talia.  She  drank  water  from  that  fountain,  and 
chewed  laurel-leaves  gathered  near  it.  She  was 
then  led  into  the  sanctuary  by  the  priests,  who 
placed  her  upon  the  tripod. 

As  soon  as  she  began  to  be  agitated  by  the 
divine  exhalation,  said  1o  arise  from  the  cavern, 
but  which  was  merely  the  vapor  of  incense 
burnt  there,  in  order  to  give  more  mystery  to 
the  affair,  her  hair  stood  on  end,  her  aspect  be- 
came wild  and  ghastly,  her  mouth  began  to 
foam,  r.nd  her  whole  body  was  suddenly  seized 
with  violent  tiemblings.  Jn  this  condition  she 
attempted  to  escape  from  the  priests,  who  de- 
tained her  by  force,  while  her  shrieks  and  howl- 
ings  made  the  whole  temple  resound,  and  filled 
the  bystanders  with  a  sacred  horror. 

At  length,  unable  to  resist  the  impulse  of  the 
god.  she  surrendered  herself  up  to  him,  and  at 
certain  intervals  uf  tered  from  the  bottom  of  her 
stomach,  by  the  faculty  or  power  of  ventrilo- 
quism, some  unconnected  words,  which  the 
priests  ranged  in  order,  and  put  in  form  of  verse, 
giving  them  (i  connection  which  they  had  not 
when  they  were  delivered  by  the  priestess. 
The  oracle"  being  pronounced,  the  priestess  was 
taken  off  the  tripod,  nnd  conducted  back  to  her 
cell,  where  she  continued  several  days,  to  re- 
cover herself.  Lucan  tells  us,  that  speedy  death 
was  frequently  the  consequence  of  her  enthu- 
siasm. The  oracles  pronounced  by  the  priestess 
being  generally  delivered  to  the  poets,  who  at- 
tended on  the  occasion,  and  being  put  by  them 
into  wretched  verse,  gave  occasion  to  the  rail- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ORA 


375 


ORA 


lery,  that  "  Apollo  the  prince  of  the  muses,  was 
the  worst  of  poets."  The  priests  and  priest- 
esses, to  whose  conduct  the  responses  of  the 
oracle  were  committed,  were,  however,  fre- 
quently guilty  of  fraud  and  imposture.  And 
many  instances  might  be  mentioned,  in  which 
the  Delphic  priestess  was  not  superior  to  cor- 
ruption. Hence  she  persuaded  the  Lacedaemo- 
nians to  assist  the  people  of  Athens  in  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  thirty  tyrants.  Hence,  also,  she 
caused  Demaratus  to  be  divested  of  the  royal 
dignity  to  make  way  for  Cleomenes ;  and  sup- 
ported the  impostor  Lysander,  when  lie  endea- 
vored to  change  the  succession  to  the  throne 
of  Sparta.  It  is  not  improbable,  that  Themisto- 
cles,  who  well  knew  the  importance  of  acting 
against  the  Persians  by  sea,  inspired  the  god 
with  the  answer  he  gave,  "  to  defend  them- 
selves with  walls  of  wood." 

These  answers  were  likewise,  on  many  occa- 
sions equivocal.  Thus,  when  Croesus  was  about 
to  invade  the  Medes,  he  consulted  this  oracle 
upon  the  success  of  the  war,  and  received  for  an- 
swer, that  by  passing  the  river  Halys,  he  should 
ruin  a  great  empire.  But  he  was  left  to  conjec- 
ture, or  to  determine  by  the  event,  whether  this 
empire  was  his  own  or  that  of  his  enemies.  Such 
was  also  the  same  oracle's  answer  to  Pyrrhus, — 
lJlio  te,  JEacidc,  Romanes  vincere  posse,' — which 
meant,  "  I  say  O  son  of  jEacus,  that  thou  canst 
overcome  the  Romans,"  or,  "  I  say  O  son  of 
JEacus,  that  the  Romans  can  overcome  thee." 
The  oracle  of  Apollo,  in  Delos.  was  one  of  the 
most  famous  oracles  in  the  world,  not  only  for 
its  antiquity,  but  for  the  richness  of  the.  sacred 
presents  dedicated  to  the  god.  and  the  numbers 
of  persons  that  resorted  hither  from  all  parts 
for  advice  ;  in  which  respect  it  surpassed  not 
only  all  the  oracles  of  other  gods,  but  even  those 
of  Apollo  himself, — that  of  Delphos  alone  ex- 
cepted.  Some  writers  say,  that  the  island  had 
the  name  of  Delos,  from  the  clear  and  simple 
terms  in  which  the  answers  were  here  given  by 
the  oracle,  contrary  to  the  ambiguity  observed 
in  other  places ;  but  it  was  consulted  only  while 
Apollo  made  Delos  his  summer  residence,  for 
his  winter  abode  was  at  Patara,  a  city  of  Ly- 
cia.  The  presents  offered  by  the  votaries  to 
Apollo,  were  laid  on  the  altar,  which,  as  some 
say,  was  erected  by  Apollo  himself,  when  he 
was  only  four  years  old.  and  formed  of  the 
horns  of  goats,  killed  by  Diana,  on  Mount  Cyn- 
thus.  It  was  preserved  pflre  from  blood  and 
every  kind  of  pollution,  as  offensive  to  Apollo. 
The  whole  island  was  an  asylum,  which  ex- 
tended to  all  living  creatures,  dogs  excepted. 
32* 


which  were  not  suffered  to  be  brought  on 
shore. 

The  native  deities,  Apollo  and  Diana,  had 
three  very  magnificent  temples  erected  for  them 
in  this  island.  That  of  Apollo,  was,  according 
to  Strabo,  (lib.  x.)  begun  by  Erysiapthus,  the 
son  of  Cecrops,  who  is  said  to  have  possessed 
this  island  1558  years  B.  C. ;  but  it  was  after- 
wards much  enlarged  and  embellished  at  the 
general  charge  of  all  the  Grecian  stales.  But 
Plutarch  says,  that  it  was  one  of  the  most  state- 
ly buildings  in  the  universe,  and  describes  its 
altar,  as  deserving  a  place  among  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  world.  The  inscription  in  this 
temple,  as  Aristotle  informs  us,  (Ethic.  1.  i.  c.  9.) 
was  as  follows  :  "  Of  all  things  the  most  beau- 
tiful is  justice;  the  most  useful  is  health;  and 
the  most  agreeable  is  the  possession  of  the  be- 
loved object."  Round  the  temple  were  magni- 
ficent porticoes,  built  at  the  charge  of  various 
princes,  as  appears  from  the  still  legible  inscrip- 
tions. To  this  temple  the  neighboring  islands 
sent  yearly  a  company  of  virgins  to  celebrate 
with  dancing  the  festival  of  Apollo,  and  his 
sister  Diana,  and  to  make  offerings  in  the  name 
of  their  respective  cities. 

Delos  was  held  in  such  reverence  by  most 
nations,  that  even  the  Persians,  after  having 
laid  waste  the  other  islands,  and  every  where 
destroyed  the  temples  of  the  gods,  spared  De- 
los ;  and  Datis,  the  Persian  admiral,  forbore  to 
anchor  in  the  harbor. 

The  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  was  in  the 
deserts  of  Libya,  nine  days  journey  from  Alex- 
andria. It  had  a  famous  oracle,  which,  accord- 
ing to  ancient  tradition,  was  established  about 
18  centuries  before  the  time  of  Augustus,  by 
two  doves  which  flew  away  from  Thebais  in 
Egypt,  and  came,  one  to  Dodona,and  the  other 
to  Libya,  where  the  people  were  soon  informed 
of  their  divine  mission.  The  oracle  of  Ammon 
was  consulted  by  Hercules,  Perseus,  and  others ; 
but  when  it  pronounced  Alexander  to  be  the 
son  of  Jupiter,  such  flattery  destroyed  its  long 
established  reputation,  and  in  the  age  of  Plu- 
tarch it  was  scarcely  known.  The  situation  ot 
the  temple  was  pleasant ;  and  there  was  near  it 
a  fountain  whose  waters  were  cold  at  noon  and 
midnight,  and  warm  in  the  morning  and  even- 
ing. There  were  above  100  priests  in  the  tem- 
ple, but  the  elders  only  delivered  oracles.  There 
was  also  an  oracle  of  Jupiter  Ammon  in  ./Ethi- 
opia. 

Dodona  was  a  town  of  Thesprotia  in  Epirus. 
There  was  in  its  neighborhood,  upon  a  small 
bill  called  Tmarus,  a  celebrated  >racle  of  Jupi 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


OR  A 


376 


ORA 


ter.  The  town  and  temple  of  the  god  were  first 
built  by  Deucalion,  after  the  universal  deluge. 
It  was  supposed  to  be  the  most  ancient  oracle 


of  all  Greece,  and  according  to  the  traditions 

ed  by  Her 
was  foundt-d  by  a  dove.     Two  black  doves   as 


of  the   Egyptians  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  it 


he  relates,  took  their  flight  from  the  city  of 
Thebes  in  Egypt,  one  of  which  flew  to  the  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  Ammon,  and  the  other  to  Dodona, 
where  with  a  human  voice  they  acquainted  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  that  Jupiter  hnd  con- 
secrated the  ground,  which  in  future  would  give 
oracles.  The  extensive  grove  which  surround- 
ed Jupiter's  temple  was  endowed  with  the  gift 
of  prophecy,  and  oracles  were  frequently  de- 
livered by  the  sacred  oaks,  and  the  doves  which 
inhabited  the  place.  This  fabulous  tradition  of 
the  oracular  power  of  the  doves,  is  explained 
by  Herodotus,  who  observes  that  some  Phoeni- 
cians carried  away  two  priestesses  from  Egypt, 
one  of  whom  went  to  fix  her  residence  at  Do- 
dona,  where  the  oracle  was  established.  It  may 
further  be  observed,  that  the  fable  might  have 
been  founded  upon  the  double  meaning  of  the 
word  pdeiai,  which  signifies  doves  in  most  parts 
of  Creech,  while  in  the  dialect  of  the  Epirots, 
it  implies  old  women.  In  ancient  times  the 
oracles  were  delivered  by  the  murmuring  of  a 
neighboring  fountain,  but  the  custom  was  after- 
wards changed.  Large  kettles  were  suspended 
in  the  air  near  a  brazen  statue,  which  held  a 
lash  in  its  hand.  When  the  wind  blew  strong, 
the  statue  was  agitated  and  struck  against  one 
of  the  kettles,  which  communicated  the  motion 
to  all  the  rest,  and  raised  that  clattering  and 
discordant  din  which  continued  for  a  while, 
and  from  which  the  priests  drew  their  predic- 
tions. Some  suppose  that  the  noise  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  shaking  of  the  leaves  and  boughs 
of  an  old  oak,  which  the  people  frequently  con- 
sulted, and  from  which  they  pretended  to  re- 
ceive the  oracles.  It  may  be  observed  with 
more  probability  that  the  oracles  were  delivered 
by  the  priests,  who,  by  concealing  themselves 
behind  the  oaks,  gave  occasion  to  the  multitude 
to  believe  that  the  trees  were  endowed  with  the 
power  of  prophecy.  As  the  ship  Argo  was  built 
with  some  of  the  oaks  of  the  forest  of  Dodona 
there  were  some  beams  in  the  vessel  which 
gave  oracles  to  the  Argonauts,  and  warned 
them  against  the  approach  of  calamity.  Within 
the  forest  of  Dodona  there  was  a  stream  with 
a  fountain  of  cool  water,  which  had  the  power 
of  lighting  a  torch  as  soon  as  it  touched  it. 
This  fountain  was  totally  dry  at  noon-day,  and 
was  restored  to  ita  full  course  at  midnight,  from 


which  time  till  the  following  noon  it  began  to 
decrease,  and  at  the  usual  hour  was  again  de- 
prived of  its  waters.  The  oracles  of  Dodona 
were  originally  delivered  by  men,  but  afterwards 
by  women. 

THE  ROMAN  AUGURS,  were  certain  priests 
at  Rome  who  foretold  future  events,  and  took 
their  name,  ab  aviitm  garritu.  They  were  first 
created  by  Romulus  to  the  number  of  three. 
Servius  Tullius  added  a  fourth,  and  the  tri- 
bunes of  the  people,  A.  U.  C.  454,  increased 
the  number  to  nine ;  and  Sylla  added  six  more 
during  his  dictatorship.  They  had  a  particular 
college,  and  the  chief  amongst  them  was  called 
Magister  Collegii.  Their  office  was  honorable  ; 
and  if  any  one  of  them  was  convicted  of  any 
crime,  he  "could  not  be  deprived  of  his  privi- 
lege ;  an  indulgence  granted  to  no  other  sacer- 
dotal body  at  Rome.  The  augur  generally  sat 
on  a  high  tower,  to  make  his  observations.  His 
face  was  turned  towards  the  east,  and  he  had 
the  north  to  his  left,  and  the  south  at  his  right. 
With  a  crooked  staff  he  divided  the  face  of  the 
heavens  into  four  different  parts,  and  afterwards 
sacrificed  to  the  gods,  covering  his  head  with 
his  vestment.  There  were  generally  five  things 
from  which  the  augurs  drew  omens  :  the  first 
consisted  in  observing  the  phenomena  of  the 
heavens,  such  as  thunder,  lightning,  comets, 
«Src.  The  second  kind  of  ornen  was  drawn  from 
the  chirping  or  flying  of  birds.  The  third  was 
from  the  sacred  chickens,  whose  eagerness  or  in- 
difference in  eating  the  bread  whicfi  was  thrown 
to  them,  was  looked  upon  as  lucky  or  unlucky. 
The  fourth  was  from  quadrupeds,  from  their 
crossing  or  appearing  in  somo  unaccustomed 
place.  The  fifth  was  from  different  casualties, 
which  were  called  Dira,  such  as  spilling  salt 
upon  a  table,  or  wine  upon  one  s  clothes,  hearing 
strange  noises,  stumbling  or  sneezing,  meeting 
a  wolf,  hare,  fox,  or  pregnant  bitch.  Thus  did 
the  Romans  draw  their  prophecies  ;  the  sight 
of  birds  on  the  left  hand  was  always  deemed 
a  lucky  object,  and  the  words  sinister  ct  Iccrus, 
though  generally  supposed  to  be  terms  of  ill 
luck,  were  always  used  by  the  augurs  in  an 
auspicious  sense. 

A  stranj^e  old  woman  came  once  to  Tarqui- 
nius  Superbus,  king  of  Rome,  with  nine  books, 
which  she  said  were  the  Orarlrs  of  Sibyls,  and 
proffered  to  sell  them.  But  the  king  making 
some  scruple  about  the  price,  she  went  away 
and  burnt  three  of  'them ;  and  returning  with 
the  six,  asked  the  same  sum  as  before.  Tarquin 
only  laughed  at  the  humor;  upon  which  the  old 
woman  left  him  once  more  ;  and  after  she  had 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ORA 


377 


ORE 


burnt  three  others,  came  again  with  those  that 
'were  left,  but  still  kept  to  her  old  terms.  The 
king  began  now  to  wonder  at  her  obstinacy, 
and  thinking  there  might  be  something  more 
than  ordinary  in  the  business,  sent  For  the 
augurs  to  consult  what  was  to  be  done.  They, 
when  their  divinations  were  performed,  soon 
acquainted  him  what  a  piece  of  impiety  he  had 
been  guilty  of,  by  refusing  a  treasure  sent  to 
him  from  heaven,  and  commanded  him  to  give 
whatever  she  demanded  for  the  books  that  re- 
mained. The  woman  received  her  money,  and 
delivered  the  writings,  and  only  charging  them 
by  all  means  to  keep  them  sacred,  immediately 
vanished.  Two  of  the  nobility  were  presently 
after  chosen  to  be  the  keepers  of  these  oracles, 
which  were  laid  up  with  all  imaginable  care  in 
the  capitol,  in  a  chest  underground.  They  could 
not  be  consulted  without  a  special  order  of  the 
senate,  which  was  never  granted,  unless  upon 
the  receiving  some  notable  defeat,  upon  the  ris- 
ing of  any  considerable  mutiny  or  sedition  in  the 
state,  or  upon  some  other  extraordinary  occasion. 
The  number  of  priests  in  this,  as  in  most  other 
orders,  was  several  times  altered.  The  Duumviri 
continued  till  about  the  year  of  the  city  388, 
when  the  tribunes  of  the  people  preferred  a  law, 
that  there  should  be  ten  men  elected  for  this 
service,  part  out  of  the  nobility,  and  part  out  of 
the  commons.  We  meet  with  the  Decemviri 
all  along  from  hence,  till  about  the  time  of 
Sylla  the  dictator,  when  the  Quindecemviri 
occur.  It  were  needless  to  give  any  further  ac- 
count of  the  Sibyls,  than  that  they  are  generally 
agreed  to  have  been  ten  in  number ;  for  which 
we  have  the  authority  of  Varro,  though  some 
make  them  nine,  some  four,  some  three,  and 
some  only  one.  They  all  lived  in  different  ages 
and  countries,  were  all  prophetesses,  and,  ac- 
cording to  common  opinion,  foretold  the  coming 
of  our  Saviour.  As  to  the  writing,  Dempster 
tells  us  it  was  on  linen. 

Solinus  acquaints  us,  that  the  books  which 
Tarquin  bought  were  burnt  in  the  conflagra- 
tion of  the  capitol,  the  year  before  Sylla's  dic- 
tatorship. Yet  there  were  others  of  their  inspired 
writings,  or  at  least  copies  or  extracts  of  them, 
gathered  up  in  Greece  and  other  parts,  upon 
a  special  search  made  by  order  of  the  senate  ; 
which  were  kept  with  the  same  care  as  the 
former,  till  about  the  time  of  Theodosius  the 
Great,  when  the  greatest  part  of  the  senate 
having  embraced  the  Christian  faith,  they  began 
to  grow  out  of  fashion  ;  till  at  last  Sliiicho  burnt 
them  all  under  Honorius,  for  which  he  is  severe- 
ly censured  by  the  poet  Rutilius. 


ORDEAL.  In  the  dark  ages,  when  judicial 
proceedings  were  exceedingly  imperfect,  it  was 
believed  that  on  extraordinary  occasions,  the 
guilt  or  innocence  of  a  suspected  person  would 
be  manifested  by  a  direct  interposition  of  the 
deity,  and  various  methods  were  resorted  to  to 
procure  conviction  or  acquittal.  These  were 
termed  ordeals  or  judgments  of  God.  As  late 
as  the  IGth  centisy  it  was  generally  believed 
that  if  a  murderer  was  forced  to  touch  the 
corpse  of  the  person  he  had  murdered,  blood 
would  flow  from  the  lips  and  wounds. 

The  ordeal  was  of  various  kinds;  that  of  fire, 
that  of  red  hot  iron,  that  of  cold  water,  that  of 
judicial  pottage,  that  of  hallowed  cheese,  that  of 
boiling  water,  that  of  the  cross,  and  that  of  dice 
laid  on  relics  covered  with  a  woollen  cloth. 
There  were  particular  masses  for  each  species 
of  ordeal. 

Fire  ordeal  was  performed  either  by  taking 
up  in  the  hand,  unhurt,  a  piece  of  red-hot  iron, 
of  one,  two,  or  three  pounds'  weight ;  or  else 
by  walking  barefoot  and  blindfold,  over  nine 
red-hot  ploughshares,  laid  lengthwise,  at  une- 
qual distances  ;  and  if  the  party  escaped  with- 
out injury,  he  was  adjudged  innocent,  but  if 
otherwise,  as  without  collusion  it  generally  hap- 
pened, he  was  then  condemned  as  guilty.  One 
of  these  proceedings  was  as  follows  :  a  ball  of 
iron  was  prepared,  of  one,  two,  or  three  pounds' 
weight,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  accusa- 
tion. When  all  the  prayers  and  religious  cere- 
monies were  finished,  the  ball  was  heated  red- 
hot.  The  prisoner,  having  crossed  himself,  and 
sprinkled  his  hand  with  holy  water,  took  the 
ball  of  hot  iron  in  his  hand,  and  carried  it  to 
the  distance  of  nine  feet ;  after  which  his  hand 
was  placed  in  a  bag,  that  was  sealed  and  re- 
mained so  for  nine  days ;  at  the  expiration  of 
which  it  was  examined,  in  the  presence  of 
twelve  persons  of  each  party.  If  any  marks  of 
burning  appeared  upon  it,  the  accused  was  found 
guilty  ;  if  otherwise,  he  was  declared  innocent. 

The  ordeal  of  water  was  performed  either  by 
plunging  the  bare  arm  up  to  the  elbow  in  boil- 
ing water,  or  by  casting  the  suspected  person 
into  a  river  or  pond  of  cold  water,  and  if  he 
floated  therein,  without  any  action  of  swim- 
ming, it  was  deemed  an  evidence  of  his  guilt, 
bat  if  he  sunk  he  was  acquitted.  The  latter 
ordeal  was  adopted  with  regard  to  witches  and 
sorcerers  and  was  thought  infallible.  The  Chi- 
nese, Africans,  Tartars,  and  Hindoos  have  their 
ordeals. 

OREGON  TERRITORY,  that  portion  of  the 
United  States  territo.y  which  lies  west  of  the 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


ORL 


£78 


Rocky  Mountains,  discovered  by  Gray,  an 
American  navigator,  in  1790.  The  soil  is  gen- 
erally fertile. 

ORKNEY  ISLANDS,  or  ORC ADES,  a  clus- 
ter of  small  islands  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Scotland,  about  67  in  number,  only  29  of  which 
are  inhabited.  Pop.  27,179.  The  population  of 
Kirkwall,  (or  Pomona  or  Mainland,  the  princi- 
pal island)  is  2212.  These  islands  are  scattered 
over  a  space  50  miles  long,  and  30  broad.  Little 
of  the  soil  is  adapted  foi  agriculture,  although 
j£->'jtffords  good  pasturage.  Game  is  abundant 
•  —red  grouse,  plovers,  and  snipe,  eagles,  wild 
ducks  geese,  solan  geese  or  gannets,  swan,  &c. 
thronging  to  the  Orkneys.  They  are  mentioned 
by  several  Roman  writers,  and  were  visited  by 
the  fleets  of  Agricola,  sent  to  explore  the  isl- 
and. The  first  inhabitants  were  the  Picts,  but 
they  were  subdued  by  the  Norwegians  or  Nor- 
mans, at  the  time  that  that  enterprising  people 
effected  conquests  through  almost  every  part  of 
Europe.  Orkney,  after  this,  was  governed  by 
a  succession  of  warlike  earls,  who  constantly 
kept  up  a  powerful  fleet,  with  which  they  rav- 
aged the  coasts  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scot- 
land ;  in  the  latter  of  which,  they  conquered 
several  northern  counties.  The  black  raven 
which  was  the  flag  of  Orkney  continued  to  be 
an  object  of  terror  till  the  time  of  James  III 
of  Scotland,  in  1474,  when  the  Orkneys  were 
ceded  to  that  monarch  as  part  of  the  mar- 
riage portion  of  Margaret  of  Denmark ;  and 
this  treaty  was  afterwards  confirmed  on  the 
marriage  of  James  VI  with  Ann  of  Denmark. 
The  piratical  expeditions  of  the  earls  of  Ork- 
ney were  then  suppressed,  and  it  has  long  been 
a  well  regulated  and  peaceable  portion  of  the 
British  empire. 

ORLEANS,  Louis  Joseph  Philip,  was  born 
in  1747,  and  bore  the  title  of  duke  of  Chartres 
until  1787.  He  was  rich  and  handsome,  and, 
although  not  deficient  in  intelligence,  ignorant, 
credulous,  selfish,  and  sensual.  In  the  revolu- 
tion he  took  part  against  the  royal  family,  ren- 
dering himself  infamous  by  his  libels  on  Marie 
Antoinette.  After  the  death  of  the  king,  the 
Jacobins,  who  had  no  further  use  for  him,  pro- 
cured his  condemnation  by  the  revolutionary 
tribunal.  He  met  his  fate  with  firmness,  Nov. 
6, 1703.  He  is  well  known  by  his  assumed 
name  of  EffalM. 

ORLOFF,  Count,  the  favorite  of  Catharine 
II  of  Russia,  murdered  the  czar  Peter  III,  1762. 
Catharine  loaded  him  and  his  brothers  with 
honors,  and  dignified  them  with  the  title  of 
counts.  Orloff having,  however,  aimed  at  the 


honftr  of  publicly  .receiving  the-ha^nd  of  .Cath-' 
arine.  he  was  ordered  to  travel,  together  with  a 
grant.of  10.0,0.00  rubles  in  ready  money,  a  pen- 
sion of  50,000,  a  magnificent  service  «f  plate, 
and  an  estate  containing  6,OQO  peasants. 

OSTEND,  a  fortified  and  well-built  seaport 
in  the  B^lgic  province  of'AVest  Flaade'rs.  Pop.- 
10,500.  It  is  noted  for  the  sieges  wlitch  it  ha* 
withstood  ;  particularly  for^a  terrible  siege  of 
three  years,  from  July  5, 1601 ,  to  Sept.  22, 1604, 
against  the  armiesof  Spain,  when  the  toweivwas 
valiantly  defended  b*y  the  troops  of  the  prince  of 
Orange,  assisted  by  the  forces  of  queen  Eliza- 
beth, under  the  commjtfid  of  Sir  Francis  Vere, 
who  was  chief  general  for'fiye  months.  The 
loss  of  the  Spaniards  was  immense,,  being  little 
short  of  100,000  men ;  and  although  they  after- 
wards succeeded  in  taking  the  place,  it  was  yet 
at  such  an  expense  of  men  and  treasure,  that 
this  siege  is  justly  considered  as  the  chief  cause 
of  the  ruin  of  their  affairs  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  of  the  establishment  of  the  independence 
of  the  United  Provinces.  On  the  death  of 
Charles  II  of  Spain  the  French  seized  Ostend : 
but  in  1706.  after  the  battle  of  Ramillies.it  was 
retaken  by  the  allies.  The  emperor  Charles  VI 
established  an  East  India  Company  here,  but  it 
met  with  such  a  powerful  opposition  from  the 
maritime  powers,  that  after  many  negotiations, 
it  was  abolished  in  1731.  Ostend  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1745,  but  given  up  at  the  peace 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,in  1748.  In  the  war  of  1750 
the  French  garrisoned  the  town  for  the  empress 
Maria  Theresa.  The  emperor  Joseph  again  at- 
tempted to  establish  an  East  India  trade,  but 
was  not  very  successful.  In  1792  it  was  taken 
by  the  French,  and  retaken  by  the  English  in 
1793.  who  garrisoned  it  for  the  emperor  Fran- 
cis II.  When  the  French  conquered  Belgium, 
Ostend  fell  into  their  hands.  In  the  course  of 
the  war.  a  detachment  of  British  troops  landed, 
and  destroyed  the  sluices  of  the  canals  through 
which  the  French  were  collecting  a  naval  force. 
The  detachment  after  effecting  their  object 
were  made  prisoners  of  war. 

OTHO,  Marcus  Salvius,  a  Roman  emperor, 
descended  from  the  ancient  kings  of  Etruria. 
He  was  acknowledged  by  the  senate  and  the 
Roman  people,  but  the  sudden  revolt  of  Vitelli- 
us,  in  Germany,  rendered  his  situation  precari- 
ous, and  it  was  mutually  resolved  that  their  re- 
spective right  to  the  empire  should  be  decided 
by  arms.  Otho  obtained  three  victoiies  over 
his  enemies,  but  in  a  general  engagement  near 
Brixt'llum,  his  forces  were* defeated,  and  he 
stabbed  himself  when  all  hopes  of  success  were 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


OTf 


379 


OTT 


vanished,  after1  a  reign  of  abdut  three  months,  The  remembrance  of  Turk,  a  descendant  of  Ja- 

onj;he  20th  of  April.  A.  D..C9.  phet,  and  the  father  of  all  the  nations  or  tribes 

OTH{3  I,  emperor  of  Germany  *  elecfed  at  that  inhabit   Tartary,   might    confer    on    that 

Aixrla-Chapeller  ijj.  !)3G.     At  the  earnest  sojici-  branch  of  the  Ottomans  the  honor  of  being  the 

tation  ofthe  Italians,  Otho  repaired  jn  person  to  most  ancient  and  illustrious  in  the  world. 

Home,  wheje  he  was-sole'fnnly  crowned  empe:  Othman   I,   descended   from   the   celebrated 

ror  of  th»  Romans  in-9GO,<lignified  with  the  ap-  Genghis  Khan,  with  seven  other  Turkish  cap- 

peJlation  of  Augustus,  and  honored  Witn  the  tains,  seized  all  the  countries  which  had  been  in 

homage  of  the  senate  and  people.     He  died  in  the  possession  of  the  Seleucidae  in  Asia  Minor, 

972..                   • .  .•  A.  D.  1300. 

OTHO  II.  surnamed  the  Sanguinary,  sue-  He  assumed  the  title  of  sultan,  and.  pursuing 
ceeded  his  father  on  the .  imperial  throne  :  but  his  conquests,  took  Prusa  in  Bithynia,  which  he 
his.  authority  was  warnjly  djsputed  -by  Henry,  made  the  seat  of  the  Ottoman  empire  or  king- 
duke  of  Bavaria,  aji'd  the  commencement  of  his  dom.  He  died  after  a -reign  of  twenty-seven 
reign  ^was  disturbed  by  some  hostile  incursions  years,  in  1328,  which  had  been  entirely  spent 
ofthe  Danes  and  Bohemians.  In  979  he  led  a  in  military  expeditions,  and  was  succeeded  by 
numerous  body  of  forces  into  Italy,  in  order  to  his  son  Orchan.  who  continued  the  conquests 
punish  a  re  volt  of  the  Romans.  He  died  in  933,  of  his  father  in  the  Greek  empire,  and  took 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Otho  III,  at  the  ISidea  or  .Nicomedia. 
age  of  12  years,  .  .Uurad,  or  Amurath  I,  the  son  and  successor 

OTIS,  James,  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  of  Orchan,  succeeded  also  to  his  father's  usur- 

Feb.  5,  J725,  and   was  graduated  at  Harvard  pation  of  the  country,  in  1350;  and  passing  the 

college,  after  which  he  studied  law,  and  was  straits  of  Gallipoli,  lie  took  Adrianople,  which 

admitted  to  the  bar  in  Plymouth.     He  removed  he  made  the  seat  of  his  empire, 

to  Boston  in  1750-,  and  rose  rapidly  in  his  pro-  Amurath  is  extolled  for  his  justice,  temper- 

fession.     His  speech  against  the  ';  writs  of  as-  ance,  modesty,  and  piety. 

sistance,"  (see  Jldams)  was  the  first  public  proof  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Bajazet  I,  in 
which  Mr.  Otis  gave  of  his  attachment  to  the  1389.  whose  brother,  attempting  to  supplant 
cause  of  liberty.  In  May  1701  he  was  chosen  him,  was  strangled  ;  and  this  is  said  to  have 
to  the  legislature.  Six  years  afterwards,  on  the  been  the  first  instance  of  that  sanguinary  cus- 
repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  he  was  chosen  Speak-  torn,  afterwards  so  common,  of  putting  to  death 
er  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  but  was  princes  of  the  royal  blood.  This  prince  is  eel- 
negatived  by  the  governor.  In  1701)  he  received  ebrated  by  his  victories,  and  by  the  most  dis- 
a  wound  on  the  head  in  a  scuffle  with  one  of  the  tressing  misfortunes.  He  flew  from  Asia  to 
commissioners  of  customs  in  the  British  coffee-  Europe,  and  returned  to  Asia  with  such  incon- 
house.  to  which  injury  his  subsequent  derange-  ceivable  rapidity,  that  the  Turks  have  given  him 
ment  has  been  attributed.  He  was  killed  by  a  the  surname  of  Thunderbolt.  He  provoked  the 
stroke  of  lightning  May  23,  1783.  atlacksof  Timur  Bee,  or  Tamerlane,  who  wish- 

"  He  -was,"  says  Mr.  Tudor,  his  biographer,  ed  to  accommodate  their  differences,  but  who 

"  a  man  of  powerful  genius  and  ardent  temper,  accepted  the  challenge  of  Bajazet,  and  in  the 

with  wit  and  humor  that  never  failed  :  as  an  plains  of  Prusa  proved  completely  victorious,  in 

orator,  he  was  bold,  argumentative,  impetuous,  one  of  the  bloodiest  battles  that  had  ever  been 

and  commanding,  with  an  eloquence  that  made  fought.     It  continued  a  whole  day,  and  thou- 

his  own  excitement  irresistibly  contagious ;  as  a  sands  on  both  sides  fell  by  the  sword;  but,  while 

lawyer,  his  knowledge  and  ability'placed  him  displaying  the  utmost  efforts  of  valor,  Bajazet 

at  the  head  of  his  profession  ;  as  a  scholar,  he  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner, 

was  rich  in  acquisition,  and  governed  by  aclas-  An  interregnum  of  12  years  succeeded,  dur- 

sic  taste  ;  aa  a  statesman   and  civilian  he  was  ing  which  the  three  sons  of  Bajazet  governed 

sound  and  just  in  his  views  ;  as  a  patriot,  he  re-  each  a   separate    part  of  the   empire;  but,  at 


sisted  all  allurements  that  might  weaken  the     length,   it'was  united    under   Mohammed,  in 
lat  country  to  which  he  devoted  his     1413.  who  had  an  opportunity  of  displaying  a 


cause  of  that  cou 

life,  and  for  which  he  sacrificed  it."  noble  character,  the  brightest  features'in  which 

OTTOMAN    EMPIRE,   Turkish    Empire,  were   gratitude  and  clemency.     He  was   suc- 

Ottoman,   or  Sublime   Porte.     The*  Ottomans  ceeded  by  his  son  Murad,  or  Amurath  II,  in 

are  displeased  with  the  name  of  Turks,  which  1422.  who  was  a  cruel  tyrant,  and   who  took 

they  reject  as  indicating  uncivilized  barbarians.  Thessalonica,  or  Salonica,  and  put  the  inhabit- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


OTT 


380 


OTT 


ants  to  the  sword ;  and  invaded  and  subdued 
Servia,  destroying  all  before  him  ;  entered  Tran- 
sylvania, ravaging  the  country,  and  murdering 
the  natives  ;  and  acted  the  same  brutal  part  in 
Walachia.  He  gained  the  famous  battle  at 
Varna,  in  which  Stephen,  king  of  Hungary,  was 
slain.  Amurath  died  of  age  and  grief  at  his  ill 
success  against  Scanderbeg  king  of  Epirus,and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Mohammed  II,  in 
1451,  the  greatest  warrior  of  all  the  Turkish 
sultans.  His  reign  lasted  30  years,  and  was  a 
continued  series  of  battles  and  victories,  almost 
without  a  single  reverse.  However,  he  had  to 
contend  with  generals  capable  of  suspending  his 
progress,  and  of  checking  his  ambition,  had 
their  forces  been  equal  to  their  courage.  Among 
these  were  the  celebrated  Huniades,  king  of 
Hungary;  Matthias  Corvinus,  his  son;  and 
above  all,  Scanderbeg,  after  whose  death  the 
Turks  made  relics  of  his  bones,  which  they  wore 
as  a  preservative  against  dangers.  On  the2yth 
of  May,  1453,  Mohammed  took  the  city  of  Con- 
stantinople. Thus  ended  the  Greek  empire, 
and  the  seat  of  the  Turkish  was  founded.  Un- 
provoked, the  Turks  attacked  it,  and  never 
ceased  till  they  had  usurped  the  throne,  as  they 
had  done  those  of  so  many  other  states  and 
kingdoms,  murdering  millions  in  cold  blood, 
and  by  tortures  of  inconceivable  barbarity.  Af- 
ter Mohammed  had  taken  the  capital,  he  turned 
his  arms  against  what  still  remained  of  the 
Greek  empire,  in  the  isles  and  on  the  continent. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Bajazet 
II,  in  1480,  who  subdued  the  Moldavians  ;  made 
a  conquest  of  Caramania  ;  rendered  several  of 
the  Asiatic  princes  tributary  ;  had  considerable 
success  in  Syria;  reduced  Croatia;  occasioned 
great  devastation  in  the  Morea ;  landed  a  body 
of  troops  in  the  island  of  Rhodes :  and  paved 
the  way  for  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  by  depriving 
the  Mamelukes,  who  commanded  in  that  coun- 
try, of  the  necessary  succors  which  they  derived 
from  Circassia.  Exhausted  with  fatigue  and 
debauchery,  Bajazet  was  desirous  of  placing  the 
crown  on  the  head  of  his  eldest  son,  Ahmed. 
In  this  situation  of  affairs,  Selim.  the  youngest, 
arrived  in  the  neighborhood  of  Constantinople, 
under  the  pretence  of  paying  a  visit  to  his 
father.  This  young  prince  was  soon  surround- 
ed by  the  whole  court,  who  ranged  themselves 
under  his  banners ;  and  the  aged  monarch,  fore- 
ueeing  what  would  be  the  event  of  such  a  visit, 
willingly  resigned  his  crown  into  the  hands  of 
Selim. 

Selim  ascended  the  throne  in  the  45th  year 
of  his  age,  in  1512,  and  caused  his  brothers. 


Ahmed  and  Corcul,  with  five  of  his  nephews, 
and  a  great  many  of  the  nobility,  to  be  put  to 
death.  As  he  had  received  the  crown  from  the 
suffrages  of  the  soldiers,  who  wished  only  for 
war,  he  endeavored  to  gratify  their  desires,  and 
leading  his  army  into  Egypt,  completely  de- 
feated the  Mamelukes.  However,  as  he  im- 
agined he  could  not  ensure  the  quiet  possession 
of  Egypt,  but  by  the  total  extinction  of  that 
people,  he  offered  rewards  to  those  who  should 
discover  any  of  them,  and  denounced  the  se- 
verest punishment  against  such  as  concealed 
them.  When  he  thought  he  had  them  all  as- 
sembled, he  ordered  a  superb  throne  to  be  erect- 
ed for  him  upon  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  without 
the  gates  of  Cairo  ;  and  these  unhappy  wretch- 
es being  brought  into  his  presence,  he  caused 
them  all  to  be  murdered  before  his  eyes,  and 
their  bodies  to  be  thrown  into  the  river. 

Solyman,  the  son  of  Selim,  had  scarcely 
mounted  the  throne,  in  1520,  when  he  formed 
the  design  of  extending  his  empire  as  much  in 
Europe,  as  his  father  had  done  in  Asia.  He 
directed  his  attempts  against  the  Christians,  and 
soon  took  Rhodes  from  the  knights  of  St.  John, 
who  had  possessed  the  island  for  upwards  of 
200  years.  He  then  attacked  Hungary,  took 
Hilda,  and  entered  Austria  with  fire  and  sword. 
He  laid  siege  to  Vienna;  where  finding  a  des- 
perate resistance,  he  withdrew  his  troops,  but 
previously  massacred  all  his  prisoners,  men, 
women,  and  children.  He  made  John,  king  of 
Hungary,  tributary  to  him,  and  took  Bagdad, 
the  whole  of  Assyria,  and  Mesopotamia.  In 
short,  he  extended  his  reputation  as  a  warrior  to 
both  extremities  of  the  world. 

Selim,  the  son  of  Solyman,  made  peace  with 
Germany  and  Persia,  and  took  the  island  of 
Cyprus  from  the  Venetians,  in  15('il>. 

Amurath  III,  the  eldest  son  of  Selim,  in  1575, 
was  obliged  to  give  large  sums  to  appease  the 
janisaries,  who,  having  been  accustomed,  dur- 
ing tlie  vacancy  of  the  throne,  to  plunder,  and 
even  massacre  their  fellow-citizens,  were  dis- 
appointed on  this  occasion.  To  give  employ- 
ment to  his  untractnble  soldiery,  he  made  war 
upon  Russia,  Poland,  Germany,  and  Venice, 
and  subdued  Georgia,  lie  is  said  to  have  been 
of  a  quiet  disposition,  a  lover  of  justice,  and 
very  zealous  in  his  religion.  He  left  behind 
him  20  sons,  of  whom  19  were  strangled  by  the 
eldest,  his  successor. 

Mohammed  111,  having  thus  secured  to  him- 
self the  tin-one  by  the  slaughter  of  his  brothers, 
in  loiKi,  thought  it  necessary  also  to  take  away 
the  life  of  all  the  late  sovereign's  wives  and 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


OTT 


381 


OTT 


concubines,  by  whom  it  was  possible  that  there 
should  be  any  posthumous  progeny.  The  in- 
solence of  the  janisaries  now  greatly  increased, 
and  they  were  perpetually  revolting  and  fight- 
ing with  the  other  soldiers.  The  pachas  also 
rebelled  in  many  provinces ;  and  the  sultan, 
through  fear,  made  peace  with  them,  and  con- 
firmed them  in  their  office.  Immersed  in  the 
pleasures  of  the  seraglio,  Mohammed  bestowed 
no  other  attention  on  public  affairs  than  was 
absolutely  necessary.  He  caused  his  eldest  son, 
a  prince  of  inestimable  qualities,  to  be  put  to 
death. 

Ahmed  ascended  the  throne  when  he  was 
scarcely  15  years  old,  in  1605,  and  soon  demon- 
strated that  the  sceptre  was  not  unworthily  in- 
trusted to  him.  Under  his  reign,  those  fires 
which  are  so  common  began  at  Constantinople, 
and  which  seldom  or  never  break  out  but  when 
the  people  are  discontented.  Ahmed  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Mustapha,  in  1617.  His 
cruelties  rendered  him  so  odious,  that  he  was 
deposed  and  sent  to  prison  in  the  castle  of  the 
Seven  Towers,  and  his  nephew.  Othman.  placed 
on  the  throne,  in  1618.  Othman,  discontented 
with  his  janisaries,  meditated  revenge  against 
them ;  and  as  he  could  not  drive  them  from 
Constantinople,  he  formed  the  design  of  trans- 
ferring the  seat  of  government  into  Asia.  But 
the  janisaries  discovering  his  intention,  massa- 
cred the  grand  vizier,  who  they  supposed  to  be 
the  author  of  the  measure,  imprisoned  the  em- 
peror, who  was  soon  after  put  to  death,  and  re- 
instated Mustapha  on  the  throne.  The  uncle, 
however,  derived  very  little  benefit  from  this 
event.  He  was  treated  as  an  idiot,  led  about 
upon  an  ass  exposed  to  the  derision  and  insults 
of  the  populace,  and  then  carried  back  to  prison, 
where  he  was  strangled  by  the  orders  of  his 
successor. 

Amurath  IV,  brother  to  the  unfortunate  Oth- 
man, by  intrepidity  and  courage  repressed  the 
turbulence  of  the  'janisaries,  and  freed  himself 
from  every  kind  of  .rebellion,  in  1621.  During 
his  reign,  which  lasted  17  years,  he  caused 
.1 4,000  men  to  be  destroyed.  His  chief  amuse- 
ment was  to  run  about  the  streets  in  the  night, 
with  a  sabre  in  his  hand,  and  to  cut  down' all 
whom  he  met.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  bro- 
ther Ibrahim,  in  1639,  who  had  languished  four 
years  in  prison,  and  who,  on  being  restored 
thus  unexpectedly  to  liberty  and  empire,  was  so 
intoxicated  by  the  new  pleasures  which  they 
presented,  that  resigning  the  administration  of 
government  to  the  former  ministers,  he  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  the  luxuries  of  the  haram. 


The  mufti  having  excited  a  revolt  among  the 
janisaries,  and  Ibrahim,  finding  himself  unable 
to  resist,  resigned  the  crown,  and  in  a  few  days 
was  put  to  death. 

Mohammed  IV  the  eldest  son  of  Ibrahim,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  in  1649.  His  reign  was  long 
and  glorious  ;  but  after  so  many  years  passed  in 
prosperity,  which  oujrht  to  have  established  his 
power,  he  was  forced  to  abdicate  the  throne, 
though  he  survived  his  deposition,  and  was  not 
molested  in  his  apartment,  which  served  as  a 
prison.  The  exploits  of  this  emperor,  which,  if 
detailed  at  length,  would  fill  a  volume,  are  not 
so  far  distant  from  the  present  period  as  to  be 
obscured  by  the  veil  of  time.  The  famous  siege 
of  Candia,  which  subjected  the  ancient  Crete 
to  the  dominion  of  the  crescent,  makes  a  con- 
spicuous figure  in  the  page  of  history.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century,  fathers  at  Vi- 
enna were  accustomed  to  relate  to  their  chil- 
dren the  battles  which  they  had  witnessed  un- 
der the  walls  of  that  city,  when  Sobieski  disap- 
pointed the  hopes  of  the  Mohammedans.  Mo- 
hammed IV  distinguished  himself  by  his  incli- 
nation to  mercy,  and  seldom  commanded  his 
troops  in  person;  which  probably  caused  the 
revolt  of  the  soldiers,  who  placed  the  crown  on 
the  head  of  one  of  his  brothers.  Solyman  II 
did  not  seat  himself  on  the  throne  without  ap- 
prehension, in  1685;  and,  while  receiving  the 
usual  congratulations,  seemed  every  moment  to 
expect  his  formidable  brother  with  the  execu- 
tioners and  instruments  of  death.  Solyman  had 
to  support  a  disastrous  war  against  Germany 
and  Venice,  the  misfortunes  of  which  were  at- 
tended with  the  most  ruinous  consequences. 
But  Kiopruli  Mustapha  Pacha  being  appointed 
grand- vizier,  regenerated  the  empire,  and  putting 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  main  army,  besieged 
and  took  the  fortress  of  Belgrade.  He  died  of 
the  dropsy,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Ahmed  II,  in  1691.  who  had  as  little  judgment, 
and  as  little  influence  in  the  government.  Ki- 
opruli being  killed  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube, 
when  on  the  point  of  obtaining  a  victory,  the 
sovereign  soon  followed  his  general  to  the  grave. 

Mustapha  II,  son  of  Mohammed  IV,  gave 
new  vigor  to  the  empire,  in  1695,  which  had 
languished  under  his  predecessors.  He  resolved 
to  command  his  troops  in  person,  but  met  with 
a  more  disgraceful  and  more  complete  defeat 
than  the  Turks  had  ever  experienced.  His 
troops,  not  receiving  their  pay  in  due  time,  took 
up  arms,  deposed  Mustapha,  and  invited  Ahm- 
ed his  brother  to  repair  to  the  army. 

Ahmed  III  in  the  course  of  five  months  put 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


OTT 


382 


PAI 


to  death  more  than  14,000  soldiers,  who  had 
taken  the  greatest  share  in  the  rebellion,  and 
who  were  carried  away  in  the  night-time,  and 
drowned  in  ine  Bosphorus.  A  war  broke  out 
between  the  Porte  and  Russia ;  that  with  Ger- 
many and  Venice  was  rekindled;  and  another 
was  carried  on  in  Persia.  These  military  ex- 
peditions, though  not  always  unsuccessful,  re- 
duced the  empire  to  a  state  of  general  weak- 
ness, which  was  felt  particularly  in  the  capital : 
all  tended  to  irritate  the  minds  of  men,  and  pro- 
duced a  revolt  that  dethroned  Ahmed,  after  a 
reign  of  27  years.  On  the  deposition  of  Ahm- 
ed, in  1730,  and  the  elevation  of  his  nephew 
Mohammed  V,  a  considerable  alteration  took 
place  in  the  mode  of  carrying  on  the  govern- 
ment. From  the  time  of  IVfohammed  II,  the 
whole  administration  had  been  usually  delega- 
ted to  the  vizier ;  but  as  this  and  the  preceding 
rebellion  had  originated  in  the  overgrown  pow- 
er and  ambition  of  these  officers,  Mohammed  V 
took  the  Authority  into  his  own  hands,  and  de- 
termined to  change  his  viziers  frequently.  This 
prince  was  unfortunate  in  his  battles  both  with 
the  Russians  and  Kouli  Khan,  whom  he  was 
obliged  to  acknowledge  as  sophi  of  Persia. 

On  the  death  of  Mohammed,  his  brother  Os- 
man  came  from  confinement  to  the  throne  ;  in 
1754  ',  and  the  kislar-aga  and  his  secretary  gain- 
ed the  confidence  of  his  new  sovereign,  and  as- 
sumed all  their  former  power.  Osmari  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Mustapha  III,  the  son  of  Ahmed,  in 
1757,  who  deprived  the  kislar-aga  of  his  place 
and  influence,  and  attached  to  the  vizierat  great 
part  of  the  emoluments  formerly  given  to  the 
kislar-aga.  Mustapha  having  attacked  the 
Russians,  in  1769,  a  bloody  war  commenced 
with  the  exploits  of  Prince  Gallitzin,  who  gain- 
ed four  separate  and  complete  victories  over  the 
Turks,  whom  he  obliged  to  abandon  Choczin. 
The  Russians  speedily  overran  Moldavia  and 
Walachia,  and  gained  a  great  naval  victory  off 
Tchesme,  where  the  whole  of  the  Turkish  fleet 
was  destroyed.  These  and  other  important  suc- 
cesses of  the  Russians  compelled  tiie  Turks  to 
conclude  a  dishonorable  peace,  soon  after  the 
death  of  Mustapha,  and  the  accession  of  his  bro- 
ther Abdulhamid.  The  peace  of  1774,  was  the 
first  great  step  towards  the  limitation  of  an  em- 
pire, originally  founded,  and  gradually  extend- 
ed, by  rapine  and  injustice.  On  the  death  of 
Abdulhamid,  in  176!),  Selim  III,  son  of  Musta- 
pha, ascended  the  throne,  at  a  time  when  the 
empire  was  engaged  in  another  unsuccessful 
war  with  Russia,  which  terminated  greatly  in 
favor  of  the  latter  power.  From  this  period, 


the  most  interesting  and  important  concerns 
relating  to  the  Ottoman  empire,  were  for  some 
time  connected  with  the  internal  and  civil  broils, 
in  which  the  celebrated  Passwan  Oglu,  or  Pez- 
man  Ohlu,  took  a  very  active  and  decided  part 
against  the  regular  government.  Civil  war. 
which  was  probably  iomented  by  the  French, 
when  they  invaded  Egypt,  appeared  likely  to 
become  general  throughout  Turkey  ;  a  revolu- 
tion was  effected  by  the  janisaries,  who  deposed 
Selim  III.  and  raised  to  the  throne.  Mustapha 
IV,  in  1801,  and  had  it  not  been  lor  the  assist- 
ance of  the  English,  and  the  regard  which  they 
paid  to  its  interests,  in  the  treaty  of  pacification, 
in  1802,  it  is  probable  that  the  Ottoman  Porte 
would  have  ceased  to  exist  as  an  independent 
nation.  Russia  declared  war  against  Turkey, 
on  the  pretext  of  a  peace  concluded  with  Eng- 
land by  the  latter  power,  in  ISO!),  and  the  Turk* 
and  Russians  commenced  hostilities  against 
each  other  with  no  other  apparent  object  than 
mutual '  destruction.  At  length,  mutual  ex- 
haustion rendered  the  operations  on  both  sides 
languid  ;  and  Russia  finding  herself  invaded  by 
the  formidable  power  of  trance,  a  treaty  of 
peace  was  concluded  with  Turkey,  in  J8J2, 
which  ceded  the  cities  and  districts  on  the  left 
of  the  Pruth  as  the  price  of  pacification. 

The  present  sultan,  Mahmoud.  has  met  with 
many  losses.  lie  is  attached  to  the  European 
dress  and  discipline,  and  has  introduced  many 
improvements,  which  are,  however,  regarded 
merely  in  the  li^ht  of  innovations  by  his  subjects. 

OXENSTIERN  (Axel),  a  Swedish  states- 
man, was  born  in  15^3.  He  was  the  favorite 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  after  whose  death  he 
conducted  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  with  equal 
ability  and  integrity.  He  died  in  1(554. 


PACA,  William,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  horn'in  Maryland 
Oct.  31,  1740.  After  graduating  at  the  college 
of  Philadelphia,  he  studied  law,  and  commenced 
practice  in  Annapolis.  From  1774  to  1778  he 
was  a  member  of  congress,  and  vacated  his  seat 
when  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  su- 
preme court  of  his  state,  of  which  he  was  chosen 
governor  in  11^2.  In  17^)  he  was  appointed  by 
Washington  judge  of  the  district  court  of  the.' 
United  States  for  Maryland,  and  hold  that  im- 
portant post  until  his  death,  which  took  place 
JO  years  alter,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age. 

PAINE,  Robert  Trent,  one  of  the  signers  ot 
the  American  Declaration  of  Independence,  was 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PAl 


383 


PAL 


gre 
ha 


born  at  Boston,  in  1731.  For  some  time  after 
graduating  from  Harvard  college,  he  kept  a 
public  school.  Having  studied  theology,  he 
became  a  chaplain  in  the  provincial  forces  in 
1755,  but  soon  studied  law  in  which  he  made 
at  proficiency,  and  settled  at  Taunton.  After 

ving  served  at  the  general  representative  as- 
sembly, he  was  chosen  member  of  the  continen- 
tal congress  which  met  at  Philadelphia  in  1774. 
He  was  several  years  in  congress,  and  was  an 
active  member  of  the  committee  that  framed 
the  constitution  of  Massachusetts.  He  held  the 
office  of  attorney-general  from  the  time  the  gov- 
ernment was  organized  until  1790,  when  he 
was  made  judge  of  the  supreme  court,  an  office 
which  he  held  until  1804.  He  died  in  the  85th 
year  of  his  age,  May  11,  1814. 

PAINE.  Thomas,  a  political  and  deistical 
writer,  was  born  in  1737  at  Thetford  in  Norfolk, 
where  he  was  brought  up  to  the  business  of  a 
stay  maker.  He  afterwards  became  an  excise- 
man at  Lewes  ;  but  being  dismissed  for  some 
mal-practices,  he  went  to  America  in  1774,  be- 
came editor  of  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine,  and 
aided  the  revolution  by  a  pamphlet  called  Com- 
mon Sense,  for  which  he  was  rewarded  with 
£500  by  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania.  He 
was  also  appointed  clerk  to  the  committee  for 
foreign  affairs.  In  1780  he  was  appointed  clerk 
to  the  assembly  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1785 
received  $3,00'J  from  congress,  and  500  acres  of 
land  from  the  state  of  New  York. 

In  1790  he  went  to  London  and  excited  con- 
siderable notice  by  his  Rights  of  Man,  written 
in  answer  to  Burke's  Reflections  on  the  French 
Revolution.  A  prosecution,  however,  being 
commenced  against  him,  he  fled  to  France, 
where  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  national 
convention,  but  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
Jacobins  for  recommending  a  lenient  course 
towards  Louis  XVI,  and  was  thrown  into  prison. 
Here  he  narrowly  escaped  death.  The  jailor, 
when  he  received  orders  for  a  batch  of  prisoners 
to  be  carried  to  execution,  was  in  the  habit  of 
marking  the  doors  of  their  cells  with  chalk.  One 
day,  Paine  had  left  his  cell  to  visit  a  fellow- 
prisoner,  and  the  door  stood  wide  open.  The 
drunken  jailor,  having  occasion  to  single  out 
some  victims,  chalked  the  inside  of  faine's 
door,  which  was  afterwards  closed,  and  thus  he 
escaped  notice,  when,  on  the  ensuing  day,  the 
devoted  prisoners  were  delivered  up  to  the 
proper  authorities.  By  the  publication  of  his 
Age  of  Reason,  a  work  levelled  at  Revelation, 
he  forfeited  the  esteem  of  many  Americans  who 
had  been  his  warm  friends.  He  fell  into  disre- 
33 


Eute,  when,  on  his  return  to  America,  he  gave 
imsclf  up  to  intemperate  habits.  He  died  June 
8,  1809,  the  victim  of  his  excesses,  and  was 
buried  on  his  own  farm,  interment  on  their 
ground  having  been  refused  by  the  society  of 
Friends  to  whom  application  was  made.  Cob- 
bett,  who  professes  an  unbounded  admiration 
for  Tom  Paine,  dug  up  his  bones,  and  carried 
them  to  England. 

PALESTINE,  (See  Hebrews').  Palestine  ex- 
tends from  Crelo-Syria  to  Arabia  Petrea;  on 
the  west  it  has  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the 
east  Arabia  Deserta.  The  country  is  moun- 
tainous, and  there  is  only  one  principal  river, 
the  Jordanes,  or  Jordan,  which  rising  on  Mount 
Hermon,  falls  into  the  lake  of  Gennesareth,  or 
sea  of  Tiberias ;  after  which  it  loses  itself  in  a 
more  spacious  one,  Lacus  Asphaltites,  the  Bi- 
tuminous Lake,  or  Dead  Sea.  On  the  western 
side  of  Jordan  were  Judsea  on  the  south,  Sama- 
ria in  the  middle,  and  Galilee  in  the  north ;  on 
the  eastern  side  was  Percea.  The  Philistines 
were  mostly  on  the  coast  towards  Egypt.  In 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  stood  Hierosolyma,  or 
Jerusalem,  built  on  several  hills,  the  largest  of 
which  was  Mount  Sion  ;  it  formed  the  southern 
part  of  the  city.  On  the  east  of  the  second,  or 
lower  city,  was  Mount  Moriah.  Jerusalem, 
when  enlarged  and  beautified  by  David,  Solo- 
mon, &.C.,  became  a  most  renowned  city,  and 
as  such  is  mentioned  by  Herodotus  under  the 
name  of  Cadytis.  Its  temple  on  Mount  Moriah, 
was  a  noble"  and  costly  structure.  Both  the 
city  and  temple  were  destroyed  by  the  Chalde- 
ans, about  600  years  B.  C.  The  second  temple, 
which  had  begun  to  decay,  was  rebuilt  by  Her- 
od the  Great.  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus  was  A.  D.  70.  Under  Adrian,  a  new 
city,  altogether  Roman,  and  called  .iElia,  was 
built,  but  there  was  an  alteration  in  its  site. 
Sion,  the  principal  quarter  of  the  ancient  city, 
was  not  comprised  within  the  new  city.  It 
subsists  at  present,  but  in  a  deplorable  condition, 
inhabited  by  a  motley  group  of  Turks,  Jews, 
and  Christians.  A  mosque  has  supplanted  the 
temple.  Northeast  of  Mount  Moriah  was  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  beyond  the  brook  and  valley 
of  Kedron  ;  on  the  south  was  the  valley  of  Hin- 
nom.  and  on  the  north  Mount  Calvary.  Six 
miles  to  the  southeast  was  Bethlehem.  A 
rugged  mountainous  country  lay  between  Jeru- 
salem and  Jericho,  famous  for  its  balm.  For 
this,  and  for  their  palm-trees,  both  Judsea  and 
Idumaea  were  celebrated.  Hebron,  a  place  of 
high  antiquity,  was  the  sepulchre  of  Abraham 
and  his  family-  In  the  lime  of  the  crusades  it 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


PAM 


384 


PAM 


bore  the  name  of  St.  Abraham ;  and  the  Arabs, 
who  always  respect  their  primitive  names,  call 
it  Cabr  Ibrahim,  or  the  tomb  of  Abraham.  Gaza 
and  Ascalon,on  the  coast,  preserve  their  names, 
as  also  Ekron.  Gath  is  more  inland.  Azotus 
was  the  ancient  Ashdod.  Lydda,  in  the  inte- 
rior, has  the  name  of  Lod.  South  of  it  is  Arim- 
athea.  Towards  the  south  lay  Idumea,  or 
Edom  :  the  natives  were  subdued  by  the  Macca- 
bees, and  incorporated  with  the  Jewish  nation. 
In  Jerome's  time  the  country  was  deserted,  the 
few  inhabitants  having  their  dwellings  in  cav- 
erns. 

PALMYRA,  the  ruins  of  a  great  city  of  Asia, 
in  the  desert  of  Syria,  said  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  only  brilliant 
part  of  its  history  was  under  Odenathus  and  his 
queen  Zenobia.  It  afterwards  fell  under  the 
power  of  the  Mahometans,  but  at  what  period 
it  sank  into  its  present  state  of  desolation  is 
uncertain. 

PAMPAS;  vast  plains  in  the  southern  part 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  extending  from  the  de  la  Plata 
nearly  to  the  Andes,  750  miles  long,  and  450 
broad.  Part  of  these  plains  are  covered  with 
grass,  and  part  with  open  forests.  They  con- 
tain herds  of  wild  horses  and  cattle  and  some 
beasts  of  prey,  and  are  inhabited  by  the  Gua- 
chos, a  race  of  men  of  Spanish  origin  wbf>*live 
on  horseback  and  subsist  by  hunting,  and  the 
fierce  Indians  who  lead  the  life  of  the  Guachos, 
but  are  constantly  at  war  with  them.  Captain  _ 
Head's  Rough  Notes  of  some  Rapid  Journeys ' 
across  the  Pampas,  and  among  the  Andes,  con- 
tains the  best  and  most  amusing  account  we 
have  of  them. 

The  Guachos  make  use  of  the  lasso  in  hunt- 
ing. The  lasso,  so  called  from  the  Spanish  lazo, 
or  noose,  consists  of  a  rope  made  of  twisted 
strips  of  untanned  hide,  varying  in  length  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  yards,  and  is  about  as  thick  as 
the  little  finger.  It  has  a  noose  or  running- 
knot  at  one  end,  the  other  extremity  being  fast- 
ened by  an  eye  and  button  to  a  ring  in  a  strong 
hide  belt  or  surcingle,  bound  tightly  round  the 
horse.  The  coil  is  grasped  by  the  horseman's 
left  hand,  while  the  noose,  which  is  held  in  the 
right,  trails  along  the  ground  except  when  in 
use.  and  then  it  is  whirled  round  the  head  with 
considerable  velocity,  during  which,  by  a  pecu- 
liar turn  of  the  wrist,  it  is  made  to  assume  a 
circular  form ;  so  that,  when  delivered  from  the 
hand,  the  noose  preserves  itself  open  until  it 
falls  over  the  object  at  which  it  has  been  aimed. 

The  unerring  precision  with  which  the  lasso 
is  thrown,  is  perfectly  astonishing,  and  to  one 


who  sees  it  for  the  first  time,  has  a  very  magi- 
cal appearance.  Even  when  standing  still  it  is 
by  no  means  an  easy  thing  to  throw  the  lasso  •, 
but  the  difficulty  is  vastly  increased  when  it 
comes  to  be  thrown  from  horseback  and  at  a 
gallop,  and  when,  in  addition,  the  rider  is  oblig- 
ed to  pass  over  uneven  ground,  and  to  leap 
hedges  and  ditches  in  his  course.  Yet  such  is 
the  dexterity  of  the  guachos  or  countrymen, 
that  they  are  not  only  sure  of  catching  the  an- 
imal they  are  in  chase  of,  but  can  fix,  or  as  they 
term  it,  place  the  lasso  on  any  particular  part 
they  please. 

Suppose  that  a  wild  bull  is  to  be  caught,  and 
that  two  mounted  horsemen,  guassos,  as  they 
are  called  in  Chili,  or  guachos  on  the  Pampas, 
undertake  to  kill  him.  As  soon  as  they  dis- 
cover their  prey,  they  remove  the  coil  of  the 
lasso  from  behind  them,  and,  grasping  it  in  the 
left  hand,  prepare  the  noose  in  the  right,  and 
dash  off,  at  full  gallop,  each  swinging  his  lasso 
round  his  head.  The  first  who  comes  within 
reach  aims  at  the  bull's  horns,  and  when  he 
sees,  which  he  does  in  an  instant,  that  the  lasso 
which  he  has  thrown  will  take  effect,  he  stops 
his  horse,  and  turns  it  half  round,  the  bull  con- 
tinuing his  course,  till  the  whole  cord  has  run 
out.  The  horse,  meanwhile,  knowing,  by  ex- 
perience, what  is  going  to  happen,  leans  over 
as  much  as  he  can  in  the  opposite  direction 
from  the  bull,  and  stands  trembling  in  cxpecta- 

n  of  the  violent  tug  which  is  to  be  given  him 


by  the  bull,  when  brought  up  by  the  lasso.  So 
great,  indeed,  is  the  jerk  which  takes  place  at. 
this  moment,  that  were  the  horse  not  to  lean 


over  in  the  manner  described,  he  would  cer- 
tainly be  overturned  ;  but  standing,  as  he  does, 
across  the  road,  with  his  feet  planted  firmly  on 
the  ground,  he  offers  sufficient  resistance  to 
stop  the  bull  as  instantaneously  as  if  he  had 
been  shot,  though,  the  instant  before,  he  was 
running  at  full  speed. 

If  the  intention  be  to  kill  the  animal  for  the 
sake  of  the  tallow  and  hide  alone,  as  is  often 
tin;  e.Tse,  one  of  the  guachos  dismounts,  and 
running  in,  cuts  the  bull's  hamstrings  with  a 
long  knife  which  he  always  wears  in  his  girdle  ; 
n:iti.  instantly  afterwards,  dispatches  him  by  a 
dexterous  cut  across  the  back  of  the  neck.  The 
most  surprising  tiling  is,  the  manner  in  which 
the  horse,  afier  Icing  left  by  his  rider,  manages 
to  preserve  the  las: ••>  ahvys  tight;  this  would 
be  less  difficult  if  the  bull  were  to  remain  always 
steady,  but  it  sometimes  happens  that  he  makes 
violent  struggles  '"  <li^'iit:m»l:'  himself  from  the 
lasso,  rushing  backwards  and  forwards  in  a  fu- 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


PAM 


385 


PAR 


rious  manner.  The  horse,  however,  with  won- 
derful sagacity,  alters  his  pace,  and  prances 
about,  as  if  conscious  of  what  he  is  doing,  so  as 
to  resist  every  movement  of  the  bull,  and  never 
to  allow  the  lasso  to  be  relaxed  for  a  moment. 

When  a  wild  horse  is  to  be  taken,  the  lasso 
is  always  placed  round  the  two  hind  legs,  and, 
as  the  guacho  rides  a  little  on  one  side,  the  jerk 
pulls  the  entangled  feet  laterally,  so  as  to  throw 
him  on  his  side,  without  endangering  his  knees 
or  his  face.  Before  the  horse  can  recover  the 
shock,  the  rider  dismounts,  and  snatching  the 
poncho  or  cloak  from  his  shoulders,  wraps  it 
round  the  prostrate  animal's  head :  he  then 
forces  into  his  mouth  one  of  the  powerful  bits 
of  the  country,  straps  a  saddle  on  his  back, 
and,  bestriding  him,  removes  the  poncho ;  upon 
which,  the  astonished  horse  springs  on  his  legs, 
and  endeavors,  by  a  thousand  vain  efforts,  to 
disencumber  himself  of  his  new  master,  who 
sits  quite  composedly  on  his  back ;  and,  by  a 
discipline  which  never  fails,  reduces  the  horse 
to  such  complete  obedience  that  he  is  soon 
trained  to  lend- his  speed  and  strength  in  the 
capture  of  his  wild  companions. 

The  equestrian  education  of  the  dwellers  on 
the  Pampas,  commences  early.  At  the  age  of 
four  the  Guacho  is  mounted  on  horseback,  and 
assists  in  driving  the  cattle  to  the  enclosure. 
Even  then  he  is  adventurous,  and  can  bring 
back  by  force  those  horses  that  attempt  to  es- 
cape. As  his  years  increase,  he  becomes  more 
daring  and  manly,  and  spends  his  time  in  gal- 
loping after  the  ostrich,  the  gama,  the  hare,  and 
the  tiger. 

The  Pampas  Indians,  a  daring  and  hardy  race 
of  men,  who  have  never  been  conquered,  and 
to  whom  the  great  changes  of  the  seasons  ap- 
pear to  come  with  singularlv  little  inconven- 
ience, are  always  on  horseback,  whether  beneath 
the  burning  skies  of  summer,  or  the  piercing  cold 
of  winter ;  and  they  are  at  all  seasons  wholly 
without  clothing.  They  are  formed  into  tribes, 
under  the  command  of  caciques,  and  are  a  war- 
like people.  Mounted  on  their  fleet  and  sure- 
footed horses,  with  their  spears  eighteen  feet 
long,  which  they  can  manage  with  great  power, 
and  dexterity,  they  are  most  formidable.  On 
foot  they  are  almost  powerless ;  as  their  habitual 
riding  deprives  them  of  the  faculty  of  walking. 
When  mounted,  however,  their  fleetness  is 
almost  incredible.  When  they  march  for  an 
attack,  they  collect  a  great  troop  of  horses,  and, 
raising  their  war-cry,  set  off  at  a  gallop.  If  the 
march  be  long,  they  change  horses  several 
times,  and  always  reserve  their  best  ones  to  be 


mounted  fresh  when  they  are  in  sight  of  the 
enemy.  The  horses  only  are  used  for  riding, 
but  they  drive  mares  along  with  them  to  serve 
as  food.  Their  onset  is  destructive,  and,  until 
their  horses  are  worn  out  with  fatigue,  to  resist 
them  is  no  easy  matter. 

Riding  in  the  Pampas  is  rendered  dangerous 
by  the  numerous  holes  which  the  bisacho  bur- 
rows in  the  ground  like  a  rabbit.  Their  holes 
frequently  cause  great  injury  to  the  feet  of  the 
horses,  but  custom  renders  the  horse  cautious 
amidst  these  dangers ;  and.  as  for  the  Guacho, 
it  is  impossible  to  eject  him  from  the  saddle, 
unless  the  horse  shall  actually  fall.  Captain 
Head  tried  the  rapid  mode  of  travelling  prac- 
tised by  the  Guachos,  and  survived  to  describe 
it.  At  first  he  found  his  head  a  little  confused 
with  the  constant  galloping,  and  when  he  dis- 
mounted, he  was  so  giddy  that  he  could  not 
stand ;  but  he  in  time  got  accustomed  to  it,  and 
found  it  more  pleasant.  He  found  the  young 
men  the  worst  drivers  in  point  of  speed.  The 
children  had  no  fear,  and  therefore  always  dash- 
ed on  at  the  most  rapid  rate,  and  the  old  men 
made  up  in  skill,  while  the  young  men  wanted 
alike  the  daring  forwardness  of  the  children, 
and  the  experience  of  the  old  men.  Captain 
Head  must  have  travelled  at  a  prodigious  rate. 
From  Mendoza  he  determined  to  gallop  to  Bue- 
nos Ayres,  and,  attended  by  a  single  Guacho, 
mounted  horse  to  recross  the  Pampas.  It  was 
now  that  the  captain  tried  the  velocity  and  felt 
the  pleasure  of  really  independent  travelling 
across  the  Pampas ;  and  his  speed  can  be  com- 
pared to  nothing  upon  record — even  that  of  the 
Guacho  who  accompanied  him,  or  of  Mazeppa 
as  he  was  bound  to  the  wild  horse.  Starting 
from  Mendoza  before  day-break,  he  found  him- 
self at  half  past  seven  in  the  evening,  at  the 
distance  of  one  hundred  and  fifty -three  miles; 
which,  as  he  had  been  just  fourteen  hours  and 
a  half  on  horseback,  was  nearly  at  the  rate  of 
ten  miles  an  hour.  He  was  fatigued,  and  could 
get  nothing  to  eat,  and  so,  taking  his  saddle  into 
a  shed,  he  laid  down  his  head  on  it,  and  was 
asleep  in  an  instant.  The  voice  of  the  Guacho 
roused  him  an  hour  before  daylight,  and  he 
again  galloped  off  at  the  rate  of  the  preceding 
day.  It  is  needless  to  follow  the  course  of  this 
adventurous  traveller — enough  has  been  said 
to  show  the  mode  of  life  and  travelling  in  the 
Pampas. 

PARAGUAY,  a  state  of  South  America, 
bounded  N.  by  Brazil,  E.  and  S.  by  the  Parana, 
and  W.  by  the  Paraguay.  It  contains  a  popu- 
lation of  150.000  according  to  the  lowest  esti 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


PAR 


386 


PAR 


mate  ;  some  give  twice  that  number.  It  was 
discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1526,  and  in 
1776  formed  a  province  of  the  viceroyalty  of 
Buenos  Ayres.  The  independence  of  Paraguay 
was  acknowledged  in  1827,  by  Don  Pedro,  then 
emperor  of  Brazil.  Dr.  Francia,  who  was 
made  dictator  for  life;  was  most  despotic  in  bis 
government.  He  recently  died  at  the  advanced 
age  of  90  years,  and  hopes  are  entertained  that 
more  liberal  principles  will  prevail  in  Paraguay. 

PARGA,  a  sea-port  on  the  coast  of  Albania, 
was  built  on  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire. 
It  is  hardly  mentioned  in  history  till  1401,  when 
it  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Venice,  which 
continued  until  the  subversion  of  the  latter  in 
1797.  In  1814  All  Pacha  marched  against  it 
with  a  military  force  ;  the  Pargiots  withstood 
the  attack,  but  applied  to  the  British  in  Corfu, 
and  received  a  garrison  from  them,  in  the  hope 
of  being  incorporated  with  the  republic  of  the 
Ionian  Islands.  To  this  compact,  however,  the 
British  did  not  give  effect;  the  dread  of  con- 
tinued dissensions  with  the  Albanians  led  to  a 
negotiation  for  its  surrender  ;  Ali  paying  an  in- 
demnity to  those  who  should  refuse  to  remain 
after  a  change  of  government.  The  evacua- 
tion took  place  in  1819,  most  of  the  inhabitants 
removing  to  the  Ionian  Islands. 

PARIS,  the  capital  of  France,  lies  upon  both 
banks  and  two  islands  of  the  Seine,  ]  12  miles 
S.  E.  of  Havre.  The  population,  in  1827,  was 
890,451.  It  is  an  archiepiscopal  see,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  monarch,  the  legislative  body,  the 
ministers  and  ambassadors,  one  of  the  largest, 
most  populous,  and  richest  cities  in  the  world, 
containing  some  most  superb  monuments.  In- 
cluding its  suburbs,  it  is  18  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  is  much  superior  to  London  in  pala- 
ces and  public  edifices.  Not  only  does  it  enjoy 
a  literary  and  scientific  preeminence,  but  is  one 
of  the  gayest  capitals  in  Europe.  The  houses 
are  lofty  and  built  of  the  stone  taken  from  the 
quarries  that  extend  beneath  the  city,  thus 
forming  the  celebrated  catacombs.  The  royal 
palaces  are  the  Louvre,  and  Tuileries.  1 1  was 
very  strong,  when,  under  the  name  of  Lutetia, 
it  resisted  a  Roman  detachmtMit  sent  against  it 
by  Ccesar.  The  Romans  strengthened  the  for- 
tifications; in  the  fifth  century  it  was  taken  by 
the  Franks ;  and  in  508  was  constituted  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom.  It  was  improved  by 
Charlemagne,  and  surrounded  with  walla  at  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century.  Under  Louis  X!  V 
some  improvements  were  made  :  but  Wru.-ull.'s 
being  then  the  chief  care  of  the  B;>urbon<.  Paris 
received  only  slow  and  partial  embellishments, 


until  the  revolution,  when  it  became  essential 
for  the  new  rulers  (particularly  Bonaparte)  to 
concilia';  the  favor  of  so  important  a  city. 

PARK,  Mungo,  a  native  of  Scotland,  born 
near  Selkirk,  Sept.  10, 1771 ,  fell  a  victim  to  the 
cause  of  science,  being  murdered  in  Africa, 
while  engaged  in  his  third  expedition,  J805. 
His  published  travels  are  highly  interesting. 

PARMA,  a  fine  city  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
capital  of  the  duchy  of  the  same  name,  con- 
taining 35,000  inhabitants.  It  was  founded  by 
the  ancient  Etrurians.  In  the  Kith  century, 
Paul  III  gave  it  to  his  son  Luigi  Farnese  whose 
descendants  continued  to  reign  as  dukes  of  Par- 
ma till  the  extinction  of  the  male  branch.  In 
1714,  Elizabeth  Farnese  married  Philip  V  of 
Spain,  and  brought  him  the  duchy  as  a  dowry. 
Her  son  Don  Carlos  took  possession  of  it  in 
1731;  but  it  being  settled  in  173o,  that  Don 
Carlos  should  be  made  king  of  the  two  Sicilies, 
the  duchy  of  Parma  and  Piacenza  was  ceded  to 
the  emperor,  and  governed  by  the  house  of 
Austria  till  1748,  when  they  were  given  up  to 
Don  Philip,  snn  of  Philip  V.  By  the  peace  of 
Luneville,  the  duke  of  Parma  was  raised  to  the 
throne  as  king  of  Etruria,  in  1801.  In  1805, 
Parma  and  Piacenza  were  united  to  France, 
and  on  the  fall  of  Bonaparte  they  were  taken  by 
the  Austrians,  and  in  1814  were  given  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris  to  Maria  Louisa,  the  ex-empress, 
devolving  on  her  death  to  Austria  and  Sardinia 
— a  provision  which  has  since  been  modified  by 
certain  equivalents. 

PARSONS.  Theophilus,  was  the  son  of  a 
minister  of  By  field,  Mass.,  and  was  born  Feb., 
1750.  After  completing  his  legal  studies,  he 
opened  an  office  in  Newburyport,  and  assumed 
a  high  standing  in  his  profession  ;  in  1806  he 
succeeded  chief-justice  Dana  in  the  Supreme 
Judicial  Court  of  Massachusetts.  He  died  at 
Boston.  Oct.  30,  1813. 

PARTHLY,  this  celebrated  kingdom  of  an- 
tiquity was  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  tho 
modern  Khonissin,  and  >vas  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  Hyrcarna,  on  the  S.  by  Aria,  on  the  E. 
bv  Carmania  the  Desert,  and  on  the  W.  by 
Media.  The  ancient  Parthians  wore  originally 
a  tribe  of  Scythians,  who,  being  expelled  from 
the  land  of  their  nativity,  took  up  theirabode  in 
this  part  of  Asia.  Arsaces,  the  founder  of  the 
Parthian  monarchy,  assumed  the  regal  dignity 
B.  C.  250.  His  son  Arsaces  II  subdued  Media, 
but  was  soon  dispossessed  of  this  acquisition. 

On  the  death  of  Arsaces,  the  government  de- 
volved on  his  son  Priapatius,  who  bequeathed 
the  crown  to  his  eldest  son  Phraates.  This  lawt 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PAR 


387 


PAR 


prince  subdued  the  Mardi,  a  warlike  people  of 
the  east.  He  left  the  kingdom  to  his  brother 
Mithridates,  who  soon  reduced  Bactria,  Persia, 
Media,  Elymais,  and  several  other  countries, 
and  carried  his  victorious  arms  into  India,  even 
beyond  tlie  boundaries  of  Alexander's  conquests. 
He  afterwards  made  himself  master  of  Babylo- 
nia and  Mesopotamia  ;  and  his  reign  is  regarded 
as  the  epoch  of  the  Parthian  grandeur. 

We  pass  over  a  few  unimportant  reigns  till 
we  come  to  that  of  Orodes,  who  engaged  in  war 
with  M.  Licinius  Crassus,  which  was  attended 
with  a  vast  effusion  of  blood,  and  proved  ex- 
tremely disastrous  both  to  the  Parthians  and  the 
Romans.  At  length,  Crassus  was  overthrown 
with  a  great  slaughter,  and  his  head  sent  to 
Orodes ;  whilst  his  vanquished  troops  tamely 
surrendered  or  were  put  to  the  sword.  Orodes 
sent  an  army  to  besiege  the  city  of  Antioch, 
which,  however,  the  Parthians  could  not  take. 
To  revenge  the  deatli  of  Crassus,  the  Romans 
entered  Syria,  B.  C.  50,  and,  after  some  partial  en- 
gagements, succeeded  in  defeating  Pacorus,  the 
son  of  Orodes,  who  was  killed  in  the  battle.  Oro- 
des appointed  Phraates  his  successor,  B.  C.  36. 

Phraates  no  sooner  attained  to  this  height  of 
power  than  he  caused  all  his  brothers  by  the 
daughter  of  Antiochus  Eusebes  to  be  put  to 
death,  and  attempted  to  despatch  Orodes  also, 
by  poison,  which  proving  ineffectual,  he  ordered 
him  to  be  stifled  in  his  bed,  and  exercised  the 
same  cruelty  upon  the  prime  nobility,  his  eldest 
son,  and  the  other  branches  of  the  royal  family. 
To  elude  the  vengeance  of  this  barbarian,  many 
of  the  Parthian  nobles  emigrated  into  Syria,  and 
prevailed  on  Marc  Antony  to  invade  their  un- 
happy kingdom.  The  Romans,  however,  were 
so  harassed  by  the  enemy,  that  they  were  re- 
duced to  the  most  pitiable  extremities,  and  nar- 
rowly escaped  destruction. 

The  Parthian  monarch  continuing  to  exercise 
the  most  wanton  cruelties  upon  his  own  sub- 
jects, the  nobles  entered  into  a  conspiracy,  and 
chasing  him  from  the  country,  conferred  the 
sovereignty  on  Tiribates,  one  of  their  own  body. 
Phraates,  however,  returned,  and  defeating  his 
rival  in  a  pitched  battle,  recovered  his  paternal 
inheritance. 

At  length,  this  tyrant  was  poisoned  by  his 
wife,  that  her  son  Phraatices  might  ascend  the 
throne.  Phraatices  had  scarcely  assumed  the 
diadem,  when  his  subjects,  resolving  to  revenge 
the  crime  to  which  he  had  been  accessary,  rose 
in  arms,  and  placed  one  Orodes,  who  was  of  the 
Arsacidan  family,  on  the  throne.  This  prince 
was  assassinated. 

33* 


On  the  death  of  Orodes  II,  the  emperor  Au- 
gustus was  requested  by  the  Parthians  to  send 
one  of  the  sons  of  Phraates,  who  had  been  edu- 
cated at  Rome,  to  assume  the  government. 
Accordingly,  he  sent  them  Vonones,  but  the 
Parthians  growing  weary  of  him,  persuaded 
Artabanus,  king  of  Media,  to  chase  him  from 
the  throne.  Artabanus,  at  length,  firmly  estab- 
lished himself  in  the  government  of  Parthia,  and 
died  in  the  31st  year  of  his  reign.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Bardanes,  who  made  war 
upon  Izates,  king  of  Adiabene,  A.  D.  47,  who 
had  greatly  assisted  in  restoring  Artabanus  to 
the  throne  of  Parthia.  This  ingratitude  was  so 
warmly  resented  by  the  Parthian  nobles,  that 
they  caused  Bardanes  to  be  assassinated,  and 
bestowed  the  crown  on  his  brother. 

Gotarzes  was  succeeded  by  one  Venones, 
governor  of  Media,  A.  D.  49.  On  the  demise 
of  this  last  prince,  the  government  devolved  on 
Vologeses.  the  son  of  Gotarzee,  who  maintained 
a  bloody  war  against  the  Romans,  on  account 
of  the  crowns  of  Armenia  and  Syria,  which  he 
had  bestowed  on  Tiridates  and  Pacorus,  two  of 
his  brothers.  Artabanus  III  next  ascended  the 
throne.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Pacorus. 

Cosdroes,  the  son  of  Pacorus,  invaded  Arme- 
nia in  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  and  expelled 
Exadares,  who  had  been  placed  on  the  throne 
of  that  country  by  the  emperor  Trajan.  To  re- 
venge this  insult,  Trajan  inarched  into  the  East, 
recovered  Armenia,  made  himself  master  of 
Mesopotamia,  pursued  his  route  to  Babylon  and 
Ctesiphon,  and  bestowed  their  crown  on  Par- 
thanaspates,  a  prince  of  the  Arsacidan  family. 

On  the  death  of  Trajan,  however,  the  Parthi- 
ans recalled  Cosdroes,  and  chased  Parthanas- 
paies  from  the  throne.  After  a  very  long  reign, 
Cosdroes  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Vol- 
ogeses II,  who,  after  carrying  on  hostilities 
against  Rome  for  about  four  years,  with  various 
success,  consented  to  acknowledge  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  Roman  people. 

On  the  demise  of  the  Parthian  king,  his 
nephew  Vologesee  III  ascended  the  vacant 
throne,  and  having  incensed  the  emperor  Se- 
verus,  was  stripped  of  his  treasures,  his  wives, 
and  his  children.  Artabanus,  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Vologeses,  had  scarcely  established 
himself  in  the  kingdom,  when  the  emperor  Ca- 
racalla,  desirous  of  signalizing  himself  against 
the  Parthians,  sent  ambassadors  to  demand  his 
daughter  in  marriage.  This  was  readily  grant- 
ed ;  and  the  king,  being  informed  that  the  em- 
peror was  coming  to  solemnize  the  nuptials, 
went  out  to  meet  him,  with  the  chief  of  the 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


PAU 


388 


PEL 


Parthian  nobility,  all  unarmed  and  habited  in 
splendid  dresses.  This  peaceable  train  no  soon- 
er approached  the  Roman  troops,  than  they  were 
attacked  with  the  utmost  fury,  and  Artabanus 
himself  was  compelled  to  elude  destruction  by  a 
precipitate  flight. 

On  account  of  this  exploit,  the  base  Caracalla 
assumed  the  surname  of  Parthicus.  Artabanus 
swore  irreconcilable  hatred  to  the  perfidious 
emperor,  and  inspired  the  whole  nation  with  the 
same  spirit  of  vengeance.  An  engagement  was 
fought  between  the  Parthians  and  the  Romans, 
which  was  terminated  only  by  darkness.  Ca- 
racalla dying,  an  alliance  between  the  two  em- 
pires was  proposed,  and  peace  was  concluded. 
At  this  juncture,  an  enterprising  Persian,  named 
Arlaxares,  after  a  dreadful  engagement,  defeat- 
ed Artabanus  at  the  head  of  all  the  Parthian 
forces.  Artaxares  caused  Artabanus  to  be  put 
to  death,  and  restored  the  empire  to  the  Per- 
sians, after  they  had  been  subject  to  the  princes 
of  Parthia  for  the  space  of  475  years.  The  roy- 
al family  of  Arsaces,  however,  continued  to 
reign  in  Armenia  till  the  time  of  the  emperor 
Justinian. 

PATAGONIA,  a  vast  country  occupying  the 
southern  extremity  of  South  America,  discov- 
ered by  Magellan  in  1519.  The  climate  is  cold 
and  the  natives  are  wandering  savages.  Some 
of  the  tribes  are  large-bodied,  though  not  the 
giants  which  they  have  been  described. 

PATNA,  a  celebrated  city  of  Hindostan,  and 
capital  of  the  province  of  Bahar.  On  the  25th 
June,  1763,  the  British  detachment  stationed 
there  for  the  protection  of  the  factory,  scaled 
the  walls,  and  began  pillaging  the  houses. 
ed 


They  were,  however,  attacked  by  the  garrison, 
and  taken  prisoners.  In  revenge  for  this  affair, 
the  Rajah  gave  orders  that  all  the  Europeans 


execution  upon  40  persons,  by  a  serjeant,  who 
fired  into  the  doors  and  windows  on  tiie  prison- 
ers, while  they  were  at  dinner  in  the  hall  of  the 
factory.  On  the  Gth  November,  in  the  same 
year,  the  city  was  stormed  by  major  Adams-, 
since  which  it  has  been  under  the  British  sway. 
PAUSANIAS,  a  Spartan  general,  who  great- 
ly signalized  himself  at  the  battle  of  PhiUca, 
against  the  Persians.  He  was  afterwards  set  at 
the  head  of  the  Spartan  armies,  and  extended 
his  conquests  in  Asia;  but  the  haughtiness  of 
his  behavior  created  him  many  enemies,  and  the 
Athenians  soon  obtained  a  superiority  in  the 
affairs  of  Greece.  Pausanias  was  dissatisfied 
with  his  countrymen,  and  he  offered  to  betray 
Greece  to  the  Persians,  if  he  received  in  mar- 


riage, as  the  reward  of  his  perfidy,  the  daugh- 
ter of  their  monarch.  His  intrigues  were  dis- 
covered oy  means  of  a  youth,  who  was  intrust- 
ed with  his  letters  to  Persia,  and  who  refused  to 
go,  on  the  recollection  that  such  as  had  been  em- 
ployed in  that  office  before  had  never  retijrned. 
The  letters  were  given  to  the  Ephori  of  Sparta, 
and  the  perfidy  of  Pausanias  laid  open.  lie  fled 
for  safety  to  a  temple  of  Minerva,  and  as  the 
sanctity  of  the  place  screened  him  from  the 
violence  of  his  pursuers,  the  sacred  building 
was  surrounded  with  heaps  of  stones,  the  first 
of  which  was  carried  there  by  the  indignant 
mother  of  the  unhappy  man.  He  was  starved 
to  death  in  the  temple,  and  died  about  471  years 
before  the  Christian  era. 

PELOPIDAS,  a  celebrated  general  of  Thebes, 
son  of  Hippocles  No  sooner  had  the  interest 
of  Sparla  prevailed  at  Thebes,  and  the  frienda 
of  liberty  and  national  independence  been  ban- 
ished from  the  city,  than  Pelopidas.  who  was  in 
the  number  of  the  exiles,  resolved  to  free  hia 
country  from  foreign  slavery.  His  plan  was 
bold  and  animated°and  his  deliberations  were 
slow.  Meanwhile,  Epariinondas,  who  had  been 
left  by  the  tyrants  at  Thebes,  as  being  in  ap 
pearance  a  worthless  and  insignificant  j.hiloso 
pher,  animated  the  youths  of  the  city  ;  and  at 
last  Pelopidas,  with  eleven  of  his  associates,  en» 
tered  Thebes,  and  easily  massacred  the  t'riemU 
of  the  tyranny, and  freed  the  country  from  for- 
eign rtiasters.  After  this  successful  enterprise, 
Pelopidas  was  unanimously  placed  at  the  head 
of  tiie  government ',  and  so  confident  were  the 
Thebans  of  his  abilities  as  a  general  and  a  magis- 
trate, that  they  successively  reelected  him  thir- 
teen times  to  fill  the  honorable  office  of  governor 
of  Bo3ot.ia.  Epaminondas  shared  with  him  the 
sovereign  power,  and  it  was  to  their  valor  and 
prudence  that  the  Thebans  were  indebted  for  a 
celebrated  victory  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra.  In 
a  war  which  Thebes  carried  on  against  Alexan- 
der, tyrant  of  Pheruc,  Pelopidas  was  appointed 
commander ;  but  his  imprudence,  in  trusting 
himself  unarmed  into  the  enemy's  camp,  prov- 
ed fitful  to  him.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  but 
Epaminondas  restored  him  to  liberty.  The  per- 
fidy of  Alexander  irritated  him,  and  he  was 
killed  bravely  fighting  in  a  celebrated  battle 
in  which  his'troops  obtained  the  victory,  B.  C. 
364  years.  Pelopidas  is  admired  for  his  valor, 
as  he  never  engaged  an  enemy  without  obtain- 
ing the  advantage.  The  impoverished  state  of 
Thebes  before  his  birth,  and  after  his  fall,  plain- 
ly demonstrates  the  superiority  of  his  genius 
and  of  his  abilities;  and  it  has  been  justly  ob 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PEN 


389 


PEN 


served  that  with  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas, 
the  glory  and  the  independence  of  the  Thebans 

PELOPONNESUS,  a  celebrated  peninsula 
which  comprehends  the  most  southern  parts 
of  Greece.  It  received  its  name  from  Pelops, 
who  settled  there \  as  the  name  indicates,  (the 
island  of  Pelops).  It  had  been  called  before, 
Apia,  Pelasgia,  and  Argos,  and  in  its  form,  it 
has  been  observed  by  the  moderns,  highly  to 
resemble  the  leaf  of  the  plane  tree.  Its  pre- 
sent name  is  Morea,  which  seems  to  be  deriv- 
ed from  the  Greek  word  signifying  a  mulberry- 
tree,  which  is  found  there  in  great  abundance. 
The  Peloponnesus  was  conquered,  some  time 
after  the  Trojan  war,  by  the  Heraclidce  or  de- 
scendants of  Hercules,  who  had  been  forcibly 
expelled  from  it.  The  inhabitants  of  this  pen- 
insula rendered  themselves  illustrious  like  the 
rest  of  the  Greeks,  by  their  genius,  their  fond- 
ness for  the  fine  arts,  the  cultivation  of  learn- 
ing, and  the  profession  of  arms;  but  in  nothing 
more  than  by  a  celebrated  war  which  they  carri- 
ed on  against  Athens  and  her  allies  for  twenty- 
seven  years,  and  which  from  them  received 
the  name  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

PENN,  William,  was  born  in  London,  in 
1644.  At  an  early  age  he  joined  the  society  of 
friends  or  quakers,  and  was  expelled  from  the 
university  at  Oxford  as  a  nonconformist.  His 
unshaken  adherence  to  the  principles  he  had 
adopted  drew  down  upon  him  the  indignation 
of  his  father,  which  was  a  source  of  grief  to 
Penn,  although  it  did  not  induce  him  to  relin- 
quish the  society  which  he  had  chosen.  In 
1668,  he  appeared  as  a  preacher,  and  also  as- 
sumed his  pen  to  make  known  and  defend  his 
principles,  for  which  he  was  fined  and  impris- 
oned. In  1681,  finding  no  rest  from  perse- 
cution, he  petitioned  Charles  II  for  the  patent 
of  a  province  and  drew  up  the  Constitution  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  wrote  to  the  Indians  to  pro.- 
pitiate  them  and  assure  them  of  his  good  inten- 
tions, and  having  displayed  the  plausibility  of 
his  scheme,  induced  a  large  number  of  respect- 
able families  to  embark  for  the  New  World.  In 
1682  Penn  visited  his  province  in  person,  and 
remained  two  years,  regulating  the  affairs  of 
Philadelphia,  and  establishing  amicable  rela- 
tions with  his  neighbors.  The  treaty  which 
Penn  concluded  with  the  Indians  was  never 
violated.  In  1699  he  made  a  second  visit  to 
Pennsylvania,  but  the  machinations  of  his  ene- 
mies at  home  induced  him  to  return  in  1701. 
He  died  in  1718. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  one  of  the  United  Stales, 


is  bounded  N.  by  New  York,  E.  by  the  rivet 
Delaware,  separating  it  from  New  Jersey  ;  S.  E. 
by  the  state  of  Delaware,  S.  by  Maryland  and 
part  of  Virginia,  and  W.  by  Virginia  and  Ohio. 
It  has  an  area  of  47,000  square  miles,  and  in 
1830.  it  contained  1 ,348,233  inhabitants. 
Pop.  1840,  1,724,038. 

COD.NTIES. 

Adams  Erie  Northampton 

Allegliany  Fayette  Northumberland 

^Armstrong  Franklin  Perry 

Beaver  Greene  Philadelphia 

Bedford  Huntington  Potter 

Uerks  Indiana  Pike 

Bradford  Jefferson  Schuylkill 

Bucks  Juniatta  Somerset 

Butler  Lebanon  Susquelianna 

Cambria  Lehigh  Tioga 

Centre  Luzerne  Union 

Chester  Lycntning  Venango 

Clearfield  Lancaster  Warren 

Columbia  M'Kean  Washington 

Crawford  Mercer  Wayne 

Cumberland  Mitliin  Westmoreland 

Dauphin  Montgomery  York 

Delaware 

The  large  rivers  are  the  Delaware,  Schuyl- 
kill, Susquehanna,  Lehigh,  Juniatta,  AlleghV 
ny,  Mononghahela,  Ohio,  &c.  The  Alleghany 
and  Blue  Mountains  intersect  this  state.  As  a 
large  portion  of  the  state  is  hilly  and  moun- 
tainous, some  of  the  soil  is  poor ;  but  a  great 
part  is  admirably  adapted  to  tillage.  Among 
the  minerals  found  in  Pennsylvania,  coal  is  ob- 
tained in  the  largest  quantities.  As  a  manufac- 
turing state  Pennsylvania  takes  the  precedence 
of  others.  The  principal  places  are  Philadel- 
phia, Pittsburg,  Lancaster,  Reading,  York, 
Harrisburg  (the  seat  of  government).  Carlisle, 
Easton,  Chambersburg,  Columbia.  There  are 
various  seminaries  of  learning  in  this  state, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  Philadelphia,  Dickinson 
College  at  Carlisle,  Washington  College  at 
Washington,  Jefferson  College  at  Cannons- 
burg,  and  Alleghany  college  at  Meadville, 
The  late  Stephen  Girard  left  a  fund  of  two 
million  dollars  which  has  been  appropriated  to 
a  college  for  the  education  of  orphans.  It  is 
situated  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  long  the 
residence  of  its  beneficent  founder. 

The  inhabitants  of  Pennsylvania  are  of  Eng- 
lish, German,  Irish,  Scotch,  Welsh,  Swedish, 
and  Dutch  origin.  The  grant  to  Penn  has 
been  noticed  in  the  preceding  article.  The  city 
of  Philadelphia  was  laid  out  in  168'2;  but  Swe- 
dish settlements  had  been  made  in  the  state  as 
early  as  1638.  The  rights  of  the  native  posses- 
sors of  the  soil,  were  respected,  in  every  in 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


PEP 


390 


PER 


stance,  and  they  only  relinquished  their  land  on 
being  paid  fair  prices.  The  policy  of  this  con- 
duct was  perceptible  in  the  amicable  disposition 
of  the  Indians.  In  179!)  the  seat  of  government 
was  removed  from  Philadelphia  to  Lancaster, 
and  again,  in  1812,  to  Harrisburg,  where  it  re- 
mains. 

PEPIN,  surnamed  the  short,  king  of  France, 
the  first  of  the  second  race  of  the  French  mon- 
archs,  was  the  son  of  Charles  Martel,  and  bro- 
ther of  Carloman.  The  two  brothers  divided 
the  government  between  them  after  the  death 
of  their  father,  but  Carloman  retiring  afterwards 
into  Italy,  Pepin  remained  sole  manager,  and 
carried  his  design  farther  ;  in  short,  seeing  that 
all  concurred  to  set  the  crown  upon  hisnead, 
and  to  dethrone  Childeric  III,  he  called  a  par- 
liament that  he  might  have  their  consent,  which 
was  unanimously  granted  him,  and  in  the  mean 
time  deputed  Bouchard,  bishop  of  VVurtzburg, 
and  Fulrad,  abbot  of  St.  Denys,  and  chaplain  to 
the  prince,  to  go  to  Rome,  in  order  to  be  in- 
formed of  Pope  Zachary ,  who  was  the  worthiest 
to  be  on  the  throne,  he  who  took  no  care  of  the 
affairs  of  the  kingdom,  or  he  who,  by  his  pru- 
dence and  valor,  governed  it  wisely,  and  kept 
it  from  the  oppressions  of  the  enemy.  Zacha- 
rv,  who  stood  in  need  of  Pepin's  forces,  declared 
io  his  favor.  This  answer  being  related  in 
France,  the  bishops  who  were  assembled  at 
Soissons  with  Boniface,  archbishop  of  May- 
ence,  having  the  suffrage  and  universal  consent 
of  the  grandees  and  people,  crowned  king  Pe- 
pin on  the  1st  of  May,  752.  At  the  same  time 
Childeric  was  deposed,  and  afterwards  put  into 
a  monastery.  After  the  performance  of  this 
ceremony,  the  new  king  put  a  stop  to  the  revolt 
of  his  brother  Griphon,  and  took  Vannes.  Pope 
Stephen  II,  who  succeeded  Zachary,  rinding 
himself  extremely  incommoded  by  the  Lom- 
bards, had  recourse  to  Pepin,  whom  he  came 
into  France  to  see.  The  king  received  him  at 
the  castle  of  Poictier  near  Vitri,  and  sent  him 
to  the  abbey  of  St.  Dennis ;  and  some  time  after, 
this  pope  anointed  and  crowned  him,  with  his 
two  sons  Charles  and  Carloman,  at  Ferrieres, 
July  28.  754.  Next  year  Pepin  went  into  Italy, 
and  having  forced  Astulphus,  king  of  the  same 
Lombards,  to  give  up  all  that  he  had  taken  from 
the  church  of  Rome,  he  returned  into  Franco, 
and  sent  back  pope  Stephen  into  Italy  ;  but  the 
Lombards  failing  to  keep  their  word,  the  king 
repnssed  the  Alps  in  75G.  and  constrained  them 
to  give  all  manner  of  satisfaction  to  the  pope  of 
Rome  ;  being  corne  back  into  France,  he  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life  in  making  war  upon  the  Sax- 


ons, and  upon  Gaifre,or  Waifer,  duke  of  Aqui- 
tain,  whom  he  defeated  six  or  seven  times,  till 
the  year  768,  when  this  prince  being  Ifilled  bv 
his  own  subjects,  the  king  remained  master  of 
all  his  dominions.  Some  time  after,  he  died  of 
a  dropsy,  the  24th  of  September,  in  the  same 
year,  aged  54  ;  having  reigned  after  his  corona- 
tion by  the  pope  10  years. 

PEPIN  I,  of  that  name,  king  of  Aquitain, 
was  the  second  son  of  Louis  the  Debonnaire, 
and  of  Ermengarda,  made  king  of  Aquitain  in 
817,  was  afterwards  head  of  the  conspiracies 
against  his  father  in  830  and  833.  He  died  in 
the  year  838,  and  was  buried  in  the  collegiate 
church  of  St.  Radegonda  in  Poictiers. 

PEPIN  II,  king  of  Aquitain.  succeeded  his 
father  in  his  dominions;  he  conducted  some 
troops  to  Lotharius  I,  his  uncle,  and  served  him 
at  the  battle  of  Fontenay,  in  the  year  841 :  he 
was  afterwards  taken  by  Sanchus,  count  of 
Gascony,  and  sent  to  Charles  the  Bald,  his  un- 
cle, who  put  him  into  a  monastery  ;  two  years 
after  which  he  found  a  way  to  escape,  and  join- 
ed the  Normans.  He  plundered  Poictiers.  and 
several  other  places,  in  857;  but  the  Aquitains 
fell  upon  him.  and  having  made  him  prisoner, 
delivered  him  to  the  French,  who  condemned 
him  as  a  traitor  to  his  country,  and  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  put  him  to  death,  in  864. 

PEPIN.  kinyr  of  Italy,  was  the  son  of  Charle- 
magne, and  Hildegarda  his  second  wife,  born  in 
the  year  777.  The  king,  his  father,  carried  him 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  baptized,  and  received 
the  name  of  Carloman  ;  which  pope  Adrian  I 
changed  into  that  of  Pepin,  when  crowning  him 
king  of  the  Lombards,  on  Easter-day,  in  the 
year  781.  He,  on  several  occasions,  gave  proof 
of  his  courage  and  bravery.  In  7(J!>,  he  beat  the 
Huns,  and  subdued  Grimauld,  duke  of  Bene- 
ventum  ;  he  died  at  Milan,  in  the  year  810. 

PEPIN.  surnamed  the  Fat.  mayor  of  the  pal- 
ace in  France,  was  the  sou  of  Anchises,  and 
frandson  of  St.  Arnold,  afterwards  bishop  of 
Ictz.  He  began  to  govern  in  Austrasia,  and 
was  vanquished  in  the  year  6^1.  by  Eliroin  :  but 
in  ti?7,  he  defeated  kinir  Thierri,  and  acted  his 
part  so  well,  that  he  hud  all  the  authority  in  the 
two  kingdoms,  under  Clovis  III,  Childebertand 
Dagobert  III ;  and  it  must  be  confessed,  lie  was 
worthy  of  the  empire  of  the  Franks.  He  gained 
several  battles  iiirainst  Berthairns.  in  6i)l  ;  Rad- 
bord,  duke  of  Friezland,  in  707;  and  Wiler, 
duke  of  Suabin.  whom  ho  defeated  in  701),  and 
712.  He  died  in  714,  near  Liege. 

PERCEVAL  Spencer,  second  son  of  John, 
earl  of  Egmont,  was  born  in  1762.  He  was 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PER 


391 


PER 


educated  at  Harrow  School,  and  next  at  Trini- 
ty College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  mas- 
ter's degree  in  17s2,  and  the  year  following  be- 
came a  student  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  com- 
menced practice  as  a  barrister  in  the  king's 
Bench,  from  whence  he  removed  to  the  Court 
of  Chancery.  In  1796  he  was  made  king's 
counsel,  and  about  the  same  time  attracted  the 
notice  of  Mr.  Pitt,  by  a  pamphlet,  proving  that 
an  impeachment  of  the  House  of  Commons 
does  not  abate  by  a  dissolution  of  parliament. 
The  same  year  he  was  returned  for  Northamp- 
ton. In  1801  he  was  made  solicitor-general, 
and  the  next  year  attorney -general.  On  the 
change  of  administration,  in  1807,  he  was  ap- 
pointed chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  which 
situation  he  displayed  great  political  talents, 
particularly  in  the  settlement  of  the  regency  ; 
but,  unhappily  he  fell  soon  afterwards,  in  the 
lobby  of  the  House  of  Commons,  by  the  hands 
of  an  assassin,  named  Bellincrharn.  May  11 , 1812. 

PERICLES,  an  Athenian  of  a  noble  family, 
son  of  Xanthippus  and  Agariste.  When  he 
took  a  share  in  the  administration  of  public  af- 
fairs, he  rendered  himself  popular  by  opposing 
Cimon,  who  was  the  favorite  of  the  nobility ; 
and  to  remove  every  obstacle  which  stood  in  the 
way  of  his  ambition,  he  lessened  the  dignity  and 
the  power  of  the  court  of  the  Areopagus,  which 
the  people  had  been  taught  for  ages  to  respect 
and  to  venerate.  He  also  attacked  Cimon,  and 
caused  him  to  be  banished  by  the  ostracism. 
Thucydides  also,  who  had  succeeded  Cimon  on 
his  banishment,  shared  the  same  fate,  and  Peri- 
cles remained  for  15  years  the  sole  minister, 
and  as  it  may  be  said  the  absolute  sovereign  of 
a  republic,  which  always  showed  itself  so  jeal- 
ous of  her  liberties,  and  which  distrusted  so 
much  the  honesty  of  her  magistrates. 

He  made  war  against  the  Lacedaemonians, 
obtained  a  victory  over  the  Sicyonians  near  Ne- 
rnaea,  and  waged  a  successful  war  against  the 
inhabitants  of  Samos.  The  Peloponnesian  war 
was  fomented  by  his  ambitious  views,  and  when 
he  had  warmly  represented  the  flourishing  state, 
the  opulence,  and  actual  power,  of  his  country, 
the  Athenians  did  not  hesitate  a  moment  to  un- 
dertake a  war  against  the  most  powerful  repub- 
lics of  Greece,  a  war  which  continued  for  27 
years,  and  which  was  concluded  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  their  empire,  and  the  demolition  of  their 
walls. 

The  arms  of  the  Athenians  were  for  some 
time  crowned  with  success ;  but  an  unfortunate 
expedition  raised  clamors  against  Pericles,  and 
the  enraged  populace  attributed  all  their  losses 


to  him,  and  to  make  atonement  for  their  ill  suc- 
cess, they  condemned  him  to  pay  50  talents. 

This  loss  of  popular  favor,  did  not  so  much 
affect  Pericles  as  the  recent  death  of  all  his  chil- 
dren; and  when  the  tide  of  unpopularity  was 
passed  by,  he  condescended  to  come  into  the 
public  assembly,  and  to  view  with  secret  pride 
the  contrition  of  his  fellow-citizens,  who  uni- 
versally begged  his  forgiveness  for  the  violence 
which  they  had  offered  to  bis  ministerial  char- 
acter. 

He  was  again  restored  to  all  his  honors ;  but 
the  dreadful  pestilence  which  had  diminished 
the  number  of  his  family,  proved  fatal  to  him, 
and  about  429  years  before  Christ,  in  his  70th 
year,  he  fell  a  sacrifice  to  that  terrible  malady, 
which  robbed  Athens  of  so  many  of  her  citizens. 

Pericles  was  for  40  years  at'the  head  of  the 
administration,  25  years  with  others,  and  15 
alone ;  and  the  flourishing  stale  of  the  empire 
during  his  government,  gave  occasion  to  the 
Athenians  publicly  to  lament  his  loss,  and  ven- 
erate*his  memory. 

As  he  was  expiring,  and  seemingly  senseless, 
his  friends  that  stood  around  his  bed  expatiated 
with  warmth  on  the  most  glorious  actions  of 
his  life,  and  the  victories  which  he  had  won ; 
when  he  suddenly  interrupted  their  tears  and 
conversation,  by  saying  that  in  mentioning  the 
exploits  that  he  had  achieved,  and  which  were 
common  to  him  with  all  generals,  they  had  for- 
got to  mention  a  circumstance  which  reflected 
far  greater  glory  upon  him  as  a  minister,  a 
general,  and  above  all,  as  a  man.  "  It  is,"  said 
ne,  "  that  not  a  citizen  in  Athens  has  been 
obliged  to  put  on  mourning  on  my  account." 

PERSIA,  IRAN,  or  CHAHISTAN,  a  coun- 
try of  Asia,  is  bounded  N.  by  Russia,  the  Cas- 
pian sea,  and  Independent  Tartary,  E.  by  Be- 
loochistan  and  Afghanistan,  S.  by  the  Persian 
gulf,  and  W.  by  Turkey  ;  containing  500,000 
square  miles,  and  9,500;000  inhabitants.  The 
Persians  profess  the  Mohammedan  religion,  of 
the  sect  of  Ali.  The  country  contains  a  few 
Guebres  or  Fire-worshippers.  Persia  has  excel- 
lent fruits,  cotton,  fine  wool,  silk,  horses,  cam- 
els, pearls,  vines;  mines  of  precious  stones  and 
different  minerals.  Much  of  the  soil  is  sandy. 
The  Persians  are  true  Asiatics— effeminate  and 
fond  of  pleasures;  they  are  of  small  size. 

It  anciently  extended  about  two  thousand 
eight  hundred  English  miles  in  length,  from 
the  Hellespont  to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus;  and 
about  two  thousand  miles  in  breadth,  from  Pon- 
tus  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arabian  Gulf.  The 
Persians  are  supposed  to  have  descended  from 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


PER 


392 


PER 


Elam.  the  son  of  Shera;  and,  in  Scripture,  they 
are  sometimes  denominated  Elamiles. 

The  first  king  of  Elam  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture is  Chederlaomer,  who  conquered  many  of 
the  Asiatic  provinces,  and  held  the  kings  of 
Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Bela,  Admah,  and  Zeboiui, 
in  subjection  for  twelve  years.  He  was,  how- 
ever, vanquished  by  the"  patriarch  Abraham, 
and  lost  the  sovereignty  of  the  Pentapolis. 
From  this  period  to  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  the  his- 
tory of  Elam  or  Persia  is  clouded  with  fiction. 

Cyrus,  styled  the  Great,  on  account  of  his 
extensive  conquests,  and  his  restoration  of  the 
captive  Jews,  was  the  son  of  Cambyses,  a  Per- 
sian grandee,  and  of  Mandane,  daughter  of  As- 
tyages,  king  of  the  Medes. 

In  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age,  he  was  called 
to  the  assistance  of  his  uncle  Cyaxares,  who 
had  ascended  the  throne  of  Media,"  and  who  ap- 
pointed him  generalissimo  both  of  the  Medes 
and  Persians. 

The  powerful  alliance  formed  against  the 
Medes  in  557,  induced  the  king  of  Armenia  to 
withhold  his  usual  tribute.  Cyrus,  therefore, 
marched  against  him,  and  compelled  him  to  pay 
his  tribute,  and  to  furnish  his  customary  quota 
of  auxiliaries. 

The  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Babylonians,  Thra- 
cians,  and  other  nations  of  Lesser  Asia,  having 
entered  into  an  alliance  against  Cyaxares,  chose 
Crasus,  King  of  Lydia,  to  be  their  general. 
The  confederates  assembled  in  the  vicinage  of 
the  river  Pactolus,  and  advanced  to  Thymbra, 
whither  Cyrus  also  inarched  with  one  hundred 
and  thirty  thousand  troops,  besides  three  hun- 
dred armed  chariots,  several  moving  towers, 
and  a  considerable  number  of  camels,  upon 
which  were  mounted  Arabian  archers. 

The  forces  of  Croesus,  however,  were  twice 
as  numerous  as  those  of  Cyrus,  and  amounted 
to  four  hundred  thousand  men.  The  battle  was 
extremely  bloody,  and  Cyrus  himself  was  some- 
time iu  imminent  danger ;  but  at  length  the 
confederates  gave  way  on  all  sides. 

After  this  engagement,  Cyrus  took  Sardis, 
the  capital  of  Lydia,  and  made  Croesus  prisoner, 
whom  he  replaced  on  the  throne.  After  sub- 
duing Syria  and  Arabia,  he  inarched  against 
Babylon,  which  he  reduced  after  a  siege  of  two 
years,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Babylonian  em- 
pire. 

About  two  years  after  the  reduction  of  Baby- 
lon, Cyaxares  died,  and  left  the  whole  govern- 
ment of  the  empire  to  Cyrus,  534,  who  at  this 
time  published  the  famous  decree  by  which  the 
Jews  were  permitted  to  return  to  their  native 


country,  and  restored  all  the  vessels  which  Ne- 
buchadnezzar had  brought  from  Jerusalem. 

Cyrus  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cambyses, 
who,  soon  after  his  accession  to  tiie  throne,  re- 
solved to  undertake  an  expedition  against  Egypt, 
and  in  tiiat  kingdom  committed  great  cruelties 
and  devastations., 

Cambyses  was  returning  into  Persia,  to  quell 
a  revolt  which  had  been  occasioned  by  Smerdis, 
one  of  the  magi,  who  pretended  to  be  the  brother 
of  the  king,  when  he  accidentally  received  a 
wound  from  his  sword,  of  which  he  died. 

The  counterfeit  Smerdis  was  injured  by  his 
excessive  precautions.  Cyrus  having  formerly 
caused  the  ears  of  the  magi  to  be  cut  oil',  this 
mutilation  occasioned  a  discovery  ;  and  a  con- 
spiracy of  seven  of  the  principal  Persian  grand- 
ees being  formed  against  Smerdis,  he  was  assas- 
sinated. 

When  the  public  tumults  had  subsided,  the 
conspirators  held  a  council  on  the  kind  of  gov- 
ernment which  should  be  established,  and  after 
some  debate,  they  determined  in  favor  of  mon- 
archy. They  agreed,  therefore,  to  meet  next 
morning  on  horseback,  at  an  appointed  place 
near  the  city,  and  to  acknowledge  him  whose 
horse  first  neighed,  as  King  of  Persia. 

This  plan  was  adopted,  and  Darius,  by  a 
stratagem  of  his  groom,  obtained  the  sovereignty. 
Darius  had  scarcely  entered  the  fifth  year  of  his 
reign,  when  he  was  compelled  to  lead  all  his 
forces  against  Babylon,  which  had  revolted,  and 
made  great  preparations  for  sustaining  a  regular 
sieire. 

To  prevent  the  consumption  of  their  provis 
ions,  the  Babylonians  collected  all  their  old 
men,  women,  and  children,  and  strangled  them 
without  distinction,  only  reserving  one  wife  for 
each  man,  and  a  female  servant. 

After  Babylon  had  been  besieged  a  year  and 
eight  months,  it  was  taken  by  the  contrivance 
of  Zopyrus,  who  cut  off  his  own  nose  and  ears, 
and  pretending  that,  lie  was  thus  mangled  by 
the  Persian  monarch  for  advising  him  to  relin- 
quish- his  undertaking,  was  admitted  into  the 
city  by  the  inhabitants. 

Having  settled  the  affairs  of  Babylon,  Darius 
undertook  an  expedition  against  the  Scythians, 
B.  C.  .~>14.  on  pretence  of  revenging  the  calam- 
ities which  that  people  had  brought  upon  Asia, 
about  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  before. 

By  means  of  a  bridge  of  boats,  he  transported 
his  army  across  the  Bosphoriis,  and  subdued 
Thrace  ;  and  having  appointed  his  fleet  to  join 
him  at  the  Ister,  or  Danube,  he  also  passed  over 
that  river  into  Scythia. 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PER 


393 


PER 


The  Scythians  avoided  an  engagement,  and 
retired  before  him,  laying  waste  the  country, 
and  filling  up  all  the  wells  and  springs,  till  the 
Persian  troops  were  quite  exhausted  with  tedious 
and  fatiguing  marches. 

At  last,  Darius  resolved  to  abandon  this  wild 
enterprise,  and  causing  a  great  number  of  fires 
to  be  lighted,  he  left  the  old  men  and  invalids 
in  the  camp,  and  inarched  with  all  expedition 
to  regain  the  pass  of  the  river. 

The  king  re-crossed  the  Danube, and  returned 
into  Thrace,  where  he  left  Megabyzus,  one  of 
his  generals,  to  complete  the  conquest  of  that 
country,  and,  repassing  the  Bosphorus,  took 
up  his  quarters  at  Sardis. 

Darius  having  declared  his  son  Xerxes,  who 
was  born  after  his  father's  exaltation  to  the 
throne,  his  successor  in  the  kingdom,  this  prince 
made  preparations  against  Greece,  B.  C.  485. 

He  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Cartha- 
ginians, who  were  to  attack  the  Greek  colonies 
in  Sicily  and  Italy,  and  who  raised  an  army  of 
three  hundred  thousand  men  in  Spain,  Gaul, 
Italy,  and  Africa.  To  prevent  a  repetition  of  a 
former  disaster  which  befell  the  Persian  fleet, 
Xerxes  commanded  a  passage  for  his  galleys  to 
be  cut  through  mount  Athos.  "  He  also  ordered 
a  bridge  of  boats  to  be  laid  across  the  Hellespont 
for  the  passage  of  his  troops  into  Europe. 

Having  made  the  necessary  preparations, 
the  Persian  monarch  began  his"  march  against 
Greece,  B.  C.  4dO,  with  a  land  army  of  one  mil- 
lion eight  hundred  thousand  men.  His  fleet 
consisted  of  twelve  hundred  and  seven  large 
ships,  and  three  thousand  galleys  and  transports, 
which  contained  five  hundred  and  seventeen 
thousand  six  hunclred  and  ten  men ;  so  that  the 
whole  body  of  forces  amounted  to  two  millions 
three  hundred  and  seventeen  thousand  six  hun- 
dred and  ten.  This  number  was  so  much  in- 
creased on  the  march  by  such  nations  as  made 
their  submissions,  that  Xerxes  arrived  at  Ther- 
mopylte  with  two  millions  six  hundred  and  forty 
one  thousand  six  hundred  and  ten  men,  besides 
servants,  eunuchs,  women.  &c. 

The  Grecian  fleet  was  victorious  over  that  of 
Persia  in  some  partial  engagements,  and  after- 
wards completely  at  the  battle  of  Salamis,  irf 
which  the  dispersion  was  so  general,  and  the 
defeat  so  decisive,  that  Xerxes,  afraid  of  not 
being  able  to  preserve  a  single  vessel  to  carry 
him  from  Europe,  made  an  expeditious  retreat, 
and  was  conveyed  into  Asia  in  a  small  boat. 

This  success  inspired  the  other  Greeks  with 
new  courage ;  and  they  joined  the  Athenians 
and  Lacedaemonians  in  harassing  the  Persians 


on  all  sides.  The  land-army  ventured  a  decis- 
ive battle  at  PlaUea  in  Bosotia,  B.  C.,  479,  where, 
out  of  three  hundred  thousand,  only  three  thou- 
sand Persians  escaped.  The  dissolute  conduct 
of  Xerxes  rendered  him  obnoxious  to  his  sub- 
jects ;  and  he  was  murdered  by  his  chief  favo- 
rite, Artabanus,  who  persuaded*  Artaxerxes,  the 
king's  third  son,  that  Darius,  his  eldest  brother, 
had°been  guilty  of  the  crime  of  parricide.  Ar- 
taxerxes, therefore,  killed  Darius,  and  finding 
that  Artabanus  entertained  a  design  against 
him,  he  ordered  him  to  be  put  to  death,  B.  C. 
465. 

The  new  monarch  having  thus  removed  one 
formidable  competitor,  endeavored  to  secure 
his  crown  against  the  attempts  of  his  brother, 
Hystaspes.  who  held  the  government  of  Bactria. 
Artaxerxes  attacked  and  defeated  the  adherents 
of  Artabanus.  He  then  sent  an  army  into  Bac- 
tria, which  had  declared  in  favor  of  Hystaspes ; 
and  though  victory  was  doubtful  in  the  first 
battle.  Artaxerxes  was  successful  in  the  second ; 
and  firmly  established  himself  in  the  empire. 
Artaxerxes  died  in  peace,  and  left  the  succession 
to  Xerxes.  B.C.  424,  the  only  son  he  had  by  his 
queen,  though  by  his  concubines  he  had  seven- 
teen, among  whom  were  Sogdianus,  Ochus, 
and  Arsites. 

Xerxes  II  had  assumed  the  diadem  only 
forty-five  days,  when,  being  inebriated  at  a  pub- 
lic entertainment,  Sogdianus  seized  an  oppor- 
tunity to  assassinate  him.  The  regicide  was 
scarcely  seated  on  the  throne,  when  (Jehus  hav- 
ing declared  his  intention  of  revenging  the  mur- 
der of  Xerxes,  Sogdianus  was  deserted  by  all 
his  subjects,  and  finally  doomed  to  expiate  his 
crimes  by  a  cruel  death. 

Ochus,  being  now  invested  with  supreme  au- 
thority, assumed  the  name  of  Darius,  and  is 
mentioned  by  historians  under  the  appellation 
of  Darius  Kothus,  or  Darius  the  bastard.  In 
this  reign,  the  Egyptians  shook  oft*  the  Persian 
yoke-;  and  the  Medes  also  revolted. 

Darius,  having  settled  the  affairs  of  the  rebel- 
lious provinces,  bestowed  the  supreme  command 
of  Asia  Minor  on  his  youngest  son,  Cyrus,  B. 
C.  407,  who  was  ordered  to  assist  the  Lacedae- 
monians against  the  Athenians.  This  order, 
however,  soon  exposed  the  weakness  of  the 
king's  politics;  for  the  Lacedaemonians,  after 
conquering  the  Athenians,  invaded  the  Persian 
provinces  in  Asia. 

Darius  died,  B.  C.  404,  and  left  the  imperial 
diadem  to  his  son,  Arsaces,  who  assumed  the 
name  of  Artaxerxes,  and  received  the  appella- 
tion of  Mnemon,  on  account  of  his  extraordinary 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


PER 


394 


PER 


memory.  Cyrus  resolved  to  exert  all  his  abil- 
ities to  drive  his  brother  from  the  throne,  and 
having  procured  a  number  of  Grecian  auxilia- 
ries, marched  his  troops  to  the  plains  of  Cunaxa, 
in  the  province  of  Babylon,  where  he  found  Ar- 
taxerxes,  at  the  head  of  nine  hundred  thousand 
men,  ready  for  battle. 

A  sanguinary  contest  immediately  commenc- 
ed ;  and  Cyrus,  on  seeing  his  brother,  engaged 
him  with  such  fury  as  seemed  to  change  the 
battle  into  a  single  combat.  The  rebellious 
prince^  however,  fell  by  the  hands  of  the  king 
and  his  guards.  The  ten  thousand  Greeks, 
under  the  conduct  of  Xenophon,  effected  that 
memorable  retreat,  which  has  always  been  con- 
sidered as  a  noble  achievement  among  military 
operations. 

On  the  death  of  Darius,  three  of  the  princes, 
viz.,  Ariaspes,  Ochus.  ajid  Arsames.  became 
competitors  for  the  crown. 

Ochus  practised  so  effectually  on  the  credu- 
lity of  Ariaspes.  that  he  poisoned  himself;  and 
Arsames  was  assassinated  by  the  son  of  Tiriba- 
zus.  These  acts  of  cruelty  overwhelmed  Arta- 
xerxes  with  such  insupportable  grief  that  he 
died. 

Ochus  concealed  the  death  of  the  king,  and 
assumed  the  administration  of  government  in 
the  name  of  Artaxerxes.  He  caused  himself, 
in  the  name  of  the  king,  to  be  declared  his  suc- 
cessor ;  and  after  ten  months,  he  published  the 
death  of  Artaxerxes.  An  insurrection  in  sev- 
eral of  the  provinces  immediately  followed  ;  .but 
the  leaders  of  the  confederacy  disagreeing 
among  themselves,  the  rebellion  terminated 
without  any  effusion  of  blood. 

Ochus  no  sooner  possessed  absolute  authority, 
than  he  began  to  fill  his  capital  and  the  whole 
empire  with  carnage  and  misery.  He  caused 
Ocha,  his  own  sister  and  mother-in-law,  to  be 
buried  alive ;  shut  up  one  of  his  uncles,  with  a 
hundred  of  his  sons  and  grand-sons,  in  a  court 
of  the  palace,  where  they  were  massacred  by  a 
body  of  archers ;  and  put  all  the  branches  of  the 
royal  family  to  death. 

This  insupportable  tyranny  occasioned  another 
rebellion,  which  was  not  quelled  without  much 
difficulty.  This  revolt  was  scarcely  terminated, 
when  the  Sidonians  and  other  natives  of  Pho3- 
nicia  joined  the  Cypriots  and  Egyptians  in  a 
confederacy  against  Persia. 

Ochus  effected  the  reduction  of  Sidon,  and 
compelled  all  the  other  cities  to  make  submis- 
sions. He  also  reduced  the  city  of  Jericho, 
and  having  concluded  a  peace  with  the  kin^s  of 
Cyprus,  he  led  his  victorious  troops  into  Egypt 


which  he  completely  subdued.  Ochus  passed 
his  time  amidst  every  species  of  luxury  and 
voluptuousness. 

Bagoas,  an  Egyptian  eunuch,  prevailed  on 
the  king's  physician  to  administer  a  strong  poi- 
son, instead  of  medicine,  to  his  royal  benefactor. 
Having  thus  accomplished  his  purpose,  he 
caused  the  flesh  of  the  king  to  be  cut  in  pieces 
and  thrown  to  dogs  and  cats.  He  then  placed 
on  the  throne  Arses,  the  youngest  prince,  and 
condemned  all  the  rest  to  death. 

But  Arses,  sensible  of  the  slavery  in  which 
he  was  held,  concerted  measures  to  free  himself 
from  it.  Bagoas,  therefore,  effected  his  destruc- 
tion in  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  15.  C.  33ti, 
and  bestowed  the  imperial  diadem  on  Darius 
Codomanus,  who  was  a  descendant  of  Darius 
Nothus,  and  at  that  time  governor  of  Armenia. 

This  prince,  however,  had  not  long  enjoyed 
the  sovereignty,  when  the  ambitious  eunuch 
determined  to  remove  him,  and  with  this  design 
provided  a  deleterious  potion ;  but  Darius,  being 
apprised  of  his  danger,  compelled  Bajjoas  to 
drink  the  poison,  and  thus  established  himself 
on  the  throne. 

In  the  second  year  of  this  reiirn,  Alexander, 
king  of  Macedon,  crossed  the  Hellespont  at  the 
head  of  a  well-disciplined  army,  with  the  design 
of  revenging  the  injuries  which  Greece  had  re- 
ceived from  the  Persians  during  three  hundred 
years.  On  his  arrival  at  the  Gninicus,  he  found 
•on  the  opposite  bank  a  numerous  Persian  army, 
amounting  to  100,000  foot,  and  10.01)0  horse. 
Though  Alexander  had  not  more  than  30,000 
foot,  and  5,000  horse,  he  crossed  the  Granicua 
at  the  head  of  his  cavalry,  and  attacked  with 
impetuosity  the  whole  Persian  force.  An  ob- 
stinate conflict  ensued,  in  which  the  Persians 
were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  x!,>,!>00  foot  and 
2,000  horse,  and  in  which  Alexander  exposed 
his  life  to  the  most  imminent  danger. 

The  invasion  having  assumed  a  serious  as- 
pect, Darius  led  his  army  into  Cilicia.  B.  C. 
333,  and  advanced  to  the  cit3r  of  Issus,  near 
which  Alexander  drew  up  his  troops  on  an  ad- 
vantageous ground.  Darius  retreated  precipi- 
talelv^to  the  adjoining  mountains,  where  he 
mounted  a  hosse,  and  continued  his  flight.  Al- 
exander was  now  entire  master  of  the  field,  and 
of  the  Persian  camp,  in  which  the  mother,  wife, 
and  son  of  Darius,  wero  t.iken  prisoners. 

In  331,  B.  C.,  the  Persian  monarch,  having 
assembled  a  numerous  army,  prepircd  f.>r  bat- 
tle in  a  large  plain  near  th--  city  of  Ar'uela,  on 
the  confines  of  Persia.  The  Persians  com- 
menced tiie  attack,  but  were  totally  routed,  and 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PER 


395 


PER 


Darius  was  again  compelled  to  seek  safety  in 
flight.  Darius,  who  had  sought  an  asylum  at 
Ecbatana,  in  Media,  had  collected  another  army, 
with  which  he  intended  to  make  a  last  effort, 
B.  C.  330.  He  was,  however,  prevented  by 
Bessus,  governor  of  Bactria,  and  Nabarzanes,  a 
Persian  nobleman,  who  entered  into  a  conspi- 
racy against  him,  and  binding  him  with  golden 
chains,  shut  him  up  in  a  covered  cart,  and  re- 
treated precipitately  towards  Bactria.  They 
intended,  if  Alexander  pursued  them,  to  deliver 
up  the  object  of  his  resentment ;  or,  if  they  es- 
caped the  Macedonian  conqueror,  to  murder 
Darius,  and  usurping  the  imperial  diadem,  to 
renew  the  war. 

When  Alexander  was  informed  of  the  base 
designs  of  Bessus  and  Nabarzanes,  he  advanced 
with  a  small  body  of  light-armed  cavalry  ;  and, 
as  soon  as  the  king  01  Macedon  came  within 
sight  of  the  enemy,  they  immediately  took  to 
flight,  and  having  discharged  their  darts  at  the 
unfortunate  Persian  monarch,  left  him  welter- 
ing in  his  blood.  Thus  died  Darius,  in  the  fif- 
tieth year  of  his  age,  and  sixth  of  his  reign,  and 
with  him  ended  the  Persian  empire,  after  it 
had  existed  206  years. 

After  the  Persians  had  been  subject  to  the 
Parthians  for  the  space  of  475  years,  Artaxares, 
a  Persian  of  mean  descent  and  spurious  birth, 
excited  a  revolt  among  his  countrymen ;  and, 
the  reigning  monarch  "being  dethroned  and  put 
to  death,  the  Persian  empire  was  restored.  The 
emperor  Alexander  Severus,  attacked  and  de- 
feated Artaxares,  and  wrested  from  him  several 
of  his  provinces.  Artaxares,  however,  recov- 
ered these  provinces,  and,  after  swaying  the 
sceptre  with  great  reputation  for  the  space  of 
twelve  years,  died  in  peace. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sapor,  A.  D. 
242,  who  was  equally  famous  for  his  personal 
strength  and  mental  abilities,  but  who  was  of 
a  fierce,  cruel,  and  untractable  disposition. 

Sapor  left  his  kingdom  to  his  son  Hormisdas, 
who,  refusing  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  the 
Romans,  died  in  peace,  A.  D.  273,  after  a  reign 
of  one  year  and  ten  days. 

His  son  Vararanes  I,  enjoyed  the  regal  dignity 
three  years,  without  being  disturbed  by  the  Ro- 
mans,"or  attempting  to  extend  'the  limits  of  his 
empire. 

Vararanes  II  meditated  an  invasion  of  the 
Roman  provinces,  A.  D.  277,  but  on  the  ap- 
proach of  the  Emperor  Probus,  he  abandoned 
his  design,  and  sued  for  peace. 

Vararanes  III  was  denominated  Segansaa, 
or  king  of  the  Segans,  and  was  succeeded  by 


Narses,  A.  D.  204,  a  prince  of  great  abilities 
and  resolution.  He  died  in  the  seventh  year 
of  his  reign,  and  was  succeeded  by  Misdates, 
whose  actions  were  not  sufficiently  interesting 
to  claim  the  attention  of  posterity. 

Sapor  II  his  successor,  A.  D.  308,  was  a 
zealous  assertor  of  the  dignity  of  the  Persian 
crown,  and  endeavored  to  unite  all  the  provinces 
of  the  ancient  empire  under  his  authority.  This 
restless  and  ambitious  monarch  was  succeeded 
by  Artaxerxes,  A.  D.  380,  who  lived  in  amity 
with  the  Romans,  and  enjoyed  the  regal  dignity 
about  four  years. 

Vararanes  IV,  succeeded  his  father  Sapores, 
and  governed  his  dominions  eleven  years.  Is- 
digertes  was  deservedly  celebrated  for  his  vir- 
tuous disposition,  and,  at  the  death  of  the  Em- 
peror Arcadius,  A.  D.  401,  was  intrusted  with 
the  care  of  his  son  Theodosius  II,  and  the  Ro- 
man empire. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Vararanes  V, 
A.  D.  421.  In  his  reign,  the  indiscreet  zeal  of 
a  Christian,  who  set  fire  to  a  Persian  temple, 
renewed  the  war  with  the  Romans.  The  Per- 
sian monarch  obtained  the  assistance  of  the  Sa- 
racens, and,  notwithstanding  the  defeats  which 
he  experienced  from  the  Romans,  he  rendered 
even  victory  disadvantageous  to  the  enemy. 

Vararanes  VI,  was  next  invested  with  the 
diadem,  A.  D.  442,  which  he  wore  for  seventeen 
years  and  four  months.  His  son  and  successor. 
Peroses,  being  incensed  against  the  Euthalites 
or  White  Huns,  marched  an  army  into  their 
country  ;  but  the  Euthalites  cutting  off  his  re- 
treat, obliged  him  to  swear  that  he  would  never 
more  invade  them.  Peroses,  however,  assem- 
bled his  forces,  and  marched  a  second  time  to- 
wards the  northern  frontiers ;  but,  the  Euthalites 
rushing  unexpectedly  upon  him,  slew  and  took 
captive  most  of  his  army,  and  put  him  to  death. 

The  nobles  bestowed  the  crown  on  his  brother 
Valens,  who,  at  the  expiration  of  four  years,  fell 
a  victim  to  the  oppressive  cares  of  government. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Cavades,  the  son  of  Pe- 
roses, A.  D.  486.  On  the  death  of  Cavades,  his 
son  Chosroes  ascended  the  throne,  A.  D.  531 
The  Persian  monarch,  however,  was  almost 
constantly  engaged  in  hostilities  with  the  east- 
ern empire  ;  but,  the  Romans  having  given  him 
a  complete  defeat,  he  was  so  deeply  affected 
with  his  ill  success,  that  he  sickened  and  died. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hormisdas,  A.  D. 
579. 

Hormisdas  was  dethroned  by  a  person  of  the 
royal  blood,  named  Bindoes,  who  had  been 
loaded  with  chains  for  a  slight  offence.  The 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


PER 


396 


PER 


unfortunate  monarch  being  heard  in  his  own 
defence,  recommended  his  younger  son  Hor- 
misdas  as  his  successor,  in  preference  to  his 
elder  son  Chosroes.  The  assembly,  however, 
at  the  instigation  of  Bindoes,  caused  his  son 
Hormisdas,  and  the  prince's  mother,  to  be  cut 
in  pieces  ;  and  ordered  the  eyes  of  the  deposed 
monarch  to  be  put  out  with  a  hot  iron. 

Chosroes  II,  ascended  the  throne,  A.  D.  592. 
On  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Mauritius,  he  took 
up  arms  against  the  Romans,  A.  D.  605,  and 
such  was  his  success,  that,  in  nine  years,  he 
plundered  the  provinces  of  Syria,  Mesopotamia, 
Phoenicia,  Armenia,  Cappadocia,  Galacia,  Paph- 
lagonia,  and  all  the  country  as  far  as  Chalcedon. 
He  also  ravaged  Judea  ;  pillaged  the  city  of 
m  ;  and  sold  ninety  Christi 


Jerusale 


tians  to  the 


ety 

Jews,  who  put  them  all  to  death.  These  extra 
ordinary  conquests  induced  him  to  make  an 
expedition  into  Egypt;  he  reduced  Alexandria 
and  all  the  country  toward  Libya,  and  added 
the  empire  of  Africa  to  that  of  Asia. 

He  was  defeated  in  several  battles,  and  finally 
murdered  in  a  dungeon  by  command  of  his  own 
son.  Siroes  having  ascended  the  throne  of  Per- 
sia, A.  D.  626,  concluded  a  treaty  of  perpetual 
peace  with  Heraclius  ;  but,  he  was  murdered 
by  one  of  his  generals,  after  twelve  months 
reign.  His  son,  Ardeser,  was  next  invested 
with  the  government,  but  was  assassinated  in 
the  seventh  month  of  his  reign  by  Sarbas,  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  Persian  forces,  who  seiz- 
ed the  diadem  for  himself.  A  civil  war,  how- 
ever, crushed  the  ambitious  projects  of  the 
usurper,  and  elevated  to  the  throne  Isdi^ertes 
II.  A.  D.  630. 

The  reign  of  this  prince  was  short  and  un- 
happy. He  defended  his  country  with  becom- 
ing resolution  against  the  Saracens,  till  the 
spirits  of  his  subjects  were  entirely  broken  by- 
repeated  defeats.  At  last  he  was  slain  in  bat- 
tle ;  and,  in  him  ended  the  royal  line  of  Artax- 
ares.  With  his  death  terminated  the  Persian 
empire,  which  had  maintained  a  splendid  exist- 
ence for  upwards  of  400  years. 

The  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Shahs  in  Per- 
sfa,  was  Isniael,  surnamed  Sophi,  who  was  de- 
scended in  the  direct  male  line  from  Ali,  the 
son-in-law  of  Mohammed.  In  1500  there  was 
a  great  number  of  the  sectaries  of  Alt  among 
the  Mohammedan?  of  Asia.  Ismael  assembled 
about  700,  who  were  attached  to  his  family  ;  and 
attacking  his  father's  murderer,  slew  him  in 
battle,  and  took  possession  of  his  dominions. 
He  was  a  monster  of  inhumanity  and  cruelty, 
and  reigned  23  years  ;  during  which  period  be- 


gan the  struggle  for  power  between  the  Persians 
and  the  Turks. 

Ismael  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Tahmasp, 
A.  D.  1523.  He_was  succeeded  by  Ismael  II, 
his  son,  A.  D.  1575.  Mohammed,  the  brother 
and  successor  of  Ismael,  had  spent  his  life  in 
privacy,  wholly  devoted  to  religious  duties  ;  and 
assumed  the  sceptre,  A.  D.  1577.  Mohammed 
left  three  sons,  the  two  eldest  of  whom,  Hasiizeh 
and  Ismael,  merely  appeared  upon  the  throne, 
about  15S4,  and  are.  scarcely  numbered  among 
the  emperordw^ 

By  the  contrivance  of  a  vizier,  named  Kouli 
Khan,  Shah  Abbas  prosecuted  the  war  against 
the  Turks,  which  he  conducted  in  person,  with 
great  success  and  glory  ;  retook  'fauna,  and 
defeated  his  enemies  in  several  engagements. 
In  his  dying  moments,  he  sent  for  four  of  the 
chief  lords  of  his  council  to  his  bed  side,  and 
told  them  that  it  was  his  will  that  his  grandson, 
Mirza,  should  succeed  him,  and  assume  the 
name  of  his  father.  After  assembling  all  the 
lords  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ispahan,  they 
crowned  him  A.  D.  1023.  On  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  he  assumed  the  name  of  6afi.  This 
prince  was  a  second  Nero,  who,  bearing  in  his 
countenance  every  mark  of  clemency  and  good- 
ness cherished  in  his  heart  the  vicious  inclina- 
tions of  a  savage  and  inexorable  tyrant.  He 
reigned  13  years,  and  left  a  son  named  Abbas, 
who  succeeded  him,  and  whom  his  father  had 
ordered  to  be  deprived  of  sight;  but  the  com- 
passion of  the  executioner  had  spared  him. 

Under  Abbas  II,  A.  D.  KJ42,  intoxication, 
passion,  and  an  uncontrollable  love  of  power, 
rendered  life  not  more  secure  than  under  his 
brutal  father.  On  the  death  of  Abbas,  his  el- 
dest son  Safi  was  immediately  saluted  emperor, 
A.  D.  1660,  but  afterwards  assumed  the  name 
of  Solyman.  Solyman  died  a  natural  death, 
after  a  "reign  of  '£)  years,  A.  D.  1111)4  ;  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Shah  Husseyn.  the  most 
merciful  and  most  unfortunate  prince  of  his 
race.  History  furnishes  few  instances  of  a  dis- 
solution so  entire  as  that  of  the  kindom  of  Per- 


sia, under  the  feeble  and  inactive  Hussovii. 

At  length,  after  a  series  of  disasters.  Huseeyn 
was  obliged  to  abdicate  the  tliron:-  t>  Mahmoud. 
Before  this  ceremony  took  place,  the  king  tra- 
velled through  the  p'rini'ipal  sl-vots  of  Ispahan 
on  foot,  deploring  the  misfortunes  of  his  reign, 
and  consoling  the  people  who  surrounded  him, 
by  endeavoring  to  excite  in  them  hopes  of  bet- 
ter fortune  under  a  new  government. 

In  dispossessing  Husseyn,  A.  D.  172:},  Mah- 
moud avenged  himself  on  all  those,  who,  by 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


PER 


397 


PET 


negligence,  ignorance,  parly-spirit,  cowardice, 
or  treason,  had  contributed  to  the  ruin  of  the 
state.  The  conduct  of  Mahmoud  tended  to  ex- 
cite the  odium  of  his  subjects ;  and  he  saw  his 
projects  defeated,  and  himself  beginning  to  be 
treated  with  general  hatred.  In  order  to  avert 
these  misfortunes,  which  he  imputed  to  the  an- 
ger of  heaven,  he  imposed  on  himself  a  sort  of 
penance,  which  continued  15  days,  and  which 
had  the  effect  of  completely  deranging  his  senses. 
His  captains,  seeing  him  at  the  point  of  death, 
turned  their  thoughts  on  Ashraf,  who  refused 
the  crown,  except  the  head  of  his  cousin  Mah- 
moud should  be  brought  to  him. 

Mahmoud,  therefore,  who  could  not  have 
lived  many  hours  longer,  was  put  to  death  ;  and 
the  destroyer  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Shahs  enjoy- 
ed his  triumph  only  two  years.  Ashraf  ordered 
all  the  guards,  ministers,  and  confidants  of  Mah- 
moud, to  be  executed  ;  and  did  not  spare  even 
those  who  had  placed  him  on  the  throne. 

About  this  time,  Kouli  Khan  became  distin- 
guished ;  and  having  tendered  his  services  to 
Tahmasp,  in  three  campaigns  he  made  him 
master  of  all  the  possessions  of  the  Afghans. 
Ashraf  offered  to  abdicate  the  throne,  and  to 
restore  the  treasures  which  he  had  inherited 
after  Mahmoud's  death ;  but  Kouli  Khan,  refus- 
ing to  listen  to  any  terms  of  accommodation, 
pursued  his  enemy  even  to  death,  and  with  him 
ended  the  transitory  dynasty  of  the  Afghans. 

Tahmasp  was  reestablished  on  the  throne  by 
the  power  of  Kouli  Khan,  A.  D.  1730  ;  who,  in 
a  short  time  deposed  him,  and  introduced  into 
his  place  his  infant  son,  by  the  name  of  Abbas 
III.  The  infant  emperor  dying  within  six 
months,  Kouli  Khan  was  elected  to  the  vacant 
throne ;  and,  on  his  accession,  took  the  name 
of  Nadir  Shah. 

The  reign  of  this  prince  was  marked  with 
glory  and  conquest.  His  government  was  des- 
potic and  tyrannical ;  and  he  formed  the  design 
of  a  general  massacre  of  the  principal  Persians. 
He  conquered  Usbec  Tartary ;  but  was  not  so 
successful  against  the  Daghistan  Tartars.  He 
beat  the  Turks  in  several  engagements,  but  was 
unable  to  take  Bagdad.  His  conduct  became 
so  intolerable,  thalThe  was  assassinated  in  his 
own  tent,  in  the  year  ]  747. 

Many  pretenders,  upon  his  death,  started  up; 
but  the  fortunate  candidate  was  Kerim  Khan, 
who  was  crowned  at  Tauris.  in  1763.  His  death 
gave  rise  to  another  disputed  succession,  with 
civil  wars,  which  lasted  14  years.  At  length, 
Aga  Mohammed  raised  himself  to  the  sove- 
reignty. After  a  short  reign  he  died,  and  trans- 


mitted the  throne  to  his  nephew,  who  assumed 
the  title  of  Feth  Ali  Shah,  an  accomplished 
prince;  under  whose  sway,  Persia  may  for  a 
time  enjoy  some  tranquillity. 

PERTH,  a  city  of  Scotland,  capital  of  Perth- 
shire, on  the  Tay,  39  miles  north  of  Edinburgh, 
containing  20.000  inhabitants.  It  is  supposed 
to  have  been  founded  by  Agricola  the  Roman 
general  during  his  invasion  of  Scotland.  On 
Feb.  21,  1437,  king  James  I  was  murdered  here 
in  a  monastery,  by  Robert  Graham.  In  1644 
Montrose  seized  on  Perth,  after  the  battle  of 
Tibbermier :  it  was  likewise  the  head-quarters 
of  the  Earl  of  Mar  and  the  Pretender,  in  1715. 

PERU,  are  public  of  South  America,  for- 
merly a  viceroyalty,  containing  500,000  square 
miles,  and  1,800,000  inhabitants.  It  is  rich  in 
mineral  and  vegetable  productions.  The  popu- 
lation is  composed  of  European  Spaniards,  Cre- 
oles, Mestizoes,  Indians,  and  mulattoes.  It  was 
discovered  by  Pizarro,  in  1524.  The  battle  of 
Caxamarca,  on  the  10th  of  November,  1532,  de- 
cided the  fate  of  Peru;  and  Atahualpa,  the 
captive  monarch,  was  treacherously  and  inhu- 
manly put  to  death  by  the  cruel  and  avaricious 
Spaniards.  Pizarro,  after  having  defeated  Paula 
Inca,  the  brother  of  Atahualpa,  entered  Cusco, 
the  capital.  Quito  was  next  taken.  In  1533, 
Pizarro  founded  the  city  of  Lima,  and  employed 
himself  in  establishing  a  form  of  government. 
While  thus  employed,  a  newenejny  started  up, 
— the  ambitious  Almagro ;  who,  in  a  decisive 
battle  fought  near  Cusco,  was  taken  prisoner 
and  beheaded.  Two  years  afterwards,  Pizarro 
was  assassinated,  on  the  26th  of  June,  1541. 
The  viceroyalty  of  Peru,  being  transmitted 
down  from  one  governor  to  another,  in  a  line 
directed  more  by  the  fortunes  of  war,  and  the 
vicissitudes  of  events,  than  by  any  regular  plan 
of  succession,  terminated  in  June,  1621,  by  the 
capture  of  Lima ;  and,  by  a  declaration  pub- 
lished in  the  next  month,  the  independence  of 
Peru  was  declared  to  be  the  wish  of  the  people- 

PETER  the  Great,  czar  of  Russia,  was  the 
son  of  Alexis  Michaelowitz>  and  born  May  30, 
1672.  On  the  decease  of  his  half-brother,  Feo- 
dor,  in  1662,  Peter  was  proclaimed  czar,  in  con- 
junction with  John,  his  eldest  brother,  who  died 
in  1696,  and  left  him  in  full  possession  of  the 
empire.  While  a  youth,  he  conceived  those 
projects  of  improvement  which  have  stamped 
immortality  upon  his  name.  He  entered  into 
the  military  life,  and  performed  the  duties  of  a 
common  soldier,  till,  by  rising  gradually  from 
the  ranks  to  the  command  of  a  body  of  troops, 
he  exhibited  the  duty  of  obedience,  and  the  ne 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


PET 


398 


PET 


cessity  of  discipline,  in  his  own  example.  He 
visited  Holland  under  a  disguised  name,  in 
1698.  Here  he  worked  as  a  common  laborer  in 
the  dnck-yard,  and  then  went  to  England. 
While  thus  engaged,  the  news  of  an  insurrec- 
tion, exciuju  by  the  Princess  Sophia,  obliged 
h!tn  to  return  to  Russia,  where  he  severely 
punished  the  conspirators,  and  confined  his  sis- 
ter in  a  nunnery.  In  1700  he  declared  war 
against  Charles  XII,  of  Sweden,  and  though 
unsuccessful  at  first,  he  afterwards  gained  such 
advantages  as  induced  him  to  build  a  fortress 
on  the  Baltic,  called,  after  him,  Petersburg.  In 
1709,  the  czar  obtained  the  victory  of  Pultowa, 
after  which  he  conquered  Livonia,  Ingria,  Fin- 
land, and  part  of  Pomerania.  But  he  had  a 
narrow  escape,  when  engaged  in  a  contest  with 
the  Turks,  who  surrounded  his  army  on  the 
banks  of  the  Pruth  :  from  which  perilous  state 
he  was  extricated  by  the  Empress  Catharine, 
who  entered  into  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the 
grand  vizier.  In  1716,  the  czar  and  his  consort 
visited  Denmark  and  Holland,  where  he  left 
Catharine  while  he  made  a  journey  to  Paris. 
He  died  of  a  strangury,  Jan.  $8,  172o,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  czarina  Catharine. 

A  colossal  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory 
at  St.  Petersburg,  by  Catharine  second.  The 
huge  block  of  granite  which  forms  its  pedestal, 
and  which  weighs  upwards  of  fifteen  tons,  was 
conveyed  from  a  marsh  at  a  distance  of  four 
English  miles  from  St.  Petersburg,  and  two 
from  the  sea.  On  approaching  near  to  the 
rock,  the  simple  inscription  fixed  on  it  in  bronze 
letters,  "  Petro  Primo,  Cat.herina  Secunda, 
MDCCLXXXII,"  meets  the  eye.  The  same 
inscription  in  the  Russian  language  appears  on 
the  opposite  side.  The  area  is  enclosed  within 
a  handsome  railing  placed  between  granite 
pillars. 

"  The  idea,"  says  Dr.  Granville,  "  of  Falco- 
net, the  French  architect,  commissioned  to  erect 
an  equestrian  statue  of  the  extraordinary  man  at 
whose  command  a  few  scattered  huts  of  fisher- 
men were  converted  into  palaces,  was  to  repre- 
sent the  hero  as  conquering,  by  enterprise  and 
personal  courage,  difficulties  almost  insur- 
mountable. This  the  artist  imagined  might  be 
properly  represented  by  placing'Peteron  a  fiery 
steed,  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  taught  by 
skill,  management  and  perseverance,  to  rush 
up  a  steep  and  precipitous  rock,  to  the  very 
brink  of  a  precipice,  over  which  the  animal  and 
the  imperial  rider  pause  without  fear,  and  in  an 
attitude  of  triumph.  The  horse  rears  with  his 
fore  feet  in  the  air,  and  seems  to  be  impatient 


of  restraint,  while  the  sovereign,  turned  towards 
the  island,  surveys  with  calm  and  serene  coun- 
tenance his  capital  rising  out  of  the  waters, 
over  which  he  extends  the  hand  of  protection. 

"  The  bold  manner  in  which  the  group  has 
been  made  to  rest  on  the  hind  legs  of  the  horse 
only,  is  not  more  surprising  than  the  skill  with 
which  advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  allego- 
rical figure  of  the  serpent  of  envy  spurned  by 
the  horse,  to  assist  in  upholding  so  gigantic  a 
mass.  This  monument  of  bronze  is  said  to  have 
been  cast  at  a  single  jet.  The  height  of  the  fig- 
ure of  the  emperor  is  eleven  feet;  that  of  the 
horse  seventeen  feet ;  the  general  weight  of 
the  metal  in  the  group  is  equal  to  36,636  Eng- 
lish pounds. 

"  1  heard  a  venerable  Russian  nobleman,  who 
was  living  at  St.  Petersburg  when  this  monu- 
ment was  in  progress,  relate,  that  as  soon  as  the 
artist  had  formed  his  conception  of  the  design, 
he  communicated  it  to  the  Empress,  together 
with  the  impossibility  of  representing  to  nature 
so  striking  a  position  of  man  and  animal,  with- 
out having  before  his  eyes  a  horse  and  rider  in 
the  attitude  he  had  devised.  General  Melessi- 
no,  an  officer  having  the  reputation  of  being  the 
most  expert  aa  well  as  the  boldest  rider  ol  the 
day,  to  whom  the  difficulties  of  the  artist  were 
made  known,  offered  to  ride  daily  one  of  Count 
Alexis  Orloff's  best  Arabians,  to  the  summit  of 
a  steep  artificial  mound  formed  for  the  purpose; 
accustoming  the  horse  to  gallop  up  to  it,  and  to 
halt  suddenly,  with  his  fore  legs  raised,  pawing 
the  air  over  the  brink  of  a  precipice.  This  dan- 
gerous experiment  was  carried  into  effect  by  the 
general  for  some  days,  in  the  presence  of  seve- 
ral spectators  and  of  Falconet,  who  sketched 
the  various  movements  and  parts  of  the  group 
from  day  to  day,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  pro- 
duce perhaps  the  finest,  certainly  the  most  cor- 
rect statue  of  the  kind  in  Europe." 

PETKR  the  Hermit,  a  French  enthusiast  of 
the  11  th  century,  who  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Palestine,  and,  on  his  return  to  Europe,  preach- 
ed up  the  crusade,  for  the  recovery  of  the  holy 
city  from  the  infidels.  His  success  was  such  as 
might  have  been  expected  in  an  ignorant  age. 
He  passed  through  Hungary  with  an  immense 
crowd  of  followers,  thousands  of  whom  perished 
miserably.  Peter,  however,  entered  Syria,  and 
displayed  great  bravery  at  the  taking  of  Jerusa- 
lem. "He  then  returned  to  France,  where  lie 
died,  in  the  abbey'of  Noirmoutier.  of  which  he 
was  the  founder. 

PETERS,  Richard,  was  born  near  Philadel- 
phia, Aug.  522,  17-14,  and  was  graduated  at  the 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PHI 


399 


PHI 


University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  studied  law, 
and,  having  served  a  short  time,  as  captain  in 
the  revolutionary  army,  he  was  transferred  to 
the  board  of  war  where  his  services  were  pub- 
licly acknowledged.  For  thirty-six  years  he 
held  the  station  of  judge  of  the  District  Court 
of  Pennsylvania.  He  made  many  agricultural 
experiments,  most  of  which  were  highly  suc- 
cessful. He  was  particularly  distinguished  for 
a  fertile  fancy,  and  great  wit,  and  many  of  his 
bon  mots  bid  fair  to  be  long  remembered. 

One  day,  arriving  at  a  tavern,  he  perceived 
the  entrance  occupied  by  two  persons — a  very 
fat  and  a  very  lean  man.  After  waiting  for  a 
long  time  in  hopes  of  their  making  way  for  him, 
he  dashed  in  between  them,  exclaiming  ;  "  In  I 
go,  through  thick  and  thin  !  "  His  celebrity 
for  wit  commenced  at  an  early  age. 

PETRARC A,  Francesco,  or,  as  he  is  gener- 
ally termed  by  English  writers,  Petrarch,  was 
an  Italian  poet  and  scholar,  who  adorned  the 
14th  century.  He  was  born  at  Arezzo  in  Tus- 
cany, July  4,  13C4.  He  studied  law,  and  the- 
ology, entering  into  the  ecclesiastical  state  in 
1320.  His  platonic  affection  for  the  beautiful 
Laura  led  him  to  write  amatory  sonnets  in  his 
native  tongue,  which  tributes  of  affection  were 
continued  after  the  death  of  the  virtuous  lady 
who  inspired  them.  Petrarch  died  at  Arqua, 
near  Padua,  July  18,  1374. 

PHILADELPHIA,  is  situated  in  a  county 
of  the  same  name,  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania, 
about  five  miles  from  the  junction  of  the  Dela- 
ware and  Schuylkill  rivers.  The  city  was 
founded  by  William  Penn  in  1G82.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  first  continental  congress  assembled 
here  Sept.  5, 1774.  In  1777it  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  British  from  Sept.  26  until  the  18th  of 
June.  The  population  of  Philadelphia,  accord- 
ing to  the  last  census,  was  205,850.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  regular  cities  in  the  world,  being 
handsomely  built  of  brick,  and  is  a  place  ot 
great  trade  and  opulence,  and,  with  regard  to 
manufactures  surpasses  ail  other  cities  in  the 
United  States.  It  contains  100  houses  of  pub- 
lic worship,  many  other  public  buildings,  and 
numerous  literary  and  humane  institutions. 

PHILIP  I  king  of  France,  born  in  1003,  was 
the  son  of  Henry  I  crowned  at  Rheims,  1059. 
His  jealousy  against  William  the  Conqueror 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  wars  between  Eng- 
land and  France.  He  died  at  Milan,  July  £>, 
1 108,  having  reigned  49  years. 

PHILIP  II,  king  of  France,  surnamed  Au- 
gustus, was  born  August  22,  1165.  He  began 
to  reign  in  1180.  He  made  war  with  the  Eng- 
34* 


lish;  but  some  time  after,  he  undertook  the 
crusade  in  1190.  He  took  Acre,  defeated  sev- 
enteen thousand  Saracens,  and  returned  about 
Christmas,  1191.  In  1214,  the  Emperor  Otho 
IV,  a  Count  of  Flanders,  and  several  confed- 
erate princes  raised  an  army  of  150,000  men 


against  him,  when  the  king  engaged  them  at 
Bovines,  and  gained  the  victory.  The  king 
fought  with  great  intrepidity  at  Bovines,  and 


had  his  horse  killed  under  him.  He  died  at 
Mante  upon  the  Seine,  July  14,  J  223,  after  a 
reign  of  42  years. 

PHILIP  III,  king  of  France,  surnamed  the 
Hardy,  was  the  son  of  St.  Louis.  Having  con 
quered  the  Saracens,  he  returned  to  France, 
where  he  was  crowned  in  1271.  Philip  went 
in  person  against  the  Arragoaese,  and  took  Gi- 
rone,  and  on  his  return  died  ola  malignant  fever 
at  Perpignan  in  the  16th  year  of  his  reign,  aged 

PHILIP  IV,  king  of  France,  surnamed  the 
Fair,  as  also  le  Grand,  born  at  Fontainebleau 
in  12G8,  and  succeeded  his  father  Philip  111  in 
1285.  The  ill  conduct  of  James  of  Castillon, 
Earl  of  St.  Paul,  caused  a  sedition  at  Bruges. 
The  king  sent  an  army  to  reduce  it,  under  the 
command  of  Robert  earl  of  Artois ;  but  they 
were  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Courtray  in  1302. 
Philip  recovered  himself  in  some  measure  again, 
especially  on  the  18th  of  August  1304,  in  the 
memorable  battle  at  Mons  in  Puelle,  where 
above  25,000  Flemings  were  slain.  At  length, 
peace  was  made  in  1305.  Philip  died  at  Fon- 
tainbleau,  in  1314,  after  a  reign  of  29  years. 

PHILIP  V,  king  of  France,  surnamed  the 
Long,  youngest  son  to  Philip  the  Fair,  succeed- 
ed to  the  crown  in  1317,  but  died  after  a  reign 
of  five  years.  He  renewed  his  alliance  with 
the  Scots  in  1318,  and  expelled  the  Jews  out  of 
his  dominions.  He  died  at  Long-Champ,  aged 
2d  years. 

PHILIP  VI.  king  of  France,  succeeded  in 
1328.  Having  a  dispute  with  Edward  of  Eng- 
land, war  broke  out  in  1338.  Next  year  Cam- 
bray  was  besieged  by  the  English.  The  king 
had  taken  the  part  of  Charles  de  Blois,  his 
nephew,  and  had  received  homage  for  Britany, 
which  John  de  Montfort  pretended  to;  but  the 
latter  was  supported  by  king  Edward,  who 
made  a  descent  into  Normandy,  took  Caen,  and 
gained  the  victory  at  Cressy,  in  which  11  French 
princes,  80  barons,  1200  knights,  and  30,000 
soldiers  were  slain.  The  English,  flushed  with 
this  victory,  took  Calais,  which  continued  in 
their  hands  210  years,  till  1558.  Philip  VI  died 
at  Nogent  le  Potrou,  1350,  aged  57,  in  the  23d 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


PHI 


400 


PHI 


year  of  his  reign.  He  had  great  courage  and 
resolution  ;  but  was  blamed  1'or  introducing  the 
imposition  upon  salt. 

PHILIP  II,  of  Spain,  born  in  1527,  was  son 
of  the  Em""ror  Charles  V,  and  Isabel  of  Portu- 
gal. He  made  a  league  with  the  English,  and 
sent  40.000  men  into  Picardy,  who  gained  a 
victory  over  18,000  French  at  St.  Quintin  in 
1557.  This  misfortune  was  repaired  by  the 
taking  of  Calais,  Thionville  and  Dunkirk  ;  and 
was  afterwards  followed  by  a  peace  made  at 
Chateau  Cambresis  in  1559.  In  1580,  Philip 
made  himself  master  of  the  kingdom  of  Portu- 
gal ;  and  his  troops  contributed  to  the  defeat  of 
the  Turks  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto.  He  also 
reduced  the  Moors  who  revolted  against  him  in 
1561.  He  subdued  Pignon  or  Peunon  de  Velez 
in  Africa,  and  me  isles  which  from  him  are 
called,  the  Philippine  Islands.  After  this,  Philip 
Bent  out  a  fleet  of  above  fourscore  ships,  which 
was  called,  the  Invincible  Armada,  against 
Queen  Elizabeth  of  England.  They  sailed 
from  Lisbon,  May  29, 1588,  and  were  destroyed 
partly  by  storms,  and  partly  by  the  valor  of  the 
English.  This  loss  is  said  to  have  amounted 
to  10.000  men  and  GO  ships  ;  but  Philip  received 
the  news  of  it  without  the  least  discomposure. 
On  the  news  being  communicated  to  him,  he 
answered  calmly,  that  he  thanked  God,  that  he 
was  able  to  rig  out  such  another.  Philip  died 
at  the  EscuriaT,  Sept.  13,  1598,  aged  71. 

PHILli'  111,  of  Spain,  born  at  Madrid,  1578, 
succeeded  his  father  Philip  II,  in  151)8,  reform- 
ed the  courts  of  judicature,  expelled  the  Moors 
out  of  Spain,  and  made  a  peace  in  the  Low 
Countries,  and  afterwards  lived  in  repose.  He 
died  on  the  3lst  of  March  1(521,  in  the  43d  year 
of  his  age,  and  23d  of  his  reign. 

PHILIP  of  Macedon,  son  of  Argneus.  suc- 
ceeded his  father  and  reigned  38  years,  B.  C. 
640.  The  second  of  that  name  was  the  fourth 
son  of  Amyntas,  king  of  Macedonia.  He  was 
sent  to  Thebes  as  an  hostage  by  his  father, 
where  he  learnt  the  art  of  war  under  Eparni- 
nondas,  and  studied  with  the  greatest  care  the 
manners  and  the  pursuits  of  the  Greeks.  He 
was  recalled  to  Macedonia,  and  ascended  the 
throne.  The  neighboring  nations  ridiculing 
the  youth  and  inexperience  of  the  new  king  of 
Macedonia,  appeared  in  arms  ;  but  Philip  soon 
convinced  them  of  their  error.  Unable  to  meet 
them  as  yet  in  the  field  of  battle,  ho  suspended 
their  fury  by  presents,  and  soon  turned  his  arms 
against  Amphipolis,  a  colony  tributary  to  the 
Athenians. 
Amphipolis  wae  conquered,  and  added  to  the 


kingdom  of  Macedonia ;  and  Philip  meditated 
no  less  than  the  destruction  of  a  republic  which 
had  rendered  itself  so  formidable  to  the  rest  of 
Greece,  and  had  even  claimed  submission  from 
the  princes  of  Macedonia.  He  made  himself 
master  of  a  Thracian  colony,  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  Philippi. 

In  the  midst  of  hss  political  prosperity,  Philip 
did  not  neglect  the  honor  of  his  family.  Every 
thing  seemed  now  to  conspire  to  his  aggrandize- 
ment; and  historians  have  observed,  that  Philip 
received  in  one  day  the  intelligence  of  three 
things  which  could  gratifv  the  most  unbounded 
ambition,  and  flatter  the  "hopes  of  the  most  as- 
piring monarch. — the  birth  of  a  son,  an  honor- 
able crown  at  the  Olympic  games,  and  a  victory 
over  the  barbarians  of  lllyricum. 

But  all  these  increased  rather  than  satiated 
his  ambition ;  he  declared  his  inimical  senti- 
ments against  the  power  of  Athens,  and  the  in- 
dependence of  all  Greece,  by  laying  siege  to 
Olynthus,  a  place  which,  on  account  of  its  situ- 
ation and  consequence,  was  most  advantageous 
to  the  intrigues  of  every  Macedonian  prince. 

The  Athenians  sent  17  vessels  and  2,000  men 
to  the  assistance  of  Olynthus,  but  the  money  of 
Philip  prevailed  over  all  their  efforts.  The 
greatest  part  of  the  citizens  suffered  themselves 
to  be  bribed  bv  the  Macedonian  gold,  and  Olyn- 
thus surrendered  to  the  enemy,  and  was  instant- 
ly reduced  to  ruins.  In  his"  attempts  to  make 
himself  master  of  Enbcea,  Philip  was  unsuccess- 
ful ;  and  Phocion,  who  despised  his  gold,  obliged 
him  to  evacuate  an  island  whose  inhabitants 
were  as  insensible  to  the  charms  of  money,  as 
they  were  unmoved  at  the  horrors  of  war,  and 
the  bold  efforts  of  a  vigilant  enemy.  From 
Eubo3a  he  turned  his  arms  against  the  Scythi- 
ans, but  the  advantages  which  he  obtained  over 
this  indigent  nation  were  inconsiderable. 

He  next  advanced  far  into  Boeotia,  and  a  gen- 
eral engagement  was  fought  at  Chtcronea.  The 
fight  was  long  and  bloody,  but  Philip  obtained 
the  victory.  At  the  battle  of  Chsronea  the  in- 
dependence of  Greece  was  extinguished ;  and 
Philip,  unable  to  find  new  enemies  in  Europe, 
formed  new  enterprises,  and  meditated  new 
conquests. 

He  was  appointed  general  of  the  Greeks 
against  the  Persians,  and  was  called  upon  to  re- 
venge those  injuries  which  Greece  had  suffered 
from  the  invasions  of  Darius  and  of  Xerxes. 
But.  he  wa«  stopped  in  the  midst  of  his  warlike 
preparations,  being  stabbed  by  Pausanias  as  he 
entered  the  theatre,  at  the  celebration  of  the 
nuptials  of  his  daughter  Cleopatra.  He  was 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PHO 


401 


PHO 


murdered  in  the  47th  year  of  his  age.  and  the 
24th  of  his  reign,  346  years  before  the  Chris- 

'  PHILIP,  king,  Sachem  of  Pokanoket,  was 
the  youngest  son  of  Massasoit.  In  1G75,  he 
commenced  a  war  with  the  English,  who  suf- 
fered severely  from  his  enmity.  He  was  killed 
Aug.  12,  1670. 

PHILIPPINES,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Pa- 
cific ocean,  1200  in  number.  They  were  dis- 
covered by  Magellan  in  1521,  and  the  first  set- 
tlements were  made  by  the  Spaniards  in  1570. 
Manilla  is  tiie  capital  of  the  Spanish  posses- 
sions. The  population  is  composed  of  Chinese, 
Spaniards,  mestizoes,  and  natives,  and  amounts 
to  about  two  and  a  half  millions.  These  islands 
are  fruitful  and  productive,  but  subject  to  rava- 
ges from  hurricanes,  earthquakes,  and  volcanic 
eruptions. 

PHOCION,  an  Athenian,  celebrated  for  his 
virtues,  private  as  well  as  public.  He  often 
checked  the  violent  and  inconsiderate  measures 
of  Demosthenes,  and  when  the  Athenians 
seemed  eager  to  make  war  against  Philip,  king 
of  Macedonia,  1'hocion  observed  that  war  should 
never  be  undertaken  without  the  strongest  and 
most  certain  expectations  of  success  and  victory. 

He  was  45  times  appointed  governor  of 
Athens,  and  no  greater  encomium  can  be  passed 
upon  his  talents  as  a  minister  and  statesman, 
than  that  he  never  solicited  that  high,  though 
dangerous,  office.  It  was  through  him  that 
Greece  was  saved  from  an  impending  war,  and 
he  advised  Alexander  rather  to  turn  his  arms 
against  Persia,  than  to  shed  the  blood  of  the 
Greeks,  who  were  either  his  allies  or  his  subjects. 

JJut  not  totally  to  despise  the  favors  of  the 
monarch,  he  begged  Alexander  to  restore  to 
their  liberty  four  slaves  that  were  confined  in 
the  citadel  of  Sardis. 

When  the  Piraeus  was  taken,  Phocion  was 
accused  of  treason,  and  therefore,  to  avoid  the 
public  indignation,  he  fled  for  safety  to  Poly- 
perchon.  Polvperchon  sent  him  back  to  Athens, 
where  he  was"  immediately  condemned  to  drink 
the  fatal  poison.  He  received  the  indignities  of 
the  people  with  uncommon  composure ;  and 
when  one  of  his  friends  lamented  his  fate,  Pho- 
cion exclaimed,  "This  is  no  more  than  what  I 
expected  ;  this  treatment  the  most  illustrious 
citizens  of  Athens  have  received  before  me." 
He  died  about  318  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

It  has  been  observed  of  Phocion,  that  he  never 
appeared  elated  in  prosperity,  or  dejected  in  ad- 
versity ;  he  never  betrayed  pusillanimity  by  a 
tear,  nor  joy  by  a  smile.  His  countenance  was 


stern  and  unpleasant,  but  he  never  behaved  with 
severity,  his  expressions  were  mild,  and  his  re- 
bukes gentle.  At  the  age  of  80  he  appeared  at 
the  head  of  the  Athenian  armies  like  the  most 
active  officer,  and  to  his  prudence  and  cool  va- 
lor in  every  period  of  life  his  citizens  acknow- 
ledged themselves  much  indebted.  His  merits 
were  not  buried  in  oblivion  ;  the  Athenians  re- 
pented of  their  ingratitude,  and  honored  his 
memory  by  raising  him  statues,  and  putting  to  a 
cruel  death  his  guilty  accusers. 

PHOC1S,  an  ancient  country  of  Greece, 
bounded  N.  by  Thessaly.  E.  by  Locris  and 
Bceotia,  S.  by  the  Gulf  of'  Corinth,  and  VV.  by 
Doris,  and  the  country  of  the  Ozolian  Locrians. 
Phocis  was  rendered  famous  for  a  war  which  it 
maintained  against  some  of  the  Grecian  repub- 
lics, and  which  has  received  the  name  of  the 
Phocian  war.  This  celebrated  war  originated 
in  the  following  circumstances  :  When  Philip, 
king  of  Macedonia,  had  fomented  divisions  in 
Greece,  and  disturbed  the  peace  of  every  repub- 
lic, the  Greeks  universally  became  discontented 
in  their  situation,  and  jealous  of  the  prosperity 
of  the  neighboring  states. 

The  Amphictyons,  who  were  the  supreme 
rulers  of  Greece,  and  who  at  that  time  were 
subservient  to  the  views  of  the  Thebans,  the 
inveterate  enemies  of  the  Phocians.  showed  the 
same  spirit,  and  like  the  rest  of  their  country.- 
men,  were  actuated  by  the  same  jealousy  and 
ambition.  As  the  supporters  of  religion,  they 
accused  the  Phocians  of  impiety  for  ploughing 
a  small  portion  of  land  which  belonged  to  the 
god  of  Delphi.  They  immediately  commanded, 
that  the  sacred  field  should  be  laid  waste,  and 
that  the  Phocians,  to  expiate  their  crime,  should 
pay  a  heavy  fine  to  the  community. 

The  inability  of  the  Phocians  to  pav  the  fine, 
and  that  of  the  Amphictyons  to  enforce  their 
commands  by  violence,  gave  rise  to  new  events. 
The  people  of  Phocis  resolved  to  oppose  the 
Amphyctvonic  council  by  force  of  arms.  Dur- 
ing two  years  hostilities  were  carried  on  be- 
tween the  Phocians  and  their  enemies,  the  The- 
bans and  the  people  of  Locris,  but  no  decisive 
battles  were  fought. 

Philip  of  Macedonia,  who  had  assisted  the 
Thebans,  was  obliged  to  retire  from  the  field 
with  dishonor,  but  a  more  successful  battle  was 
fought  near  Magnesia,  and  the  monarch,  by 
crowning  the  head  of  his  soldiers  with  laurel, 
arid  telling  them  that  they  fought  in  the  cause 
of  Delphi  and  heaven,  obtained  a  complete  vic- 
tory. This  fatal  defeat,  however,  did  not  ruin 
the  Phocians  :  Phayllus,  took  the  command  of 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


PIC 


402 


PIN 


their  armies,  and  doubling  the  pay  of  his  sol- 
diers, lie  increased  his  forces  by  the  addition 
of  9,000  men  from  Athens,  Lacedasmon,  and 
Achaia. 

But  all  this  numerous  force  at  last  proved  in- 
effectual, the  treasures  of  the  temple  of  Delphi, 
which  had  long  defrayed  the  expenses  of  the 
war,  began  to  fail,  dissensions  arose  among  the 
ringleaders  of  Phocis,  and  when  Philip  had 
crossed  the  Straits  of  Thermopylae,  the  Phocians, 
relying  on  his  generosity,  claimed  his  protec- 
tion, and  implored  him  to  plead  their  cause  be- 
fore the  Amphictyonic  council.  His  feeble  in- 
tercession was  not  attended  with  success,  and 
the  Tiiebans,  the  Locrians,  and  the  Thessalians, 
who  then  composed  the  Amphictyonic  council, 
unanimously  decreed,  that  the  Phocians  should 
be  deprived  of  the  privilege  of  sending  members 
among  the  Amphictyons. 

The  Phocians,  ten  years  after  they  had  un- 
dertaken the  sacred  war,  saw  their  country  laid 
desolate,  their  walls  demolished,  and  their  cities 
in  ruins,  by  the  wanton  jealousy  of  their  ene- 
mies, and  the  inflexible  cruelty  of  the  Macedo- 
nian soldiers.  B.C.  348.  They  were  not, how- 
ever, long  under  this  disgraceful  sentence,  their 
well  known  valor  and  courage  recommended 
them  to  favor,  and  they  gradually  regained  their 
influence  and  consequence  by  the  protection  of 
the  Athenians,  and  the  favors  of  Philip. 

PHCENICE,  or  Phoenicia,  a  couniry  of  Asia, 
at  the  east  of  the  Mediterranean,  whose  bound- 
aries have  been  different  in  different  ages.  Some 
suppose  that  the  names  of  Phoenicia,  Syria,  and 
Palestine,  are  indiscriminately  used  for  one  and 
the  same  country.  Phoenicia,  according  ti  Ptol- 
emy, extended  on  the  north  as  far  as  the  Eleu- 
therus,  a  small  river  which  falls  into  the  Medi- 
terranean sea,  a  little  below  the  island  of  Ara- 
dus,  and  it  had  Pelusium,  or  the  territories  of 
Egypt,  as  its  more  southern  boundary,  and  Syria 
on  the  east.  Sidon  and  Tyre  were  the  capital 
towns  of  the  country.  The  inhabitants  planted 
colonies  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
particularly  Carthage,  Hippo,  Marseilles,  and 
Utica;  and  their  manufactures  acquired  such 
a  superiority  over  those  of  other  nations,  that 
among  the  ancients,  whatever  was  elegant, 
great,  or  pleasing,  either  in  apparel,  or  domes- 
tic utensils,  received  the  epithet  of  Sidtmian. 
The  Phoenicians  were  originally  governed  by 
kings.  They  were  subdued  by  the  Persians, 
and  afterwards  by  Alexander,  and  remained 
tributary  to  his  successors  and  to  the  Romans. 

P1CHEGRU,  Charles,  a  French  general,  was 
born  at  Arbois,  in  1701.  in  Franchecomte.  His 


parentage  was  mean,  but  he  received  a  good 
education  under  the  monks  in  his  native  town ; 
after  which  he  entered  into  the  army,  and  be- 
came a  serjeant.  In  the  revolution  he  was  ele- 
vated to  the  rank  of  a  general,  and  in  1793 
gained  a  victory  over  the  combined  armies  at 
Hagenau ;  in  consequence  of  which  he  succeed- 
ed to  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  north. 
His  most  celebrated  exploit  was  the  subjugation 
of  Holland,  for  which  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  national  assembly.  At  length  he  fell  un- 
der the  suspicion  of  being  a  royalist,  and  was 
banished  to  Cayenne,  from  whence  he  escaped 
to  England.  In  the  spring  of  1804,  he  went  to 
Paris,  but  Was  soon  seized,  and  thrown  into  a 
dungeon  of  the  temple,  where  he  probably 
strangled  himself  on  the  Cth  of  April  of  the 
same  year. 

PICKENS,  Andrew,  a  celebrated  revolution- 
ary officer,  born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylva- 
nia, Sept.  13, 1739.  While  he  was  still  young, 
his  residence  was  removed  to  South  Carolina. 
He  had  fought  against  the  French,  and  the 
Cherokees  before  the  breaking  out  of  the  revo- 
lution. He  again  encountered  the  Indians  in 
the  revolutionary  war.  and  acted  a  gallant  part 
at  the  battle  of  Cowpens,  as  well  as  at.  that  of 
Eutaw  springs.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  war, 
he  served  his  country  in  various  civil  offices, 
and  died,  full  of  years  and  honors,  Oct.  11, 1317. 

PICKERING,  Timothy,  colonel,  was  born 
at  Salem,  Mass..  July,  17,  1745,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  college.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction during  the  revolutionary  war;  towards 
the  close  of  which  he  succeeded  general  Greene 
nsqunrter-master-general,  and  contributed  great- 
ly to  the  surrender  of  Corn  wall  is  at  Yorktown. 
In  1791  he  was  made  postmaster-general,  rind 
in  1794,  secretary  of  war.  In  1803  he  was  cho- 
sen senator  to  Congress  from  Massachusetts, 
and  in  1811,  when  his  term  of  office  had  expired, 
was  made  member  of  the  executive  council. 
During  the  last  war  with  Great  Britain,  he  was 
a  member  of  the  board  of  war  for  the  defence 
of  the  state.  From  1814  to  1817  he  wasincon- 
frt>ss.  Having  retired  to  private  life,  he  died 
Jan.  29. 1889 

PIEDMONT,  a  principality  of  the  Sardinian 
monarchy,  containing  an  area  of  G,f>7.~>  square 
miles,  with  1,400.000  inhabitants.  From  1798 
;  »  I  302  it  was  attached  to  France. 

PINCKNEY,  Charles  Cotesworth,  was  born 
in  South  Carolina,  but  educated  in  England, 
where  lie  studied  law.  He  returned  to  his  na- 
tive state  in  J709.  He  held  a  colonel's  com- 
mission during  the  revolutionary  war,  and  aid 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PIS 


403 


PIT 


ed  in  the  defence  of  Charleston.  After  the  con- 
clusion of  the  war  he  was  appointed  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  France,  where  his  treatment 
by  the  French  directory  was  insulting.  He  was 
ordered  to  leave  the  French  territories.  He 
died  in  1825. 

PINCKNEY,  Thomas,  a  major-general  in  the 
army  of  the  United  States,  the  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, Oct.  23,  1750.  He  studied  law  in  Eng- 
land. During  the  revolution,  he  served  with 
distinction,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  war, 
was  elected  second  governor  of  South  Carolina. 
At  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office,  he  was 
appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  court 
of  St.  James.  After  a  few  years  lie  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  the  court  of  Spain.  He  re- 
turned to  America  in  1796,  and  was  soon  elect- 
ed to  Congress.  In  the  war  of  1812  he  received 
the  commission  of  major-general.  He  died 
Nov.  2,  1828. 

PINKNEY,  William,  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  born  at  Annapolis,  in  Maryland, 
March  17.  1764.  He  three  times  went  to  Eu- 
rope as  minister,  and  commanded  a  volunteer 
company  during  the  war  of  1812.  receiving  a 
severe  wound  in  the  battle  of  Bladensburg.  He 
died  Feb.  25,  1822. 

PISISTRATUS,  an  Athenian,  8on  of  Hip- 
pocrates, who  early  distinguished  himself  by 
his  valor  in  the  field  and  by  his  address  and  elo- 
quence at  home.  After  he  had  rendered  him- 
self the  favorite  of  the  populace  by  his  liberali- 
ty, and  by  the  intrepidity  with  which  he  had 
fought  their  battles,  particularly  near  Salamis, 
he  resolved  to  make  himself  master  of  his  coun- 
try. Pisistratus  was  not  disheartened  by  the 
measures  of  his  relation  Solon,  but  he  had  re- 
course to  artifice.  The  people  too  late  per- 
ceived their  credulity  ;  yet,  though  the  tyrant 
was  popular,  two  of  the  citizens,  ^legacies  and 
Lycurgus,  conspired  together  against  him,  and 
by  their  means  he  was  forcibly  ejected  from  the 
city. 

The  private  dissensions  of  the  friends  of  lib- 
erty proved  favorable  to  the  expelled  tyrant, 
and  Megacles,  who  was  jealous  of  Lycurgus, 
secretly  promised  to  restore  Pisistratus  to  all  his 
rights  and  privileges  in  Athens,  if  he  would 
marry  his  daughter.  Pisistratus  consented,  and 
by  the  assistance  of  his  father-in-law,  he  was 
Boon  enabled  to  expel  Lycurgus,  and  to  re-es- 
tablish himself.  In  the  "midst  of  his  triumph, 
however,  Pisistratus  felt  himself  unsupported, 
and  some  time  after,  when  he  repudiated  the 
daughter  of  Megacles,  he  found  that  not  only 


the  citizens,  but  even  his  very  troops  were  alien 
ated  from  him  by  the  influence,  the  intrigues, 
and  the  bribery  of  his  father-in-law. 

He  fled  from  Athens,  where  he  could  no  lon- 
ger maintain  his  power,  and  retired  to  Eubcea. 
Eleven  years  after,  he  was  drawn  from  his  ob- 
scure retreat  by  means  of  his  son  Hippias,  and 
lie  was  a  third  time  received  by  the  people  of 
Athens  as  their  master  and  sovereign.  He  died 
about  527  years  before  the  Christian  era,  after 
he  had  enjoyed  the  sovereign  power  at  Athens 
for  33  years,  including  the  years  of  his  banish- 
ment. • 

PITCAIRN'S  ISLAND,  in  the  South  Pa- 
cific ocean,  is  6  miles  long  and  3  broad,  and  re- 
markably fertile,  possessing  a  fine  climate.  It 
was  discovered  by  Carteret  in  1767,  but  was 
then  uninhabited.  In  1789,  however,  it  was 
settled  by  some  of  the  mutineers  of  the  English 
ship  Bounty.  The  mutiny  of  the  Bounty  is  of 
such  importance  as  to  claim  our  attention  here. 
It  is  best  described  in  the  following  extract  from 
the  voyage  of  captain  Bligh  : 

On  the  27th  of  December  it  blew  a  severe 
storm  of  wind  from  the  eastward,  in  the  course 
of  which  we  suffered  greatly.  One  sea  broke 
away  the  spare  yards  and  spars  out  of  the  star- 
board mainchains ;  another  broke  into  the  ship 
and  stove  all  the  boats.  Several  casks  of  beer 
that  had  been  lashed  on  deck  broke  loose,  and 
were  washed  overboard  ;  and  it  was  not  with- 
out great  risk  and  difficulty  that  we  were  able 
to  secure  the  boats  from  being  washed  away 
entirely.  A  great  quantity  of  our  bread  was 
also  damaged  and  rendered  useless,  for  the  sea 
had  stove  in  our  stern,  and  filled  the  cabin  with 
water. 

On  the  5th  of  January,  1788,  we  saw  the 
island  of  Teneriffe  about  twelve  leagues  distant, 
and  next  day,  being  Sunday,  came  to  an  anchor 
in  the  road  of  Santa  Cruz.  There  we  took  in 
the  necessary  supplies,  and,  having  finished  our 
business,  sailed  on  the  10th. 

I  now  divided  the  people  into  three  watches, 
and  gave  the  charge  of  the  third  watch  to  Mr. 
Fletcher  Christian,  one  of  the  mates.  I  have 
always  considered  this  a  desirable  regulation 
when  circumstances  will  admit  of  it,  and  I  am 
persuaded  that  unbroken  rest  not  only  contri- 
butes much  towards  the  health  of  the  ship's 
company,  but  enables  them  more  readily  to  ex- 
ert themselves  in  cases  of  sudden  emergency. 

As  I  wished  to  proceed  to  Otaheite  without 
stopping,  I  reduced  the  allowance  of  bread  to 
two-thirds,  and  caused  the  water  for  drinking  to 
be  filtered  through  drip-slones,  bought  at  Ten 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


PIT 


404 


PIT 


eriffe  for  that  purpose  I  now  acquainted  the 
ship's  company  of  the  object  of  the  voyage,  and 
gave  assurances  of  certain  promotion  to  every 
one  whose  endeavors  should  merit  it. 

On  Tuesday  the  2tith  of  February,  being  in 
South  latitude  2<J°  38',  and  44°  44'  West  longi- 
tude, we  bent  new  sails,  and  made  other  neces- 
sary preparations  for  encountering  the  weather 
that  was  to  be  expected  in  a  high  latitude.  Our 
distance  from  the  coast  of  Brazil  was  about  100 
leagues. 

On  the  forenoon  of  Sunday  the  2d  of  March, 
after  seeing  that  every  person  was  clean,  divine 
service  was  performed,  according  to  my  usual 
custom  on  this  day.  I  gave  to  Mr.  Fletcher 
Christian,  whom  I  had  before  directed  to  take 
charge  of  the  third  watch,  a  written  order  to  act 
as  lieutenant. 

The  change  of  temperature  soon  began  to  be 
sensibly  felt,  and,  that  the  people  might  not  suf- 
fer from  their  own  negligence,  I  supplied  them 
with  thicker  clothing,  as  better  suited  to  the 
climate.  A  great  number  of  whales  of  an  im- 
mense size,  with  two  spout-holes  on  the  back 
of  the  head,  were  seen  on  the  llth. 

On  a  complaint  made  to  me  by  the  master,  I 
found  it  necessary  to  punish  Matthew  Quintal, 
one  of  the  seamen,  with  two  dozen  of  lashes, 
for  insolence  and  mutinous  behavior,  which  was 
the  first  time  that  there  was  any  occasion  for 
punishment  on  board. 

We  were  off  Cape  St.  Diego,  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Terra  de  Fuego,  and,  the  wind  being  un- 
favorable, I  thought  it  more  advisable  io  go 
round  to  the  eastward  of  Slaten-land  than  to 
attempt  passing  through  Straits  le  Maire.  We 
passed  New  Year's  Harbor  and  Cape  St.  John, 
and  on  Monday  the  31st  were  in  latitude  GO0  1' 
south.  But  the  wind  became  variable,  and  we 
had  bad  weather. 

Storms,  attended  with  a  great  sea,  prevailed 
until  the  12th  of  April.  The  ship  began  to  leak, 
and  required  pumping  every  hour,  which  was 
no  more  than  we  had  reason  to  expect  from  such 
a  continuance  of  gales  of  wind  and  high  seas. 
The  df'oks  also  became  so  leaky  that  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  allot  the  great  cabin,  of  which  I  made 
little  u.se  except  in  fine  weather,  to  those  people 
who  had  not  berths  to  hang  their  hammocks  in, 
and  by  this  means  the  space  between  decks  was 
less  crowded. 

With  all  this  bad  weather,  we  had  the  addi- 
tional mortification  to  find,  at  the  end  of  every 
day,  that  we  were  losing  ground  ;  for,  notwith- 
standing our  utmost  exertions,  and  keeping  on 
the  most  advantageous  tracks,  we  did  little  bet- 


ter than  drill  before  the  wind.  On  Tuesday 
the  22d  of  April,  we  had  eight  down  on  the 
sick  list,  and  the  rest  of  the  people,  though  in 
good  health,  were  greatly  fatigue^;  but  I  saw, 
with  much  concern,  that  it  was  impossible  to 
make  a  passage  this  way  to  the  Society  Islands, 
for  we  had  now  been  thirty  days  in  a  tempestu- 
ous ocean.  "  Thus  the  season  was  too  far  ad- 
vanced for  us  to  expect  better  weather  to  enable 
ds  to  double  Cape  Horn  ;  and,  from  these  and 
other  considerations,  I  ordered  the  helm  to  be 
put  a-weather,  and  bore  away  for  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  to  the  great  joy  of  every  one  on 
board. 

We  came  to  an  anchor  on  Friday  the  23d  of 
May,  in  Simon's  Bay,  at  the  Cape,  after  a  tol- 
erable run.  The  ship  required  complete  caulk- 
ing, for  she  had  become  so  leaky,  that  we  were 
obliged  to  pump  hourly  in  our  passage  from 
Cape  Horn.  The  sails  and  rigging  also  re- 
quired repair,  and,  on  examining  the  provisions, 
a  considerable  quantity  was  found  damaged. 

Having  remained  thirty-eight  days  at  this 
place,  and  my  people  having  received  all  the 
advantage  that  could'  be  derived  from  refresh- 
ments of  every  kind  that  could  be  met  with,  we 
sailed  on  the  1st  of  July. 

A  gale  of  wind  blew  on  the  20th,  with  a  high 
sea  ;  it  increased  after  noon  with  such  violence, 
that  the  ship  was  driven  almost  forecastle  under 
before  we  could  get  the  sails  clewed  up.  The 
lower  yards  were  lowered,  and  the  top-gallant 
mast  got  down  upon  deck,  which  relieved  her 
much.  We  lay  to  all  night,  and  in  the  morn- 
ing bore  away  under  a  reefed  foresail.  The  sea 
still  running  high,  in  the  afternoon  it  became 
very  unsafe  to  stand  on  ;  we  therefore  lay  to  all 
night,  without  any  accident,  excepting  that  a 
man  at  the  steerage  was  thrown  over  the  wheel 
nnd  much  bruised.  Towards  noon  the  violence 
of  the  storm  iibated,  and  we  again  bore  away 
under  the  reefed  foresail. 

In  a  few  days  we  passed  the  Island  of  St. 
Paul,  where  there  is  good  fresh  wafer,  as  I  was 
informed  by  a  Dutch  captain,  and  also  a  hot 
spring,  which  boils  fish  as  completely  as  if  done 
by  a  fire.  Approaching  to  Van  Dieman's  land, 
we  had' much  bad  weather,  with  snow  and  hail, 
but  nothing  was  seen  to  indicate  our  vicinity, 
on  the  13tir  of  August,  except  a  seal,  which  ap- 
peared at  the  distance  of  twenty  leagues  from 
it.  We  anchored  in  Adventure  Bay  on  Wednes- 
day the  20th. 

In  our  passage  hither  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  the  winds  were  chiefly  from  the  west- 
ward, with  very  boisterous  weather.  The  ap- 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PIT 


405 


PIT 


proach  of  strong  southerly  winds  is  announced 
by  many  birds  of  tlie  albatross  or  petrel  tribe  ; 
and  the  abatement  of  the  gale,  or  a  shift  of  wind 
to  the  northward,  by  their  keeping  away.  The 
thermometer  also  varies  five  or  six  degrees  in 
its  height,  when  a  change  of  these  winds  may 
be  expected. 

in  the  land  surrounding  Adventure  Bay  are 
many  forest  trees  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
high  ;  we  saw  one  which  measured  above  thirty- 
three  feet  in  girth.  We  observed  several  eagles, 
some  beautiiul  blue-plumaged  herons,  and  par- 
roquets  in  great  variety. 

The  natives  not  appearing,  we  went  in  search 
of  them  towards  Cape  Frederic  Henry.  Soon 
after,  coming  to  a  grapnel  close  to  the  shore,  for 
it  was  impossible  to  land,  we  heard  their  voices, 
like  the  cackling  of  geese,  and  twenty  persons 
came,  out  of  the  woods.  We  threw  trinkets 
ashore  tied  up  in  parcels,  which  they  would  not 
open  out  until  1  made  an  appearance  of  leaving 
them ;  they  then  did  so,  and.  taking  the  arti- 
cles out,  put  them  on  their  heads.  On  first 
coming  in  sight,  they  made  a  prodigious  clatter- 
ing in  their  speech,  and  held  their  arms  over 
their  heads.  They  spoke  so  quick,  that  it  was 
impossible  to  catch  one  single  word  they  uttered. 
Their  color  is  of  a  dull  black  ;  their  skin  scari- 
fied about  the  breast  and  shoulders.  One  was 
distinguished  by  his  body  being  colored  with 
red  ochre,  but  all  the  others  were  painted  black, 
with  a  kind  of  soot,  so  thickly  laid  over  their 
faces  and  shoulders,  that  it  was  difiicult  to  as- 
certain what  they  were  like. 

On  Thursday,  the  4th  of  September,  we  sailed 
out  of  Adventure  Bay,  steering  first  towards  the 
cast-southeast,  and  then  to  the  northward  of 
east,  when,  on  the  19th,  we  came  in  sight  of  a 
cluster  of  small  rocky  islands,  which  1  named 
County  Isles.  Soon  afterwards  we  frequently 
observed  the  sea,  in  the  night  time,  to  be  cov- 
ered by  luminous  spots  caused  by  amazing 
quantities  of  small  blubbers,  or  medusas,  which 
emit  alight,  like  the  blaze  of  a  candle,  from  the 
strings  or  filaments  extending  from  them,  while 
the  rest  of  the  body  continues  perfectly  dark. 

We  discovered  the  island  of  Otaheite  on  the 
i2";th,  and.  before  casting  anchor  next  morning  in 
Mat:ivai  Bay,  such  numbers  of  canoes  had  come 
nft",  that,  after  the  natives  ascertained  we  were 
friends,  they  came  on  board,  and  crowded  the 
deck  so  much,  that  in  ten  minutes  I  could  scarce 
find  my  own  people.  The  whole  distance  which 
the  ship  had  run,  in  direct  and  contrary  courses, 
i'rcm  the  time  of  leaving  England  until  reaching 
Otaheite,  was  twenty-seven  thousand  and  eigh- 


ty-six miles,  which,  on  an  average,  was  one 
hundred  and  eight  miles  each  twenty-four  hours. 

Here  we  lost  our  surgeon  on  the  9th  of  De- 
cember. Of  late  he  had  scarcely  ever  stirred 
out  of  the  cabin,  though  not  apprehended  to  be 
in  a  dangerous  state.  Nevertheless,  appearing 
worse  than  usual  in  the  evening,  he  was  re- 
moved where  he  could  obtain  more  air,  but 
without  any  benefit,  for  he  died  in  an  hour  af- 
terwards. "This  unfortunate  man  drank  very 
hard,  and  was  so  averse  to  exercise,  that  he 
would  never  be  prevailed  on  to  take  half  a  dozen 
turns  on  deck  at  a  time,  during  all  the  course  of 
the  voyage.  He  was  buried  on  shore. 

On  Monday  the  5th  of  January,  the  small 
cutter  was  missed,  of  which  I  was  immediately 
apprised.  The  ship's  company  being  mustered, 
we  found  three  men  absent,  who  had  carried  it 
oft'.  They  had  taken  with  them  eight  stand  of 
arms  and  ammunition  ;  but  with  regard  to  their 
plan,  every  one  on  board  seemed  to  be  quite  ig- 
norant. I  therefore  went  on  shore,  and  engaged 
all  the  chiefs  to  assist  in  recovering  both  the 
boat  and  the  deserters.  Accordingly,  the  for- 
mer was  brought  back  in  the  course  of  the  day, 
by  five  of  the  natives ;  but  the  men  were  not 
taken  until  nearly  three  weeks  afterwards. 
Learning  the  place  where  they  were,  in  a  dif- 
ferent quarter  of  the  island  of  Otaheite,  I  went 
thither  in  the  cutter,  thinking  there  would  be 
no  great  difficulty  in  securing  them  with  the 
assistance  of  the  natives.  However,  they  heard 
of  my  arrival ;  and  when  I  was  near  a  house  in 
which  they  were,  they  carne  out  wanting  their 
fire-arms,  and  delivered  themselves  up.  Some 
of  the  chiefs  had  formerly  seized  and  bound 
these  deserters  ;  but  had  been  prevailed  on,  by 
fair  promises  of  returning  peaceably  to  the  ship, 
to  release  them.  But  finding  an  opportunity 
again  to  get  possession  of  their  arms,  they  set 
the  natives  at  defiance. 

The  object  of  the  voyage  being  now  -com- 
pleted, all  the  bread-fruit  plants,  to  the  number 
of  one  thousand  and  fifteen,  were  got  on  board 
on  Tuesday  the  31st  of  March.  Besides  these, 
we  had  collected  many  other  plants,  some  of 
them  bearing  the  finest  fruits  in  the  world  ;  and 
valuable,  from  affording  brilliant  dyes,  and  for 
various  properties  besides.  At  sunset  of  the 
4th  of  April,  we  made  sail  from  Otaheite,.  bid- 
ding farewell  to  an  island  where  for  twenty- 
three  weeks  we  had  been  treated  with  the  ut- 
most affection  and  regard,  and  which  seemed  to 
increase  in  proportion  to  our  stay.  That  we 
were  not  insensible  to  their  kindness,  the  suc- 
ceeding circumstances  sufficiently  proved ;  for 


\   CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


PIT 


406 


PIT 


to  the  friendly  and  endearing  behavior  of  these 
people  may  be  ascribed  the  motives  inciting  an 
event  that  effected  the  ruin  of  our  expedition, 
which  there  was  every  reason  to  believe  would 
have  bfeen  attended  with  the  most  favorable  issue. 

Next  morning  we  got  sight  of  the  island  II  ua- 
heine;  and  a  double  canoe  soon  coining  along- 
side, containing  ten  natives,  I  saw  among  them 
a  young  man  who  recollected  me,  and  called  me 
by  my  name.  I  had  been  here  in  the  year  1780, 
with  Captain  Cook,  in  the  Resolution.  A  few 
days  after  sailing  from  this  island,  the  weather 
became  squally,  and  a  thick  body  of  black  clouds 
collected  in  the  east.  A  water-spout  was  in  a 
short  time  seen  at  no  great  distance  from  us, 
which  appeared  to  great  advantage  from  the 
darkness  of  the  clouds  behind  it.  As  nearly  as 
I  could  judge,  the  upper  part  was  about  two 
feet  in  diameter,  and  the  lower  about  eight 
inches.  Scarcely  had  I  made  these  remarks, 
when  I  observed  that  it  was  rapidly  advancing 
towards  the  ship.  We  immediately  altered  our 
course,  and  took  in  all  the  sails  except  the  fore- 
sail ;  soon  after  which  it  passed  within  ten  yards 
of  the  stern,  with  a  rustling  noise,  but  without 
our  feeling  the  least  effect  Irom  it  being  so  near. 
It  seemed  to  be  travelling  at  the  rate  cf  about 
ten  miles  an  hour,  in  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
and  it  dispersed  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  after 
passing  us.  It  is  impossible  to  say  what  injury 
we  should  have  received,  had  it  passed  directly 
over  us.  Masts,  I  imagine,  might  have  been 
carried  away,  but  I  do  not  apprehend  that  it 
would  have  endangered  the  loss  of  the  ship. 

Passing  several  islands  on  the  way,  we  an- 
chored at  Annamooka,  on  the  23d  of  April ;  and 
an  old  lame  man  called  Tepa,  whom  I  had 
known  here  in  1777,  and  immediately  recollect- 
ed, came  on  board,  along  with  others,  from  dif- 
ferent islands  in  the  vicinity.  They  were  de- 
sirous to  see  the  ship,  and  on  being  taken  be- 
low, where  the  bread-fruit  plants  were  arranged, 
they  testified  great  surprise.  A  few  of  these 
being  decayed,  we  went  on  shore  to  procure 
some  in  the'ir  place. 

The  natives  exhibited  numerous  marks  of  the 
peculiar  mourning  which  they  express  on  losing 
their  relatives  ;  such  as  bloody  temples,  their 
heads  being  deprived  of  most  of  the'  hair,  and 
what 'was  worse,  almost  the  whole  of  them  had 
lost  some  of  their  fingers.  Several  fine  boy^.  i>"t 
above  six  years  old, had  lost  both  their  little  fin- 
gers ;  and  several  of  the  men,  besides  these,  had 
parted  with  the  middle  finger  of  the  right  hand. 

The  chiefs  went  off  with  me  to  dinner,  and 
we  carried  on  a  brisk  trade  for  yams ;  we  also 


got  plantains  and  bread  fruit.  But  the  yams 
were  in  great  abundance,  and  very  fine  and 
large.  One  of  them  weighed  above  forty-five 
pounds.  Sailing  canoes  came,  some  of  which 
contained  not  less  than  ninety  passengers.  Such 
a  number  of  them  gradually  arrived  Irom  differ- 
ent islands,  that  it  was  impossible  to  get  any 
thing  done,  the  multitude  became  so  great,  and 
there  was  no  chief  of  sufficient  authority  to 
command  the  whole.  I  therefore  ordered  a 
watering  party,  then  employed,  to  come  on 
board,  and  sailed  on  Sunday  the  '2t!th  of  April. 

We  kept  near  the  island  of  Kotoo  all  the  af- 
ternoon of  Monday,  in  hopes  that  some  canoes 
would  come  off  to  the  ship,  but  in  this  we  were 
disappointed.  The  wind  being  northerly,  we 
steered  to  the  westward  in  the  evening,  to  pass 
south  of  Tofoa ;  and  I  gave  directions  for  this 
course  to  be  continued  during  the  night.  The 
master  had  the  first  watch,  the  gunner  the  mid- 
dle watch,  and  Mr.  Christian  the  morning 
watch.  This  was  the  turn  of  duty  for  the  night. 

Hitherto  the  voyage  had  advanced  in  a  course 
of  uninterrupted  prosperity,  and  had  been  at- 
tended witJi  circumstances  equally  pleasing  and 
satisfactory.  But  a  very  different  scene  was 
now  to  be  disclosed ;  a  conspiracy  had  been 
farmed,  which  was  to  render  all  our  past  labor 

K  reductive  only  of  misery  and  distress  ;  and  it 
ad  been  concerted  with  so  much  secrecy  and 
circumspection,  that  no  one  circumstance  es- 
caped to  betray  the  impending  calamity. 

On  the  night  of  Monday,  the  watch  was  set 
as  I  have  described.  Just  before  sunrise,  on 
Tuesday  morning,  while  I  was  yet  asleep,  Mr. 
Christian,  with  the  master  at  arms,  gunner's 
mate,  and  Thomas  Burkitt,  seaman,  came  into 
my  cabin,  and  seizing  me,  tied  my  hands  with 
a  cord  behind  my  back  ;  threatening  me  with 
instant  death  if  I  spoke  or  made  the  least  noise. 
I  nevertheless  called  out  as  loud  as  I  could,  in 
hopes  of  assistance  ;  but  the  officers  not  of  their 
party  were  already  secured  by  sentinels  at  their 
doors.  At  my  own  cabin  door  were  three  men, 
besides  the  four  within  ;  all  except  Christian 
had  muskets  and  bayonets  ;  he  had  only  a  cut- 
lass. I  was  dragged  out  of  bed,  and  forced  on 
deck  in  my  shirt,  suffering  great  pain  in  the 
meantime  from  the  tiirh'.nes-i  with  which  my 
hands  were  tied.  On  demanding  the  reason  of 
such  violence,  the  only  answer  was  abuse  for 
not  holding  my  tongue.  The  master,  the  gun* 
nor,  surgeon."  master's  mate,  and  Nelson  the 
gardener,  were  kept  confined  below,  and  tho 
fore  hatchway  was  guarded  bv  sentinels.  The 
boatswain  and  carpenter,  and  also  the  clerk, 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PIT 


407 


PIT 


were  allowed  to  come  on  deck,  where  they  saw 
me  standing  abaft  the  mizzen-mast,  with  my 
hands  tied  behind  my  back,  under  a  guaid,  with 
Christian  at  their  head.  The  boatswain  was 
then  ordered  to  hoist  out  the  launch,  accom- 
panied by  a  threat,  if  he  did  not  do  it  instantly, 

TO  TAKE  CARE  OF  HIMSELF. 

The  boat  being  hoisted  out,  Mr.  Hayward 
and  Mr.  Hallet,  two  of  the  midshipmen,  and 
Mr.  Samuel,  the  clerk,  were  ordered  into  it.  I 
demanded  the  intention  of  giving  this  order,  and 
endeavored  to  persuade  the  people  near  me  not 
to  persist  in  such  acts  of  violence  ;  but  it  was  to 
no  effect;  for  the  constant  answer  was,  "  Hold 
your  tongue,  sir,  or  you  are  dead  this  moment." 

The  master  had  by  this  time  sent,  requesting 
that  he  might  come  on  deck,  which  was  permit- 
ted ;  but  he  was  soon  ordered  back  again  to  his 
cabin.  My  exertions  to  turn  the  tide  of  affairs 
were  continued;  when  Christian,  changing  the 
cutlass  he  held  for  a  bayonet,  and  holding  me 
by  the  cord  about  my  hands  with  a  strong  gripe, 
threatened  me  with  "immediate  death  if  1  would 
not  be  quiet;  and  the  villains  around  me  had 
their  pieces  cocked  and  bayonets  fixed. 

Certain  individuals  were  called  on  to  get  into 
the  boat,  and  were  hurried  over  the  ship's  side  ; 
whence  I  concluded,  that  along  with  them  I 
was  to  be  set  adrift.  Another  effort  to  bring 
about  a  change  produced  nothing  but  menaces 
of  having  my  brains  blown  out. 

The  boatswain  and  those  seamen  who  were 
to  be  put  into  the  boat,  were  allowed  to  collect 
twine,  canvass,  lines,  sails,  cordage,  an  eight- 
and-twenty  gallon  cask  of  water ;  and  Mr.  ^ain- 
ael  got  150  pounds  of  bread,  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  rum  and  wine  :  also  a  quadrant  and  com- 
pass :  but  he  was  prohibited,  on  pain  of  death, 
to  touch  any  map  or  astronomical  book,  and  any 
instrument,  or  any  of  my  surveys  and  drawings. 

The  mutineers  having  thus  forced  those  of 
the  seamen  whom  they  wished  to  get  rid  of  into 
the  boat.  Christian  directed  a  dram  to  be  served 
to  each  of  his  crew.  I  then  unhappily  saw  that 
nothing  could  be  done  to  recover  the  ship.  The 
officers  were  next  called  on  deck,  and  forced 
over  the  ship's  side  into  the  boat,  while  1  was 
kept  apart  from  every  one  abaft  the  mizzen-mast. 
Christian,  armed  with  a  bayonet,  held  the  cord 
fastening  my  hands,  and  the  guard  around  me 
stood  with  "their  pieces  cocked  ;  but  on  my 
daring  the  ungrateful  wretches  to  fire,  the}'  un- 
cocked them.  Isaac  Martin,  one  of  them,  I  saw 
had  an  inclination  to  assist  me;  and  as  he  fed 
me  with  shaddock,  my  lips  being  quite  parched, 
we  explained  each  other's  sentiments  by  looks. 
35 


But  this  was  observed,  and  he  Was  removed 
He  then  got  into  the  boat,  attempting  to  leave 
the  ship  ;  however,  he  was  compelled  to  leturn. 
Some  others  were  also  kept  contrary  to  their 
inclination. 

It  appeared  to  me,  that  Christian  was  some 
time  in  doubt  whether  he  should  keep  the  car- 
penter or  his  mates.  At  length  he  determined 
on  the  latter,  and  the  carpenter  was  ordered  into 
the  boat.  He  was  permitted,  though  not  with- 
out opposition,  to  take  his  tool  chest. 

Mr.  Samuel  secured  my  journals  and  com- 
mission, with  some  important  ship  papers  ;  this 
he  did  with  great  resolution,  though  strictly 
watched.  He  attempted  to  save  the  time-keep- 
er, and  a  box  with  my  surveys,  drawings,  and 
remarks,  for  fifteen  years  past,  which  were  very 
numerous,  when  he  was  hurried  away  with — 
"  Damn  your  eyes,  you  aie  well  off  to  get  what 
you  have." 

Much  altercation  took  place  among  the  mu- 
tinous crew  during  the  transaction  of  this  whole 
affair.  Some  swore,  "  I'll  de  damned  if  he  does 
not  find  his  way  home,  if  he  gets  any  thing  with 
him,"  meaning  me  ;  and  when  the  carpenter's 
chest  was  carrying  away.  "  Damn  my  eyes,  he 
will  have  a  vessel  built  in  a  month;  "  while 
others  ridiculed  the  helpless  situation  of  the 
boat,  which  was  very  deep  in  the  water,  and 
had  so  little  room  for  those  who  were  in  her. 
As  for  Christian,  he  seemed  as  if  meditating 
destruction  on  himself  and  every  one  else. 

I  asked  for  arms,  but  the  mutineers  laughed 
at  me,  and  said  !  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
people  among  whom  I  was  going ;  four  cut- 
lasses, however,  were  thrown  into  the  boat,  af- 
ter we  were  veered  astern. 

The  officers  and  men  being  in  the  boat,  they 
only  waited  for  me,  of  which  the  master-at- 
arms  informed  Christian,  who  then  said,  "  Come, 
Captain  Bligh,  your  officers  and  men  are  now 
in  the  boat,  and  you  must  go  with  them  ;  if  you 
attempt  to  make  the  least  resistance,  you  will 
instantly  be  put  to  death;"  and  without  further 
ceremony,  I  was  forced  over  the  side  by  a  tribe 
of  armed  ruffians,  where  they  untied  my  hands. 
Being  in  the  boat,  we  were  veered  astern  by  a 
rope.  A  few  pieces  of  pork  were  thrown  to  us, 
also  the  four  cutlasses.  The  armorer  and  car- 
penter then  called  out  to  me  to  remember  that 
they  had  no  hand  in  the  transaction.  After 
having'  been  kept  some  time  to  make  sport  for 
these  unfeeling  wretches,  and  having  under- 
gone much  ridicule,  we  were  at  length  cast 
adrift  in  the  open  ocean. 

Eighteen  persons  were  with  me  in  the  boat, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


PIT 


408 


PIT 


— the  master,  acting  surgeon,  botanist,  gunner, 
boats wauj,  carpenter,  master,  and  quarter-mas- 
ter's mate,  two  quarter-masters,  the  sail  maker, 
two  cooks,  my  clerk,  the  butcher,  and  a  boy. 
There  remained  on  board,  Fletcher  Christian, 
the  master's  male;  Peter  Hay  wood,  Edward 
Young,  George  Stewart,  midshipmen ;  the  mas- 
ter-at-arms,  gunner's  mate,  boatswain's  mate, 
gardener,  armorer,  carpenter's  mate,  carpenter's 
crew,  and  fourteen  seamen,  being  altogether  the 
most  able  men  of  the  ship's  company. 

Having  little  or  no  wind,  we  rowed  pretty 
fast  towards  the  island  of  Tofoa,  which  bore 
north-east  about  ten  leagues  distant.  The  ship 
while  in  sight  steered  west-north-west,  but  this 
I  considered  only  as  a  feint,  for  when  we  were 
sent  away,  "Huzza  for  Otaheite  !"  was  fre- 
quently heard  among  the  mutineers. 

Christian,  the  chief  of  them,  was  of  a  respect- 
able family  in  the  north  of  England.  This  was 
the  third  voyage  he  had  made  with  me.  Not- 
withstanding the  roughness  with  which  I  was 
treated,  the  remembrance  of  past  kindnesses 
produced  some  remorse  in  hfm.  While  they 
were  forcing  me  out  of  the  ship,  I  asked  him 
whether  this  was  a  proper  return  for  the  many 
instances  he  had  experienced  of  my  friendship? 
He  appeared  disturbed  at  the  question,  and  an- 
swered with  much  emotion,  "  That — Captain 
Bligh — that  is  the  thing — I  am  in  hell-  I  am  in 
hell."  His  abilities  to  take  charge  of  the  third 
watch,  as  I  had  so  divided  the  ship's  company, 
were  fully  equal  to  the  task. 

Hay  wood  was  also  of  a  respectable  family  in 
the  north  of  England,  and  a  young  man  of  abili- 
ties, as  well  as  Christian.  These  two  had  been 
objects  of  my  particular  regard  and  attention, 
and  I  had  taken  great  pains  to  instruct  them, 
having  entertained  hopes  that,  as  professional 
men,  they  would  have  become  a  credit  to  their 
country.  Young  was  well  recommended  ;  and 
Stewart  of  creditable  parents  in  the  Orkneys,  at 
which  place,  on  the  return  of  the  Resolution 
from  the  South  Seas  in  178i),  we  received  so 
many  civilities,  that  in  consideration  of  these 
alone  I  should  gladly  have  taken  him  with  me. 
But  he  had  always  borne  a  good  character. 

When  I  had  time  to  reflect,  an  inward  satis- 
faction prevented  the  depression  of  my  spirits. 
Yet,  a  few  hours  before,  ray  situation  had  been 
peculiarly  flattering ;  1  had  a  ship  in  the  most 
perfect  order,  stored  with  every  necessary,  both 
for  health  and  service  ;  the  object  of  the  voyage 
was  attained,  and  two-thirds  of  it  now  com- 
pleted. The  remaining  part  had  every  pros- 
pect of  success. 


It  will  naturally  be  asked,  what  could  be  the 
cause  of  such  a  revolt  ?  In  answer,  I  can  only 
conjecture  that  the  mutineers  had  flattered  them- 
selves with  the  hope  of  a  happier  life  among  the 
Otaheitans  than  they  could  possibly  enjoy  in 
England ;  which,  joined  to  some  female  con- 
nections, most  probably  occasioned  the  whole 
transaction. 

The  women  of  Otaheite  are  handsome,  mild, 
and  cheerful  in  manners  and  conversation  ;  pos- 
sessed of  great  sensibility,  and  have  sufficient 
delicacy  to  make  them  be  admired  and  beloved. 
The  chiefs  were  so  much  attached  to  our  peo- 
ple, that  they  rather  encouraged  their  stay 
among  them  than  otherwise,  and  even  made 
them  promises  of  large  possessions.  Under 
these,  and  many  other  concomitant  circum- 
stances, it  ought  hardly  to  be  the  subject  of  sur- 
prise that  a  set  of  sailors,  most  of  them  void  of 
connections,  should  be  led  away,  where  they 
had  the  power  of  fixing  themselves  in  the  midst 
of  plenty,  in  one  of  the  finest  islands  in  the 
world,  where  there  was  no  necessity  t;>  labor, 
and  where  the  allurements  of  dissipation  are 
beyond  any  conception  that  can  be  funned  of  it. 
The  utmost,  however,  that  a  commander  could 
have  expected,  was  desertions,  such  us  have  al- 
ready happened  more  or  less  ill  the  South  Seas, 
and  not  an  act  of  open  mutiny. 

But  the  secrecy  of  this  mutiny  surpasses  be- 
lief. Thirleen  of  the  parly  who  were  now  with 
me  had  always  liv.'d  forward  among  the  sea- 
men ;  yet  neither  they,  nor  the  messmates  of 
Christian,  Stewart,  Bay  wood,  and  Young,  had 
ever  observed  anv  circumstance  to  excite  sus- 
picion of  what  wa's  plotting  ;  and  it  is  not  won 
derful  if  I  fell  a  sacrifice  to  it.  my  mind  being 
entirely  free  from  suspicion.  Perhaps,  had  ma- 
rines been  on  board,  a  sentinel  at  my  cnbin-door 
might  have  prevented  it;  for  I  constantly  slept 
with  the  door  open,  ihat  the  officer  of  the  watch 
might  have  access  to  rne  on  all  occasions.  If 
the  mutiny  had  been  occasioned  by  any  griev- 
ances, either  real  or  imaginary,  1  must  have 
discovered  symptoms  of  discontent,  which  would 
have  put  me  on  my  guard  ;  but  it  was  far  other- 
wise. With  Christian,  in  particular.  I  was  on 
the  most  friendly  terms  ;  that  very  day  he  was 
engaged  to  have  dined  with  me  ;  and  the  pre- 
ceding night  he  excused  himself  from  supping 
with  me  on  pretence  of  indisposition,  for  which 
I  felt  concerned,  having  no  suspicions  of  his 
honor  or  integrity. 

PITT,  William,  the  second  son  of  Earl 
Chatham,  was  born  May  'J*.  1  ?.")!».  In  1780,  he 
obtained  a  seat  in  parliament,  where  he  exerted 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


PIU 


409 


PLA 


the  power  of  his  eloquence  against  Lord  North. 
On  the  removal  of  that  minister,  Mr.  Pitt  did 
not  obtain  a  place  ;  but  when  the  Earl  of  Shel- 
burne  succeeded  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham, 
he  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  This 
ministry,  however,  was  soon  displaced  by  the 
coalition  of  Lord  North  and  Mr.  Fox,  in  1782  : 
but  the  famous  India  bill  of  the  latter  producing 
another  change,  at  the  end  of  1783,  Mr.  Pitt  be- 
came first  lord  of  the  treasury,  as  well  as  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer.  Though  in  this  situa- 
tion he  had  to  encounter  an  extraordinary  com- 
bination of  talents  and  influence,  he  overcame 
all  obstacles,  and  carried  many  important  meas- 
ures, particularly  his  own  India  bill,  a  commer- 
cial treaty  with  France,  the  acts  against  smug- 
gling, and  the  establishment  of  a  sinking  fund. 
The  illness  of  the  king,  in  1768,  opened  a  new 
field  for  the  energies  of  this  great  man,  who,  by 
taking  constitutional  ground  in  regard  to  the 
right  of  parliament  to  settle  a  regency,  ingra- 
tiated himself  with  the  nation,  though  certain 
of  being  removed  when  that  appointment  should 
take  place.  The  recovery  of  his  majesty,  how- 
ever, fixed  him  more  firmly  in  his  seat.  The 
next  great  event  in  his  life  was  that  of  being 
called  to  oppose  the  power  of  revolutionary 
France,  and  to  secure  the  nation  from  similar 
convulsions.  At  length  he  acceded  to  the  wish 
that  an  experiment  for  peace  should  be  tried, 
which  took  place  in  1801,  under  Mr.  Adding- 
ton ;  but  the  event  proved  how  fallacious  were 
the  hopes  of  the  people;  and,  in  1804.  Mr.  Pitt 
was  recalled  to  power.  But  his  health  was  now 
in  a  very  precarious  state,  and  he  died  at  Put- 
ney, Jan.  23,  180G.  His  remains  were  deposit- 
ed in  Westminster  Abbey.  Very  honorable 
eulogiums  were  pronounced  on  his  memory  by 
all  parties,  and  his  debts  weie  paid  at  the  public 
expense,  according  to  a  vote  of  parliament. 

PIUS  VI,  Pope,  or  John  Angelo  Braschi,  was 
born  at  Cesena  in  1717.  He  succeeded  Cle- 
ment XIV  in  1775,  and  soon  after  made  a  re- 
form in  the  public  treasury.  When  the  empe- 
ror Joseph  II  decreed  that  all  the  religious  or- 
ders in  his  dominions  were  free  from  papal  ju- 
risdiction, Pius,  apprehensive  of  the  consequen- 
ces of  such  a  measure,  went  in  person  to  Vienna 
in  1782 ;  but  though  he  was  honorably  received, 
his  remonstrances  were  ineffectual.  The  French 
Revolution,  however,  was  of  nu>re  serious  con- 
sequence to  the  papal  see.  The  pope,  having 
favored  the  allies,  Bonaparte  entered  the  eccle- 
siastical territory  .and  compelled  him  to  purchase 
a  peace.  Basseville  was  then  sent  from  the  re- 
public to  Rome,  wheie  the  people  nssa^iiinU'd 


him  in  1793.  This  furnished  the  pretext  for 
another  visitation,  and  accordingly  Bonaparte 
again  entered  Italy,  made  the  pope  prisoner  in 
his  capital,  and  hurried  him  over  the  Alps  to 
Valence,  where  he  died,  August  29,  1799. 

PITTSBURG,  a  city,  and  capital  of  Alle- 
ghany  county,  Pennsylvania,  297  miles  west  by 
north  of  Philadelphia,  is  beautifully  situated  on  a 
plain  at  the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Mo- 
nongahela  rivers.  It  is  the  great  thoroughfare 
to  the  western  country,  and,  excepting  New 
Orleans  and  Cincinnati,  is  the  first  town  of  the 
vaXey  of  the  Mississippi.  It  was  incorporated 
a  city  in  1816.  The  principal  cause  which  has 
contributed,  aside  from  its  eligible  location,  to 
ensure  the  prosperity  of  Pittsburg,  is,  the  ex- 
haustless  mass  of  mineral  coal  that  exists  in  its 
neighborhood.  Some  of  the  beds  are  340  feet 
above  low  water  level,  and  about  290  above  the 
bed  of  the  town.  The  great  abundance  of  this 
valuable  material  has  converted  Pittsburg  into  a 
vast  workshop,  and  a  warehouse  for  the  immense 
country  below,  upon  the  Ohio  and  other  large 
rivers  of  the  valley.  According  to  a  recent  es- 
timation there  are  now  in  operation  in  that  city, 
and  its  immediate  vicinity,  nearly  100  steam 
engines,  on  which  are  employed  some  2500 
hands,  and  consuming  about  160,000  bushels  of 
coal  per  month.  The  city  contains,  according  to 
the  last  census,  21,296  inhabitants. 

PLATA,  United  Provinces  of  the,  or  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  a  republic  of  South  America, 
consisting  of  a  part  of  the  former  Spanish  vice- 
royalty  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  or  Buenos  Ayres, 
contains  800.000  inhabitants.  The  country  was 
discovered  by  Don  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis,  in  1517, 
and  settlements  were  made  in  1553.  The  gov- 
ernment was  at  first  dependant  upon  that  of 
Peru.  In  1810  the  insurrection  against  Spain 
broke  out,  and  in  1816  the  provinces  of  Buenos 
Ayers  formally  declared  their  independence. 

PLATJEA,  and  Platoete.  a  town  of  Boeotia. 
near  mnunt  CithiEron,  on  the  confines  of  Me- 
garis  and  Attica,  celebrated  for  a  battle  fought 
there,  between  Mardonius  the  commander  of 
Xerxes  king  of  Persia,  and  Pausanias  the  Lace- 
dasmonian  and  the  Athenians.  The  Persian 
army  consisted  of  300.000  men,  3,000  of  which 
scarce  escaped  with  their  lives  by  flight.  The 
Grecian  army,  which  was  greatly  inferior,  lost 
but  few  men,  and  among  these  91  Spartans,  52 
Athenians,  and  16  Teffeans,  were  the  only  sol- 
diers found  in  the  number  of  the  slain.  The 
plunder  which  the  Greeks  obtained  in  the  Per 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


PO1 


410 


POL 


sian  camp  was  immense.  Pausanias  received 
the  tenth  of  all  the  spoils,  on  account  of  his  un- 
common valor  during  the  engagement,  and  the 
rest  were  rewarded  each  according  to  their  re- 
spective merit.  This  battle  was  fought  on  the 
22d  September,  the  same  day  as  the  battle  of 
Mycale,  479  B.  C.,  and  by  it  Greece  was  deliv- 
ered from  the  continual  alarms  to  which  she 
was  exposed  on  account  of  the  Persian  inva- 
sions, and  from  that  time  none  of  the  princes  of 
Persia  dared  to  appear  witli  a  hostile  force  be- 
yond the  Hellespont.  Plataea  was  taken  by  the 
Thebans,  after  a  famous  siege,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  destroyed  by  the 
Spartans,  B.  C.  427.  Alexander  rebuilt  it,  and 
paid  great  encomiums  to  the  inhabitants,  on  ac- 
count of  their  ancestors,  who  had  so  bravely 
fought  against  the  Persians  at  the  battle  of  Ma- 
rathon, and  under  Pausanias. 

POITIERS,  anciently  Plctani,  a  town  of 
France,  now  capital  of  the  department  of  the 
Vienne,  containing  'Jl,5l)2  inhabitants.  It  is 
memorable  for  a  battle  between  the  English  un- 
der Edward  the  Black  prince,  and  the  French 
under  John  II,  fought  here  on  Sept.  1(J,  1356. 
The  van  of  the  army  which  consisted  altogether 
of  only  8,000  men  was  commanded  by  the  Earl 
of  Warwick  ;  the  rear  by  the  Earls  of  Salisbury 
and  Suffolk ;  the  main-body  by  the  prince  him- 
self. The  first  division  of  John's  army,  which 
consisted  of  80,000  strong,  was  commanded  by 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  king's  brother ;  the 
second  by  the  dauphin ;  the  third  by  the  king 
himself.  A  French  detachment  which  ad- 
vanced first  to  the  charge,  was  discomfited  and 
overthrown,  one  of  the  marshals  was  slain,  the 
other  taken  prisoner  ;  and  the  remainder  of  the 
detachment  fell  back,  and  put  every  thing  into 
disorder.  In  that  critical  moment,  the  CapUtl 
de  Buche  unexpectedly  appeared  and  attacked 
the  dauphin's  line,  which  "fell  into  confusion. 
Landas,  Bodenai,  and  St.  Venant,  now  set  the 
example  of  flight,  which  was  followed  by  that 
of  the  whole  division.  The  Duke  of  Orleans, 
seized  with  a  panic,  thought  no  longer  of  fight- 
ing, but  carried  off  his  division  by  a  retreat, 
which  soon  after  turned  into  a  flight.  The  di- 
vision under  king  John  was  slill,  however,  more 
numerous  than  the  whole  English  army  ;  and 
the  only  resistance  made  that  day  was  by  his 
line  of  battle.  The  prince  of  Wales  fell  "with 
impetuosity  on  some  German  cavalry  placed  in 
the  front;  a  fierce  battle  ensued  :  but  the  Ger- 
man generals,  together  with  the  Duke  of  Athens, 
falling  in  the  engagement,  that  body  of  cavalry 
gave  way,  and  left  the  king  himself  exposed  to 


the  whole  fury  of  the  enemy.  The  king,  spent 
with  fatigue,  and  overwhelmed  by  numbers, 
might  easily  have  been  slain,  but  every  English 
gentleman,  ambitious  of  taking  alive  the  royal 
prisoner,  spared  him  in  the  action,  exhorted  him 
to  surrender,  and  offered  him  quarter.  Several 
who  attempted  to  seize  him  suffered  for  their 
temerity.  In  this  dilemma  he  cried  out, 
"  Where  is  my  cousin,  the  Prince  of  Wales  ?" 
and  seemed  unwilling  to  become  prisoner  to 
any  person  of  inferior  rank ;  but  being  told  that 
the  prince  was  at  a  distance,  he  threw  down  his 
gauntlet,  and  yielded  himself,  together  with  his 
son,  to  Dennis  de  Morbec,  a  fugitive  knight  of 
Arras. — The  moderation  which  Edward  dis- 
played on  this  occasion,  has  for  ever  stamped 
his  character.  At  a  repast  which  was  prepared 
in  his  tent  for  his  royal  prisoner,  he  served  be- 
hind his  chair,  as  if  he  had  been  one  of  his  reti- 
nue. He  refused  to  seat  himself  at  table  with 
his  majesty  :  and  John  received,  when  a  cap- 
tive, those  honors  which  had  been  denied  him 
when  on  a  throne. 

POLAND,  in  Polish  Polska;  a  country  in 
the  northern  part  of  Europe.  It  was  formerly 
of  vast  extent,  and  although  now  dismembered, 
a  part  of  it  retains  the  ancient  name,  and  con- 
tains about  4,000,000  Poles.  The  events  of  the 
late  unhappy  struggle  for  independence,  with 
the  most  powerful  empire  of  Europe,  are  in  the 
minds  of  every  one  who  takes  an  interest  in  the 
fate  of  nations.  The  revolution  commenced 
with  <tn  insurrection  at  Warsaw,  Nov.  li.1,  ld3U. 
The  Polish  diet  on  the  24th  of  January  declared 
the  independence  of  their  country.  The  spirit 
of  resistance  was  not  quelled  without  a  long 
struggle  and  a  horrible  effusion  of  blood  on  bota 
sides. 

Poland  was  formerly  called  the  granary  of 
Europe;  but  this  was  when  its  boundaries  ex- 
tended from  the  Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea;  and 
when  the  Ukraine  and  Lithuania  were  includ- 
ed. At  present  its  limits  are  so  circumscribed 
and  its  arable  surface  so  indifferently  cultivated, 
or  naturally  so  infertile  that  the  kingdom  of  Po- 
land, strictly  speaking,  furnishes  little  more 
corn  than  supplies  its  own  population.  The 
immense  supplies  of  wheat,  sent  to  Dantzic,are 
chiefly  from  the  detached  provinces  of  Galicia, 
united  to  Austrin,  and  from  Volhynia  and  Po- 
dolia,  now  belonging  to  Russia. 

The  landed  estates  of  Poland  are  almost  every 
where  large,  and  either  belong  to  the  crown, 
to  the  rubles,  or  to  religious  corporations.  They 
are  farmed  by  the  proprietors,  by  means  of  stew- 
ards ;  or  let  out  in  small  portions  on  the  meyer 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


POL 


411 


POL 


or  leibeigener  tenure.  There  are  scarcely  any 
free  farmers  or  cottagers.  Bonaparte  passed 
an  edict  while  Poland  was  under  his  protection 
as  a  duchy,  to  annul  the  leibeigener  tenure  ;  but 
it  is  said  the  peasants  were  too  much  afraid  to 
trust  to  their  own  industry  to  take  advantage 
of  it ;  and  it  was  never  carried  into  effect.  The 
nobles  have,  generally,  houses  on  their  estates 
which  they  occupy  at  least  part  of  the  year ;  at 
other  periods  it  is  taken  care  of  by  the  steward, 
who  is  always  admitted  to  the  table  of  his  lord, 
being  himself  what  is  called  of  noble  descent. 
The  estates  of  religious  houses  are  of  great  ex- 
tent ;  they  are  sometimes  let  to  nobles  and  others 
on  a  corn  rent,  who  generally  sublet  them  ;  and 
in  a  few  cases  they  are  farmed  by  the  corpora- 
tion. The  postmasters  on  the  different  main 
roads  invariably  rent  a  considerable  portion  of 
land  for  the  support  of  their  horses.  Most  of 
these  are  meteyers,  but  some  are  free  men  and 
pay  a  money  rent,  and  there  are  one  or  two  in- 
stances of  nobles  farming  the  post.  The  houses 
and  offices  of  these  postmasters  afford  the  strong- 
est resemblance  to  a  British  farm-yard. 

The  farm-house  and  farmery  of  the  peasant 
postmaster  are  both  included  in  an  immense 
shed  or  barn,  with  a  small  apartment  at  one  end 
for  the  master's  dwelling,  the  remaining  space 
divided  for  live  stock  and  implements  of  every 
description,  and  for  the  cattle,  carriages,  and 
lodging  place  of  travellers  who  may  stop  during 
the  night.  Most  of  these  places  are  sufficiently 
wretched  as  inns,  but  in  the  present  state  of 
things  they  answer  very  well  for  the  other  pur- 
poses to  which  they  are  applied,  and  are  supe- 
rior to  the  hovels  of  the  farmers  who  are  not 
postmasters,  and  who  are  clustered  together 
in  villages  or  in  ihe  outskirts  of  towns.  Some 
villages,  however,  in  the  south  of  Poland,  are 
almost  entirely  built  still  on  the  same  general 
plan  of  a  living-room  of  a  large  barn,  the  main 
area  of  which  serves  for  the  purposes  of  a  com- 
plete farmery.  The  buildings  of  Poland,  ex- 
cepting those,  of  the  principal  towns,  are  con- 
structed of  timber  and  covered  with  shingles. 
The  sheds  nud  other  agricultural  buildings  are 
boarded  on  the  sides  ;  but  the  cottages  are  formed 
of  logs  joined  by  moss  or  clay;  of  frames  filled 
up  with  wicker  work  and  clay  ;  or  of  other  modes 
and  materials  still  more  rude.  The  commonest 
have  no  chirnnies  or  glass  windows. 

The  climate  of  Poland,  though  severe,  is 
much  less  precarious  than  that  of  the  south  of 
Germany  or  of  France.  A  winter  of  from  five 
to  seven  months,  during  the  greater  part  of 
which  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  is  sue- 
35* 


ceeded  by  a  rapid  spring  and  warm  summer; 
and  these  are  followed  by  a  short,  cold,  wet 
autumn.  The  surface  of  Poland  is  remarkably 
even  ;  to  the  traveller  passing  through  the  coun- 
try it  appears  an  interminable  forest.  Rye  is 
the  bread  corn  of  the  country.  The  digittaria 
sanguinalis  is  sown  as  a  plant  of  luxury  in  a 
few  places,  and  the  seeds  ground  and  used  as 
meal.  Potatoes  are  now  becoming  general  rfnd 
succeed  well  in  every  part  of  the  country. 
Turnips  or  cabbages  are  rarely  seen,  even  in 
gardens  ;  few  of  the  cottagers  indeed  have  any 
garden;  those  who  have,  cultivate  chiefly  po- 
tatoes and  kohlrube.  Many  species  of  mush- 
rooms grow  wild  in  the  woods  and  wastes,  and 
most  of  these  are  carefully  gathered  and  cooked 
in  a  variety  of  ways,  as  in  Russia.  The  wastes 
or  commons  are  left  entirely  to  nature. 

The  implements  and  operations  of  agricul- 
ture are  incredibly  rude.  We  have  seen  lands 
ploughed  by  one  cow,  tied  by  the  horns  to  a 
sharpened  pole  ;  in  other  instances  a  pair  of  oxen 
drag  a  wretched  implement,  formed  by  the  pea- 
sant, who  is  in  all  cases  his  own  plough  and 
wheelwright  as  well  as  house  carpenter  and 
builder.  Their  best  or  usual  plough  has  no 
mold  board;  and  the  crop  is  in  many  cases 
more  indebted  to  the  excellence  of  the  soil,  and 
the  preceding  winter's  frost,  than  the  farmer. 
Horses  are  their  general  beasts  of  labor ;  their 
harness  is  willow  shoots.  The  body  of  their 
best  market  carts,  in  which  even  the  lesser  no- 
bles visit  each  other,  are  of  wicker  work,  and 
the  axle  and  wheels  are  made  without  any 
iron. 

The  family  of  the  Lechs  kept  possession  of 
this  country  till  the  year  550,  when  it  was  vested 
in  12  Palatines  or  Waywodes,  who  divided  Po- 
land into  the  same  number  of  provinces. 

To  them  succeeded  the  family  of  Piastus, 
under  whom  it  was  raised  from  a  dukedom  to 
a  kingdom,  and  after  whose  extinction  the  race 
of  Jagello  were  invested  with  the  regal  dignity. 

On  the  death  of  Sigismund,  the  last  of  the  Ja- 
gello family,  Henry,  duke  of  Anjou,  and  brother 
to  Charles  IX  of  France,  ascended  the  Polish 
throne  ;.  btit,  on  the  death  of  the  king  of  France, 
he  quilted  Poland,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ste- 
phen Bathori ;  this  prince  subdued  the  barbarian 
Cossacks. 

On  the  death  of  Ladislaus  VI,  his  brother, 
John  Cassimer,  a  cardinal,  was  elected  to  fill 
the  throne  ;  but  grieved  at  beholding  his  king- 
dom laid  waste  by  domestic  and  foreign  war, 
he  abdicated  the  government.  Under  Michael 
Coribut,  Poland  was  obliged  to  become  tributary 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


POL 


412 


POM 


to  the  Ottoman  Porte  ;  but  John  Sobieski,  ge- 
neral of  the  crown,  defeated  the  Turks,  and 
delivered  his  country  from  tribute. 

On  the  death  of  Michael,  Sobieski  ascended 
the  throne ;  and  having  again  defeated  the  Turks 
with  great  slaughter,  he  compelled  them  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Vienna,  in  I(ii3. 

A fter  a  glorious  reign,  Sobieski  died;  when 
Frederic  Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony,  was  cho- 
sen king,  in  opposition  to  the  Prince  of  Conti. 
Augustus  was  dethroned  by  Charles  XII  of 
Sweden;  who  placed  on  the  throne  Stanislaus; 
but  Augustus  was  afterwards  re-established  by 
the  Czar  of  Russia. 

Oa  his  death,  Stanislaus  was  chosen  kinor 
a  secoad  time;  but  through  the  influence  ot 
Germany  and  Russia,  his  election  was  annulled ; 
and  the  S3n  of  the  late  king  was  invested  with 
the  sovereignty,  by  the  name  of  Augustus  III. 
On  his  death,  tlirough  the  intervention  of  Rus- 
sia, Count  Poniatowski  was  elected  king,  and 
proclaimed  by  the  title  of  Stanislaus  Augustus  ; 
but  his  reign  was  one  continued  scene  of  con- 
fusion and  distress. 

In  1772,  the  courts  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and 
Vienna,  in  a  most  unprincipled  manner,  divided 
among  themselves  the  greater  part  of  this  un- 
fortunate country. 

In  1795,  they  completed  this  great  political 
crime,  by  seizing  on  the  remaining  part,  and 
expunging  Poland  from  among  independent 
nations.  At  the  congress  held  at  Vienna  in 
1615.  part  of  Poland  was  united  to  the  Russian 
empire,  with  the  preservation  of  its  own  consti- 
tution ;  and.  on  this  event,  Alexander,  emperor 
of  Russia,  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Poland. 

Wh-it  a  melancholy  task  is  his  who  seeks  for 
the  records  of  Poland  on  the  historical  tablet  for 
the  last  fifty  years !  The  nation  which  once 
carried  its  conquests  as  far  as  Dacia.  made  the 
Divan  tremble,  and  ch;ised  the  flying  Spalii  be- 
yond the  Danube,  the  king  who  once  paternally 
planned  his  country's  weal,  the  nobles  who  once 
appeared  at  the  signal  of  foreign  invasion,  clad 
in  brass  and  steel,  the  peasant  who  once  bared 
his  brawny  breast  and  stood  in  the  last  rampart 
of  his  country,  where  are  their  names  recorded  ? 
Can  we  avoid  recurring  to  the  past,  to  that  mo- 
ment which  promised  to  be  so  propitious,  when 
the  hopes  of  the  country  were,  after  a  long  in- 
terval of  dealh-like  sleep,  awakened,  but  awak- 
ened t »  slumber  again,  perhaps  in  eternal  sleep  ? 
The  giant  warrior  of  Corsica  spread  before  the 
Poles  a  golden  vision.  He  mocked  Poland  with 
the  name  of  liberty  !  At  the  head  of  his  myriad 
men  of  war  he  said  to  the  Polish  mother,  "  that 


son,  which  is  in  thy  cradle,  shall  be  free!" 
"  Poland  shall  be  free."  Six  months  passed,  and 
the  dome  which  had  echoed  these  words  was 
filled  with  the  lances  of  the  Cossacks. 

POLIGNAC,  Melchior  de,  a  cardinal,  was 
born  in  16lil,  at  Puy,  in  Langu.'doc.  He  stud- 
ied at  Paris,  after  which  he  was  employed  in 
diplomatic  concerns,  in  which  he  gave  such  sat- 
isfaction, as  to  be  rewarded  with  the  purple. 
During  the  regency  he  was  banished  to  his 
abbey  of  Anchin;  but  afterwards  he  was  recall- 
ed, and  appointed  agent  for  French  affairs  at 
Rome.  In  172(5.  he  was  made  archbishop  of 
Audi.  He  died  in  1741. 

POLLIO,  Caius  Asinius,  a  Roman  consul 
under  the  reign  of  Agust.us,  who  distinguished 
himself  as  much  by  his  eloquence  and  writings, 
as  by  his  exploits  in  the  field.  He  was  with 
J.  Cffisar  when  he  crossed  the  Rubicon.  He 
defeated  the  Dalmatians,  and  favored  the  cause 
of  Antony  against  Agnstus.  He  was  greatly 
esteemed  by  Agustus,  when  he  had  become  one 
of  his  adherents,  after  the  ruin  of  Antony.  He 
died  in  the  8()th  year  of  his  age,  A.  D.  4. 

POMPADOUR,  (Jeanne  Antoinette.  Poisson, 
Marchioness  of.)  the  mistress  of  Louia  XV, 
was  the  daughter  of  a  financier,  and  the  wife  of 
M.  d'Etioles,  when  she  attracted  the  notice  of 
the  king,  who  made  her  a  marchioness  in  1745. 
She  liberally  encouraged  the  arts,  arid  collected 
a  valuable  cabinet  of  curiosities.  She  died  in 
17G4,  aged  44. 

POMPEII,  an  ancient  city  of  Campania, 
buried,  like  Herculaneum  A.  D.  79.  It  was 
first  discovered  in  17  H. 

POMPEY,  (C.),  surnamed  the  Great  from 
the  greatness  of  his  exploits,  was  son  of  Cneius 
Pompeius  Strabo  and  Lucilia,and  was  born  B. 
C.  107.  He  early  distinguished  himself  in  the 
field  of  battle,  and  fought  with  success  and 
bravery  under  his  father,  whose  courage  and 
military  prudence  he  imitated.  In  the  disturb- 
ances which  agitated  Rome,  by  the  ambition 
and  avarice  of  Marius  and  Sylla,  Pompey  fol- 
lowed the  interest  of  the  latter,  and  by  levying 
three  legions  for  his  service  lie  gained  his  friend- 
ship and  his  protection. 

In  the2t)th  year  of  his  age,  he  conquered  Sic- 
ily, which  was  in  the  power  of  Marins  and  his 
adherents,  and  in  foily  days  he  regained  all  the 
territories  of  Africa,  which  had  forsaken  the 
interest  of  Sylla.  He  now  appeared,  not  as  a 
dependant,  but  as  a  rival,  of  the  dictator,  Sylla; 
and  his  opposition  to  his  measures  totally  ex- 
cluded him  from  his  will. 

After  the  death  of  Sylla,  Pompey  supported 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


POM 


413 


POM 


himself  against  the  remains  of  the  Marian  fac- 
tion, which  were  headed  by  Lepidus.  He  was 
soon  made  consul,  and  in  that  office  he  restored 
the  tribunitial  power  to  its  original  dignity  :  and 
in  forty  days  removed  the  pirates  from  the  Me- 
diterranean, where  they  had  reigned  for  many 
years,  and  by  their  continual  plunder  and  au- 
dacity almost  destroyed  the  whole  naval  power 
of  Rome. 

While  he  extirpated  these  maritime  robbers, 
Pompey  was  called  to  greater  undertakings, 
and  empowered  to  finish  the  war  against  Mi- 
thridates.  king  of  Pontus,  and  Tigranes,  king 
of  Armenia.  His  operations  against  the  King 
of  Pontus  were  bold  and  vigorous;  and  in  a 


general  engagement  the  Romans  BO  totally  de- 
feated the  enemy,  that  the  Asiatic  monarch 
escaped  with  difficulty  from  the  field  of  battle. 


Pompey  did  not  lose  sight  of  the  advantages 
which  despatch  would  ensure  :  he  entered  Ar- 
menia, and'  received  the  submission  of  King 
Tigranes. 

Part  of  Arabia  was  subdued,  Judea  became 
a  Roman  province,  and  when  he  had  now  no- 
thing to  fear  from  Mithridates,  who  had  volun- 
tarily destroyed  himself,  Pompey  returned  to 
Italy  with  all  the  pomp  and  majesty  of  an  east- 
ern conqueror. 

The  Romans  dreaded  his  approach  ;  they  knew 
his  power,  and  his  influence  among  his  troops, 
and  they  feared  the  return  of  another  tyrannical 
Sylla.  Pompey,  however,  banished  their  fears  ; 
he  disbanded  his  army,  and  the  conqueror  of 
Asia  entered  Rome  like  a  private  cilizen.  To 
strengthen  himself,  and  to  triumph  over  his 
enemies,  Pompey  soon  after  united  his  interest 
with  that  of  Ccesar  and  Crassus,  and  formed 
the  first  triumvirate,  by  solemnly  swearing  that 
their  attachment  should  be  mutual,  their  cause 
common,  and  their  union  permanent. 

But  this  powerful  confederacy  was  soon  after 
broken  ;  the  sudden  death  of  Julia,  the  wife  of 
Pompey,  and  daughter  of  Caesar,  and  the  total 
defeat  of  Crassus  in  Syria,  shattered  the  political 
bands  which  held  the  jarring  interest  of  Caesar 
and  Pompey  united. 

Pompey  dreaded  his  father-in-law,  and  yet 
he  affected  to  despise  him;  and,  by  suffering 
anarchy  to  prevail  in  Rome,  he  convinced  his 
fellow-citizens  of  the  necessity  of  investing  him 
with  dictatorial  power.  But  while  the  conqueror 
of  Mithridates  was  as  a  sovereign  at  Rome,  the 
adherents  of  Ccesar  were  not  silent.  They  de- 
manded that  either  the  consulship  should  be 
given  to  him,  or  that  he  should  be  continued  in 
the  government  of  Gaul.  This  just  demand 


would  perhaps  have  been  granted,  but  Cato  op- 
posed it;  and  when  Pompey  sent  for  the  two 
legions  which  he  had  lent  to  Caesar,  the  breach 
became  more  wide,  and  a  civil  war  inevitable. 

Caesar  was  privately  preparing  to  meet  his 
enemies,  while  Pompey  remained  indolent,  and 
gratified  his  pride  in  seeing  all  Italy  celebrate 
his  recovery  from  an  indisposition  by  universal 
rejoicings.  But  he  was  soon  roused  from  his 
inactivity ;  and  it  was  now  time  to  find  his 
friends,  if  any  thing  could  be  obtained  from  the 
caprice  and  the  fickleness  of  a  people  which  he 
had  once  delighted  and  amused  by  the  exhibi- 
tion of  games  and  spectacles  in  a  theatre  which 
could  contain  20,000  spectators. 

Ceesar  was  now  near  Rome  ;  he  had  crossed 
the  Rubicon,  which  was  a  declaration  of  hostil- 
ities; and  Pompey,  who  had  once  boasted  that 
he  could  raise  legions  to  his  assistance  by  stamp- 
ing with  his  foot,  fled  from  the  citv  with  pre- 
cipitation, and  retired  to  Brundusium  with  the 
consuls  and  part  of  the  senators.  Ctcsar  was 
now  master  of  Rome,  and  in  sixty  days  all  Italy 
acknowledged  his  power,  and  the  conqueror 
hastened  to  Spain,  there  to  defeat  the  interest 
of  Pompey,  and  to  alienate  the  hearts  of  his  sol- 
diers. He  was  too  successful ;  and,  when  he 
had  gained  to  his  cause  the  western  parts  of 
the  Roman  empire,  Csesar  crossed  Italy,  and 
arrived  in  Greece,  where  Pompey  had  retired, 
supported  by  all  the  power  of  the  east,  the  wish- 
es of  the  republican  Romans,  and  a  numerous 
and  well-disciplined  army. 

Pompey  repelled  him  with  great  success ;  and 
he  might  have  decided  the  war  if  he  had  con- 
tinued to  pursue  the  enemy  while  their  confu 
sion  was  qreat,  and  their  escape  almost  impos- 
sible. Vv'ant  of  provisions  obliged  Caesar  to 
advance  towards  Thessaly ;  Pompey  pursued 
him,  and  in  the  plains  of  Pharsalia  the  two 
armies  engaged.  The  whole  was  conducted 
against  the  advice  and  approbation  of  Pompey; 
and  by  suffering  his  troops  to  wait  for  the  ap- 
proach of  the  enemy,  he  deprived  his  soldiers 
of  that  advantage  which  the  army  of  Caesar 
obtained  by  running  to  the  charge  with  spirit, 
vigor,  and  animation.  The  cavalry  of  Pompey 
soon  gave  way,  and  the  general  retired  to  his 
camp  overwhelmed  with  grief  and  shame. 

But  here  there  was  no  safety ;  the  conqueror 
pushed  on  every  side,  and  Pompey  disguised 
himself  and  fled  to  the  sea-coast,  whence  he 
passed  to  Egypt,  where  he  hoped  to  find  a  safe 
asylum  till  t>etler  and  more  favorable  moments 
returned,  in  the  court  of  Ptolemy,  a  prince  whom 
he  had  once  protected  and  ensured  on  his  throne. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


FOR 


414 


FOR 


When  Ptolemy  was  told  that  Pompey  claimed 
his  protection,  he  consulted  his  ministers,  and 
had  the  baseness  to  betray  and  to  deceive  him. 
A  boat  was  sent  to  fetch  him  on  shore  and  the 
Roman  general  left  his  galley  after  an  affection- 
ate and  tender  parting  with  his  wife  Cornelia. 
The  Egyptian  sailors  satin  sullen  silence  in 
the  boat ;  and  when  Pompey  disembarked  Achil- 
las and  Septimius  assassinated  him.  His  wife, 
who  had  followed  him  with  her  eyes  to  the 
shore,  was  a  spectator  of  the  bloody  scene ;  and 
she  hastened  away  from  the  bay  of  Alexandria, 
not  to  shate  his  miserable  fate.  He  died  B.  C. 
48,  in  the  53th  or  59th  year  of  his  age,  the  day 
after  his  birth-day. 

PONDICHERRY,  a  city  on  the  sea-coast  of 
the  soutli  of  India,  since  1672  capital  of  a  French 
colony,  and  contains  40,000  inhabitants.  Inef- 
fectually besieged  by  the  British,  under  Admi- 
ral Boscawen,  in  1748.  In  17G1  it  was  taken, 
after  a  tedious  siege  and  blockade,  by  the  army 
under  Colonel  Coote,  when  2000  Europeans 
were  made  prisoners,  and  500  pieces  of  cannon 
and  JOO  mortars  taken.  In  1763  it  was  restored 
to  the  French;  in  October,  1778,  it  surrendered 
to  the  British,  under  Sir  H.  Monro;  but  was 
again  restored  in  1783. 

PONTUS,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor. This  country  came  into  subjection  to 
Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  about  500  B.  C.,  and 
underwent  the  revolutions  of  the  Lydian  and 
Persian  empires  till  about  300  B.  C.,  when  it 
became  independent  of  the  Macedonians  under 
Mithridates  II.  It  grew  very  considerable  un- 
der Mithridates  VII,  who  extended  his  empiie 
overall  Asia  Minor;  but  could  not  retain  his 
conquests,  being  defeated  successively  by  Sylla, 
Lucullus,  and  Pompey ;  and,  after  many  dread- 
ful defeats,  this  country  was  disposed  of  by  the 
Romans  on  his  death  in  64  B.  C.  Upon  the 
taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins  in  1204, 
Alexius  Comnenus  established  at  Trebisond, 
in  this  country,  a  new  empire  of  the  Greeks, 
which  continued  till  Mohammed  II  put  an  «nd 
to  it  in  145!). 

POPE,  Alexander,  a  celebrated  English  poet, 
born  in  London,  May  22, 1688.  His  application 
and  talent  for  versification  were  manifested  at 
an  early  age  ;  his  Pastorals  being  written  at  the 
age  of  ](i.  His  translation  of  Homer's  Iliad, 
his  Epistle  from  Eloisa  to  Abelard,  the  essay 
on  Man,  and  the  Dunciad.  are  well  known  to 
every  English  scholar.  He  died  May  30, 1744. 
His  temper  was  soured  by  his  bodily  infirmities 
which  were  numerous. 

PORSENNA,  or  Porsena,  a  king  of  Etruria, 


who  declared  war  against  the  Romans  because 
they  refused  to  restore  Tarquin  to  his  throne, 
and  to  his  royal  privileges.  He  was  at  first 
successful,  the  Romans  were  defeated,  and  Por- 
senna  would  have  entered  the  gates  of  Rome, 
had  not  Codes  stood  at  the  head  of  a  bridge, 
and  supported  the  fury  of  the  whole  Etrurian 
army,  while  his  companions  behind  were  cutting 
off  the  communication  with  the  opposite  shore 
This  act  of  bravery  astonished  Porsenna;  but 
when  he  had  seen  Mutius  Scaevola  enter  his 
camp  with  an  intention  to  murder  him,  and 
when  he  had  seen  him  burn  his  hand  without 
emotion,  to  convince  him  of  his  fortitude  and 
intrepidity,  he  no  longer  dared  to  make  head 
against  a  people  so  brave  and  so  generous.  He 
made  a  peace  with  the  Romans,  and  never  after 
supported  the  claims  of  Tarquin.  The  gene- 
rosity of  Porsenna's  behavior  to  the  captives 
was  admired  by  the  Romans,  and  to  reward  his 
humanity  they  raised  a  brazen  statue  to  his 
honor. 

PORTUGAL;  a  kingdom  of  Europe,  bound 
ed  N.  and  E.  by  Spain,  S.  and  W.  by  the  At- 
lantic ocean.  Population  in  1826,  3,530,000 
Anciently  Lusitania,  it  was  successively  sub- 
ject to  the  Suevi,  the  Goths  and  the  Moors. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  it 
regained  its  liberty  by  the  valor  of  Henry  of 
Lorraine,  grandson  of  the  French  monarch,  who 
possessed  it  with  the  title  of  count.  His  son, 
Alphonso  Henriqnez.  having  obtained  a  deci 
sive  victory  over  fi\e  Moorish  kings,  was  pro- 
claimed king  by  the  soldiers.  On  the  death  of 
Ferdinand,  in  1383,  the  states  gave  the  crown 
to  his  natural  brother  John,  surnamed  the  Bas- 
tard, who  was  equally  politic  and  enterprising, 
and  in  whose  reign  the  Portuguese  first  projected 
discoveries  in  the  western  ocean.  In  the  reign 
of  his  great-grandson,  John  II,  who  was  a  prince 
of  profound  sagacity  and  extensive  views,  the 
Portuguese  made  conquests  in  the  interior  of 
Africa,  and  discovered  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Emanuel  adopted  the  plan  of  his  predecessors, 
and  sent  out  a  fleet;  which,  ranging  through 
unknown  seas,  arrived  at  the  city  of  Calicut,  on 
the  coast  of  Malabar ;.  while  others  of  his  vessels 
discovered  Brazil,  in  1501.  These  princes  had 
the  merit  of  exciting  that  spirit  of  discovery, 
which  led  to  many  subsequent  improvements  of 
navigation  and  commerce.  Their  discoveries 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  led  to  the  voyage  of  Co- 
lumbus, and  the  discovery  of  America.  They 
also  established  valuable  colonies  in  Africa  and 
America,  and  an  extensive  empire  in  India. 
John  III,  the  son  of  Emanuel,  admitted  the 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PRE 


415 


PRU 


new-founded  order  of  the  Jesuits,  which  has 
since  been  a  powerful  engine  of  despotism  and 
superstition.  Sebastian  his  grandson,  heroically 
led  an  army  against  the  Moors  in  Africa,  where 
he  perished  in  battle.  Sebastian,  leaving  no 
issue,  was  succeeded  by  his  uncle,  cardinal  Hen- 
ry, who  also  dying  without  children,  Philip, 
king  of  Spain,  obtained  the  crown,  A.  D.  1580. 
InJ604,  Portugal  rendered  itself  independent 
in  ;  and  John,  duke  of  Braganza,  ascended 


the  throne,  by  the  title  of  John  IV.  His  son, 
Alphonso  VI,  was  deposed  on  account  of  his 
cruelties ;  and  the  sceptre  was  transferred  to  his 
brother.  Peter  II  reigned  peaceably  thirty 
years;  and,  under  the  mild  government  of  his 
son,  John  V,  the  arts  began  to  flourish.  In  the 
reign  of  Joseph  I,  in  1755,  the  city  of  Lisbon 
was  laid  in  ruins  by  an  earthquake,  in  which 
10,000  persons  lost  their  lives.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  (laughter,  Mary  Frances  Isabella ; 
who  for  many  years  was  so  infirm  in  body  and 
mind,  that  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  were 
managed  by  a  regency.  In  1807, the  Prince 
Regent  retired  with  the  queen,  his  mother,  and 
the  rest  of  the  royal  family,  to  the  Brazils,  in 
South  America.  'Rio  de  Janeiro  then  became 
the  seat  of  the  Portuguese  government.  Por- 
tugal was,  however,  wrested  by  the  English  out 
of  the  hands  of  the  French  in  1808.  The  strug- 
gle between  Dom  Pedro,  and  his  brother  Dom 
Miguel  has  ended  in  Portugal.  Dom  Pedro, 
having  secured  the  crown  to  his  daughter  Don- 
na Maria  la  Gloria,  expired  in  the  midst  of  tri- 
umph. 

PRAGA,  a  town  of  Poland,  taken  by  storm 
by  General  Suwarrow,  in  1734,  when  it  was 
plundered,  set  on  fire,  and  the  inhabitants  and 
the  troops  of  the  Polish  insurgents  who  had 
taken  refuge  there,  together  amounting  to 
20,000,  were  barbarously  massacred. 

PREBLE.  Edward,  a  celebrated  American 
naval  officer,  was  born  in 'the  part  of  Fal- 
mouth  now  called  Portland,  Maine,  Aug.  15, 
1761.  In  177!)  he  obtained  a  midshipman's 
warrant  on  board  the  Protector,  a  state  ship  of 
26  guns,  which  was  captured  by  the  English. 
Preble,  however,  was  released  at  New  York 
and  returned  home.  When  first  lieutenant  of 
the  Winthrop  sloop  of  war,  he  displayed  great 
gallantry  in  cutting  out  a  hostile  brig  of  war  in 
Penobscot  harbor.  After  performing  various 
services,  in  1803  he  was  invested  with  the 
command  of  the  Constitution,  and  being  sta- 
tioned in  the  Mediterranean,  he  not  only  pre- 
vented a  war  between  Morocco  and  the  United 
States,  but  bombarded  Tripoli,  and  brought  the 


bashaw  to  terms.  I1  or  this  service  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress,  and  an  emblematical 
medal.  He  died  Aug.  25,  1807,  in  the  47th  year 
of  his  age. 

PRESCOTT,  William,  one  of  the  heroes  cf 
the  American  revolution,  was  born  at  Goshen, 
in  Massachusetts,  in  1726.  He  was  a  lieutenant 
in  the  continental  forces  at  the  taking  of  Cape 
Breton,  in  1758,  and  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self on  that  occasion.  He  commanded  at  the 
battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  and  was  the  last  to  leave 
the  entrenchments.  He  resigned  his  colonel's 
commission  in  1777,  but  was  present  at  the  cap- 
ture of  Burgoyne  as  a  voluntper  under  Gates. 
He  died  in  1795. 

PRESTON-PAlNS,  a  Scotch  village  8  miles 
E.  oT  Edinburgh,  memorable  for  the  defeat  of 
the  royalists  by  the  troops  of  the  Pretender  in 
1745. 

PRUSSIA,  the  smallest  of  the  great  powers 
of  Europe,  contains  13.726.833  inhabitants,  and 
] 06.852  square  miles.  It  is  generally  a  level 
country,  Silesia  alone  being  much  broken.  The 
productions  are  grain,  flax,  hemp,  &c.  Nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants  are  Protestants,  the 
remainder  Catholics.  Prussia  contains  many 
universities  of  high  repute,  and  in  few  coun- 
tries are  the  seeds  of  knowledge  so  general- 
ly disseminated.  This  country  was  inhabited 
by  the  Borussi,  who  denominated  it  Borussia  ; 
which  has  been  corrupted  to  Prussia. 

They  were  conquered  by  the  knights  of  the 
Teutonic  order;  whom  Cassimer  IV,  king  of 
Poland,  compelled  to  acknowledge  themselves 
his  vassals  ;  and  to  allow  Polish  Prussia  to  con- 
tinue under  the  protection  of  Poland. 

Albert,  Margrave  of  Brandenburgh,  and  grand 
master  of  the  order,  had  the  dukedom  of  Prus- 
sia conferred  on  him,  by  Siirismund  I,  king  of 
Poland,  A.  D.  1525. 

Frederick  William,  elector  of  Brandenburgh, 
surnamed  the  Great,  was  freed  from  paying 
any  homage  to  the  crown  of  Poland. 

His  son  Frederick,  raised  the  duchy  of  Prus- 
sia to  a  kingdom,  A.  D.  1701. 

His  son,  Frederick  William,  was  a  wise  and 
politic  prince,  who  amassed  a  prodigious  treas- 
ure, though  he  maintained  an  army  of  60,000 
men. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederick  II, 
who  was  one  of  the  first  military,  political,  and 
literary  characters,  that  ever  filled  a  throne  ;  but 
very  despotic  in  the  administration  of  his  gov- 
ernment. 

His  reign  was  pregnant  with  striking  histo- 
rical events.  In  1744,  he  added  Silesia  to  his 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


PTO 


416 


PTO 


dominions  ;  but  in  1756,  Russia,  Austria,  and 
France,  leagued  against  him;  and  he  main- 
tained against  them  the  famous  seven  years' 
war. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Frederick 
William  III,  a  weak  and  an  impolitic  prince; 
he  joined  in  the  league  against  the  French  re- 
public, and  then  deserted  his  allies. 

Dying  in  1797,  he  was  succeeded  by  Frederick 
William  IV,  who  unhappily  revived  some  obso- 
lete pretensions  to  Hanover,  in  1805;  and,  on 
Napoleon  proposing  to  restore  that  electorate 
to  the  king  of  England,  in  180(5,  Frederick  took 
the  field  ;  but  being  totally  defeated  at  Jena,  his 
kingdom  was  conquered  by  Napoleon. 

His  ally,  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  came  too 
late  to  his  assistance ;  and  being  himself  over- 
thrown at  Friedland,  was  forced  to  conclude  a 
treaty  at  Tilsit,  in  1807 ;  by  which  the  fortresses 
of  Prussia  were  left  in  the  hands  of  the  French, 
till  a  peace  with  England.  The  French  have 
since  been  expelled,  and  Prussia,  in  conjunc-' 
tion  with  the  other  powers  of  Europe,  twice 
assisted  in  deposing  Napoleon,  and  has  recover- 
ed the  conquered  provinces. 

PTOLEMY  I,  surnamed  Lagus,  a  king  of 
Egypt,  son  of  Arsinoe.  When  Alexander  in- 
vaded Asia,  the  son  of  Arsinoe  attended  him  as 
one  of  his  generals.  During  the  expedition,  he 
behaved  with  uncommon  valor,  and  killed  one 
of  the  Indian  monarchs  in  single  combat.  After 
the  conqueror's  death,  in  the  general  division 
of  the  Macedonian  empire,  Ptolemy  obtained, 
as  his  share,  the  government  of  Egypt,  with 
Libya,  and  part  of  the  neighboring  territories  of 
Arabia.  He  made  himself  master  of  Ccelosyria, 
Phoenicia,  and  the  neighboring  coast  of  Syria; 
and  when  he  had  reduced  Jerusalem,  he  carried 
about  100,000  prisoners  to  Egypt,  to  people  the 
extensive  city  of  Alexandria,  which  became 
the  capital  of  his  dominions.  He  made  war 
with  success  against  Demetrius  and  Antigonus, 
who  disputed  his  right  to  the  provinces  of  Sy- 
ria. The  bay  of  Alexandria  being  dangerous  of 
access,  he  built  a  tower  to  conduct  the  sailors  in 
the  obscurity  of  the  night ;  and  that  his  subjects 
migh'  be  acquainted  with  literature,  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  library,  which,  under  the  suc- 
ceeding reigns,  became  the  most  celebrated  in 
the  world.  He  also  established  in  the  capital 
of  his  dominions,  a  society,  called  Museum,  of 
which  the  members,  maintained  at  the  public 
expense,  were  employed  in  philosophical  re- 
searches, and  in  the  advancement  of  science 
and  the  liberal  arts. 

Ptolemy  died  in  the  84th  year  of  liis  age, 


after  a  reign  of  39  years,  about  284  years  before 
Christ. 

The  second  son  of  Ptolemy  I  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  Egyptian  throne,  and  was  called 
Philadelphus  by  antiphrasis,  because  he  killed 
two  of  his  brothers.  While  Ptolemy  strength- 
ened himself  by  alliances  with  foreign  powers, 
the  internal  peace  of  his  kingdom  was  disturb- 
ed by  the  revolt  of  Magas,  his  brother,  king  of 
Gyrene.  The  sedition,  however,  was  stopped, 
though  kindled  by  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria ; 
and  the  death  of  the  rebellious  prince  re-estab- 
lished peace  for  some  time  in  the  family  of  Phil- 
adelphus. Philadelphus  died  in  the  t>lth  year 
of  his  age,  246  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
During  the  whole  of  his  reign,  Philadelphus 
was  employed  in  exciting  industry,  and  in 
encouraging  the  liberal  arts  and  useful  know- 
ledge among  his  subjects.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  adjacent  countries  were  allured  by  promises 
and  presents,  to  increase  the  number  of  the 
Eo-yptian  subjects  ;  and  Ptolemy  could  boast  of 
reigning  over  33,339  well-peopled  cities.  He 
gave  every  possible  encouragement  to  com- 
merce; and  by  keeping  two  powerful  fleets, 
one  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  other  in  the 
Red  Sea,  he  made  Egypt  the  mart  of  the  world. 
His  army  consisted  of  200,000  foot,  and  40,000 
horse,  besides  300  elephants,  and  2000  armed 
chariots.  His  palace  was  the  asylum  of  learn- 
ed men,  whom  he  admired  and  patronised.  He 
increased  the  library  which  his  father  had  found- 
ed, and  showed  his  taste  for  learning,  and  his 
wish  to  encourage  genius.  This  celebrated 
library,  at  his  death,  contained  200,000  volumes 
of  the"  best  and  choicest  books  ;  and  it  was  after- 
wards increased  to  700,000.  Part  of  it  was 
burnt  by  the  flames  of  Ctesar's  fleet,  when  he 
set  it  on  fire  to  save  himself;  a  circumstance, 
however,  not.  mentioned  by  the  general :  and 
the  whole  was  again  magnificently  repaired  by 
Cleopatra,  who  added  to  the  Egyptian  library 
that  of  the  kings  of  Pergamus.  "It  is  said  that 
the  Old  Testament  was  translated  into  Greek 
during  his  reign  ;  a  translation  which  has  been 
called  SepUngint,  because  translated  by  the 
labors  of  70  different  persons. 

The  third,  succeeded  his  father  Philadelphia 
on  the  Egyptian  throne.  He  early  engaged  in 
a  war  against  Antiochus  Theus,  for  his  unkind- 
ness  to  Berenice,  the  Egyptian  king's  sister, 
whom  he  had  married  with  the  consent  of  Phil- 
adelphia. With  the  most  rapid  success  he  con- 
quered Syria  and  Cilicia,  and  advanced  as  far 
as  the  Tigris;  but  a  sedition  at  home  stopped 
his  progress,  and  he  returned  to  Egypt  loaded 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PTO 


417 


PTO 


with  the  spoils  of  conquered  nations.  The  last 
years  of  Ptolemy's  reign  were  passed  in  peace, 
if  we  except  the  refusal  of  the  Jews  to  pay  the 
tribute  of  20  silver  talents,  which  their  ances- 
tors had  always  paid  to  the  Egyptian  monarchs. 
Evergetes  (as  he  was  called  by  the  Egyptians) 
died  221  years  before  Christ,  after  a  reign  of 
25  years  ;  and  like  his  two  illustrious  predeces- 
sors, he  was  the  patron  of  learning,  and,  indeed, 
he  is  the  last  of  the  Lagides  who  gained  popu- 
larity among  his  subjects  by  clemency,  moder- 
ation, and  humanity,  and  who  commanded  re- 
spect even  from  his  enemies,  by  valor,  pru- 
dence and  reputation. 

The  fourth  succeeded  his  father  Evergetes  on 
the  throne  of  Egypt,  and  received  the  surname 
of  Philopater  by  antiphrasis ;  because,  according 
to  some  historians,  he  destroyed  his  father  by- 
poison.  He  began  his  reign  with  acts  of  the 
greatest  cruelty  and  debauchery.  In  the  midst 
of  his  pleasures,  Philopater  was  called  to  war 
against  Antiochns,  king  of  Syria;  and  at  the 
head  of  a  powerful  army,  he  soon  invaded  his 
enemy's  territories,  and  might  have  added  the 
kingdom  of  Syria  to  Egypt,  if  he  had  made  a 
prudent  use  of  the  victories  which  attended  his 
arms.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  the  Ro- 
mans, whom  a  dangerous  war  with  Carthage 
had  weakened,  but  at  the  same  time  roused  to 
superior  activity,  renewed,  for  political  reasons, 
the  treaty  of  alliance  which  had  been  made 
with  the  Egyptian  monarchs.  Philopater  at 
last,  weakened  and  enervated  by  intemperance 
and  continual  debauchery,  died  in  the  37th  year 
of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  17  years,  204  years 
before  the  Christian  era. 

The  fifth  succeeded  his  father  Philopater,  as 
king  of  Egypt,  though  only  in  the  fourth  year 
of  his  age.  The  Romans  renewed  their  alliance 
v/ith  him  after  their  victories  over  Annibal.  and 
the  conclusion  of  the  second  Punic  war.  When 
Ptolemy  had  reached  his  ]4th  year,  according 
to  the  laws  and  customs  of  Egypt,  the  years 
of  his  minority  had  expired.  He  received  the 
surname  of  Epiphanes,  or  Illustrious,  and  was 
crowned  at  Alexandria,  with  the  greatest  so- 
lemnity. Young  Ptolemy  was  no  sooner  deliv- 
ered from  the  shackles  of  his  guardian,  than  he 
betrayed  the  same  vices  which  had  character- 
ized his  father.  His  cruelties  raised  seditions 
among  his  subjects  ;  but  these  were  twice  quel- 
led by  the  prudence  and  the  moderation  of  one 
Polycrates.  the  most  faithful  of  his  corrupt  min- 
isters. 

In  the  midst  of  his  extravagance,  Epiphanes 
did  not  forget  his  alliance  with  the  Romans ; 


above  all  others,  he  showed  himself  eager  to 
cultivate  friendship  with  a  nation,  from  whom 
he  could  derive  so  many  advantages ;  and  dur- 
ing their  war  against  Antiochus,  he  offered  to 
assist  them  with  money  against  a  monarch, 
whose  daughter,  Cleopatra,  he  had  married,  but 
whom  he  hated  on  account  of  the  seditions  he 
raised  in  the  very  heart  of  Egypt.  After  a  reign 
of  24  years,  180  years  before  Christ,  Ptolemy 
was  poisoned  by  his  ministers,  whom  he  had 
threatened  to  rob  of  their  possessions,  to  carry 
on  a  war  against  Seleucus,  king  of  Syria. 

The  sixth  succeeded  his  father  Epiphanes  on 
the  Egyptian  throne,  and  received  the  surname 
of  Pltilomcter,  on  account  of  his  hatred  against 
his  mother  Cleopatra.  He  made  war  against 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria,  to  re- 
cover the  provinces  of  Palestine  and  Coslosy- 
ria,  which  were  part^f  the  Egyptian  domin- 
ions ;  and  after  several  successes,  he  fell  into 
the  hands  of  his  enemy,  who  detained  him  in 
confinement.  During  the  captivity  of  Philo- 
meter,  the  Egyptians  raised  to  the  throne  his 
younger  brother,  Ptolemy  Evergetes.  or  Pliys- 
con,  also  son  of  Epiphanes;  but  he  was  no 
sooner  established  in  his  power,  than  Antio- 
chus turned  his  arms  against  Egypt,  drove  out 
the  usurper,  and  restored  Philometer  to  all  his 
ricrhts  and  privileges  as  king  of  Egypt.  This 
artful  behavior  of  Antiochus  was  soon  compre- 
hended by  Philometer ;  and  when  he  saw  that 
Pelusium.  the  key  of  Egypt,  had  remained  in 
the  hands  of  his  Syrian  ally,  he  recalled  his  bro- 
ther Physcon,  and  made  him  partner  on  the 
throne,  and  concerted  with  him  how  to  repel 
their  common  enemy.  This  union  of  interest  in 
the  two  royal  brothers,  incensed  Antiochus ;  he 
entered  Esjypt  with  a  large  army,  but  the  Ro- 
mans checked  his  progress,  and  obliged  him  to 
retire.  No  sooner  were  they  delivered  from  the 
impending  war,  than  Philometer  and  Physcon, 
whom  the  fear  of  danger  had  united,  began  with 
mutual  jealousy  to  oppose  each  other  s  views. 
Physcon  was,  at  last,  banished  by  the  superior 
power  of  his  brother ;  and  as  he  could  find  no 
support  in  Egypt,  he  immediately  repaired  to 
Rome.  To  excite  more  effectually  the  compas- 
sion of  the  Romans,  and  to  gain  their  assist- 
ance, he  appeared  in  the  meanest  dress,  and 
took  his  residence  in  the  most  obscure  corner 
of  the  city.  He  received  an  audience  from  the 
senate  ;  and  the  Romans  settled  the  dispute  be- 
tween the  two  royal  brothers,  by  making  them 
independent  of  one  another,  and  giving  the 
government  of  Libya  and  Cyrene  to  Physcon, 
and  confirming  Philometer  in  the  possession  of 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


FTO 


418 


PTO 


Egypt,  and  the  island  of  Cyprus.  The  death  of 
Philometer,  145  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
left  Physcon  master  of  Egypt,  and  all  the  de- 
pendent provinces. 

The  seventh  Ptolemy,  surnamed  Physcon,  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Egypt  after  the  death  of 
his  brother  Philometer ;  and  as  he  had  reigned 
for  some  lirne  conjointly  with  him,  his  succes- 
sion was  approved,  though  the  wife  and  the 
son  of  the  deceased  monarch  laid  claim  to  the 
crown.  He  ordered  himself  to  be  called  Ever- 
getes,  but  the  Alexandrians  refused  to  do  it,  and 
stigmatized  him  with  the  appellation  of  Kakcr- 
getes,  or  evil-doer,  a  surname  which  he  deserv- 
ed by  his  tyranny  and  oppression.  A  series  of 
barbarities  rendered  him  odious  ;  but  as  no  one 
attempted  to  rid  Egypt  of  her  tyranny,  the 
Alexandrians  abandoned  their  habitations,  and 
fled  from  a  place  which  continually  streamed 
with  the  blood  of  their  massacred  fellow  citi- 
zens. Physcon  endeavoured  to  re-people  the 
city  which  his  cruelty  had  laid  desolate  ;  but 
the  fear  of  sharing  the  fate  of  the  former  in- 
habitants, prevailed  more  than  the  promise  of 
riches,  rights,  and  immunities.  He  died  at 
Alexandria  in  the  G7th  year  of  his  age,  after  a 
reign  of  2;)  years,  about  116  years  before  Christ. 

The  eighth,  surnarned  Lathyrus,  from  an  ex- 
crescence, like  a  pea,  on  the  nose,  succeeded 
his  father  Physcon  as  king  of  Egypt.  He  had 
no  sooner  ascended  the  throne,  than  his  mother 
Cleopatra,  who  reigned  conjointly  with  him,  ex- 
pelled him,  and  placed  the  crown  on  the  head 
of  his  brother,  Ptolemy  Alexander,  her  favorite 
son.  Lathyrus,  after  he  had  exercised  the  great- 
est cruelty  upon  the  Jews,  by  his  conquest  of 
Judaea,  and  made  vain  attempts  to  recover  the 
kingdom  of  Egypt,  retired  to  Cyprus  till  the 
death  of  his  brother  Alexander  restored  him  to 
his  native  dominions.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
reign,  Lathyrus  was  called  upon  to  assist  the 
Romans  with  a  navy  for  the  conquest  of  Athens ; 
but  Lucullus,  who  had  been  sent  to  obtain  the 
wanted  supply,  though  received  with  kingly 
honors,  was  dismissed  with  evasive  and  unsat- 
isfactory answers,  and  the  monarch  refused  to 
part  with  troops  which  hs  deemed  necessary  to 
preserve  the  peace  of  his  kingdom.  Lathyrus 
'died  81  years  before  the  Christian  era,  after  a 
reign  of  36  years,  since  the  death  of  his  father 
Physcon  ;  11  of  which  he  had  passed  with  II'M 
mother  Cleopatra  on  the  Egyptian  throne,  18  in 
Cyprus,  and  seven  after  his  mother's  de:ith. 
.  The  12th,  the  illegitimate  son  of  Lathyrus, 
ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt  at  the  death  of 
Alexander  III.  He  received  the  surname  of 


Auletes,  because  he  played  skilfully  on  the  flute. 
His  rise  showed  great  marks  of  prudence  and 
circumspection  ;  and  as  his  predecessor,  by  his 
will,  had  left  the  kingdom  of  Egypt  to  the  Ro- 
mans, Auletes  knew  that  he  could  not  be  firmly 
established  on  his  throne,  without  the  approba- 
tion of  the  Roman  senate ;  and  when  lie  had 
suffered  the  Romans  quietly  to  take  possession 
of  Cyprus,  the  Egyptians  revolted,  and  Auletes 
was  obliged  to  fly  from  his  kingdom,  and  seek 
protection  among  the  most  powerful  of  his  allies. 
The  senators  of  Rome  decreed  to  re-establish 
Auletes  on  his  throne  ;  and  he  was  no  sooner 
restored  to  power,  than  he  sacrificed  to  his  am- 
bition his  daughter  Berenice,  and  behaved  with 
the  greatest  ingratitude  and  perfidy  to  Rabi- 
rius,  a  Roman  who  had  supplied  him  with 
money  when  expelled  from  his  kingdom.  Au- 
letes died  four  years  after  his  restoration,  about 
5J  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

The  13th,  surnamed  Dionysius,  or  Bacchus, 
ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt  conjointly  with 
his  sister  Cleopatra,  whom  lie  had  married,  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  of  his  father  Auletes. 
He  was  in  the  13th  year  of  his  age,  when  his 
guardian.  Pompey,  after  the  fatal  battle  of  Phar- 
salia,  came  to  the  shores  of  Egypt,  and  claimed 
his  protection.  He  refused  to  grant  the  requir- 
ed assistance ;  and  by  the  advice  of  his  minis- 
ters, lie  basely  murde'red  Pompey.  after  lie  had 
brought  him  to  shore  under  the  mask  of  friend- 
ship and  cordiality.  To  obtain  the  favor  of 
the  conqueror  of  Pharsalia,  Ptolemy  cut  off  the 
head  of  Pompey;  but  Caesar  turned  with  indig- 
nation from  such  perfidy,  and  when  he  arrived 
at  Alexandria,  he  found  the  King  of  Effypt  as 
faithless  to  his  cause  as  to  that  of  his"f alien 
enemy.  Caesar  sat  as  judge  to  hear  the  various 
claims  of  the  brother  and  sister,  to  the  throne; 
and  to  satisfy  the  people,  he  ordered  the  will  of 
Auletes  to  be  read,  and  confirmed  Ptolemy  and 
Cleopatra  in  the  possession  of  Egypt,  and  ap- 
pointed the  two  younger  children  masters  of 
the  island  of  Cyprus.  This  fair  and  candid  de- 
cision might  have  left  no  room  for  dissatisfac- 
tion; but  Ptolemy  refused  to  acknowledge  Cae- 
sar as  a  judge  or  a  mediator.  The  Rui;i;ui  en- 
forced his  authority  by  arms,  nnd  three  victo- 
ries were  obtained  over  the  Egyptian  forces. 
Ptolemy,  who  had  been  for  some  time  a  prisoner 
in  the  hands  of  Caesar,  now  headed  Irs  armies; 
but  a  defeat  was  fatal,  and  as  he  attempted  to 
save  his  life  by  flight,  he  was  drowned  in  the 
Nile,  about  4(j  years  before  Christ,  and  three 
years  and  eight  months  after  the  death  of  Au 
letes. 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


PUN 


419 


PUN 


PUEBLA  LA,  or  La  Pucbla  de  los  Angeles, 
a  state  of  the  Mexican  confederacy,  containing 
20,000  square  miles,  and  b!3,300  inhabitants. 
It  anciently  comprised  the  Indian  republic  of 
Tlascala,  which  the  Spaniards,  on  their  arrival 
in  the  country,  found  in  a  flourishing  condition. 

PULAWSKI,  Count  Joseph,  a  noble-minded 
Pole,  who  having  been  banished  from  his  na- 
tive land,  entered  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  and  fell  in  the  attack  on  Savannah,  Oct. 
9,  1779. 

PULTAWA  or  POLTAWA,  a  fortified  town 
of  Russia,  450  miles  S.  W.  of  Moscow,  with 
J),000  inhabitants,  before  which  Peter  the  Great 
defeated  Charles  12th  of  Sweden,  June  27, 1709. 
Charles,  who  had  been  wounded  in  a  former 
engagement,  was  much  indisposed.  The  litter 
in  which  he  caused  himself  to  be  carried  was 
twice  overturned,  and  the  second  time  broken 
by  the  enemy's  cannon.  After  an  obstinate  and 
bloody  engagement,  the  Swedish  army  was  en- 
tirely routed  and  dispersed;  9.000  of  the  van- 
quished were  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle,  and 
a  great  number  surrendered  themselves  prison- 
ers of  war.  Charles,  with  300  of  his  guards, 
escaped  with  difficulty  to  Bender,  a  Turkish 
town  in  Moldavia. 

PULTENEY,  William,  earl  of  Bath,  was 
born  of  an  ancient  family,  in  1682.  After  trav- 
el ling  through  Europe,  he  was  elected  into  par- 
liament, and  became  distinguished  as  a  zealous 
whig.  On  the  accession  of  George  1  he  was 
appointed  a  privy-councillor,  and  secretary  at 
war,  being  then  the  friend  of  Sir  Robert  Wai- 
pole  ;  but  afterwards  a  difference  arose  be- 
tween them,  and  Pulteney  became  the  leader 
of  opposition.  He  also  joined  Bolingbroke  in 
conducting  a  paper  called  "  The  Craftsman," 
the  object  of  which  was  to  annoy  the  minister. 
This  produced  a  duel  between  Pulteney  and 
Lord  Hervey  ;  and  the  king  was  so  much  dis- 
pleased with  the  conduct  of  the  former,  that  he 
struck  his  name  out  of  the  list  of  privy  coun- 
cillors, and  also  from  the  commission  of  the 
peace.  On  the  resignation  of  Walpole,  in  1741, 
Pulteney  was  created  Earl  of  Bath  ;  but  from 
lhat  time  his  popularitv  ceased.  He  died  June 
8, 17G4. 

PUNIC  WAR.  The  first  Punic  war  was 
undertaken  by  the  Romans  against  Carthage, 
B.  C.  21)4.  Sicily,  an  island  of  the  highest  con- 
sequence to  the  Carthaginians  as  a  commercial 
nation,  was  the  seat  of  the  first  dissensions.  The 
Mamertini,  a  body  of  Italian  mercenaries,  were 
appointed  by  the  king  of  Syracuse  to  guard  the 
town  of  Messana ;  but  this  tumultuous  tribe,  in- 
36 


stead  of  protecting  the  citizens,  basely  massa 
cred  them,  and  seized  their  possessions.     This 
act  of  cruelty  raised  the  indignation  of  all  the 
Sicilians,  and  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse,  who  had 
employed  them,  prepared  to  punish  their  per- 
fidy ;  and  the  Mamertini,  besieged  in  Messana, 
and  without  friends  or  resources,  resolved  to 
throw  themselves  for  protection  into  the  hands 
of  the  first  power  that  could  relieve  them.    They 
were,  however,  divided  in  their  sentiments,  and 
while  some  implored  the  assistance  o^Carthage, 
others  called  upon  the   Romans  for  protection. 
Without  hesitation  or  delay,  the  Carthaginians 
entered  Messana,  and  the  Romans  also  hastened 
to  give  to  the  Mamertini  that  aid  which  had  been 
claimed  from  them  with  as  much  eagerness  as 
from  the  Carthaginians.     At  the  approach  of 
the  Roman    troops,  the    Mamertini,  who  had 
implored  their  assistance,  took  up   arms,  and 
forced  the  Carthaginians  to  evacuate  Messana. 
From  a  private  quarrel  the  war  became  general. 
The  Romans  obtained  a  victory  in  Sicily,  but 
as  their  enemies  were  masters  atsea.the  advan- 
tages which  they  gained  were  small  and  incon- 
siderable.    Duilius  at  last  obtained  a  naval  vic- 
tory ,  and  he  was  the  first  Roman  who  ever  re- 
ceived a  triumph  after  a  battle  by  sea.     The 
losses  which  they  had  already  sustained  induc- 
ed the  Carthaginians  to  sue  for  peace,  and  the 
Romans,  whom  an  unsuccessful  descent  upon 
Africa,  under  Regulus,  had  rendered  diffident, 
listened  to  the  proposal,  and    the  first   Punic 
war  was  concluded  B.  C.  241,  on  the  following 
terms : — The  Carthaginians  pledged  themselves 
to  pay  to  the  Romans,  within  20  years,  the  sum 
of  o,000  Euboic  talents  ;  they  promised  to  re- 
lease all  the  Roman  captives  without  ransom, 
to  evacuate  Sicily,  and  the  other  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  not  to  molest  Hiero,  king 
«f  Syracuse,  or  his  allies.  The  Romans,  to  stop 
the  progress  of  the  Carthaginians  towards  Italy, 
made  stipulations  with  them,  by  which  they 
were  not  permitted  to  cross  the  Iberus,  or  to 
molest  the  cities  of  their  allies  the  Saguntines. 
When  Hannibal  succeeded  to  the  command 
of  the  Carthaginian  armies  in  Spain,  he  spurned 
the  boundaries  which  the  jealousy  of  Rome  had 
set  to  his  arms,  and  he  immediately  formed  the 
siege  of  Saguntum.      The  Romans  were  ap- 
prised of  the  hostilities  which  had  been  begun 
against  their  allies,  but  Saguntum  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  active  enemy  before  they  had  taken 
any  steps  to  oppose  him.     Without  delay,  B. 
C.218,  Hannibal  marched  a  numerous  army  of 
90,000  foot  and  12,000  horse,  towards  Italy,  re- 
solved to  carry  on  the  war  to  the  gates  of  Rome. 


f 

CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


PUN 


420 


PUN 


The  battles  of  Trebia,  of  Ticinus.  and  of  the  lake 
of  Thrasymenus,  threw  Rome  into  the  greatest 
apprehensions,  but  the  prudence  and  dilatory 
measures  of  the  dictator  Fabius.  soon  taught 
them  to  hope  for  better  times.  Yet  the  conduct 
of  Fabius  was  universally  censured  as  coward- 
ice, and  the  two  consuls  who  succeeded  him  in 
the  command,  pursuing  a  different  plan  of  oper- 
ations, brought  on  a  decisive  action  at  Cannee, 
in  which  45,000  Romans  were  left  on  the  field 
of  battle.  This  bloody  victory  caused  so  much 
consternation  at  Rome,  that  some  authors  have 
declared  that  if  Hannibal  had  immediately 
marched  from  the  plains  of  Cannae  to  the  city, 
he  would  have  met  with  no  resistance,  but 
could  have  terminated  a  long  and  dangerous 
war  with  glory  to  himself,  and  the  most  inesti- 
mable advantages  to  his  country.  The  news  of 
this  victory  was  carried  to  Carthage  by  Mago, 
and  the  Carthaginians  refused  to  believe  it  till 
three  bushels  of  golden  rings  were  spread  be- 
fore them,  which  had  been  taken  from. the  Ro- 
man knights  in  the  field  of  battle.  Affairs  now 
took  a  different  turn,  and  Marcellus,  who  had 
the  command  of  the  Roman  legions  in  Italy, 
soon  taught  his  countrymen  that  Hannibal  was 
not  in  vincible  in  the  field.  In  different  parts  of 
the  world  the  Romans  were  making  very  rapid 
conquests.  Hannibal  no  longer  appeared  formid- 
able in  Italy  ;  if  he  conquered  towns  in  Campa- 
nia or  Magna  Grcecia,  he  remained  master  of 
them  only  while  his  army  hovered  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, and  if  he  marched  towards  Rome  the 
alarm  he  occasioned  was  but  momentary,  the 
Romans  were  prepared  to  oppose  him,  and  his  re- 
treat was  therefore  the  more  dishonorable.  The 
conquests  of  young  Scipio  in  Spain  had  now  rais- 
ed the  expectations  of  the  Romans,  and  he  had 
no  sooner  returned  to  Rome  than  he  proposed  to 
remove  Hannibal  from  the  capital  of  Italy  by 
carrying  the  war  to  the  gates  of  Carthage.  This 
was  a  bold  and  hazardous  enterprise,  but  though 
Fabius  opposed  it,  it  was  universally  approved 
by  the  Roman  senate,  and  young  Scipio  was 
empowered  to  sail  to  Africa.  The  conquests  of 
the  young  Roman  were  as  rapid  in  Africa  as  in 
Spain,  and  the  Carthaginians,  apprehensive  for 
the  fate  of  their  capital,  recalled  Hannibal  from 
Italy.  Hannibal  received  their  orders  with  in- 
dignation, and  with  tears  in  his  eyes  he  left 
Italy,  where  for  sixteen  years  he  had  known  no 
superior  in  the  field  of  battle.  At  his  arrival  in 
Africa,  the  Carthaginian  general  soon  collected 
a  large  army,  and  met  his  exulting  adversary 
in  the  plains  of  Zama.  The  battle  was  long 
and  bloody,  and  though  one  nation  fought  for 


glory,  and  the  other  for  the  dearer  sake  of  lib- 
erty, the  Romans  obtained  the  victory,  and  Han- 
nibal, who  had  sworn  eternal  enmity  to  the  gods 
of  Rome,  fled  from  Carthage  after  he  had  ad- 
vised his  countrymen  to  accept  the  U>rrnsof  the 
conqueror.  This  battle  of  Zama  was  decisive, 
the  Carthaginians  sued  for  peace,  which  the 
haughty  conquerors  granted  with  difficulty. 

During  the  50  years  which  followed  the  con- 
clusion of  the  second  Punic  war,  the  Carthagi- 
nians were  employed  in  repairing  their  losses 
by  unwearied  application  and  industry;  but 
they  found  still  in  the  Romans  a.  jealous  rival 
and  a  haughty  conqueror,  and  in  Masinissa,  the 
ally  of  Rome,  an  intriguing  and  ambitions  mon- 
arch. The  king  of  Numidia  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  one  of  their  provinces  ;  but  as  they  were 
unable  to  make  war  without  the  consent  of' 
Rome,  the  Carthaginians  sought  relief  by  em- 
bassies, and  made  continual  complaints  in  the 
Roman  senate  of  the  tyranny  and  oppression  of 
Masinissa.  Commissioners  were  appointed  to 
examine  the  cause  of  their  complaints  ;  but  as 
Masinissa  was  the  ally  of  Rome,  the  interest  of 
the  Carthaginians  was  neglected,  and  whatever 
seemed  to  depress  their  republic,  was  agreeable 
to  the  Romans.  Cato,  who  was  in  the  number 
of  the  commissioners,  examined  the  capital  of 
Africa  with  a  jealous  eye  ;  he  saw  it  with  con- 
cern, rising  as  it  were  from  its  ruins ;  and  when 
he  returned  to  Rome,  lie  declared  in  full  senate, 
that  the  peace  of  Italy  would  never  be  estab 
lished  while  Carthage  was  in  being.  The  sen- 
ators, however,  were  not  guided  by  his  opinion, 
and  the  delcnda  est  Carthago  of  Cato  did  not  pre- 
vent the  Romans  from  acting  with  moderation. 
But  while  the  senate  were  debating  about  the 
existence  of  Carthage,  and  while  they  consid 
ered  it  a  dependent  power,  and  not  as  an  ally, 
the  wrongs  of  Africa  were  without  redress,  and 
Masinissa  continued  his  depredations.  Upon 
this  the  Carthaginians  resolved  to  do  their  cause 
that  justice  which  the  Romans  had  denied  them  ; 
they  entered  the  field  against  the  Nmuidians, 
but  they  were  defeated  in  a  bloody  battle  by 
Masinissa,  who  was  then  'JO  years  old.  In  this 
bold  measure  they  had  broken  the  peace  ;  and 
as  their  late  defeat  had  rendered  them  despe- 
rate, they  hastened  with  all  possible  speed  to  the 
capital  of  Italy  to  justify  their  proceedings,  and 
to  implore  the  forgiveness  of  the  Roman  sen- 
ate. The  news  of  Masinissa's  victory  had  al- 
ready reached  Italy,  and  immediately  some 
forces  were  sent  to  Sicily,  and  frnm  thence  or- 
dered to  pass  into  Africa.  The  ambassadors  of 
Carthage  received  evasive  and  unsatisfactory 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


PUN 


421 


PUT 


answers  from  the  senate  ;  and  when  they  saw 
the  Romans  landed  at  Utica,  they  resolved  to 
purchase  peace  by  the  most  submissive  terms 
which  even  the  most  abject  slaves  could  offer. 
The  Romans  acted  with  the  deepest  policy  : 
no  declaration  of  war  had  been  made,  though 
hostilities  appeared  inevitable  ;  and  in  answer 
to  the  submissive  offers  of  Carthage  the  con- 
suls replied,  that  to  prevent  every  cause  of  quar- 
rel, the  Carthaginians  must  deliver  into  their 
hands  300  hostages,  all  children  of  senators, 
and  of  the  most  noble  and  respectable  families. 
The  demand  was  great  and  alarming,  but  was 
no  sooner  granted,  than  the  Romans  made  ano- 
ther demand,  and  the  Carthaginians  were  told 
that  peace  could  not  continue,  if  they  refused 
to  deliver  up  all  their  ships,  their  arms,  engines 
of  war,  with  all  their  naval  and  military  stores. 
The  Carthaginians  complied,  and  immediately 
40,000  suits  of  armor,  20,000  large  engines  of 
war,  with  a  plentiful  store  of  ammunition  and 
missile  weapons  were  surrendered.  After  this 
duplicity  had  succeeded,  the  Romans  laid  open 
the  final  resolutions  of  the  senate,  and  the  Car- 
thaginians were  then  told  that,  to  avoid  hostil- 
ities, they  must  leave  their  ancient  habitations 
and  retire  into  the  inland  parts  of  Africa,  and 
found  another  city,  at  the  distance  of  not  less 
than  ten  miles  from  the  sea.  This  was  heard 
with  horror  and  indignation  ;  the  Romans  were 
fixed  and  inexorable,  and  Carthage  was  filled 
with  tears  and  lamentations.  But  the  spirit  of 
liberty  and  independence  was  not  yet  extin- 
guished in  the  capital  of  Africa,  and  the  Cartha- 
ginians determined  to  sacrifice  their  lives  for 
the  protection  of  their  gods,  the  tombs  of  their 
forefathers,  and  the  place  which  had  given  them 
birth.  Before  the  Roman  army  approached  the 
city,  preparations  to  support  a  siege  were  made, 
and  the  ramparts  of  Carthage  were  covered 
with  stones,  to  compensate  for  the  weapons  and 
instruments  of  war  which  they  had  ignorantly 
betrayed  to  the  duplicity  of  their  enemies.  The 
town  was  blocked  up  by  the  Romans,  and  a 
regular  siege  begun.  Two  years  were  spent  in 
useless  operations,  and  Carthage  seemed  still 
able  to  rise  from  its  ruins,  to  dispute  for  the 
empire  of  the  world  ;  when  Scipio,  the  descend- 
ant of  the  great  Scipio,  who  finished  the  second 
Punic  war,  was  sent  to  conduct  the  siege.  De- 
spair and  famine  now  raged  in  the  city,  and 
Scipio  gained  access  to  the  city  walls,  where 
the  battlements  were  low  and  unguarded.  His 
entrance  into  the  streets  was  disputed  with  un- 
common fury,  the  houses,  as  he  advanced,  were 
set  on  fire,  to  stop  his  progress ;  but  when  a 


body  of  50,000  persons,  of  either  sex,  had  claim- 
ed quarter,  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants  were  dis- 
heartened, and  such  as  disdained  to  be  prison- 
ers of  war,  perished  in  the  flames,  which  grad- 
ually destroyed  their  habitations,  147  B.  C.  after 
a  continuation  of  hostilities  for  three  years. 
During  17  days  Carthage  was  inflames;  and 
the  soldiers  were  permitted  to  redeem  from  the 
fire  whatever  possession  they  could.  This  re- 
markable event  happened  about  the  year  of 
Rome  GOG.  The  news  of  this  victory  caused 
the  greatest  rejoicings  at  Rome ;  and  immedi- 
ately commissioners  were  appointed  by  the  Ro- 
man senate,  not  only  to  raze  the  walls  of  Car- 
thage, but  even  to  demolish  and  burn  the  very 
materials  with  which  they  were  made  :  and  in 
a  few  days,  that  city  which  had  been  once  the 
seat  of  commerce,  the  model  of  magnificence, 
the  common  store  of  the  wealth  of  nations,  and 
one  of  the  most  powerful  states  of  the  world,  left 
behind  no  traces  of  its  splendor,  of  its  power,  or 
even  of  its  existence. 

PUTNAM,  Israel,  a  distinguished  American 
officer,  who  served  both  in  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish wars,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.  Jan.  7, 
1718.  In  1739  he  settled  at  Pomfret.  Connecti- 
cut, where  he  had  purchased  a  tract  of  land. 
Here*he  descended  into  a  dark  cavern,  and  kill- 
ed a  wolf,  which  had  committed  great  depreda- 
tions upon  the  flocks  of  the  farmers.  He  en- 
tered on  his  first  campaign  in  the  war  of  1755, 
being  then  appointed  to  command  a  company, 
and  he  received  a  major's  commission  in  1757. 
His  services  prior  to  the  breaking  out  of  the 
revolutionary  war  were  various  and  valuable. 
The  news  of.  this  great  event  found  Putnam  at 
the  plough.  He  unyoked  his  oxen,  and  set  off 
for  the  scene  of  action.  Having  levied  a  regi- 
ment he  was  appointed  major-general,  and,  on 
the  retreat  of  the  Americans  from  Bunker  Hill, 
checked  the  pursuing  forces.  He  was  indefati- 
gable and  ardent  in  the  discharge  of  his  duty, 
and  his  value  was  properly  appreciated  as  we 
see  from  the  important  duties  which  were  en- 
trusted to  him. 

After  the  battle  of  Monmouth.  he  was  posted 
at  Reading,  Connecticut,  with  orders  to  protect 
the  Sound,  and  the  garrison  at  West  Point.  On 
a  visit  to  one  of  his  outposts,  attended  by  only 
150  men,  he  was  closely  pursued  by  Governor 
Tyron,  at  the  head  of  1200  royal  troops,  and 
escaped  by  plunging  on  horseback,  down  a  pre- 
cipice so  steep  that  foot  passengers  descended 
only  by  an  artificial  stairway.  Putnam  com- 
manded the  Maryland  line,  stationed  near  West 
Point,  in  the  campaign  of  1779.  A  paralytic 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


PYR 


422 


PYR 


affection  seized  upon  the  right  side  of  Putnam 
during  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  but  did  not 
impair  his  cheerfulness  and  spirit.  He  died  at 
Brooklyn,  Connecticut,  May  21),  1790,  aged  72 
years. 

PYRRHUS,  a  king  of  Epirus,  was  saved 
when  an  infant,  by  the  fidelity  of  his  servants, 
from  the  pursuit  of  the  enemies  of  his  father, 
who  had  been  banished  from  his  kingdom,  and 
he  was  carried  to  the  court  of  Glautias,  king  of 
lllyricum,  who  educated  him  with  great  tender- 
ness. Cassander,  king  of  Macedonia,  wished 
to  despatch  him,  as  he  had  so  much  to  dread 
from  him ;  but  Glautias  not  only  refused  to 
deliver  him  up  into  the  hands  of  his  enemy, 
but  he  even  went  with  an  army  and  placed  him 
on  the  throne  of  Epirus,  though  only  twelve 
years  of  age. 

About  five  years  after,  the  absence  of  Pyrrhus 
to  attend  the  nuptials  of  one  of  the  daughters 
of  Glautias,  raised  new  commotions.  The  mon- 
arch was  expelled  from  his  throne  by  Neoptole- 
mus,  who  had  usurped  it  after  the  death  of 
./Eacides  ;  and  being  still  without  resources,  Jhe 
applied  to  his  brother-in-law  Demetrius  for 
assistance.  He  accompanied  Demetrius  at  the 
battle  of  Ipsus,  and  afterwards  passed  into 
Egypt,  where,  by  his  marriage  with  Antigone 
the  daughter  of  Berenice,  he  soon  obtained  a 
sufficient  force  to  attempt  the  recovery  of  his 
throne.  He  was  successful  in  the  undertaking, 
but  to  remove  all  causes  of  quarrel,  he  took  the 
usurper  to  share  with  him  the  royalty,  and  some 
time  after  he  put  him  to  death  under  pretence 
that  he  had  attempted  to  poison  him. 

In  the  subsequent  years  of  his  reign,  Pyrrhus 
engaged  in  the  quarrels  which  disturbed  the 
peace  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy  ;  he  marched 
against  Demetrius.  By  dissimulation  he  ingra- 
tiated himself  in  the  minds  of  his  enemy's  sub- 
jects, and  when  Demetrius  labored  under  a  mo- 
mentary illness,  Pyrrhus  made  an  attempt  upon 
the  crown  of  Macedonia,  which,  if  not  then 
successful,  soon  after  rendered  him  master  of 
the  kingdom.  This  he  shared  with  Lysima- 
chus  for  seven  months,  till  the  jealousy  of 
the  Macedonians,  and  the  ambition  of  his  col- 
league, obliged  him  to  retire.  Pyrrhus  was 
meditating  new  conquests,  when  the  Tarentines 
invited  him  to  Italy  to  assist  them  against  the 
encroaching  power  of  Rome.  He  gladly  accept- 
ed the  invitation,  but  his  passage  across  the 
Adriatic  proved  nearly  fatal,  and  he  reached 
the  shores  of  Italy,  after  the  loss  of  the  greatest 
part  of  his  troops  in  a  storm. 

At  his  entrance  into  Tarentum,  B.  C.  280,  he 


began  to  reform  the  manners  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  bv  introducing  the  strictest  discipline  among 
their  troops,  to  accustom  them  to  bear  fatigue 
and  to  despise  dangers.  In  the  first  battle 
which  he  fought  with  the  Romans,  he  obtained 
the  victory,  but  for  this  he  was  more  particu- 
larly indebted  to  his  elephants,  whose  bulk  and 
uncommon  appearance  astonished  the  Romans 
and  terrified  their  cavalry.  The  number  of  the 
slain  was  equal  on  both  sides,  and  the  conqueror 
said  that  such  another  victory  would  totally 
ruin  him.  He  also  sent  Cineas,  his  chief  min- 
ister, to  Rome,  and  though  victorious,  he  sued 
for  peaoe.  These  offers  of  peace  were  refused. 

A  second  battle  was  fought  near  Asculum, 
but  the  slaughter  was  so  great,  and  the  valor  so 
conspicuous  on  both  sides,  that  the  Romans  and 
their  enemies  reciprocally  claimed  the  victory 
as  their  own.  Pyrrhus  still  continued  the  war 
in  favor  of  the  Tarentines,  when  he  was  invited 
into  Sicily  by  the  inhabitants,  who  labored 
under  the  yoke  of  Carthage  and  the  cruelty  of 
their  own  petty  tyrants. 

His  fondness  for  novelty  soon  determined  him 
to  quit  Italy  ;  he  left  a  garrison  at  Tarentum, 
and  crossed  over  to  Sicily,  where  he  obtained 
two  victories  over  the  Carthaginians,  and  took 
many  of  their  towns.  He  was  for  awhile  suc- 
cessful, and  formed  the  project  of  invading  Af- 
rica; but  soon  his  popularity  vanished. 

He  had  no  sooner  arrived  at  Tarentum  than 
he  renewed  hostilities  with  the  Romans  with 
great  acrimony,  but  when  his  army  of  80,000 
men  had  been  defeated  by  20,000  of  the  enemy, 
under  Curius,  he  left  Italy  with  precipitation. 
B.  C.  274,  ashamed  of  the  enterprise. 

In  Epirus  he  attacked  Antigonus,  who  was 
then  on  the  Macedonian  throne.  He  gained 
some  advantages  over  his  enemy,  and  was  at 
last  restored  to  the  throne  of  Macedonia.  He 
afterwards  inarched  against  Sparta,  at  the  re- 
quest of  Cleonymus,  but  when  all  his  vigorous 
operations  were  insufficient  to  take  the  capital 
of  Laconia,  he  retired  to  Argos  where  the  treach- 
ery of  Aristeus  invited  him.  The  Argives  de- 
sired him  to  retire,  and  not  to  interfere  in  the 
affairs  of  their  republic  which  were  confounded 
by  the  ambition  of  two  of  their  nobles.  He 
compiled  with  thoir  wishes,  but  in  the  night  he 
marched  his  forces  into  the,  town,  and  might 
have  made  himself  master  of  the  place  had  he 
not  retarded  his  progress  by  entering  it  with 
his  elephants. 

The  combat  that  ensued  was  obstinate  and 
bloody,  and  the  monarch,  to  fight  with  more 
boldness,  and  to  encounter  dangers  with  more 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


QUE 


423 


RAL 


facility,  exchanged  his  dress.  He  was  attacked 
by  one  of  the  enemy,  but  as  he  was  going  to 
run  him  through  in  his  own  defence,  tiie  mo- 
ther oi'  the  Argive,  who  saw  her  son's  danger 
from  the  tr*>  of  a  house,  threw  down  a  tile,  and 
brought  Pyrrhus  to  the  ground.  His  head  was 
cut  oif,  and  carried  to  Antigonus,  who  gave  his 
remains  a  magnificent  funeral,  and  presented 
liis  ashes  to  his  son  Helenas,  272  years  before 
the  Christian  era. 


QUEBEC,  city  ;  the  capital  of  Lower  Canada, 
situated  on  a  promontory,  on  the  northwest 
side  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  180  miles  below 
Montreal,  containing  about  40,000  inhabitants. 
ft  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Town.  The  Upper  Town  is  built  on  a 
bold  precipice  of  naked  rock,  rising  to  the  height 
of  345  feet.  Some  of  the  most  striking  peculi- 
arities of  the  place  are  thus  forcibly  described 
by  an  American  author : — 

"  Ciuebec,  for  an  American  city,  is  certainly 
a  peculiar  town  :  a  military  town — most  com- 
pactly and  permanently  built  —  stone  its  sole 
material — environed,  as  to  its  important  parts, 
by  walls  and  gates — and  defended  by  numerous 
heavy  cannon  —  garrisoned  by  troops,  having 
die  arms,  the  costume,  the  music,  the  discipline 
of  Europe — foreign  in  language,  features,  and 
origin,  from  most  of  those  whom  they  are  sent 
to  defend— founded  upon  a  rock,  and  its  higher 
parts  overlooking  a  great  extent  of  country — 
between  three  and  four  hundred  miles  from  the 
ocean — in  the  midst  of  a  great  continent,  and 
yet  displaying  fleets  of  foreign  merchantmen, 
in  its  fine  capacious  bay.  and  showing  all  the 
bustle  of  a  crowded  seaport— its  streets  narrow, 
populous,  and  winding  up  and  down  almost 
mountain  declivities — situated  in  the  latitude 
of  the  finest  parts  of  Europe— exhibiting  in  its 
environs  the  beauty  of  a  European  capital,  and 
yet,  in  winter,  smarting  with  the  cold  of  Sibe- 
ria— governed  by  people  of  different  language 
and  habits  from  the  mass  of  the  population — 
opposed  in  religion,  and  yet  leaving  that  popu- 
lation without  laxes,  and  in  the  full  enjoyment 
uf  every  privilege,  civil  and  religious." 

Its  siege  and  capture  in  1759,  by  Major  Gen- 
eral Wolfe,  was  fatal  both  to  the  English  and 
French  commanders.  In  1776,  General  Mont- 
gomery and  Arnold  attempted  to  take  Quebec 
by  storm,  but  Montgomery  fell,  and  Arnold  was 
compelled  to  retreat. 

QUERETARO,  one  of  the  states  of  the  Mex- 
36* 


ican  confederacy,  formed  in  1824,  containing 
1 5,000  square  miles,  and 60,000  inhabitants.  The 
climate  is  temperate  and  the  productions  valua- 
ble. 

Q.UINCY,  Josiah,  junior,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton, February  23,  1744,  and  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in'l  763,  after  which  he  studied 
law,  and  raised  himself  to  eminence  in  his 
profession.  Together  with  John  Adams,  Mr. 
Quincy  defended  the  soldiers  who  fired  upon 
the  Bostonians  on  the  5th  of  March,  and  pro- 
cured the  acquittal  of  all  but  two,  who  were 
punished  by  a  slight  branding.  In  May,  1774, 
he  published  his  Observations  on  the  Act  of 
Parliament,  commonly  called  the  ;<  Boston  Port 
Bill,"  with  Thoughts  on  Civil  Society,  and 
Standing  Armies, — a  work  of  great  power.  In 
September,  1774,  Mr.  Quincy  sailed  for  Lon- 
don, in  the  hopes  of  benefiting  his  country  by 
his  patriotic  exertions  in  England.  His  ser- 
vices were  indeed  valuable — but  his  application 
completed  the  prostration  of  his  bodily  powers 
which  had  been  previously  sapped  by  long  and 
hopeless  disease.  He  died  on  his  voyage  home, 
April  20th,  1775. 

QUITO,  recently  a  part  of  the  republic  of 
Colombia,  and  formerly  attached  to  New  Gra- 
nada. It  now  forms  the  republic  of  the  Equa- 
tor. The  city  of  the  same  name  has  90.000 
inhabitants. 


R. 


RAAB,  a  city  of  Hungary,  where  the  Aus- 
trians  commanded  by  the  Archduke  John,  were 
defeated  by  the  French  under  Eugene  Beau- 
harnais,  viceroy  of  Italy,  June  14th,  1809. 

RALEIGH,  or  Ralegh,  Sir  Walter,  was 
born  in  Devonshire,  in  1552.  He  served  in  the 
Netherlands;  and  in  1579,  accompanied  hia 
half-brother,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  on  a  voy- 
age to  America.  On  his  return,  he  distin- 
guished himself  against  the  Irish  rebels,  and 
was  Joined  in  a  commission  for  the  government 
of  M unster. 

In  1584,  he  obtained  letters  patent  for  discov- 
ering unknown  countries,  by  virtue  of  which 
he  took  possession  of  that  part  of  America, 
which  was  afterwards  called,  in  honor  of  Eliza- 
beth, Virginia.  Soon  after  this  he  received  the 
honor  of  knighthood,  was  elected  into  parlia- 
ment for  Devonshire,  made  warden  of  the  Stan- 
naries, and  also  rewarded  with  several  grants  of 
land  in  England  and  Ireland. 

In  1583,  he  bore  an  active  part  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Spanish  armada ;  and  the  year  fol- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


RAM 


424 


REE 


lowing  he  accompanied  the  King  of  Portugal  to 
his  dominions,  for  which  the  queen  gave  him  a 
gold  chain. 

In  1592,  he  commanded  an  expedition  against 
Panama.  Qoon  after  this  he  fell  under  the 
royal  displeasure,  on  account  of  an  amour  with 
tl.o  daughter  of  Sir  Nicholas  Throgmorton. 
though  Raleigh  acted  honorably  in  marrying 
the  lady.  In  1595,  he  engaged  in  an  enterprise 
for  the'  conquest  of  Guiana,  where  he  took  the 
city  of  San  Josef.  The  year  following,  he  dis- 
played great  valor  in  the  expedition  against 
Cadiz ;  and  he  was  also  appointed  to  a  command 
in  the  armament  sent  out  to  intercept  the  Span- 
ish plate  fleet,  which  he  would  have  captured 
had  he  not  been  thwarted  by  the  earl  of  Essex. 

The  ruin  of  that  unfortunate  nobleman  was 
hastened  by  Raleigh,  who  little  thought  that  he 
was  thereby  preparing  the  way  for  his  own 
destruction.  On  the  accession  of  James,  he 
was  deprived  of  his  preferments,  and  brought  to 
trial  at  Winchester,  for  conspiring,  with  Lord 
Cobham  and  others,  to  place  Arabella  Stewart 
on  the  throne. 

Raleigh  was  condemned  ;  but  the  sentence 
was  respited,  and  he  lay  twelve  years  in  the 
Tower.  In  1016,  he  was  released,  and  intrusted 
with  a  squadron  destined  against  Guiana;  but 
the  enterprise  failed,  after  an  attack  on  the 
town  of  St.  Thome,  where  Sir  Walter's  eldest 
son  was  killed.  When  Raleigh  landed  in  Eng- 
land, he  was  arrested,  and  sent  to  the  Tower, 
from  whence  he  endeavored  to  make  his  escape, 
but  was  taken,  and  received  sentence  of  de;;th, 
which  was  carried  into  execution  in  Old  Palace 
Yard;  Oct.  29,  1018. 

RA MILLIES,  a  village  of  Belgium,  twen- 
ty-six miles  southeast  of  Brussels,  celebrated 
for  a  victory  gained  over  the  French  by  the 
duke  of  Marlborough,  May  23,  170(J.  The  vic- 
tories obtained  about  this"  time  by  the  allies  in 
Spain  determined  Louis  to  assemble  all  his 
forces  in  Flanders  and  on  the  Rhine.  Villeroy 
was  sent  to  check  the  conquests  of  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough.  His  army  was  attacked  by  Marl- 
borough  near  the  village  of  Ramillies  with  such 
impetuosity,  that  the  French  were  scarcely 
assailed  when  they  were  vanquished.  The 
troops  of  the  royal  household,  however,  on  the 
right,  forced  the  Dutch  and  Danish  cavalry  to 
retreat  towards  the  left,  and  would  have  com- 
pletely routed  them  had  not  Marlborough  hast- 
ened to  their  succor.  The  troops  of  the  royal 
household  were  driven  back,  and  their  ranks 
broken.  The  detachments  stationed  in  the 
village  were  either  put  to  death  or  made  pris- 


oners ;  and  Villeroi  and  the  elector  of  Bava- 
ria escaped  with  great  difficulty.  In  the  tu- 
multuous disorder  of  the  French  troops,  the 
fugitives  who  were  pursued  by  the  enemy's 
cavalry,  were  impeded  in  their  retreat  by  the 
baggage,  and  great  numbers  of  them  were  slain. 
The  field  of  battle  was  strewed  witli  8000  killed, 
and  (5000  were  made  prisoners.  Thus  the  most 
formidable  army  which  Louis  XIV  had  raised 
for  a  considerable  time,  as  the  last  effort  of  his 
despair,  melted  away  with  the  glory  of  the 
nation,  of  which  it  was  the  sole  resource. 

RANDOLPH.  Peyton,  president  of  the  first 
Congress,  was  born  in  Virginia,  and  received 
his  legal  education  in  England.  In  1748,  hav- 
ing returned  to  Virginia,  he  was  appointed 
king's  attorney-general  for  the  colony,  although 
but  twenty-five  years  of  aire.  April  12,  17tiG, 
he  was  chosen  speaker  of  the  house  of  burgesses, 
and  resigned  the  office  of  attorney-general.  As 
soon  as  he  joined  the  first  continental  congress, 
he  was  chosen  its  president.  His  patriotic 
exertions  were  unfortunately  terminated  by  a 
stroke  of  apoplexy,  Oct.  21,  1775. 

RAVAILLAC,  a  fanatic,  who  assassinated 
Henry  IV,  of  France,  May  1-ith,  KilO.  The 
king  had  got  into  his  carriage  at  four  in  the 
afternoon,  to  pay  a  visit  to  his  minister  Sully. 
He  had  boon  followed  eight  davs  by  the  regi 
cide,  who  had  a  poinard  in  his  liana,  and  had 
not  .quitted  the  side  of  the  carriage  since  its 
departure  from  the  palace  of  the  Louvre.  In 
the  rue  de.  la  Ferronnerie,  a  very  narrow  street, 
the  re  was  a  stoppage  which  induced  the  mon- 
arch to  alight  from  his  carriage.  While  he 
was  stepping  out,  the  assassin  stabbed  him 
twice  with  his  poinard  ;  tin;  second  blow  was 
fatal,  and  the  corpse  was  conveyed  to  he  Lou- 
vre. Ravaillae  was  seized,  and  put  to  death  by 
the  most  horrid  tortures  which  cruelty  could 
devise. 

READ.  George,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  born  in  Maryland,  in 
the  year  1734.  In  1753,  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,"  although  but  nineteen  years  old,  and  he 
commenced  the  practice  of  the  law  in  the  town 
of  Newcastle.  Through  the  revolutionary  war 
he  held  a  scat  in  Congress,  and  was  a  Senator 
of  the  United  States,  after  the  adoption  of  tlio 
constitution,  until  1793,  when  he  W;IH  made 
chief-justice  of  Delaware.  lie  died  suddenly 
in  1798. 

REED,  Joseph,  president  of  the  state  of  Penn- 
sylvania, was  born  in  New  Jersey,  August  27, 
1741.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  College,  and 
studied  law.  Through  part  of  the  revolutionary 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REF 


425 


REF 


war  he  served  with  distinction,  having  the  rank 
of  adjutant-general.  In  177d,  he  was  elected 
to  Congress.  He  was  now  secretly  offered 
£10,000  by  the  British  agents,  if  he  would 
exert  his  abilities  to  effect  a  reconciliation  with 
the  parent  country.  His  answer  deserves  com- 
memoration. "  I  am  not  worth  purchasing ;  but, 
poor  as  I  am,  the  king  is  not  rich  enough  to 
buy  me."  In  the  same  year,  he  was  elected 
president  of  Pennsylvania;  and  held  the  office 
three  years.  He  first  detected  and  exposed  the 
character  of  Arnold,  whom  he  brought  to  trial 
for  mal-practices.  President  Reed  died  on  the 
5th  of  March.  1784. 

REFORMATION,  that  great  change  in  the 
corrupted  system  of  Christianity,  begun  by  Lu- 
ther in  the  year  1517.  Leo  X,  when  raised  to 
the  papal  throne,  found  the  revenues  of  the 
church  exhausted  by  the  vast  projects  of  his 
two  ambitious  predecessors,  Alexander  VI,  and 
Julius  II.  His  own  temper,  naturally  liberal 
and  enterprising,  rendered  him  incapable  of  that 
severe  and  patient  economy  which  the  situation 
of  his  finances  required.  On  the  contrary,  his 
schemes  for  aggrandizing  the  family  of  Medici, 
his  love  of  splendor,  his  taste  for  pleasure,  and 
his  magnificence  in  rewarding  men  of  genius, 
involved  him  daily  in  new  expenses;  in  order 
to  provide  a  fund  for  which,  he  tried  every 
device  that  the  fertile  invention  of  priests  had 
fallen  upon,  to  drain  the  credulous  multitude 
of  their  wealth.  Among  others,  he  had  recourse 
to  a  sale  of  indulgences. 

The  right  of  promulgating  these  indulgences 
iu  Germany,  together  with  a  share  in  the  pro- 
fits arising  from  the  sale  of  them,  was  granted 
to  Albert,  elector  of  Mentz,  and  archbishop  of 
Magdeburg,  who,  as  his  chief  agent  for  retail- 
ing them  in  Saxony,  employed  Tetzel,  a  Domi- 
nician  friar  of  licentious  morals,  but  of  an  active 
spirit,  and  remarkable  for  his  noisy  and  popular 
eloquence.  Ho,  assisted  by  the  monks  of  his 
order,  executed  the  commission  with  great  zeal 
and  success,  but  with  little  discretion  or  de- 
cency ;  and  though  by  magnifying  excessively 
the  benefit  of  their  indulgences,  and  by  dispos- 
ing of  them  at  a  very  low  price,  they  carried  on 
for  some  time  an  extensive  and  lucrative  traffic 
among  the  crudulous  and  the  ignorant ;  the 
extravagance  of  their  assertions,  as  well  as  the 
irregularities  in  their  conduct  came  at  last  to 
give  general  offence. 

Whilst  Luther  was  at  the  height  of  his  repu- 
tation and  authority,  Tetzel  began  to  publish 
indulgences  in  the  neighborhood  of  Wittem- 
berg,  and  to  ascribe  to  them  the  same  imaginary 


virtues  which  had,  in  other  places,  imposed  on 
the  credulity  of  the  people.  As  Saxony  was 
not  more  enlightened  than  the  other  provinces 
of  Germany,  Tetzel  met  with  prodigious  suc- 
cess there.  It  was  with  the  utmost  concern  that 
Luther  beheld  the  artifices  of  those  who  sold, 
and  the  simplicity  of  those  who  bought  indul- 
gences. 

The  opinions  of  Thomas  Aquinas  and  the 
other  schoolmen,  on  which  the  doctrine  of 
indulgences  was  founded,  had  already  lost  much 
of  their  authority  with  him;  and  the  Scriptures, 
which  he  began  to  consider  as  the  great  stand- 
ard of  theological  truth,  afforded  no  counte- 
nance to  a  practice  equally  subversive  of  faith 
and  of  morals.  His  warm  and  impetuous  tem- 
per did  not  suffer  him  long  to  conceal  such 
important  discoveries,  or  to  continue  a  silent 
spectator  of  the  delusion  of  his  countrymen. 

From  the  pulpit,  in  the  great  church  at  Wit- 
temberg.  he  inveighed  bitter.lv  against  the  irreg- 
ularities and  vices  of  the  monks  who  published 
indulgences  ;  he  ventured  to  examine  the  doc- 
trines which  they  taught,  and  pointed  out  to 
the  people  the  danger  of  relying  for  salvation 
upon  any  other  means  than  those  appointed  by 
God  in  his  word.  The  boldness  and  novelty  of 
these  opinions  drew  great  attention ;  and  being 
recommended  by  the  authority  of  Luther's  per- 
sonal character,  and  delivered  with  a  popular 
and  persuasive  eloquence,  they  made  a  deep 
impression  on  his  hearers.  Encouraged  by  the 
favorable  reception  of  his  doctrines  among  the 
people,  he  wrote  to  Albert,  elector  of  Mentz 
and  archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  to  whose  juris- 
diction that  part  of  Saxony  was  subject,  and 
remonstrated  warmly  against  the  false  opinions, 
as  well  as  wicked  lives,  of  the  preachers  of 
indulgences;  but  he  found  that  prelate  too 
deeply  interested  in  their  success  to  correct 
their  abuses.  His  next  attempt  was  to  gain  the 
suffrage  of  men  of  learning.  For  this  purpose 
he  published  ninety-five  theses,  containing  his 
sentiments  with  regard  to  indulgences. 

These  he  proposed,  not  as  points  fully  estab- 
lished, or  of  undoubted  certainty,  but  as  subjects 
of  inquiry  and  disputation  ;  he  appointed  a  day, 
on  which  the  learned  were  invited  to  impugn 
them,  either  in  person  or  by  writing;  to  the 
whole  he  subjoined  solemn  protestations  of  his 
high  respect  for  the  apostolic  see,  and  of  his 
implicit  submission  to  its  authority.  No  oppo- 
nent appeared  at  the  time  fixed  ;  the  theses 
spread  over  Germany  with  astonishing  rapidity ; 
they  were  read  with  the  greatest  eagerness  ; 
and  all  admired  the  boldness  of  the  man,  who 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


REF 


426 


REF 


had  ventured  not  only  to  call  in  question  the 
plenitude  of  pap:J  power,  but  to  attack  the  Do- 
minicans, armed  with  all  the  terrors  of  inquisi- 
torial authority. 

The  friars  of  St.  Augustin,  Luther's  own 
order,  gave  no  check  to  the  publication  of  these 
uncommon  opinions.  Luther  had,  by  his  piety 
and  learning,  acquired  extraordinary  authority 
among  his  brethren  :  he  professed  the  highest 
regard  for  the  authority  of  the  pope ;  his  pro- 
fessions were  at  that  time  sincere  ;  and  as  a 
secret  enmity  subsists  among  all  the  monastic 
orders  of  the  Romish  church,  the  Augustins 
were  highly  pleased  with  his  invectives  against 
the  Dominicans,  and  hoped  to  see  them  exposed 
to  the  hatred  and  scorn  of  the  people. 

His  sovereign,  the  elector  of  Saxony,  the 
wisest.prince  at  that  time  in  Germany,  secretly 
encouraged  his  attempts,  and  flattered  himself 
that  this  dispute  among  the  ecclesiastics  them- 
selves might  give  some  check  to  the  exactions 
of  the  court  of  Rome,  which  the  secular  princes 
had  long,  though  without  success,  been  endeav- 
oring to  oppose. 

Several  theses  appeared  in  opposition  to  the 
ninety-five  published  by  Luther  ;  and  the  argu- 
ments produced  for  his  confutation  were  the 
sentiments  of  schoolmen,  the  conclusions  of  the 
canon  law,  and  the  decrees  of  popes.  In  the 
mean  time,  these  novelties  in  Luther's  doc- 
trines, which  interested  all  Germany,  excited 
little  attention  and  no  alarm  in  the  court  of 
Rome.  Leo,  fond  of  elegant  and  refined  plea- 
sures, intent  upon  great  schemes  of  policy,  a 
stranger  to  theological  controversies,  and  apt  to 
despise  them,  regarded  with  the  utmost  indif- 
ference the  operations  of  an  obscure  friar,  who, 
in  the  heart  of  Germany,  carried  on  a  scholas- 
tic disputation  in  a  barbarous  style.  He  impu- 
ted the  whole  to  monastic  enmity  and  emula- 
tion, and  seemed  inclined  not  to  interpose  in 
the  contest,  but  to  allow  the  Augustins  and 
Dominicans  to  wrangle  about  the  matter  with 
their  usual  animosity. 

The  solicitations,  however,  of  Luther's  adver- 
saries, together  with  the  surprising  progress 
which  his  opinions  made  in  different  parts  of 
Germany,  roused  at  last  the  attention  of  the 
court  of  Rome,  and  obliged  Leo  to  take  meas- 
ures for  the  security  of  the  church  against 
an  attack  that  now  appeared  too  serious  to  be 
despised.  For  this  end  he  summoned  Luther 
to  appear  at  Rome,  within  sixty  days,  before  the 
auditor  of  the  chamber,  and  the  inquisitor-gen- 
eral, win  had  written  against  him,  whom  lie 
empowered  jointly  to  examine  his  doctrines, 


and  to  decide  concerning  them.  He  wrote,  at 
the  same  time,  to  the  elector  of  Saxony,  be- 
seechincr  him  not  to  protect  a  man  whose  heret- 
ical and  profane  tenets  were  so  shocking  to 
pious  ears;  and  enjoined  the  provincial  of  the 
Augustins  to  check,  by  his  authority,  the 
rashness  of  an  arrogant  monk,  which  brought 
disgrace  upon  the  order  of  St.  Augustin.  and 
gave  offence  and  disturbance  to  the  whole 
church.  The  professors  in  the  university  of 
Wittemberg,  anxious  for  Luther's  safety,  wrote 
to  the  pope,  and,  after  employing  several  pre- 
texts to  excuse  Luther  from  appearing  at  Rome, 
entreated  Leo  to  commit  the  examination  of  his 
doctrines  to  some  persons  of  learning  and  au- 
thority in  Germany.  The  elector  requested  the 
same  thing  of  the  pope's  legate  at  the  diet  of 
Augsburg  ;  and  as  Luther  himself,  who  at  that 
time  did  not  even  entertain  the  smallest  suspi- 
cion concerning  the  divine  origin  of  papal  au- 
thority, had  written  to  Leo  a  submissive  letter, 
promising  an  unreserved  compliance  with  his 
will,  the  pope  gratified  them  so  far  as  to  em- 
power his  legate  in  Germany,  cardinal  Cajetan, 
a  Dominican,  eminent  for  scholastic  learning1, 
and  passionately  devoted  to  the  Roman  see,  to 
hear  and  determine  the  cause. 

Luther,  having  obtained  the  emperor's  safe 
conduct,  immediately  repaired  to  Augsburg. 
The  cardinal  required  him.  by  virtue  of  the 
apostolic  powers  with  which  he  was  clothed,  t> 
retract  his  errors  with  regard  to  indulgences 
and  the  nature  of  faith,  and  to  abstain  for  the 
future  from  the  publication  of  new  and  danger- 
ous opinions.  Luther,  fully  persuaded  of  the 
truth  of  his  own  tenets,  and  coniinned  in  the 
belief  of  them  by  the  approbation  which  they 
had  met  with  among  persons  conspicuous  both 
for  learning  and  piety,  was  surprised  at  this 
abrupt  mention  of  a  recantation,  before  any 
endeavors  were  used  to  convince  him  that  he 
was  mistaken.  He  declared  with  the  utmost 
firmness,  that  he  could  not,  with  a  safe  con- 
science, renounce  opinions  which  lie  believed 
to  be  true;  nor  should  any  consideration  ever 
induce  him  to  do  what  would  be  so  base  in 
itself,  and  so  offensive  to  God.  At  the  same 
time,  he  continued  to  express  no  less  reverence 
than  formerly  for  the  authority  of  the  apostolic 
see  ;  he  signified  his  willingness  to  submit  the 
whole  controversy  to  certain  universities  which 
lie  named,  and  promised  neither  to  write  nor 
preach  concerning  indulgences  for  the  future, 
provided  his  adversaries  were  likewise  enjoined 
to  be  silent  with  respect  to  them.  All  these 
offers  Cajetan  disregarded  or  rejected,  and  still 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REF 


427 


REF 


insisted  peremptorily,  on  a  simple  recantation, 
threatening  him  with  ecclesiastical  censures, 
and  forbidding  him  to  appear  again  in  his  pres- 
ence, unless  he  resolved  instantly  to  comply 
with  what  he  had  required. 

The  judges  before  whom  Luther  had  been 
required  to  appear  at  Rome,  without  waiting 
for  the  expiration  of  the  sixty  days  allowed 
him  in  the  citation,  had  already  condemned  him 
as  an  heretic.  Leo  had,  in  several  of  his  briefs 
and  letters,  stigmatized  him  as  a  child  of  ini- 
quity, and  a  man  given  up  to  a  reprobate  sense. 
As  every  step  which  was  taken  by  the  court  of 
Rome,  convinced  Luther  that  Leo  would  soon 
proceed  to  the  most  violent  measures  against 
him,  he  had  recourse  to  the  only  expedient  in 
his  power,  in  order  to  prevent  the  effect  of  the 
papal  censures.  He  appealed  to  a  general  coun- 
cil, which  he  affirmed  to  be  the  representative 
of  the  Catholic  church,  and  superior  in  power 
to  the  pope,  who,  being  a  fallible  man,  might 
err,  as  St.  Peter,  the  most  perfect  of  his  prede- 
cessors, had  erred. 

It  soon  appeared  that  Luther  had  not  formed 
rash  conjectures  concerning  the  intentions  of 
the  church  of  Rome.  A  bull  of  a  date  prior  to 
his  appeal,  was  issued  by  the  pope,  in  which 
he  magnified  the  virtue  and  efficacy  of  indul- 
gences ;  he  required  all  Christians  to  assent  to 
what  he  delivered  as  the  doctrine  of  the  catho- 
lic church,  and  subjected  those,  who  should 
bold  or  teach  any  contrary  opinion,  to  the 
heaviest  ecclesiastical  censures.  Among  Lu- 
ther's followers,  this  bull,  which  they  consider- 
ed as  an  unjustifiable  effort  of  the  pope  in  order 
to  preserve  that  rich  branch  of  his  revenue 
which  arose  from  indulgences,  produced  little 
effect.  But  among  the  rest  of  his  countrymen, 
such  a  clear  decision  of  the  sovereign  pontiff 
against  him,  and  enforced  by  such  dreadful 
penalties,  must  have  been  attended  with  conse- 
quences very  fatiil  to  his  cause,  if  these  had  not 
been  prevented,  in  a  great  measure,  by  the 
death  of  the  emperor  Maximilian,  whom  both 
his  principles  and  his  interest  prompted  to  sup- 
port the  authority  of  the  holy  see.  To  this 
event  was  owing  the  suspension  of  any  fur- 
ther proceedings  against  Luther  for  18  months. 
Perpetual  negotiations,  however,  in  order  to 
bring  the  matter  to  some  amicable  issue,  were 
carried  on  during  tint  space.  The  manner  in 
which  these  were  conducted  having  given  Lu- 
ther many  opportunities  of  observing  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  court  of  Rome,  he  began  to  utter 
some  doubts  with  regard  to  the  divine  original 
of  the  papal  authority.  A  public  disputation 


was  held  upon  this  important  question  at  Leip- 
sic,  between  Luther  and  Eccius,  one  of  hia 
most  learned  and  formidable  antagonists ;  but 
it  was  fruitless  and  indecisive.  Nor  did  this 
spirit  of  opposition  to  the  doctrines  and  usurp- 
ations of  the  Romish  church  break  out  in  Sax- 
on v  alone  ;  an  attack  no  less  violent,  and  occa- 
sioned by  the  same  causes,  was  made  upon 
them  about  this  time  in  Switzerland.  The  Fran- 
ciscans being  intrusted  with  the  promulgation 
of  indulgences  in  that  country,  executed  their 
commission  with  the  same  indiscretion,  which 
had  rendered  the  Dominicans  so  odious  in  Ger- 
many. They  proceeded  nevertheless  with  un- 
interrupted success  till  they  arrived  at  Zurich. 
There  Zuinglius,  a  rian  not  inferior  to  Lu- 
ther in  zeal  and  intrepidity,  ventured  to  oppose 
them ;  and  being  animated  With  a  republican 
boldness,  he  advanced  with  more  daring  and 
rapid  steps  to  overturn  the  whole  fabric  of  the 
established  religion.  The  appearance  of  such  a 
vigorous  auxilfary,  and  the  progress  which  he 
made,  was  at  first  matter  of  great  joy  to  Luther. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  decrees  of  the  universi- 
ties of  Cologne  and  Louvaine,  which  pronounc- 
ed his  opinions  to  be  erroneous,  afforded  great 
cause  of  triumph  to  his  adversaries. 

But  the  undaunted  spirit  of  Luther  acquired 
additional  fortitude  from  every  instance  of  op- 
position ;  and  he  began  to  shake  the  firmest 
foundations  on  which  the  wealth  or  power  of 
the  church  were  established.  At  last,  on  the 
luth  of  June,  1520,  the  bull,  so  fatal  to  the 
church  of  Rome,  was  issued.  Forty-one  pro- 
positions, extracted  out  of  Luther's  works,  are 
therein  condemned  as  heretical,  scandalous, 


ind  offensive  to  pious  ears;  all  persons  are  for- 
bidden to  read  his  writings,  upon  pain  of  ex- 
communication ;  such  as  had  any  of  them  in 


their  custody,  are  commanded  to  commit  them 
to  the  flames  :  he  himself,  if  he  did  not,  within 
GO  days,  publicly  recant  his  errors,  and  burn  his 
books,  is  pronounced  an  obstinate  heretic ;  is 
excommunicated,  and  delivered  unto  Satan  for 
the  destruction  of  his  flesh ;.  and  all  secular 
princes  are  required,  under  pain  of  incurring 
the  same  censure,  to  seize  his  person,  that  he 
might  be  punished  as  his  crimes  deserved. 

This  sentence,  which  he  had  for  some  time 
expected,  did  not  disconcert  or  intimidate  Lu- 
ther. After  renewing  his  appeal  to  the  general 
council,  he  published  remarks  upon  the  bull  of 
excommunication;  and  being  now  persuaded 
tlint  Leo  had  been  guilty  both  of  impiety  and 
injustice  in  his  proceedings  against  him,  he 
boldly  declared  the  pope  to  be  that  man  of  sin, 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


REF 


428 


REF 


or  antichrist,  whose  appearance  is  foretold  in 
the  New  Testament ;  he  declaimed  against  his 
tyranny  and  usurpations  with  greater  violence 
than  ever;  he  exhorted  all  Christian  princes 
to  shake  off  such  an  ignominious  yoke  ;  and 
boasted  of  his  own  happiness  in  being  marked 
out  as  the  object  of  ecclesiastical  indignation, 
because  he  had  ventured  to  assert  the  liberty  of 
mankind.  In  the  following  year  he  was  re- 
quested to  appear  before  his  avowed  enemy, 
the  Emperor  Charles  V,  in  the  diet  at  Worms, 
when,  unmoved  by  the  apprehensions  of  his 
friends,  who  reminded  him  of  the  fate  of  Huss, 
he  instantly  obeyed,  and  there  acknowledged, 
that  his  writings  had  occasionally  been  violent 
and  acrimonious ;  but  he  refused  to  retract  his 
opinions,  until  they  should  be  proved  erroneous 
by  the  scriptures. 

An  edict,  pronouncing  him  an  excommuni- 
cated criminal,  and  commanding  the  seizure  of 
his  person  as  soon  as  the  duration  of  the  safe 
conduct  which  he  had  obtained  should  have  ex- 
pired, was  immediately  promulgated.  Freder- 
ick the  Wise,  elector  of  Saxony,  who  had  all 
along  countenanced  him  without  professing  his 
doctrines,  now  withdrew  him  from  the  storm. 
As  Luther  was  returning  from  Worms,  a  troop 
of  horsemen,  in  masks,  rushed  from  a  wood, 
seized  him,  and  conveyed  him  to  the  castle 
of  Wartburg,  where  he  was  concealed  nine 
months,  encouraging  his  adherents  by  his  pen, 
and  cheered  in  return  by  accounts  of  the  rapid 
diffusion  of  his  doctrines.  John,  the  successor 
of  Frederick,  took  a  decisive  step,  and  establish- 
ed the  reformed  religion  in  1527  throughout 
his  dominions.  In  a  diet  at  Spires,  held  about 
the  same  time,  the  execution  of  the  edict  of 
Worms  against  the  Lutherans,  now  too  formid- 
able to  be  oppressed  with  impunity,  was  sus- 
pended until  the  convocation  of  a  general  coun- 
cil, to  remedy  the  disorders  of  the  church.  But 
in  another  diet  held  at  the  same  place,  in  1512!), 
the  suspension  was  revoked  by  a  decree  obtain- 
ed through  the  influence  of  Charles;  who  then 
found  himself  at  more  leisure  to  push  forward 
his  views  against  the  supporters  of  the  reform- 
ation. Against  this  new  decree,  six  princes, 
and  the  deputies  of  thirteen  imperial  cities  and 
towns,  solemnly  protested  ;  and  from  this  the 
appellation  of  Protestants  became  common  to  all 
who  embraced  the  reformed  religion.  At  the 
diet  of  Augsburg,  in  Swabia,  the  following 
year,  a  clear  statement  of  the  reformed  faith, 
drawn  up  by  Luther  and  Melancthon,  was  pre- 
sented to  Charles  and  the  diet,  on  behalf  of  the 
Protestant  members  of  the  empire  ;  and  hence 


it  obtained  the  name  of  "  the  Confession  of 
Augsburg."  This  confession  was  received  as 
the  standard  of  the  Protestant  faith  in  Germany. 
The  same  or  next  year,  the  Protestant  princes 
made  the  famous  league  of  Smalkalde,  for  the 
mutual  defence  of  their  religion,  which  obliged 
the  emperor  to  grant  the  Protestant  Luther- 
ans a  toleration,  till  the  differences  in  religion 
should  be  settled  in  a  council,  which  he  engaged 
himself  to  call  in  six  months.  The  Protestant 
party  gaining  strength  every  day,  instead  of 
being  viewed  only  as  a  religious  sect,  as  hither- 
to, soon  came  to  be  considered  as  a  political 
body  of  no  small  consequence  ;  and  having  re- 
fused the  bull  for  convening  a  council  at  Man 
tua,  Charles  summoned  a  general  diet  at  Ratis- 
bon,  where  a  scheme  of  religion,  for  reconcil- 
ing the  two  parties,  was  examined  and  proposed, 
but  without  effect. 

At  length,  in  1545,  the  famous  council  of 
Trent  was  opened  for  accommodating  the  dif- 
ferences in  religion;  but  the  Protestants  refused 
to  attend  or  obey  a  council  convoked  in  the 
name,  and  by  the  authority,  of  the  pope,  and 
governed  by  his  legates.  The  following  year 
Luther  died,  but  the  work  of  reformation  which 
he  had  begun  did  not  die  with  him  ;  for  though 
Charles,  having  concluded  a  treaty  with  the 
pope  for  the  destruction  of  the  reformed  reli- 
gion and  its  adherents,  assembled  troops  on  all 
sides,  and  was  at  first  successful  in  the  field, 
yet  on  the  appearance  of  Maurice,  elector  of 
Saxony,  in  arms  ngiiinst  him,  with  a  force 
which  he  was  wholly  unprepared  to  resist,  he 
was  checked  in  his  career,  and  the  consequences 
were,  the  "  religious  peace,"  concluded  at  Pas- 
sau,  in  Bavaria,  in  1552,  and  the  complete 
security  of  religious  freedom  to  the  Protestant 
states  in  Germany,  which  they  have  enjoyed 
ever  since.  During  the  course  of  these  events 
the  reformed  opinions  were  extending  their  in- 
fluence in  various  other  countries.  Before  this 
time,  tlicv  were  completely  adopted  in  Sweden, 
and  had  likewise  obtained  perfect  toleration  in 
Denmark,  where  the}7  were  adopted  soon  after 
as  the  doctrines  of  the  national  church.  They 
were,  also,  da  ilv  gaining  con  verts  in  other  king- 
doms of  Europe.  They  acquired  many  friends 
even  in  Italy.  They  privately  diffused  them- 
selves in  Spain,  notwithstanding  the  crowded 
dungeons  and  busy  flames  of  the  Inquisition. 

In  France  they  had  still  more  ample  success, 
where  their  abettors  have  long  been  contempt- 
uously termed  Huguenots.  This  appellation 
was  given  to  the  Protestants  in  France  in  15GO, 
and  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  derived  from  a 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REG 


429 


REV 


gate  in  Tours  called  Huguon,  where  they  first 
assembled.  According  to  others,  the  name  is 
taken  from  the  first  words  of  their  original  pro- 
test, or  confession  of  faith,  Hue  nos  venimus, 
&c.  At  Geneva,  they  were  firmly  established 
by  Calvin  ;  but  their  principal  triumph  was  in 
Great  Britain,  where  the  papal  power  and  juris- 
diction were  abolished  by  parliament,  the  king 
was  declared  supreme  head  of  the  church,  and 
all  the  authority  of  which  the  popes  were  de- 
prived was  vested  in  him. 

In  England,  that  vast  fabric  of  ecclesiastical 
dominion,  which  had  been  raised  with  sucli  art, 
and  of  which  the  foundations  seemed  to  have 
been  laid  so  deep,  being  no  longer  supported  by 
the  veneration  of  the  people,  was  overturned  in 
a  moment.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI,  a  total 
separation  was  made  from  the  church  of  Rome 
in  articles  of  doctrine,  as  well  as  in  matters  of 
discipline  and  jurisdiction. 

The  Roman  Catholics  themselves  are  ready 
to  admit,  that  the  papal  doctrines  and  authority 
would  soon  have  fallen  into  ruin  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  in  consequence  of  the  opposition 
made  lothem  by  Luther  and  his  adherents,  had 
not  the  force  of  the  secular  arm,  and  the  fire 
of  the  Inquisition,  been  employed  to  support 
tin?  tottering  edifice.  In  the  Netherlands  par- 
ticularly, the  most  grievous  persecutions  took 
place  ;  so  that,  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  up- 
wards of  100,000  were  destroyed,  whilst  still 
greater  cruelties  were  exercised  upon  the  peo- 
ple there  by  his  son.  Philip  II.  The  formida- 
ble ministers  of  the  Inquisition  put  so  many  to 
death,  and  perpetrated  such  horrid  acts  of  cru- 
elty and  oppression  in  Italy,  &c,  that  most  of 
the  reformed  consulted  their  safety  by  a  volun- 
tary exile,  while  others  returned  to  the  religion 
of  Rome,  at  least  in  external  appearance.  In 
France,  too.  the  Huguenots  were  persecuted 
with  unparalleled  fury;  and,  though  many 
princes  of  the  blood,  and  of  the  first  nobilitv, 
had  embraced  their  sentiments,  yet  in  no  part 
of  the  world  did  the  reformers  suffer  more. 

REGULUS,  M.  Attiliius,  a  consul  during 
the  first  Punic  war.  He  reduced  Brundusium; 
and,  in  his  second  consulship,  he  took  sixty- 
four,  and  sunk  thirty,  galleys  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian fleet  on  the  coast  of  Sicily.  Afterwards 
he  landed  in  Africa;  and  so  rapid  was  his  suc- 
cess, that  in  a  short  time  he  defeated  three  gen- 
erals, and  made  himself  master  of  about  two 
bundred  places  of  consequence  on  the  coast. 
The  Carthaginians  sued  for  peace,  but  the  con- 
queror refused  to  grant  it,  and  soon  after  he  was 
defeated  in  a  battle  by  Xanthippus,  and  30,000 


of  his  men  were  left  on  the  field  of  battle,  and 
15,000  taken  prisoners.  Regulus  was  in  the 
number  of  the  captives,  and  he  was  carried  in 
triumph  to  Carthage.  He  was  afterwards  sent 
by  the  enemy  to  Rome  to  propose  an  accommo- 
dation, and  an  exchange  of  prisoners  ;  and,  if 
his  commission  was  unsuccessful,  he  was  bound 
by  the  most  solemn  oaths  to  return  to  Carthage 
without  delay.  When  he  came  to  Rome,  Reg- 
ulus dissuaded  his  countrymen  from  accepting 
the  terms  which  the  enemy  proposed ;  and  when 
his  opinion  had  had  due  influence  on  the  senate, 
he  then  retired  to  Cartilage,  agreeably  to  his  en- 
gagements. The  Carthaginians  were  told  that 
their  oilers  of  peace  had  been  rejected  at  Rome 
by  the  means  of  Regulus ;  and,  therefore,  they 
prepared  to  punish  him  with  the  greatest  sever- 
ity. His  eyelids  were  cut  off,  and  he  was  expos- 
ed for  some  days  to  the  excessive  heat  of  the 
meridian  sun,  and  afterwards  confined  in  a  bar- 
rel, whose  sides  were  every  where  filled  with 
large  iron  spikes,  till  he  died  in  the  greatest 
agonies.  His  sufferings  were  known  at  Rome, 
and  the  senate  permitted  his  widow  to  inflict 
whatever  punishments  she  pleased  on  some  of 
the  most  illustrious  captives  of  Cartharge  who 
were  in  their  hands.  She  confined  them  also  in 
presses  filled  with  sharp  iron  points  ;  and  was 
so  exquisite  in  her  cruelty,  that  the  senate  at 
last  interfered,  and  stopped  the  barbarity  of  her 
punishments.  Regulus  died  about  2ol  years 
before  Christ. 

REVOLUTION,  AMERICAN.  For  an  ac- 
count of  the  causes  which  produced  this  great 
event,  the  reader  is  icferred  to  the  article  United 
States.  In  the  present  article  we  shall  present 
a  somewhat  detailed  account  of  the  war,  touch- 
ing briefly,  however,  on  those  events  which 
have  been  noticed  under  their  respective  heads. 

The  first  battle  of  the  American  Revolution 
was  fought  upon  the  19th  of  April,  1775,  at 
Lexington  and  Concord.  Stores  had  been  col- 
lected at  the  last  named  place,  18  miles  from 
Boston,  for  the  American  army,  and  General 
Gage  determined  to  destroy  them.  Wishing 
to  do  it  without  fightinsr,  he  sent  out  800  grena- 
diers and  light  infantry,  from  Boston,  at  11 
o'clock  in  the  evening  of  the  18th.  as  silently 
as  possible.  It  was  heard  of.  however,  in  the 
country.  By  two  o'clock  in  the  morning.  130 
of  the  Lexington  militia  had  assembled  on  the 
green,  at  the  meeting-house,  to  oppose  them. 
They  were  dismissed,  but  collected  again  be- 
tween four  and  five,  at  the  beat  of  the  drum. 
The  800  British  troops  came  marching  up  the 
road,  Major  Pitcairn  at  their  head. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


REV 


430 


REV 


"  Disperse,  you  rebels  !"  cried  the  major,  ad- 
dressing the  militia ;  "  throw  down  your  arms, 
and  disperse  !"  They  did  not  disperse,  however. 
He  now  rode  forward,  discharged  a  pistol,  bran- 
dished his  sword,  and  ordered  his  soldiers  to 
fire.  They  did  so,  and  three  or  four  of  the 
Americans  were  killed.  The  soldiers  shouted, 
fired  again,  and  then  proceeded  towards  Con- 
cord. 

At  Concord,  they  disabled  two  large  cannon, 
threw  500  pounds  of  ball  into  wells,  and  staved 
about  GO  barrels  of  flour.  They  fired  upon  the 
Concord  militia  under  Major  Butterick's  com- 
mand. Two  men  were  killed;  a  skirmish  fol- 
lowed, and  the  English  retreated,  as  fast  as 
possible,  to  Lexington.  The  people  we:e  com- 
ing upon  them,  by  this  time,  from  all  parts  of 
the  country.  The  British  were  fired  upon,  on 
all  sides,  from  the  sheds,  houses  and  fences. 

At  Lexington,  where  they  halted  to  rest,  they 
were  joined  by  900  more  troops,  sent  out  from 
Boston,  under  Lord  Percy.  These  brought  two 
cannon  with  them;  and  the  country  people  were 
kept  back.  They  still  fired  upon  the  troops, 
however,  and,  being  generally  good  marksmen, 
made  terrible  havoc.  The  regulars,  as  the  En- 
glish troops  were  called,  reached  Charlestown 
at  sunset,  and  returned  the  next  day  into  Bos- 
ton. Sixty-five  of  their  number  had  been  kill- 
ed, one  hundred  and  eighty  wounded,  and 
twenty-eight  made  prisoners.  Of  the  provin- 
cials, fifty  were  killed,  and  thirty-eight  wound- 
ed and  missing.  There  were  never  more  than 
three  or  four  hundred  of  the  latter  fighting  at 
one  time,  and  these  fought  as  they  pleased, 
without  order.  The  regulars  were  obliged  to 
keep  in  the  main  road;  but  the  militia,  knowing 
every  inch  of  the  country,  flanked  them,  and 
fired  upon  them  at  all  the  corners. 

The  news  of  this  first  battle  produced  a  tre- 
mendous excitement  throughout  the  country. 
The  dead  were  buried  with  great  ceremony  and 
pomp.  Great  bodies  of  militia  marched  towards 
Boston.  Agreements  were  entered  into  by 
thousands  of  people,  to  defend  the  Bottonian* 
to  the  last  gasp.  The  English  forts,  arsenals, 
magr/ines,  and  public  money,  were  seized  upon 
by  the  people;  and  more  money  was  coined, 
and  more  troops  were  raised. 

Every  body  was  armed,  and  ready  for  battle. 
When  the  news  of  the  Lexington  battle  reached 
Barnstable,  a  company  of  militia  started  oil'  for 
Cambridge  at  once.  In  the  front  rank  was  a. 
young  man,  the  only  child  of  an  old  farmer. 
As  thi-v  came  to  the  old  gentleman's  house, 
they  halU-d  a  moment.  The  drum  and  fife 


ceased.  The  farmer  came  out  with  his  gray 
head  bare.  ':  Cod  be  with  you  all,"  said  he  ; 
"  and  you,  John,  if  you  must  fight,  fight  like  a 
man,  or  never  let  me  see  you  again."  The  old 
man  gave  him  his  blessing.  The  poor  fellow 
brushed  a  tear  from  his  eye,  and  the  company 
inarched  on. 

The  news  of  the  battle  reached  a  small  town 
in  Connecticut,  on  the  morning  of  the  Sabbath. 
It  was  nearly  time  to  go  to  meeting,  when  the 
beating  of  a.  drum,  and  the  ringing  of  the  bell, 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  people.  In  ex- 
pectation that  some  great  event  was  about  to 
happen,  every  unusual  signal  had  a  startling 
effect  upon  the  public  ear.  When  the  drum 
and  the  bell  were  heard,  therefore,  the  men 
came  running  to  the  meeting-house  green,  in 
breathless  haste.  Soon  the  clergyman  was 
among  them,  and  they  were  all  told,  that  some 
of  their  countrymen  had  been  shot  by  the  Brit- 
ish soldiers,  at  Lexington.  The  faces  of  the 
men,  as  they  heard  it,  were  pale,  but  not  from 
fear;  it'was  immediately  resolved,  that  thirty 
persons  should  be  equipped,  and  set  out  for 
Boston.  Those  who  could  best  go,  were  select- 
ed, and  went  home  to  make  preparations. 

At  noon,  they  had  all  returned  to  the  little 
lawn  in  front  of  the  meeting-house.  Theie 
was  a  crowd  of  people  around.  There  were 
friends,  and  acquaintances,  and  wives,  and 
children.  Such  as  were  not  well  supplied  with 
clothes  and  equipments,  were  immediately  sup- 
plied by  their  neighbors.  Among  the  crowd, 
there  was  one  remarkable  individual.  This 
was  a  rich  old  miser,  who  was  never  known 
to  part  with  his  money,  but  with  extreme 
reluctance.  On  the  present  occasion,  his  na- 
ture seemed  changed.  lie  took  several  of 
the  soldiers  apart,  whom  he  supposed  likely 
to  be  destitute,  and  put  into  their  hands  about 
thirty  dollars  in  hard  cash ;  at  the  same  time 
saying,  in  a  low  voice,  "  Shoot  the  rascals ! 
shoot  them  !  If  you  come  back,  perhaps  you  will 
pay  me;  if  not,  God  bless  you/' 

"After  all  the  arrangements  were  made,  the 
soldiers  entered  the  broad  aisle  of  the  church. 
An  aftecting  and  fervent  prayer  was  then  offer- 
ed by  the  clergyman,  in  behalf  of  the  country, 
and  in  behalf  of  these  brave  men.  lliat  were 
about  to  enter  upon  the  dangerous  chances  of 
war.  After  the  prayer,  he  made  a  short  but 
animated  address,  encouraging  the  men  to  do 
their  dutv.  He  pronounced  a  blessing,  and 
then  they  departed. 

General  Putnam  was  a  farmer,  and  was 
ploughing  in  the  tield,  when  the  tidings  from 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


431 


REV 


Lexington  were  brought  to  him.  He  did  not 
stay  even  to  unharness  his  cattle  ;  but,  leaving 
the  plough  in  the  unfinished  furrow,  he  went 
to  his  house,  gave  some  hasty  directions  re- 
specting his  affairs,  mounted  his  horse,  and 
with  a  rapid  pace  proceeded  to  Boston. 

The  Assembly  was,  at  this  time,  sitting  at 
Watertown,  a  few  miles  from  Boston.  They 
sent  a  letter,  explaining  the  whole  affair,  to  the 
English  people.  They  complained,  that  the 
troops  had  long  been  insulting  the  provincials, 
and  had  now  undertaken  to  murder  them. 
They  begged  of  the  government  to  interfere, 
and  prevent  war ;  but  declared,  they  would 
submit  to  no  more  tyranny.  They  called  God 
to  witness  the  justice  of  their  cause,  and  p'edg- 
ed  themselves  to  defend  each  other  to  the  last 
drop  of  blood. 

Letters  were  sent  also  to  other  Colonies. 
They  voted  to  raise  a  large  army,  and,  in  a 
short  time,  30,000  were  assembled  about  Bos- 
ton ;  thousands,  who  were  not  needed,  were 
sent  home.  General  Putnam  commanded  at 
Cambridge,  and  General  Thomas  at  lloxbury; 
all  intercourse  between  the  English  troops  and 
the  country  ended  at  once. 

It  must  be  considered,  however,  that  this 
collection  of  people  was  very  different  from  a 
well-trained  army.  But  they  were  brave,  and 
heartily  devoted  to  the  cause.  The  country 
people' supplied  them  with  large  quantities  of 
vegetables  and  meat.  But  they  went  and  came 
as  they  pleased.  They  had  few  uniforms :  their 
muskets  were  of  all  sizes  and  shapes  ;  they  had 
only  sixteen  cannon,  and  half  of  these  were  not 
fit  for  use  ;  and.  though  all  the  men  were  good 
marksmen,  only  a  few  regiments  had  been 
trained  enough  to- appeal-  like  regular  soldiers. 

The  same  might  be  said  of  the  *  militia 
throughout  the  country.  But  they  determined 
to  make  the  best  of  themselves,  of  their  heavy 
old  cannon,  and  rusty  muskets;  and  were  in 
great  hopes,  that,  by  a  few  short  battles,  the 
English  would  be  entirely  driven  from  the 
country.  The  English,  on  the  other  hand, 
especially  in  England,  had  a  mean  opinion  of 
the  American  courage.  One  of  their  generals 
promised,  if  they  would  give  him  five  or  six 
regiments,  he  would  drive  the  whole  of  these 
cowardly  rebels  from  one  end  of  the  continent 
to  the  other. 

The  British  troops  soon  began  to  feel  a  little 
uncomfortable  in  Boston.  The  provincials  had 
surrounded  them  so  completely,  that  no  pro- 
visions could  enter  the  city.  Fresh  meat  and 
vegetables  were  very  scarce  ;  and  though  they 
37 


had  vessels  enough,  they  could  get  no  supplies 
on  the  coast  of  New  England.  The  people 
every  where  had  driven  their  cattle  into  the 
back  country. 

The  governor  would  not  suffer  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Boston  to  leave  the  town.  He  feared 
that,  if  they  left,  the  Americans  would  fall  upon 
him  at  once.  But  he  promised  them,  at  last, 
that,  if  all  their  arms  'should  be  handed  in  at 
Faneuil  Hall,  or  some  other  place,  they  should 
be  allowed  to  go  away,  and  thirty  carts  should 
be  admitted  from  the  country  to  carry  off  their 
furniture. 

About  1800  muskets,  and  a  great  many  pis- 
tols and  bayonets,  were  given  up  accordingly ; 
and  several  of  the  citizens  received  passports, 
and  left  the  town.  But  the  'governor  soon 
after  pretended,  that  the  people  had  deceived 
him,  in  keeping  back  part  of  their  arms,  and  he 
refused  any  more  passports.  The  poor  and 
sick  only  were  suffered  to  go.  Among  these, 
there  were  several  who  were  terribly  afflicted 
with  the  small-pox.  The  disease  spread  among 
the  militia  about  Boston,  and  the  Americans 
were  now  more  angry  than  ever,  for  they  sus- 
pected this  to  be  a  matter  of  design  on  the  part 
of  General  Gage. 

While  these  things  were  passing,  the  other 
Provinces  were  also  preparing  for  war.  The 
people  of  New  York  refused  the  English  troops 
there  all  supplies.  They  armed  and  trained 
themselves,  seized  upon  the  ammunition  in  the 
arsenals,  removed  the  women  and  children, 
and  determined,  if  nothing  else  would  do,  to 
burn  the  whole  of  that  large  and  beautiful  city. 
In  New  Jersey,  at  the  news  of  the  Lexington 
battle,  the  people  seized  upon  the  public  treas- 
ure, and,  at  Baltimore,  upon  about  1500  Eng 
lish  muskets.  Similar  steps  were  taken  in 
South  Carolina,  where  two  regiments  of  infan- 
try, (foot  soldiers.)  and  one  of  cavalry,  (horse- 
men.) were  raised  in  a  few  days. 

There  was,  at  this  time,  a  great  deal  of  diffi 
culty  in  Virginia,  between  the  English  gover- 
nor, Dunmore,  and  the  Assembly.  He  feared 
the  people  would  seize  en  the  powder  of  the 
public  magazine  at  Williamsburgh,  and  order- 
ed it  to  be  carried  on  board  a  vessel  called  the 
Jasper,  lying  at  anchor  in  the  river  James. 
The  mob  crowded  about  his  house ;  and  he  be 
gan  to  talk  of  setting  free  the  negro  slaves,  and 
destroying  the  city.  On  the  whole,  it  was  clear, 
that  both  "the  governor  and  the  people  were  in 
a  humor  for  fighting. 

They  went  farther  than  this  in  Connecticut. 
It  was  there  resolved  to  undertake  an  expedi- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


REV 


432 


REV 


tion  to  Ticonderoga,  on  Lake  Champlain,  near 
Canada.  As  this  place  was  full  of  stores,  and 
stood  upon  the  great  route  by  which  every  thing 
and  every  body  passed,  between  Canada  and 
the  Provinces,  it  was  important  to  conquer  it. 
The  Connecticut  Assembly  voted  1,800  dollars 
for  the  purpose ;  and  powder,  ball,  and  whatever 
would  be  needed  for  a  siege,  was  provided. 

The  troops  assembled  with  as  Ijttle  display  as 
possible,  at  Castletown,  on  the  banks  of  Wood 
Creek,  on  the  great  road  to  Ticonderoga.  Some 
of  these  troops  were  from  Connecticut,  some 
from  the  Boston  army,  and  some  were  people 
from  the  Green  Mountains,  in  Vermont.  These 
latter  were  called  Green  Mountain  Boys,  and 
were  famous  for  skill  in  the  use  of  the  rifle. 

The  capt  tin  of  one  of  these  companies  cap- 
tured an  English  officer,  a  year  or  two  afier  the 
time  we  are  speaking  of.  The  Englishman 
complained  to  the  American  captain,  that  these 
riflemen  gave  the  regulars  a  great  deal  of  trou- 
ble. "  They  aim,"  said  he,  "  at  an  English 
officer,  as  far  as  they  can  see  his  uniform  plain- 
ly, and  shoot  him  dead.  They  hardly  conde- 
scend to  kill  any  thing  less  than  a  corporal." 

"  They  can  do  better  still,"  said  the  Ameri- 
can captain  ;  and  he  ordered  up  two  of  his 
riflemen.  "  Is  your  piece  in  good  order  ?  "  said 
lie  to  the  first.  "  Yes,  sir,"  answered  the  Green 
Mountaineer.  He  then  stuck  a  knife  in  a  tree, 
about  fifty  paces  distant,  and  ordered  the  man  to 
split  his  ball.  He  fired,  and  the  ball  was  cut  in 
two  pieces  on  the  edge  of  the  knife.  The  other 
was  ordered  to  shoot  the  ace  of  clubs  out  of  a 
card;  and  he  did  so.  The  Englishman  was 
amazed.  These  sharp-shooters  had  only  been 
four  weeks  from  their  ploughs  in  Vermont. 

The  leaders  of  the  expedition  against  Ticon- 
deroga, were  Colonel  Ethan  Allen  and  Colonel 
Easton.  They  were  joined  at  Castletown  by 
Colonel  Arnold,  from  the  Boston  army.  They 
marched  on  quietly,  and  arrived  in  tin-  niirht 
on  the  bunk  of  the  lake,  opposite  Ticonderoga. 
They  crossed  over,  and  landed  on  the  other 
side,  close  by  the  fortress. 
'  They  entered  it  under  the  covered  way.  by 
..  with  a  tremendous  shout.  The  sol- 
diers of  the  garrison  were  roused,  ran  out,  half 
dressed,  and  began  firing.  A  hot  seu!'.L>.  with 
gun-breeches  and  bayonets,  hand  to  hand,  en- 
sued. The  commander  of  the  fort  ca>ne  at  las'. 
Colonel  Allen  ordered  him  to  surrender.  "  T  > 
whom  -  "  said  the  olh'cer,  in  great  astonishment. 
"  To  the  American  Congress!  "  said  Allen,  in 
a  voice  of  thunder.  The  commander  saw  it 
was  in  vain  to  resist,  and  BO  he  gave  up  the 


fort.  Here  were  found  124  fine  brass  cannon, 
and  a  large  quantity  of  ammunition . 

A  hundred  cannon  more  were  taken  by  the 
Americans  at  Crown  Point,  another  fort  on  the 
snme  lake,  defended  by  a  small  garrison.  The 
next  plan  was  to  seize  upon  an  English  armed 
vessel,  called  a  corvette,  which  lay  anchored 
near  fort  St.  John.  The  Americans  soon  rigged 
out  a  schooner.  Arnold  commanded  it.  and  sail- 
ed with  a  fair  wind  for  the  fort,  while  Allen 
followed  slowly,  with  his  troops,  in  some  flat 
boats. 

Arnold  came  upon  the  corvette,  and  captured 
it  without  the  least  difficulty.  The  wind  sud- 
denly shifted,  and  he  was  far  on  his  way  back. 
with  the  prize,  when  he  met  Allen  and  the 
boats.  After  taking  another  fort  at  Skeensbo- 
rough,  the  officers  and  soldiers  returned  home. 

Meanwhile,  the  English  were  skirmishing 
with  the  provincials  at  Boston.  There  were 
some  islands  in  the  harbor,  where  the  English 
found  forage  for  their  horses  and  cattle.  The 
Americans"  undertook  to  carry  orT  these  cattle 
from  Noddle's  Island  and  Hog  Island,  and  suc- 
ceeded, after  some  fighting.  They  scoured 
Pettick's  Island  and  Deer  Island,  soon  after,  in 
the  same  way.  The  English  were  put  to  a  good 
deal  of  trouble  to  get  food. 

They  were  finally  so  much  pressed  by  the 
American  army,  that  General  Gage  found  him- 
self obliged  to  make  a  new  effort  against  them. 
The  provincials  hud  sent  1000  men.  under 
Colonel  Piescott,  to  f>rtifv  Bunker's  Hill,  in 
Charlestown.  Instead  <>f  d.'hi1.;  BO,  however. 
by  some  mistake,  he  fortified  Breed's  Hill, 
which  is  nenror  the  city.  '1  he  Americans  took 
possession  of  it  in  the  evening,  and  worked  so 
well,  that,  before  morning,  they  had  thrown  up 
a  redoubt  about  eio-ht  rods  square;  and  so 
silently,  that  the  British  knew  nothing  of  it  till 
day-break. 

The  latter,  when  they  discovered  1he  redoubt, 
bog:in  firing  upon  the  people  in  the  fort ;  but 
the  Americans  worked  on.  till  they  raised  a 
breastwork,  reaching  from  the  cast  side  of  the 
redoubt  to  the  bottom  of  the  hill.  As  Breed's 
Hill  commands  the  citv.  the  British  saw  they 
must  either  be  driven  off,  or  drive  oiF  the  pro- 
vincials. They,  therefore,  opened  a  tremendous 
fire  from  the  batteries  and  armed  vessels,  that 
floated  on  all  the  waters  about  Boston.  Show- 
ers of  bombs  and  balls  wore  fired.  A  terrible 
battery  was  raised  upon  Copp's  Hill,  opposite 
Breed's  ;  but  all  in  vain.  The  Americans  work- 
ed on,  and  had  finished  a  liench.  or  ditch  before 
noon,  which  reached  to  the  bottom  of  the  hill. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


REV 


433 


REV 


It  was  now  the  17th  of  June,  and  on  this  day 
was  fought  the  famous  battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 
The  British  were  determined  to  make  a  great 
effort.  The  provincials  lay  ready  for  them  on 
the  hill.  General  Putnam,  of  Connecticut, 
commanded  the  whole  force.  They  had  mus- 
kets, but  few  of  them  bayonets  or  rifles.  They 
were  sharp-shooters,  however,  and  were  brave 
men  as  ever  breathed. 

About  noon  of  a  terribly  hot  day,  the  whole 
British  camp  seemed  to  be  in  motion.  A  vast 
multitude  of  sloops  and  boats  started  from  the 
Boston  shore,  covering  the  water  far  and  wide. 
The  soldiers  landed  at  Moreton's  Point,  in 
Charlcstown,  protected  by  their  batteries  behind 
them.  Here  they  paraded  in  fine  order.  They 
were  the  flower  of  the  English  army,  and  were 
commanded  by  General  Howe  and  General 
Pigot.  But  the  Americans  appeared  a  little  too 
strong  and  too  cool  for  them ;  and  they  waited 
for  a  few  more  companies  to  join  them. 

The  Americans  took  this  opportunity  to  pro- 
tect themselves  still  more,  by  pulling  up  some 
post  and  rail  fences,  which  they  set  before  them, 
in  two  rows,  and  filled  the  space  between  with 
fresh  hay,  which  they  gathered  from  the  hill. 
The  British  began  to  march.  The  militia  left 
to  defend  Charlestown,  retreated.  The  British 
entered  it,  and  set  fire  to  the  buildings.  In  a 
few  moments,  500  wooden  buildings  were  in 
flames.  The  wind  blew  high,  and  the  fire 
streamed  up,  and  roared  in  the  most  terrible 
manner. 

Thousands  of  people  were  gazing  at  the 
scene,  from  the  Boston  steeples,  and  waiting 
with  great  anxiety  for  the  fate  of  the  battle. 
There  were  multitudes,  also,  on  all  the  high 
roofs  and  hills  round  about.  Never  was  there 
such  a  bustle  and  stir.  The  English  marched 
slowly  towards  the  redoubt,  halting  now  and 
then. "for  the  cannon  to  come  up  and  fire.  They 
came,  at  last,  within  musket-shot;  and  the  re- 
doubt, which  had  been  as  still  as  the  grave,  till 
this  moment,  blazed  all  at  once,  with  a  tremen- 
dous volley. 

The  British  were  soon  thinned  off,  and  com- 
pelled to  retreat.  Many  fled  for  their  lives,  and 
threw  themselves  into  the  boats.  The  green 
*ield  of  battle  was  covered  with  dead  bodies. 
The  officers  ran  hither  and  thither,  to  rally  the 
troops;  and,  after  some  time,  persuaded  them 
to  march  forward  again.  The  Americans  wait- 
ed for  them  qtfietly,  and  reeeived  them  once 
more  with  a  flood  of  balls.  The  British  fled 
down  the  hill  to  the  shore. 

General  Howe  was  alone  upon  the  field ;  all 


his  officers  being  killed  and  wounded  around 
him.  General  Clinton,  wno  had  been  watching 
the  battle  from  Copp's  Hill,  now  came  to  hi* 
aid  with  new  troops.  They  made  a  third  effoit, 
with  more  spirit  than  before.  Clinton  led  on 
the  whole  body;  the  cannon  still  firing  from  the 
ships  and  batteries,  and  the  flames  and  smoke 
of  the  burning  town  sweeping  over  them  like 
the  blast  of  a  furnace. 

The  powder  of  the  Americans  was  now  ex- 
hausted, and  they  were  compelled  to  draw  off. 
They  retired  to  Prospect  Hill,  fighting  with 
their  muskets  as  if  they  were  clubs,  and  there 
began  throwing  up  new  works.  The  British 
intrenched  themselves  on  Bunker  Hill,  and 
neither  army  seemed  willing  to  attack  the  other. 
They  had  had  fighting  enough  for  one  day. 
Of  3UOO  British  troops,  1054  were  killed  or 
wounded.  A  large  part  of  these  were  officers. 
The  sharp- shooters  had  taken  the  poor  fellows 
down  like  so  many  gray  squirrels. 

The  Americans  lost  five  pieces  of  cannon. 
Their  killed,  of  about  1,500  engaged  in  the  hat- 
tie,  amounted  to  ]34;  their  wounded  to  314. 
General  Warren  was  among  the  dead.  He  was 
a  brave  man,  and  was  loved  and  lamented  by 
all  classes  of  people.  An  English  officer,  who 
knew  him  by  sight,  saw  him  in  the  retreat, 
rallying  the  Americans.  He  borrowed  a  gun 
of  one  of  his  soldiers,  and,  taking  a  fatal  aim, 
shot  him  in  the  head,  and  he  fell  dead  on  the 
spot. 

The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  as  it  was  called, 
though  fought  on  Breed's  Hill,  had  no  decisive 
effect;  yet  it  roused  the  country,  showed  the 
Americans  that  they  were  able  to  contend  with 
the  regulars,  and  taught  the  British,  that  the 
provincials  were  not  exnctly  the  cowards  they 
had  taken  them  for.  The  capture  of  Breed's 
Hill  did  them  more  hurt  than  good.  They 
were  obliged  to  defend  it  now,  and  they  had 
not  too  many  men  before  to  defend  the  town. 
Their  soldiers  were  also  vvorn  out  with  fatigue, 
and  were  much  depressed  by  the  hot  weather. 

The  Americans  began  now  to  fortify  the 
town  of  Roxbury.  Their  works  went  up  very 
fast,  notwithstanding  the  continual  fire  of  the 
British  cannon.  They  'uad  plenty  of  food,  too, 
while  the  British  were  near  starving.  The 
latter  could  get  nothing  on  the  Boston  islands, 
or  along  the  Massachusetts  coast,  but  by  hard 
fighting  ;  and  very  little  by  that.  They  were 
at  last  obliged  to  let  most  of  the  Bostonians  pass 
out  of  the  town.  They  had  not  provisions 
enough  to  keep  them  alive. 

A  British  sloop  of  war,  the  Falcon,  Captain 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


REV 


434 


REV 


Linzee,  one  day,  "  hove  in  sight,"  as  the  sailors 
say,  off  that  town.  She  had  been  in  search  of 
two  American  schooners  from  the  West  Indies. 
One  of  these,  Captain  Linzee  had  just  captured, 
and  he  now  followed  the  other  into  Gloucester 
harbor. 

He  anchored,  and  sent  two  barges,  with  fif- 
teen men  in  each,  armed  with  muskets  and 
swivels,  and  followed  by  a  whale  boat,  in  which 
was  a  lieutenant  and  six  privates,  with  orders 
to  seize  the  schooner,  and  bring  her  off.  The 
Gloucester  people  saw  what  was  going  on,  and 
brouffht  out  their  rusty  muskets  along  shore  in 
great  numbers.  The  lieutenant,  with  the  barge- 
men, boarded  the  schooner  at  the  cabin  win- 
dows. The  militia,  however,  began  to  blaze 
away  at  them  off  the  shore.  Three  of  the  Brit- 
ish were  killed,  and  the  lieutenant  was  wound- 
ed in  the  thigh.  He-soori  made  off  for  the  Fal- 
con, as  fast  as  his  boat  would  carry  him. 

Captain  Linzee  now  sent  a  cutter  and  the 
schooner  he  had  taken,  with  orders  to  fire  on 
the  "  saucy  rebels,"  wherever  they  should  see 
them.  He  amused  himself,  meanwhile,  by 
cannonading  the  town.  He  fired  a  broadside 
int>  the  thickest  part  of  the  settlement,  to  begin 
with.  "  Now,"  said  he  to  the  crew,  "  now,  my 
boys,  we'll  aim  at  that  dirty  old  church.  Well 
done  !  crack  away  !  one  shot  more  !  knock  'em 
down !  " 

The  balls  went  through  the  houses  in  every 
direction;  but  not  a  man,  woman  or  child  was 
injured.  Meanwhile  the  men  of  Gloucester  had 
gone  out  upon  the  water,  and  taken  possession 
of  both  schooners,  the  cutter,  the  two  barges, 
the  boat,  and  every  man  in  them  all.  They  had 
but  one  killed,  and  two  wounded.  The  British 
lost  about  forty  men. 

The  Continental  Congress  met  again  at  Phil- 
adelphia, May  7,  1775.^  They  were  men  sent 
from  all  the  Colonies  but  Georgia;  and  though 
they  had  no  precise  right,  by  any  law,  to  act  for 
the  whole  country,  yet  the  whole  country  were 
ready  to  obey  them. 

They  c!i  >se  George  Washington,  of  Virginia, 
commander-in-chief  of  the  American  army,  and 
appointed  miny  other  officers  to  act  under  him. 
Among  these  were  Gates.  Lee,  Schuyler  and 
Montgomery,  of  .New  York;  Po.neroy,  Heath 
and  Thomas,  <>;'  Massachusetts;  Greene,  of 

llh'id"  l:,h:i  1  ;  i'u'rrrii,  Wooster  and  Spi-neer. 
of  Connecticut;  Ward  and  Sullivan,  of  .N'ew 
Hampshire.  These  were  some  of  the  bravest 
arid  lii-st  men  of  the  country. 

General  Washington  went  directly  to  the 
army  at  Cambridge.  He  arrived  there  on  the 


3d  of  July.  Though  he  used  no  parade,  \venrmg 
only  a  small  sword  at  his  side,  epaulettes  on 
his  shoulders,  and  a  black  cockade  on  his  hat, 
he  was  easily  known,  by  his  fine  figure  and 
noble  countenance.  He  was  treated  every 
where  with  tile  greatest  respect. 

Having  reviewed  the  army,  he  found  only 
14,50!)  men  in  a  condition  for  service  ;  these 
had  to  defend  a  line  of  twelve  miles.  They 
were  now  ai ranged  and  trained  as  well  and  as 
fast  as  possible,  no  man  understanding  this 
business  better  than  General  Gates,  who  was  an 
old  soldier,  as  well  as  Washington. 

They  had  not  10,000  pounds  of  powder,  at 
this  time,  in  the  army,  being  only  nine  charges- 
to  a  man.  Had  the  enemy  known  this,  and 
attacked  them,  they  must  have  fled  like  a  flock 
of  deer.  Great  efforts  were  made,  however,  and 
several  tons  soon  arrived  from  New  Jersey. 

The  provincials  had,  at  this  time,  no  riflemen; 
though  light  troops  of  this  kind  were  exceeding- 
ly needed,  to  bring  in  recruits,  and  provisions, 
and  to  scour  such  a  wild  country  as  America 
then  was,  abounding  in  rivers,  swamps,  moun- 
tains, and  woods.  Congress  soon  raised  a  few 
companies  in  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia;  and 
1,400  of  them  arrived  at  the  camp  early  in  Au- 
gust. 

These  troops  had,  some  of  them,  marched  five 
or  six  hundred  miles,  and  were  stout  and  hardy 
men ;  many  of  them  were  more  than  six  feet 
tall.  They  were  dressed  in  white  frocks,  or 
rifle  shirts,  and  round  hats.  They  were  terrible 
fellows  for  sharp-shooting ;  equal  to  the  Green 
Mountain  Boys  already  mentioned.  At  a  re- 
view, a  company  of  them,  on  a  quick  march, 
fired  their  balls  into  marks  seven  inches  across, 
at  the  distance  of  250  yards.  They  often  shot 
down  the  British  officers,  in  Boston,  like  so 
many  wild  animals,  at  more  than  double  the 
common  musket  distance. 

More  powder  was  procured  about  this  time, 
from  the  coast  of  Africa,  in  exchange  for  New 
England  rum.  This  was  managed  so  shrewdly, 
that  every  ounce  in  the  British  torts  there,  was 
bought  up  for  the  America:!  nruiy.  The  Mas- 
s:ieh:iselts  rulers  passed  a  law,"  also,  that  no 
powder  should  be  iired  at  any  beast,  bird,  or 
mnrk  ;  they  wished  it.  all  to  be  saved  for  the  war. 

Congress  took  measures  for  the  coining  of 
money,  and  the  raising  of  troops;  i;i  all  quarters. 
The  people  obeve.l  !.h;:  direeli  us  of  Congress 
with  alacrity.  "  Every  man,  from  sixteen  years 
of  age  to  fifty,  was  a  member  of  some  militia 
company  ;  and  one  fourth  part  of  the  whole, 
c.-iiled  minute  men,  were  to  keep  themselves 
ready  for  action  at  a  moment's  notice. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


435 


REV 


Captains  were  to  be  paid  twenty  dollars  a 
month  ;  lieutenants  and  ensigns,  thirteen  ;  cor- 
porals and  sergeants,  eight;  and  privates,  six. 
No  province  was  more  active  than  Pennsylva- 
nia. Companies  were  raised  in  all  the  country 
towns.  Many  of  the  Quakers,  even  though 
they  did  not  approve  of  fighting,  were  so  carried 
away  with  the  general  feeling,  as  to  turn  out 
and  train  with  the  rest. 

Three  large  battalions  were  raised  in  Phila- 
delphia alone,  besides  artillery,  cavalry,  rifle- 
men, pioneers,  and  others.  They  often  manoau- 
vred  in  presence  of  Congress.  The  whole  city 
was  full  of  the  music  of  drums,  fifes  and  bugles. 

Among  others,  a  company  was  formed  of 
eighty  old  Germans,  who  had,  most  of  them, 
fought  a  long  time  before  in  Europe.  They 
were  called  the  Old  Men's  Company.  Instead 
of  cockades,  they  wore  black  crape,  to  signify 
their  sorrow  at  taking  up  arms  at  such  an  age. 
The  captain  was  near  a  hundred  years  old.  and 
had  been  in  seventeen  battles.  He  had  been 
a  soldier  forty  years.^  The  drummer  was  ninety- 
four,  and  the  youngest  in  the  corps  was  about 
seventy.  In  the  county  of  Bristol,  a  regiment 
was  raised,  and  they  were  clothed,  armed,  and 
furnished  with  colors  bv  the  women. 

About  this  time,  Congress  took  the  necessary 
steps  to  keep  peace  with  the  Indian  tribes.  But 
they  never  employed  them  to  fight  against  the 
English,  though  the  English  hired  them  to  fight 
against  the  Americans.  One  objection  that  the 
Americans  had  to  employing  them  was,  that 
the  Indian  way  of  fighting  was  entirely  too 
barbarous  and  cruel  to  be  suffered  among  civil- 
ized people. 

Another  was,  that  they  could  not  be  depended 
on.  They  were  greedy  for  wages,  hut  so  de- 
ceitful, that  they  could  not  be  safely  trusted. 
A  story  told  of  a  sergeant,  who  travelled  through 
the  woods  of  New  Hampshire,  on  his  way  to 
the  American  army,  will  show  the  character  of 
the  Indians. 

He  had  twelve  men  with  him.  Their  route 
was  far  from  any  settlement ;  and  they  were 
obliged  every  night  to  encamp  in  the  woods. 
The  sergeant  had  seen  a  good  deal  of  the  Indi- 
ans, and  understood  theni  well.  Early  in  the 
afternoon,  one  day,  as  they  were  marching  on, 
over  bogs,  swamps  and  brooks,  under  the  great 
maple  trees,  a  body  of  Indians,  more  than  their 
own  number,  rushed  out  upon  a  hill  in  front  of 
them. 

They  appeared  to  be  pleased  at  meeting  with 
the  sergeant  and  his  men.  They  considered 
them,  they  said,  as  their  best  friends.  For 
37* 


themselves,  they  had  taken  up  the  hatchet  for 
the  Americans,  and  would  scalp  and  strip  those 
rascally  English  for  them,  like  so  many  wild 
cats.  "  How  do  you  do.  pro  ?"  (meaning  broth- 
er,) said  one  ;  and  "  How  do  ye  do,  pro?"  said 
another ;  and  so  they  went  about,  shaking  hands 
with  the  sergeant  and  his  twelve  men. 

They  went  off.  at  last ;  and  the  sergeant, 
having  marched  on  a  mile  or  two.  halted  his 
men.  and  addressed  them.  "  My  brave  fellows," 
said  he,  "  we  must  use  all  possible  caution,  or, 
before  morning,  we  shall  all  of  us  be  dead  men. 
You  are  amazed;  but,  depend  upon  me,  these 
Indians  have  tried  to  put  our  suspicion  to  sleep. 
You  will  see  more  of  them  by  and  by." 

They  concluded,  finally,  to  adopt  the  follow- 
ing scheme  for  defence.  They  encamped  for 
the  night  near  a  stream  of  water,  which  pro- 
tected them  from  behind.  A  large  oak  was 
felled,  and  a  brilliant  fire  kindled.  Each  man 
cut  a  log  of  wood  about  the  size  of  his  body, 
rolled  it  nicc-ly  up  in  his  blanket,  placed  his  hat 
on  the  end  of  it,  and  laid  it  before  the  fire,  that 
the  enemy  might  take  it  for  a  man. 

Thirteen  logs  were  fitted  out  in  this  way, 
representing  the  sergeant  and  his  twelve  men. 
They  then  placed  themselves,  with  loaded  guns, 
behind  the  fallen  tree.  By  this  time,  it  was 
dark ;  but  the  fire  was  kept  burning  till  mid- 
night. The  sergeant  knew,  that  if  the  savages 
ever  came,  they  would  come  now. 

A  tall  Indian  was  seen,  at  length,  through 
the  glimmering  of  the  fire,  which  was  getting 
low.  He  moved  cautiously  towards  them, 
skulking,  as  an  Indian  always  does.  He  seem- 
ed to  suspect,  at  first,  that  a  guard  might  be 
watching;  but,  seeing  none,  he  came  forward 
more  boldly,  rested  on  his  toes,  and  was  seen  to 
move  iiis  finger,  as  he  counted  the  thirteen  men, 
sleeping,  as  he  supposed,  by  the  fire. 

He  counted  them  again,  and  retired.  Another 
camo  u;>.  and  did  the  same.  Then  the  whole 
party,  sixteen  in  number,  came  up.  and  glared 
silently  at  the  logs,  till  they  seemed  to  be  sat- 
isfied they  were  fast  asleep.  Presently  they 
took  aim,  fired  their  whole  number  of  guns 
upon  the  logs,  yelled  the  horrid  war-whoop, 
and  rushed  forward  to  murder  and  scalp  their 
supposed  victims.  The  sergeant  and  his  men 
were  ready  for  them.  They  fired  upon  them  ; 
and  not  one  of  the  Indians  was  left  to  tell  the 
story  of  that  night.  The  sergeant  reached  the 
army  in  safely. 

Treaties  having  been  made  with  the  Indians, 
Congress  recommended,  that  the  20th  day  of 
July,  1775,  should  be  observed,  in  all  the  Pro- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


REV 


436 


REV 


vinces.  as  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer;  and  it 
Was  so.  The  people  were  every  where  disposed 
to  implore  Heaven  to  prevent  war,  and  to  soften, 
the  hearts  of  their  enemies.  In  Philadelphia, 
Congress  attended  church  in  a  body. 

As  they  were  just  entering  the  house  of  wor- 
ship, they  received  news  from  Georgia,  that 
this  Province  had  at  last  concluded  to  join  in 
the  common  cause,  with  the  other  twelve.  Un- 
til this  time,  the  people  there  had  said  and  done 
but  little ;  but  they  determined  now  to  make 
amends  for  lost  time. 

A  Declaration  of  Rights  was  soon  after  writ- 
ten by  Congress,  and  sent  over  every  part  of 
the  country.  It  gave  a  history  of  the  whole 
difficulty,  from  first  to  last,  between  England 
and  America;  and  ended  with  an  account  of 
the  burning  of  Charlestown,  the  seizure  of  the 
provincial  vessels  by  the  British,  and  the  hiring 
of  the  savages  to  fight  against  the  Americans. 

"  We  are~compelled,"  said  they,  '•"  to  submit 
to  tyranny,  or  to  take  up  arms.  We  have 
counted  the  cost  of  this  war,  and  have  deter- 
mined ta  be  free,  as  our  fathers  have  teen  be- 
fore us,  and  as  we  trust  our  children  shall  be 
after  us.  We  declare,  before  God,  that  we  will 
defend  each  other,  and  the  liberties  of  the  whole 
country,  to  the  last  moment  of  life." 

This  was  signed  by  John  Hancock,  president, 
and  by  Clvirles  Thompson,  secretary,  of  Con- 
gress. The  ministers  read  it  from  their  pulpits 
in  all  parts  of  the  nalion.  It  was  read  in  Cam- 
bridge, t  >  a  vast  multitude,  and  General  Putnam 
assembled  his  troops  on  Prospect  Hill  to  hear 
it.  This  was  followed  by  a  prayer  from  a  cler- 
gy mm.  All  the  troops  cried,  three  times, 
"Amen;"  the  artillery  ti.-ed  a  gone  nil  salute, 
and  the  colors  were  seen  flying,  with  the  usual 
mottoes;  on  ons  side,  "  An  appeal  to  Heaven," 
and,  on  the  other,  '•  lie  who  has  brought  us 
over  will  defend  us." 

A  petition  was  next  drawn  tip  to  the  English 
king,  and  address-*  were  written  to  i '.. 
nf  Ku.'hind.  Ireland,  and  Canada.  Congress 
\vrrr  resolved  to  leave  nothinf  unsaid,  or  un- 
done, that  offered  any  chance  of  restoring  peace. 
The  Canadians  were  persuaded  to  remain  Cen- 
tral, taking  no  part  on  either  side. 

The  British  general,  C.irleton,  used  efforts  to 
make  them  enlist  as  soldiers.  They  wore  offer- 
ed two  hundred  acres  of  land  in  any  part,  of 
Arnfric-i  th"v  should  choose,  at  the  end  of  the 
war.  K  n-h  m-irriod  nrin  was  to  Irivo  liliy  acres 
more  for  his  wife,  and  fifty  for  each  of  his  chil- 
dren ;  with  a  guinea,  (about  five  dollars,)  as  a 
bounty,  at  the  time  of  enlisting. 


A  few  only  were  persuaded  in  this  way ;  a 
good  many  Indians,  however,  were  hired.  They 
collected  at  Montreal,  in  great  numbers,  in  July, 
1775.  Among  the  rest  were  six  famous  tribes, 
called  the  Six  Nations.  They  swore,  in  the 
presence  of  Carleton,  to  fight  for  the  English 
king;  and  thus,  soon  after,  the  Indian  war  be- 
gan. 

It  may  seem  strange,  that,  during  the  dis- 
turbances in  the  various  Colonies,  little  or  no- 
thing should  have  been  done,  by  the  English 
governors,  to  put  down  the  rebellion.  The 
truth  is,  they  had  no  troops,  and  not  much  mo- 
ney, at  their  disposal;  and.  before  they  could 
be  supplied,  the  spirit  of  independence  had  gone 
too  far  to  be  repressed. 

In  Virginia,  Governor  Dunmorc,  being  com- 
pelled to  leave  Wiiiiaiasburgh,  and  tearing  that 
it  would  not.  be  safe  for  him  to  remain  upon  the 
laud,  went  on  board  a  royal  armed  vessel.  Hav- 
ing collected  a  fleet,  he  resolved  to  harass  the 
Virginians  as  much  as  possible,  it"  lit1  could 
not  govern  them.  He  was  joined  by  all  the 
tories.  that  is.  the  Americans  who  favored  the 
English. 

He  laid  waste  the  coast,  at  various  places,  in 
the  most  shocking  manner,  murdering  and 
burning  like  a  pirate.  He  burnt  Hampton,  on 
the  bay  of  Hampton,  among  the  rest,  and  un- 
dertook to  establish  his  camp  there.  But  the 
Virginians  soon  drove  him  back  upon  the  wa- 
ter. He  then  declared  all  the  negro  slaves  to 
bo  free,  and  invited  them  to  join  him.  A  few 
of  thorn  succee  K'd  in  d->mcv  SJ. 

lie  landed  again  at  Norfolk,  whore  tiie  tories 
were  numerous;  and  a  battle  was  fought,  a  few 
miles  from  thut  city,  at  a  place  called  Great 
Bridge,  with  a  regiment  of  Virginia  militia 
and  «amnte  men.  The  governor  h;id  only  200 
regulars  about  him.  The  rest  was  a  mere  mob, 
of  black,  white  and  gray. 

The  first  attack  w«  :-h,on 

the;  American  entrenchment.  T  i:  •  battle  lasted 
some  time,  with  a  good  deal  of  spirit.  At  last, 
the  British  captain  was  killed,  and  tho  troops 
fell  b:ick  upon  the  bridge.  The  gov  rnor  did 
not  like  fighting;  so,  during  the  bittle,  he  con- 
tented himself  with  looking  on  at  a  distance. 
The  negnvs  loved  righting  as  little  as  the  gov- 
ernor. Th"v  found  it  bv  no  means  pleasant  to 
have  their  flesh  cut  to  piece.?  wit!)  bullets;  so, 
after  a  few  shots,  they  ran  aw;iy  as  fiist  us  they 
could.  The  governor  also  thought  it  best  to 
retreat,  and,  accordingly,  he  and  his  men  went 
on  board  of  their  vessels. 

This  affair  did  not  serve  to  sweeten  Governor 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


43? 


REV 


Dunmore's  temper  ;  nor  did  it  put  him  in  a 
better  humor,  to  find  that  his  friends,  the  lories  at 
Norfolk,  had  been  handled  roughly  by  the  peo- 
ple there,  after  his  retreat  with  his  ne'gro  allies. 
He  now  returned  into  the  bay,  with  a  ship  of 
war,  and  sent  a  message  ashore,  declaring  that, 
unless  the  people  furnished  him  provisions,  he 
should  batter  the  town  down  about  their  ears. 
They  refused  to  supply  him  :  so  he  gave  them 
notice,  in  the  morning,  to  remove  the  women 
and  children  ;  and  then,  with  his  own  sloop  of 
war,  the  frigate  Liverpool,  and  two  corvettes, 
he  blazed  away  upon  the  place,  till  scarcely  one 
stone  was  left  upon  Another.  The  provincials, 
to  disappoint  him  of  his  provisions,  burnt  the 
whole  country  round  about. 

In  South  Carolina,  Governor  Campbell  ar- 
rived at  Charleston,  from  England,  about  the 
same  time  with  the  news  of  the  Lexington  bat- 
tle. The  people  were  on  their  guaro\  and  he 
tried  in  vain  to  get  the  better  of  them,  by  invit- 
ing the  tories  to  assist  him  ;  but  tlje  tories  were 
afraid  to  do  so.  He  began  to  be  frightened  a 
little  himself,  being  a  man  of  less  courage  than 
Governor  Dunmore ;  so  he  said  little  or  nothing 
for  some  time. 

To  unmask  him,  the  American  leaders  sent 
privately  to  him  one  Adam  Macdonald,  captain 
in  a  militia  regiment.  He  called  himself  Dick 
Williams,  and  offered  his  services  to  the  gov- 
ernor. The  latter  was  delighted,  and  told  him 
all  his  plans.  Having  heard  them  attentively, 
Adam  went  away,  and  told  the  whole  to  the 
persons  who  employed  him. 

They  immediately  sent  a  committee,  Mac- 
donald a;norig  the  number,  to  wait  upon  his 
excellency,  and  request  him  to  show  his  royal 
commission,  if  he  had  any,  as  governor.  He 
declined  this  proposal.  There  were  some  hints 
then  thrown  out,  about  putting  him  in  confine- 
ment. These  came  to  his  ears,  and  he  retreated, 
with  very  little  ceremony  or  delay,  to  arj  Eng- 
lish corvette,  anchored  in  the  harbor.  The 
Assembly  requested  him  to  return  ;  but  he  re- 
fused. 

Nothing  more  was  seen  of  him,  or  his  gov- 
ernment, in  Charleston.  The  tories  were  nu- 
merous in  other  sections  of  the  Province,  how- 
ever, and  he  mustered  them  together  in  great 
force.  The  people  were  alarmed.  The  miljjia 
were  ordered  out ;  and  the  two  parties  were  oij 
the  eve  of  an  engagement.  But  at  length  the 
tories  were  dispersed,  and  they  gave  no  more 
trouble  at  that  time. 

The  provincials  in  South  Carolina  continued 
to  be  very  active.  They  captured  Fort  John- 


son, on  James's  Island,  in  Charleston  harbor, 
and  placed  batteries  on  Point  Huddrel.  The 
English  ships  were  at  last  driven  oft'.  The  next 
thing  with  the  people  was,  to  send  an  expedi- 
tion after  an  English  vessel  laden  with  powder, 
which  was  anchored  on  the  bank,  called  the 
Bar  of  St.  Augustine,  a  town  on  the  coast  of 
East  Florida. ~  She  was  taken,  and  15,000 
pounds  of  powder  were  carried  to  Charleston. 

In  North  Carolina,  the  Provincial  Congress 
raised  1000  regular  militia,  and  3000  minute 
men.  The  English  governor,  Martin,  disliked 
the  appearance  of  things,  and  endeavored  to 
muster  a  force  of  the  Irish  and  Scotch  part  of 
the  inhabitants.  lie  also  fortified  his  own  house, 
at  Newbern,  with  artillery.  The  people  seized 
upon  his  cannon ;  and  he  fled  to  a  fort  upon 
Cape  Fear  River. 

The  provincials  marched  after  him,  led  on  by 
Colonel  Ashe.  He  retreated  on  board  a  vessel, 
as  the  other  governors  had  done.  Colonel  Ashe 
burnt  the  fort  to  ashes  the  same  night.  The 
Assembly  declared  the  governor  a  traitor.  He 
answered  them  in  a  very  long  letter,  which  they 
ordered  to  be  burnt  by  the  common  hangman, 
A  large  quantity  of  ball  and  powder  was  found 
in  his  cellar  and  gardens,  at  Newbern. 

In  Pennsylvania,  the  people  prepared  active- 
ly for  war.  A  single  mill,  near  Philadelphia, 
manufactured  five  hundred  pounds  of  powder  a 
week.  Governor  Tryon,  after  endeavoring  a 
long  time  to  manage  the  Province,  followed  the 
example  of  the  other  governors. 

In  other  parts  of  the  country,  the  enemy  was 
not  asleep.  One  Captain  Wallace,  command- 
ing1 an  English  squadron  of  small  vessels  off' 
Rhode  Island,  was  doing  all  the  damage  in  his 
power,  by  ravaging  the  coast,  and  making  prize 
of  the  merchant  vessels.  His  chief  object 
seemed  to  be,  to  supply  himself  and  his  force 
with  provisions.  With  this  view,  he  made  a 
furious  attack  upon  the  town  of  BrisloL  and 
fired,  from  morning  till  night,  upon  their  houses 
and  churches.  He  bored  them  through  and 
through,  till,  finally,  the  people  supplied  him 
and  his  squadron  with  fresh  meat,  and  he  sailed 
away. 

About  this  time,  a  body  of  American  troops 
were  sent  from  Massachusetts  to  Rhode  Island, 
under  General  Lee.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
courage,  and  warm  temper.  He  obliged  all  the 
inhabitants,  whom  he  went  to  defend,  to  take 
the  most  terrible  oaths,  to  do  precisely  what 
Congress  should  command  ;  and,  at  all  events, 
to  break  off  all  intercourse  with  the  tools  of 
tyranny,  "  vulgarly  called,"  as  the  oath  said. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


REV 


438 


REV 


"the  fleets  and  armies  of  the  king."  Congress 
were  not  much  pleased  with  this  manoeuvre. 
It  was  well  meant,  without  doubt,  but  it  was 
very  rough,  and  of  no  real  use. 

On  the  18th  of  October,  1775,  Falmouth.now 
Portland,  in  Maine,  was  bombarded  by  Captain 
Moet,  of  the  ship  Canceaux,  of  16  guns.  The 
whole  town  was  consumed.  He  had  formerly 
received  some  affront  in  the  place,  and  revenged 
himself  in  this  way.  He  sent  the  people  word 
at  night,  that  he  should  destroy  the  town  in  the 
morning;  they  removed  their  furniture,  and  he 
went  to  work  early  the  next  day  with  his  can- 
non. The  town  had  been  twice  sacked  by  the 
Indians,  but  never  suffered  so  severely  before. 

The  most  important  affair  of  this  year,  was 
an  expedition  to  Canada.  The  provincials  had 
done  so  well  upon  Lake  Champlain,  that  the 
scheme  of  another  expedition  in  the  same  quar- 
ter was  much  approved  of.  Congress  hoped 
that,  if  Canada  was  invaded  at  once,  many  of 
the  inhabitants  would  join  the  Americans. 

Three  thousand  men,  commanded  by  Gener- 
als Montgomery,  Wooster  and  Schayler,  were 
fitted  out.  Boats  were  built  for  them  on  the 
lake,  at  Crown  Point,  and  the  sum  of  50,000 
dollars  was  collected,  to  pay  the  expenses.  Gov- 
ernor Carleton,  of  Canada,  intrenched  himself, 
with  a  strong  force,  at  the  entrance  of  the  river 
Sorel,  whicii  leads  out  of  the  lake,  and  which 
the  Americans  would  be  obliged  to  pass. 

The  latter  took  possession  of  an  island  in  the 
lake,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and,  from  that 
place,  planned  an  attack  on  Fort  St.  John, 
where  the  governor  was.  This  fort  stood  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Sorel,  and  commanded  the 
passage  to  Canada.  The  Americans  moved  on, 
without  cannon,  to  a  swamp  within  a  mile  and 
a  half  of  the  fort.  They  defeated  a  body  of  In- 


dians, who  attacked  them  in  crossing  a  small 
river,  waite 
to  the  fort. 


river,  waited  for  reinforcements,  and 


g  a  sm 
laid  si 


Farther  north,  on  the  Sorel,  was  a  small  fort, 
called  Charnbly.  The  English  had  no  idea  of 
the  provincials  passing  St.  John  to  fall  upon 
Ohambly;  but  they  did  so;  took  the  garrison 
prisoners  ;  obtained  124  barrels  of  powder  for 
the  siege  of  St.  John,  and  sent  the  colors  they 
had  captured  to  Congress.  Other  detachments 
scoured  the  country  between  the  Sorel  and  the 
St.  Lawrence  ;  the  Canadians  supplying  them 
every  where  with  arms  and  provisions. 

Just  at  this  time,  Colonel  Allen  and  Major 
Brown  undertook  an  expedition  against  the  city 
of  Montreal,  which  stands  on  an  island  in  the 
St.  Lawrence.  Allen  found  boats  ready  for  him 


at  Longueville,  and  crossed  the  river  in  the 
night,  below  Montreal.  Here  Brown  was  to 
have  joined  him  with  his  troops,  but  missed  his 
way,  and  Allen  was  left,  with  a  small  force,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  city. 

It  was  just  sunrise.  The  murmur  of  the  city 
was  heard  at  a  few  miles'  distance,  and  by  and 
by  the  roll  of  the  English  drums  came  upon  the 
ear.  The  Americans  now  saw  that  they  were 
discovered.  Before  long,  a  column  of  British 
infantry  came  marching  down  the  bank  of  the 
river.  There  was  an  almost  breathless  silence 
in  Allen's  small  band,  as  they  came  up.  Even 
Allen  himself  stood  fast,  and  gazed  at  them. 

"  To  the  boats  !  to  the  boats  !"  cried  a  dozen 
of  his  soldiers  ;  "  there's  a  thousand  of  them." 
"Silence!  every  man  of  ye!"  roared  Allen, 
brandishing  a  huge  horse-pistol.  "  The  first 
man  that  turns  his  back  upon  the  red  coats, 
shall  smell  gunpowder."  They  were  satisfied 
with  this  arrangement,  on  the  whole,  examined 
their  rifles,  and  stood  ready  for  the  onset. 

"  Stand  your  ground,  boys  !"  shouted  Allen. 
A  party  of  British  soldiers  was  moving  towards 
them  from  the  main  body,  at  double  quick  time. 
"  Let  them  come  !"  cried  a  tall,  fine  looking 
hunter  at  his  side;  "let  them  come!"  He 
brought  his  rifle  to  his  eye,  as  he  spoke. 

"Fire!"  shouted  the  British  officer,  and  in- 
stantly the  hunter  dropped  dead  at  the  feet  of 
Allen.  His  hardy  followers  shrunk  back.  They 
were  sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  the  poor  hunt- 
er. "  Fire  !  fire  !"  shouted  Allen,  with  a  voice 
of  thunder.  They  fired,  and  a  hot  skirmish 
commenced.  Severn!  of  the  English  fell,  and 
several  of  the  Americans:  others  fled.  Some 
defended  themselves  behind  rocks  and  trees. 
Allen  was  at  last  left  alone,  surrounded,  and 
compelled  to  surrender.  He  brushed  a  few 
tears  away  for  the  fate  of  his  friend,  the  young 
hunter,  and  marched  on  with  the  English. 

He  was  kept  a  prisoner  more  than  two  years, 
and  then  was  exchanged  for  some  English  offi- 
cer, whom  the  Americans  had  taken.  The  irons 
put  upon  him  were  so  fastened  about  him,  and 
so  heavy,  that,  for  a  long  time,  he  could  lie 
down  only  on  his  back.  A  chest  was  his  seat 
by  day,  and  his  bed  by  night. 

He  was  sent  to  England,  to  be  tried  as  a  pri- 
soner of  state,  not  as  a  fair  and  open  enemy,  but 
as  a  rebel.  At  this  time,  all  the  Americans 
were  called  rebels,  and  the  English  used  to 
speak  of  hanging  great  numbers  of  them,  when 
the  war  was  over. 

Allen  was  a  man  of  very  large  frame,  and 
prodigious  strength.  He  possessed  great  cour 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


439 


REV 


age,  and  was  much  inclined  to  daring  enter- 
prise. His  reputation,  it  seems,  had  gone  be- 
fore him  to  England  ;  and  he  was.  therefore, 
kept  in  very  close  confinement.  The  people 
were  as  much  afraid  of  him,  as  if  he  had  been  a 
whale,  or  a  sea-serpent.  They  sometimes  used 
to  come  and  see  him  in  his  prison;  but  they 
were  very  shy,  and,  if  he  so  much  as  turned 
round,  they  would  run  away  like  a  flock  of 
startled  sheep. 

But  the  Americans  were  always  on  the  watch. 
They  thought  it  probable,  that  the  governor 
would  set  out  about  this  time,  and  were  ready 
for  him.  He  embarked  his  800  men  in  a  large 
number  of  boats,  and  undertook  to  cross  the  St. 
Lawrence,  precisely  where  Allen  had  crossed 
it,  at  Longueville. 

But  Colonel  Warner,  with  three  hundred  of 
the  Green  Mountain  sharp-shooters,  and  a  few 
cannon,  lay  among  the  bushes,  on  the  river 
bank,  as  the  governor's  boats  came  over. 
The  Americans  waited  quietly  till  they  were 
fairly  within  reach,  and  then  poured  out  upon 
them  a  tremendous  volley  of  grape-shot.  The 
governor's  party  retreated  in  great  haste,  with 
some  loss  of  lives  ;  and  nothing  more  was  seen 
of  them. 

News  of  this  defeat  soon  came  to  Major  Pres- 
ton, the  British  commander  of  the  besieged  fort 
of  St.  John.  He  began  to  think  it  a  desperate 
case  with  him.  and  so  concluded  to  surrender  to 
the  American  general,  Montgomery.  This  he 
did  on  the  3d  of  November,  1775.  He  had  held 
out  like  a  brave  man,  the  siege  having  lasted 
six  weeks. 

The  Americans  found  in  this  fort  seventeen 
brass  cannon,  twenty-two  iron  ones,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  balls  and  bombs.  The  powder  had 
been  used  to  the  last  kernel,  and  the  provisions 
to  the  last  morsel.  The  capture  was  an  impor- 
tant one.  St.  John,  standing  on  the  Sorel, 
which  leads  from  Lake  Champlain  to  the  St. 
Lawrence,  commanded  the  passage  to  and  from 
Canada  ;  and  was,  therefore,  called  the  Key  of 
Canada. 

The  next  movement  of  the  Americans  was, 
to  take  possession  of  the  month  of  the  Sorel, 
where  it  empties  into  the  St.  Lawrence.  The 
point  of  land  which  is  formed  by  the  meeting 
of  the  two  rivers,  was  fortified  with  batteries, 
which  swept  the  river  in  such  a  manner,  that 
no  English  vessel  could  pass,  without  being 
bored  through  and  through.  As  the  St.  Law- 
rence is  wide  here,  the  Americans  provided  a 
fleet  of  boats  and  floating  batteries,  to  guard  the 
other  side,  and  thus  completely  stopped  the  pas- 
sage up  and  down  that  river. 


Just  at  this  time,  Governor  Carleton  had  left 
Montreal,  which  stands  farther  up  the  St.  Law- 
rence from  the  sea.  with  a  fleet  of  English  ships 
under  his  command,  and  without  having  heard 
of  these  fortifications.  What  added  to  the  dif- 
ficulty of  his  situation,  was,  that,  the  very  day 
after  he  left  Montreal,  another  body  of  Ameri- 
cans, under  Montgomery  himself,  appeared  un- 
der the  walls  of  that  city,  and  called  upon  the 
people  to  surrender. 

This  detachment  had  marched  across  the 
country  from  Fort  St.  John.  The  land  is  flat 
and  marshy,  and  their  journey  had  been  slow 
and  difficult.  It  gave  them  great  satisfaction  to 
have  reached  Montreal  just  as  the  governor  had 
gone  off  with  his  force.  The  city,  having  no 
defence,  was  compelled  to  surrender.  General 
Montgomery  treated  the  people  so  handsomely, 
that  they  supplied  him  with  a  large  quantity  of 
clothes  for  his  troops. 

These  were  very  much  needed.  It  was  now 
the  middle  of  November,  and  they  were  weary 
of  a  long,  cold  march.  Some  of  the  soldiers, 
during  this  severe  journey,  would  have  gone 
back  to  their  snug  homes  in  Vermont  and  the 
other  Provinces ;  but  General  Montgomery  di- 
vided the  clothes  among  them,  and  encouraged 
them  to  proceed. 

Governor  Carleton  was  now  unpleasantly  sit- 
uated on  the  river,  with  Montreal,  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Montgomery,  above  him,  and  the  fortifi- 
cations at  the  mouth  of  the  Sorel  below.  If  he 
could  have  been  taken,  all  Canada  would  have 
been  easily  conquered ;  but  he  contrived,  one 
dark  night,  to  pass  through  among  the  floating 
batteries,  in  a  small  boat,  with  the  oars  muffled. 
Thus  he  escaped  safely  to  a  town  on  the  north- 
ern bank,  called  Trois  Rivieres  ;  and  from  that 
place  he  went  to  Quebec. 

The  English  fleet,  which  the  governor  had 
left  behind,  surrendered  to  the  Americans,  in  a 
day  or  two,  with  a  large  number  of  soldiers  and 
officers  aboard.  General  Montgomery  left  gar- 
risons in  Montreal,  and  Forts  Chambly  and  St. 
John,  on  the  Sorel,  to  keep  the  Indians  in  awe, 
and  marched  on  to  Quebec,  with  a  small  force 
of  three  hundred  men. 

While  these  things  wore  going  forward,  Gen- 
eral Washington,  in  his  camp  at  Cambridge, 
had  conceived  the  plan  of  sending  an  expedi- 
tion iigainst  Quebec,  by  way  of  a  rough,  wild 
route,  known  only  to  the  backwoodsmen  and 
hunters.  This  was  through  the  District  of 
Maine. 

He  selected  Colonel  Arnold  to  command  the 
expedition  ;  a  rash  but  brave  man,  who  had  as- 
sisted, as  we  have  seen,  in  the  capture  of  Ti 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


REV 


440 


REV 


Conderoga  and  Crown  Point.  Fourteen  com- 
panies were  put  under  his  command  ;  three  of 
riflemen,  and  one  of  artillery,  under  Captain 
Lamb,  being1  among  the  number.  In  all,  there 
were  about  eleven  hundred  men.  A  few  others 
joined  them,  of  their  own  accord;  and  among 
these  volunteers  was  Aaron  Burr,  afterwards 
vice-president.  He  was  then  20  years  of  age. 

Maine  is  crossed,  from  north  to  south,  as  a 
map  will  show,  by  the  river  Kennebec,  rising  in 
the  mountains  between  Maine  and  Canada,  and 
emptying  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  not  far  from 
Casco  Bay,  near  a  town  now  called  Bath.  On 
the  other  side  of  the  same  mountains,  and  close, 
therefore,  by  the  small  upper  streams  of  the 
Kennebec,  another  river  rises,  called  the  Chau- 
diere.  This  empties  into  the  St.  Lawrence, 
nearly  opposite  Quebec. 

In  crossing  these  mountains,  between  the 
sources  of  the  two  rivers,  on  the  two  sides,  it  is 
necessary  to  pass  very  steep  and  wild  places, 
over  marshes  and  torrents.  No  human  being 
dwelt  there  then,  and  nobody  lives  there  to  this 
day.  Such  was  the  route  Arnold  and  his  brave 
soldiers  were  to  travel. 

He  left  Boston  in  September,  1775,  and  ar- 
rived at  Newburyport,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Merrimac.  The  vessels  that  waited  for  him 
here,  conveyed  him  and  his  men  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Kennebec.  With  a  fresh  south  wind, 
they  sailed  up  the  river  fifty  miles,  to  a  town 
called  Gardiner.  Here  were  two  hundred  bat- 
teaux, ready  for  them.  These  were  long,  light, 
flat  boats,  much  used  by  the  Canadians,  hunt- 
ers and  others,  in  shoal  waters. 

Having  laden  these  with  his  arms  and  pro- 
visions, Arnold  proceeded  up  the  river  to  Fort 
Wester,  on  the  right  bank.  Here  he  divided 
his  corps  into  three  detachments.  The  rifle- 
men, under  Cnptain  Morgan, moved  on  forward, 
as  a  vanguard,  to  explore  the  country ;  to  sound 
the  fords,  that  is,  ascertain  where  the  river 
might  be  crossed  easily  ;  and  to  look  out  for  the 
portages.  These  are  places  where  the  river 
ceases  to  be  navigable,  on  account  of  shoals, 
falls,  or  rocks.  The  lading  of  the  boats  must, 
therefore,  be  carried  forward  upon  the  banks, 
by  hand,  or  by  beasts  of  burden.  The  batteaux 
are  then  carried  on,  also,  till  the  river  becomes 
deeper  and  smoother. 

Arnold's  second  detachment  marched  the 
next  day  after  the  first ;  and  the  third  detach- 
ment the  day  after  that.  The  current  of  the 
river  was  rapid,  the  bottom  rocky,  and  often 
interrupted  by  falls.  Every  hour,  the  water 
entered  some  of  the  batteaux,  and  damaged  the 


provisions  and  arms.  At  every  portage  .—and 
these  occurred  very  often, — the  boats  were  to  be 
unladen,  and  carried  on  the  shoulders  of  the 
troops. 

In  places  where  the  river  was  rapid,  yet  free 
of  rocks,  the  batteaux  were  hauled  up  slowly 
by  soldiers  on  the  banks,  who  dragged  them 
along  with  ropes.  The  army,  however,  ad- 
vanced, and  at  length  they  had  wild  mountains 
to  cross,  steep  precipices  to  climb,  vast  shady 
forests  to  pass  under,  and  quagmires  to  wade 
through.  They  had  also  deep  valleys  -to  tra- 
verse, where  the  pine  trees  were  tossing  over 
their  heads  in  the  stormy  wind,  and  where  the 
river  was  rushing  and  foaming  over  the  rocks, 
with  a  noise  like  the  ocean. 

They  were  sometimes  a  whole  day  in  travel- 
ling four  or  five  miles,  with  their  baggage  laced 
on  their  backs,  and  axes  in  their  hands  to  hew 
a  road  through  the  wilderness.  Some  of  the 
men  died  at  last  with  weariness ;  many  others 
fell  sick,  and  all  of  them  were  at  length  sorely 
pressed  for  food. 

.Many  a  young  soldier,  as  he  lay  down  at 
night,  hungry  and  tired,  on  his  pillow  of  green 
boughs,  thought  of  the  warm  bright  fire-side, 
where  a  mother  was  weeping  for  him.  But 
these  thoughts  were  vain.  They  rose  in  thu 
morning,  and  pressed  on  patiently,  brave  men 
as  they  were. 

By  the  time  they  had  reached  the  source  of 
Dead  River,  a  branch  of  the  Kennebec,  their 
provisions  were  almost  exhausted.  The  sol- 
diers were  living,  or  rather  starving,  now.  upon 
the  poor  lean  dogs  they  had  taken  with  them, 
and  even  this  food  was  a  luxury.  At  this  place, 
Colonel  Knos  received  orders"  from  Arnold  to 
send  back  the  sick  to  Boston.  He  took  tl»e  op- 
portunity to  return  himself,  with  his  whole  de- 
tachment, lie  was  afterwards  tried  for  this 
desertion,  by  a  court-martial,  and  acquitted,  for 
the  reason  that  the  men  must  otherwise  have 
starved. 

But  Colonel  Arnold  inarched  on.  For  thirty- 
two  d-iys,  not  a  single  human  dwelling  was 
met  with.  The  army  arrived  at  last  upon  the 
mountains,  between  the  Kennebec  and  the 
Chaudiere.  The  little  food  still  left  was  divid- 
ed equally,  and  then  the  troops  were  directed 
to  look  out  as  l.hev  could  for  their  own  living. 
They  discovered,  iinaliy,  with  inconceivable  joy, 
the  sources  of  the  Clriiuiiere,  ami  the  first  log- 
houses  of  the  Canadians. 

These  people  received  them  well,  and  assisted 
them.  Arnold  addressed  a  proclamation  to  the 
Canadians,  waited  for  his  rear  guard  to  over 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


441 


REV 


lake  him,  pressed  on,  and  arrived,  November 
Jith,  at  Point  Levy,  nearly  opposite  Quebec. 
The  people  of  the  city  were  as  much  amazed  at 
the  sight  of  him  and  his  men,  as  if  they  had 
been  so  many  goblins. 

The  English  colonel,  Maclean,  had  heard  of 
their  coming,  however,  by.  a  letter,  which  Ar- 
nold had  given  to  an  Indian  on  the  Kennebec, 
to  carry  to  General  Schuyler.  The  Indian  gave 
U  to  Maclean,  and  the  latter  removed  all  his 
batteaux  from  the  Point  Le-vy -side  of  the  river, 
to  .the  other  bank.  The  wind  blew  a  gale  too  ; 
and  so  the  city  had  time  to  prepare  for  defence. 

All  the  people  of  Quebec  were  immediately 
armed,  and  brought  within  the  walls — soldiers 
or  not  soldiers,  English,  French,  Scotch  and 
Irish,  regulars  and  marines.  The  wind  mode- 
rated, and  Arnold  undertook  to  pass  the  river  on 
the  night  of  November  13th.  The  same  day, 
Montgomery  had  taken  Montreal. 

One  hundred  and  fifty  men  remained  to  make 
ladders  for  scaling  the  city  walls.  The  rest  suc- 
ceeded in  crossing  the  river.  The  banks  being 
very  steep  here,  Arnold  and  his  men  marched 
down  upon  the  edge  of  the  river  towards  Que- 
bec, and  climbed  the  Heights  of  Abraham,  close 
by  the  city ,  and  almost  overlooking  it.  Here  he 
waited  for  his  150  ladder  men,  and  hoped  that 
the  city  would  surrender. 

They  were  prepared  for  him,  however;  and 
Maclean  not  only  refused  to  receive  the  message 
requiring  him  to  surrender,  but  fired  upon  the 
bearer  of  it.  Arnold  had  no  cannon,  and  only 
six  charges  of  powder  to  each  man.  Hearing, 
therefore,  that  Maclean  was  about  to  sally  out 
upon  him,  he  retired  twenty  miles  up  the  river, 
to  Point  an  Tremble.  He  met,  on  his  march, 
the  ship  in  which  Governor  Carleton  was  sail- 
ing down  to  Quebec  ;  and  heard,  when  lie  reach- 
ed the  point,  that  he  had  left  it  but  a  few  hours 
before. 

General  Montgomery  arrived  here,  and  join- 
ed Arnold,  on  the  1st  of  December,  1775,  after 
a  weary  march  from  Montreal.  The  weather 
was  excessively  cold,  and  the  roads  were  block- 
ed up  with  snow.  His  force  was  about  three 
hundred  men ;  and  never  were  people  more  de- 
lighted to  see  each  other,  than  were  these  three 
hundred,  and  the  little  band  of  brave  fellows, 
who  had  followed  Arnold.  Montgomery  had 
brought  clothing  for  the  latter ;  and"  they  stood 
in  great  need  of  it,  indeed. 

The  soldiers  now  inarched  in  company,  and 
arrived  in  sight  of  Quebec  on  the  5th.  A  sum- 
mons was  sent  to  Carleton  to  surrender;  but 
he  ordered  his  troops  to  fire  upon  the  bearer. 


Montgomery  then  planted  a  battery  of  six  can- 
non within  700  paces  of  the  walls.  They  were 
laid  upon  banks  of  snow  and  ice ;  the  pieces 
were  small ;.  and  the  fire  had  little  effect.  The 
snow  had  now  fallen  in  huge  drifts,  and  the 
weather  was  excessively  cold.  A  council  of 
war  was  called,  and  an  immediate  assault  on 
the  city  was  resolved  upon. 

Two  detachments,  under  Montgomery  and 
Arnold,  were  to  attack  the  walls  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  town.  This  taken,  the  rest  WQuld 
probably  submit  without  fighting.  On  the  last 
day  of  the  year  1775,  between  four  and  five  in 
the  morning,  in  the  midst  of  a  heavy  snow- 
storm, the  American  columns  advanced. 

An  Irish  captain,  going  his  rounds  upon  the 
walls  of  the  town,  observed  the  guns  fired  by 
the  Americans  as  a  signal,  and  at  once  caused 
the  drums  to  beat,  and  roused  the  garrison  to 
arms.  Montgomery,  with  his  detachment,  pass- 
ing along  under  Cape  Diamond,  came  to  a  small 
battery  of  cannon.  The  guard  threw  down  their 
arms,  and  fled.  The  Americans  had  nearly  taken 
possession  of  it,  but  the  road  was  impeded  with 
immense  masses  of  snow.  Montgomery,  with 
his  own  hands,  opened  a  path  for  his  troops. 

Two  hundred  of  them  came  up  at  last,  and 
rushed  on.  Just  then,  a  cannoneer,  who  had 
fled,  on  seeing  the  Americans  halt,  returned  to 
his  post,  at  the  little  battery,  arid,  taking  a  match, 
which  happened  to  be  still  burning,  fired  a  can- 
non charged  with  gr.ape-shot.  The  Americans 
were  within  forty  paces.  Montgomery  dropped 
dead  upon  the  spot,  and  his  troops  soon  fled. 

Arnold  had  made  an  assault,  meanwhile,  at 
another  point.  But  he  soon  received  a  musket 
ball  in  the  leg,  which  splintered  the  bone ;  and 
he  was  carried  off  to  the  hospital,  almost  by  force, 
as  he  was  unwilling  to  quit  the  field.  Captain 
Morgan,  with  two  companies  of  riflemen,  now 
advanced  upon  the  battery.  His  sharp-shooters 
killed  many  of  the  English  through  the  embra- 
sures. The  guard  fled.  Morgan  rushed  forward, 
and  some  prisoners  were  taken.  But  here  the 
courage  of  his  troops  failed  them.  Morgan  alone 
stood  firm.  As  the  morning  dawned,  he  rallied 
his  riflemen  with  a  voice  of  thunder,  and  they 
rushed  forward.  A  detachment  sallied  out  up- 
on them,  at  this  moment,  from  the  walls;  and 
the  English  captain  summoned  them  to  lay  down 
their  arms 

Morgan  aimed  a  musket  at  him,  and  shot  him 
dead.  The  English  retreated  ;  a  hot  skirmish 
ensued.  Some  ladders  were  planted  against  the 
walls,  but  a  terrible  fire  was  poured  down  upon 
the  men  who  attempted  to  ascend  them.  A  de- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


REV 


442 


REV 


tachrnent  of  the  British  now  assaulted  the  Amer- 
icans on  another  side,  and  they  were  compelled, 
at  last,  to  surrender. 

Arnold,  with  his  remaining  force,  retreated 
three  miles  from  the  city,  and  intrenched  him- 
self. Governor  Carleton  kept  within  the  walls 
of  Quebec,  satisfied  with  waiting  till  reinforce- 
ments should  reach  him  from  England,  in  the 
spring.  So  ended  the  famous  assault  upon 
Quebec. 

A  braver  man  than  Montgomery  never  fell 
on  a  field  of  battle.  The  whole  country  wept 
for  his  loss.  Even  the  Canadians  lamented  him, 
and  Carleton  buried  his  body  with  all  the  hon- 
ors of  war.  Colonel  Barre,  and  Fox,  and  Burke, 
the  great  orators  of  England,  pronounced  his 
praises  in  the  English  parliament.  Congress, 
ordered  a  monument  to  be  procured  from  France, 
and  erected  to  his  memory. 

Having  given  some  account  of  the  most  im- 
portant events  of  the  year  1775,  the  first  of  the 
war,  we  come  now  to  1776.  In  the  winter  and 
spring  of  this  year,  Boston  was  still  surround- 
ed by  the  American  army  under  Washington. 
The  British  in  the  town,  meanwhile,  were  re- 
duced to  great  extremity.  For  fuel,  they  used 
the  timber  of  houses,  which  they  pulled  down 
for  the  purpose. 

They  were  in  want  of  food,  and  some  arrned 
ships  were  ordered  to  Georgia,  to  buy  up  rice  ; 
but  the  people  of  that  Province  opposed  them 
with  so  much  success,  that,  of  eleven  vessels, 
only  two  got  off  with  their  cargoes. 

The  Old  South  Church,  in  Washington 
street,  was  entirely  destroyed  inside,  and  used 
as  a  riding-room  for  a  regiment  of  dragqons. 
The  pulpit  and  pews  were  taken  out,  and  the 
floor  covered  with  earth.  The  frame-work  of 
one  pew,  carving,  silk  furniture,  and*  all,  was 
taken  out,  and  used  for  a  pig-sty.  The  North 
Church,  so  called,  was  entirely  demolished. 

All  this  time,  notwithstanding  there  was 
much  suffering  in  the  town,  the  English  officers 
and  the  tories  contrived  to  piss  tl.e  time,  when 
they  were  not  fighting  the  Americans,  in  danc- 
ing, and  other  amusements.  They  had  a  small 
theatre,  and,  in  the  evening  of  February  8th, 
were  acting  a  farce,  called  ';  The  Blockade  of 
Boston.''  One  figure,  meant  to  ridicule  Wash- 
ington, was  rigged  out  in  the  most  uncouth 
style,  with  a  largo  wig,  and  a  long  rusty  sword. 

Another  character  was  an  American  ser- 
geant, in  his  country  dress^  with  an  olcl  gun  on 
his  shoulder,  eight  feet  long.  At  the  moment 
this  figure  appeared,  one  of  the  British  sergeants 
came  running  on  the  stage,  and  cried  out, "  The 


Yankees  are  attacking  our  works  OIL  Bunker 
Hill."  The  audience  took  it  for  a  part  of  the 
play  ;  but  General  Howe  knew  it  was  no  joke, 
and  called  out, "  Officers,  to  your  alarm-posts  !" 

The  American  army,  at  this  time  about  Bos- 
ton, was  but  little  better  provided  for  than  the 
English.  Many  fell  sick  with  fatigue  and  ex- 
posure. They  had  provisions  enough  from  the 
country,  to  be  sure,  while  the  English  troops 
were  said  to  be  living  wholly  on  salt  meat,  and 
the  Boston  tories  upon  horse-flesh.  But  the 
whole  number,  in  January,  was  reduced  to  less 
than  ten  thousand  ;  and  these,  having  enlisted 
for  a  few  months  onlv,  were  everyday  going 
home. 

At  one  time,  there  were  hardly  men  enough 
to  man  the  lines.  As  for  powder,  they  had  but 
four  rounds  to  a  man  ;  and  but  four  small  brass 
cannon,  and  a  few  old  iron  pieces,  full  of  holes, 
with  the  wood-work  broken  oft".  They  were 
fitted  into  logs,  like  the  barrel  of  a  gun  into  the 
stock,  and  lifted  up  and  down,  and  wheeled 
about  in  this  way.  but  to  some  good  purpose. 
The  British  laughed  at  these  machines,  at  first, 
but  they  soon  found  them  no  laughing  matter. 

They  kept  up  a  continual  cannonade,  in  re- 
turn ;  firing  about  two  thousand  shot  and  bomb- 
shells, it  is  said,  in  the  course  of  a  few  mouths. 
But  the  whole  of  this  firing  killed  only  twelve 
Americans.  It  was  about  this  time,  that  a  party 
of  the  English  officers,  walking  on  Beacon  Hill, 
in  the  course  of  the  season,  in  the  evening,  were 
frightened  by  terrible  noises  in  the  air.  They 
ran  down  the  hill  with  the  greatest  despatch. 
It  seems  that  they  mistook  the  buzzing  of  a  few 
beetles  and  bugs,  for  the  whizzing  of  "  air-guns." 
They  suspected  that  the  cunning  Yankees  had 
contrived  some  queer  machines  for  killing  them, 
without  the  noise  of  gunpowder. 

There  were  two  cannon  kept  in  a  gun-house 
opposite  the  Mall,  at  the  corner  of  West  street, 
in  the  care  of  one  Paddock.  The  British  found 
it  out,  and  Paddock  promised  to  deliver  them 
up.  A  party  of  school  boys  undertook  to  pre- 
vent him  from  doing  it. 

The  school-house  was  the  next  building  to 
the  gun-house,  separated  only  by  a  yard,  com- 
mon to  both,  and  surrounded  by  a  high  fence. 
The  boys  contrived  to  outer  "the  gun-house 
windows,  in  the  rear,  in  spite  of  an  Enjrlish 
guard,  which  had  been  plneed  before  the  build- 
ing. The  guns  were  taken  off  their  carriages, 
carried  into  the  school-room,  and  placed  in  a 
large  bos  under  the  master's  desk,  in  which  wood 
was  kept. 

The  English  soon  missed  the  guns,  and  began 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


443 


REV 


to  search  the  yard.  They  then  entered  the 
school-house,  and  examined  it  all  over,  excepting 
the  box,  which  the  master  placed  his  lame  foot 
upon.  They  were  too  polite  to  disturb  him,  and 
excused  him  from  rising.  The  boys  looked  on, 
but  lisped  not  a  word.  The  guns  remained  in 
the  box  for  a  fortnight,  when  one  of  the  largest 
boys  carried  them  away  in  a  trunk,  one  eve- 
ning,on  a  wheel-barrow.  A  blacksmith  at  the 
south  end,  kept  them  some  time  under  a  pile  of 
coal ;  and  they  were  at  last  put  into  a  boat  at 
night,  and  conveyed  safely  to  the  American 
camp. 

The  condition  of  the  American  army  in  the 
earljt  part  of  the  year  1776  was  miserable.  They 
soon  after  received  five  brass  cannon,  small  arms 
of  all  kinds,  cargoes  of  provisions,  &c.  These 
were  all  captured  from  the  British,  off  the  coast, 
by  American  privateers.  Privateers  are  armed 
vessels,  fitted  out  by  private  individuals. 

In  England,  the  year  1770  opened  with  new 
resolutions,  on  the  part  of  the  ministry,  and  the 
majority  of  Parliament,  to  continue  the  war. 
The  party  called  the  whigs,  were  violently  op- 
posed to  it ;  but  the  tories,  the  ministry,  and 
king,  regarded  the  Americans  as  rebels,  and 
resolved  to  spare  no  pains  to  punish  them  se- 
verely. 

They  found  it  difficult  to  enlist  soldiers  in 
England,  for  the  war  was  unpopular  with  the 
lower  classes.  Recruiting  officers  were  sent 
about,  the  royal  standard  was  raised  in  all  the 
cities,  and  large  bounties  and  wages  were  pro- 
mised ;  but  to  little  purpose.  In  Scotland,  some 
thousands  were  raised  ;  and  a  bargain  was  made 
with  some  of  the  small  states  of  Germany, 
for  about  seventeen  thousand  German  troops. 
These  were  called  Hessians,  because  a  part  of 
them  came  from  Hesse. 

In  the  meantime,  the  American  army  at  Bos- 
ton, began  to  form  plans  for  seizing  upon  the 
town,  for  taking  the  British  garrison  prisoners, 
and  for  destroying  their  fleet  in  the  harbor.  But 
they  kept  quietly  in  their  quarters  till  March, 
1776 ;  the  British  now  and  then  sallying  out  on 
the  American  lines  ;  and  the  latter  returning 
the  compliment,  by  playing  upon  the  town  with 
their  rusty  cannon. 

During  this  month,  the  news  came  of  the 
doings  of  tlie  ministry  in  England,  and  of  the 
king's  violent  speech,  at  tlie  close  of  the  session 
of  Parliament.  The  whole  American  army  was 
greatly  excited.  The  speech  was  publicly  burnt 
in  the  camp.  Atthe'same  time,  the  red  ground 
of  the  American  flag  was  changed,  and,  in  place 
of  it,  thirteen  blue  and  white  stripes  were  in- 


serted, as  an  emblem  of  the  thirteen  Colonies, 
that  were  united  in  the  struggle  for  liberty. 
These  stripes  are  still  retained  in  our  national 


flag. 
Ther 

my. 
conduct  of  the  king  and  Parliament,  they  re- 


e was  something  of  the  same  feeling  in 
Congress  as  in  the  army.     Stimulated  by  the 


solved,  from  this  time,  to  follow  up  the  war,  at 
all  hazards.  Hearing  that  an  attack  would  be 
made  upon  New  York,  they  urged  General 
Washington  to  press,  as  closely  as  possible,  the 
siege  of  Boston,  so  that  the  British  might  not  be 
able  to  spare  troops  to  send  against  New  York. 
He  wished  to  attack  the  town  at  once,  but  most 
of  his  generals  opposed  this  plan  ;  and  he  con- 
cluded to  fortify  the  heights  of  Dorchester, 
which  command  the  entire  city  on  the  south 
side. 

Heavy  batteries  were  opened  from  the  Ame- 
rican worlds  in  Cambridge,  Roxbury  and  Lech- 
mere  Point.  The  bombs  fell  into  the  town  every 
hour,  and  houses  were  constantly  set  on  fire  by 
them.  All  this  was  to  employ  the  British  upon 
that  side,  while  the  Americans,  on  the  night  of 
the  4th  of  March,  secretly  marched  over  Dor 
Chester  Neck. 

The  frost  rendered  the  roads  good,  and  such 
was  the  silence  of  the  march,  and  the  tremen- 
dous roar  kept  up  by  the  batteries,  that  2,000 
troops  passed  over,  with  300  loaded  carts,  and 
nothing  was  known  of  it  till  morning.  Had  the 
British  suspected  this  manoeuvre,  they  would 
have  taken  measures  to  prevent  it.  By  four 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  two  fortifications  were 
raised  upon  the  two  heights. 

The  British  were  amazed.  "  These  rebels 
have  done  more  in  one  night,"  said  General 
Howe,  who  now  commanded,  "  than  my  army 
would  have  done  in  a  week."  A  terrible  can- 
nonade now  opened  from  the  British  forts,  and 
the  shipping,  upon  the  American  fortifications 
on  Dorchester  Heights.  But  few  men,  howev- 
er, were  killed  ;  and  the  Americans  worked  on 
in  high  spirits,  taking  no  notice  of  the  cannon- 
balls,  as  they  came,  ploughing  the  ground 
about  them. 

General  Howe  saw  that  he  must  either  leave 
the  town,  or  dislodge  the  Americans  from  the 
heights.  He  resolved  upon  the  latter  ;  but  a 
long  storm,  and  a  very  high  sea,  prevented  his 
troops  from  crossing  over.  He  finally  conclud- 
ed to  give  up  the  town,  and  transport  his  whole 
force  to  Halifax,  in-Nova  Scotia. 

Knowing  that  his  shipping  might  be  prevented 
from  passing  out  of  the  harbor,  by  the  American 
fortifications,  he  prepared  a  great  mass  of  stuff 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


REV 


444 


REV 


for  setting  fire  to  the  town,  and  then  proposed 
to  Washington  and  the  selectmen,  that  if  his 
troops  were  suffered  to  pass  safely,  the  town 
should  be  left  standing.  This  was  agreed  to. 

He  had  150  carrying  vessels,  called  transports, 
in  the  harbor ;  and  he  embarked  on  board  these, 
on  the  17th  of  March,  taking  with  him  1,500  of 
the  A  merican  tories.  Never  was  such  a  scene 
of  confusion,  plunder,  hurrying,  crying  and 
quarrelling;  there  were  fathers  bearing  their 
baggage,  mothers  leading  their  children,  beasts 
of  burden  loaded  with  furniture.  The  vessels 
were  crowded.  The  British  were  some  days 
getting  out  of  the  bay ;  and  had  the  pleasure, 
meanwhile,  of  seeing  the  American  army 
marched  into  Boston,  with  great  rejoicing. 

The  siege  had  lasted  sixteen  months.  Pro- 
visions had  become  so  scarce,  that  fresh  fish 
sold  at  a  shilling  a  pound ;  geese  at  nine  shil- 
lings apiece ;  a  turkey  at  two  dollars  ;  hams  at 
two  shillings  a  pound;  sheep  at  six  dollars 
each ;  and  apples  at  six  dollars  a  barrel.  Two 
hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  cannon  were  left 
behind ;  also  a  quantity  of  wheat  and  other 
grain,  a  good  deal  of  coal  for  fuel,  and  150 
Horses. 

The  English  soldiers  now  began  to  think  that 
the  Americans  were  an  enemy  worth  conquer- 
ing, and  that  powder  was  not  absolutely  wasted 
upon  them,  as  upon  so  many  crows.  They 
were  provoked  by  the  treatment  they  had 
received  from  the  sharp-shooters  at  Breed's 
Hill,  and  the  rough  compliments  of  the  old 
cannon. 

The  Americans,  on  the  other  side,  now  en- 
tered upon  the  war  with  their  whole  hearts. 
They  were  irritated  more  than  ever  at  the  con- 
duct of  the  English  ministry,  in  hiring  the 
Hessian  soldiers.  This  irritation  was  not  al- 
layed by  the  bill  which  had  just  passed  through 
Parliament,  compelling  all  persons  found  "in 
American  vessels,  to  serve  on  board  his  majes- 
ty's ships  of  war. 

From  this  time,  the  war,  on  both  sides,  assum- 
ed a  more  determined  character.  A  strong 
English  force  was  sent  to  relieve  Carleton.  iu 
Canada.  Arnold's  whole  force  before  Quebec, 
now  amounted  to  only  3,000  men.  Many  of 
these  were  sick  of  the  small-pox.  General 
Thomas  died  of  tin;  disease.  The  river  v,::s 
clear  of  ice,  April,  J77t>,  and  English  reinforce- 
ments were  expected  every  <l;i . 
or.  An  attack  was  made" upon  Uiieb.v.  l.ui  it. 
failed  of  success;  and  Arnold%\vas  now  obliirod 
to  break  up  his  camp  and  retreat,  leaving  his 
baggage  behind.  Governor  Carleton  pursued, 


till  the  Americans  reached  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Sorel. 

About  the  last  of  May,  English  forces  arrived 
at  Quebec,  amounting  to  13,000  men,  com- 
manded by  Burgoyne,  Phillips,  and  a  German 
general,  called  Reidesel,  Arnold,  meanwhile, 
was  skirmishing  with  the  Canadians  and  In- 
dians, about  Montreal  and  the  Sorel.  In  a 
short  time,  he  went  down  the  St.  Lawrence  to 
Trois  Rivieres,  where  there  was  a  large  body 
of  English. 

He  expected  to  surprise  them  in  the  night, 
but  was  misled  by  his  guide ;  and,  wlien  he 
arrived  late  in  the  morning,  the  enemy  was 
drawn  up  in  battle  array.  A  skirmish  began, 
and  the  Americans  were  defeated.  They  fled 
over  a  wild,  swampy  country  of  woods,  leaving 
many  prisoners  behind  them ;  and,  having 
crossed  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  last  arrived  at 
Fort  St.  John,  on  the  Sorel. 

The  English  pursued  them  to  this  place. 
Arnold's  force  was  too  small  to  resist  a  siege.- 
He  therefore  set  fire  to  the  magazine  and  bar- 
racks, and  retreated  farther  south  to  Crown 
Point.  The  English,  having  lost  their  batteaux, 
could  pursue  him  no  farther,  and  soon  after 
returned  to  Quebec. 

The  Americans,  under  Arnold,  had  suffered 
exceedingly  in  the  retreat.  They  sometimes 
waded  in  the  water  to  the  waist,  and  dragged 
the  loaded  batteaux  up  the  rapids  by  main 
strength.  Two  regiments,  at  one  time,  had  not 
a  single  man  in  health ;  another  had  only  six, 
and  a  fourth  only  forty.  On  the  first  of  July . 
they  reached  Crown  Point.  And  thus  ended 
the  courageous,  but  unfortunate  expedition  to 
Canada. 

During  the  summer  of  177G,  Crown  Point 
was  taken  by  the  British  ;  and  the  Americans, 
now  commanded  by  General  Gates,  withdrew 
to  Ticonderoga.  A  fleet  was  built  on  the  lake, 
at  Skeensborough,  consisting  of  a  sloop,  three 
schooners,  and  six  gondolas,  which  are  large 
flat  vessels.  They  carried,  in  the  whole,  more 
t!i  in  101)  guns,  and  more  than  400  men.  Ar 
nold  commanded  the  fleet. 

By  the  month  of  October,  the  British  had 
collected  a  much  larger  naval  force ;  and,  as 
nothing  could  be  done,  by  wav  of  invading  the 
Provinces  from  C-in:i(la,"  till  Lake  Cliamplain 
should  be  cleared  of  the  Americans,  they  sailed 
up  the  lake,  and  engaged  them.  The  two  rleots 
fouo-ht  till  night.  Arnold  then  very  skilfully 
made  his  escape,  and.  in  the  morning,  not  an 
American  sail  was  to  be  seen. 

The  British  fleet  followed  on,  however,  and 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


REV 


445 


REV 


found  them  again  off  Crown  Point.  Some  of 
the  American  vessels  escaped  to  Ticonderoga. 
Seven  of  them  remained.  They  were  attacked, 
and  the  action  continued  some  hours.  Arnold 
was  determined  that  his  vessels  should  not  be 
taken.  He  contrived,  therefore,  to  run  them  on 
shore,  and  there  they  were  blown  up.  He  did 
not  leave  his  own  vessel  till  she  was  wrapped 
in  flames.  Lake  Champlain  was  now  in  the 
power  of  the  British ;  but  Gates  and  Arnold  had 
prevented  them,  strong  as  their  force  was,  from 
invading  the  Provinces  farther  south.  It  was 
now  too  late  in  the  season  to  attempt  it. 

Boston,  which  had  been  entered  by  the 
American  army  on  the  17th  of  March,  was  no 
longer  disturbed  by  the  enemy.  The  British, 
finding  that  the  Provinces  of  North  Carolina 
and  Virginia  were  too  strong  for  them,  deter- 
mined to  make  an  attack  upon  the  city  of 
Charleston,  in  South  Carolina. 

Admiral  Parker  and  General  Clinton  reached 
Charleston  harbor  on  the  28th  of  June,  and, 
with  eleven  large  vessels  of  war,  commenced  a 
tremendous  attack  upon  Fort  Moultrie.  This 
stood  upon  Sullivan's  Island,  six  miles  from  the 
city,  and  was  built  of  a  kind  of  wood  called 
palmetto,  so  spongy  and  soft,  that  the  balls  were 
buried  in  it,  and  no  splinters  were  thrown  off. 

The  fort  was  defended  by  sixty  pieces  of 
cannon.  Ship  after  ship  poured  in  their  tre- 
mendous broadsides.  The  whole  harbor  seemed 
to  be  but  a  sheet  of  flame.  The  Americans 
aimed  well,  and  every  shot  had  its  effect.  Some 
of  the  English  vessels  were  soon  stranded.  The 
Thunder,  after  firing  more  than  sixty  bombs, 
was  disabled.  The  Bristol  was  almost  destroy- 
ed, and  a  great  number  of  men  were  killed. 

The  fire  of  the  fort  suddenly  stopped.  Their 
powder  was  exhausted.  The  enemy  thought 
themselves  sure  of  the  victory,  and  the  ships 
moved  nearer,  with  their  flags  flying,  and  their 
drums  beating.  But  the  Americans  were  soon 
supplied  from  the  shore,  and  the  battle  lasted, 
hotter  than  ever,  till  seven  in  the  evening. 
The  English  drew  off  in  the  night,  and  the 
enterprise  was  abandoned.  This  defence  of 
Fort  Moultrie  was  one  of  the  most  gallant  ac- 
tions of  the  war. 

Every  man  and  every  officer  fought  like  a 
hero.  Congress  voted  their  thanks  to  the  whole 
garrison,  and  to  several  of  the  officers  by  name. 
A  sword  was  presented  to  a  sergeant  of  grena- 
diers, named  Jasper.  In  the  heat  of  the  battle, 
the  staff  of  the  fort  flag  had  been  cut  down  by  a 
ball.  It  fell  from  the  parapet  to  the  ground  be- 
low. Jasper  sprang  after  it,  fastened  it  to  the 


rammer  of  a  cannon,  and  noisted  it  again,  amid 
the  fire  of  the  enemy. 

General  Clinton  arrived  at  Staten  Island,  off 
tire  harbor  of  New  York,  about  the  12th  of  July. 
General  Howe,  with  the  army  which  left  Boston 
for  Halifax,  in  March,  had  taken  possession  of 
the  island  on  the  second  of  tlte  month.  Two 
hundred  of  the  inhabitants  enlisted  under  his 
banner.  Some  of  the  New  Jersey  people  came 
into  his  camp,  and  Governor  Tryon,  of  New 
York,  visited  him,  informed  him  of  the  state  of 
the  Province,  and  encouraged  him  to  believe 
that  every  thing  must  soon  yield  to  his  army. 

The  British  plan  now  was,  to  direct  the  whole 
English  force  upon  the  Province  of  IVew  York, 
and  to  make  it,  with  the  city  of  New  York,  the 
centre  of  all  their  operations  in  America.  From 
this  point,  they  could  march  south  upon  the 
southern  Provinces ;  here  they  could  receive 
stores  from  England  by  water,  and  provisions 
from  Staten  and  Long' Islands;  and  here  they 
could  ascend  the  Hudson,  and  meet  Burgoyne, 
in  his  route  south  from  Canada.  At  least,  such 
were  the  views  of  the  English  officers ;  but  the 
event  will  show,  that  these  things  were  more 
easily  said  than  done. 

The  revolution  in  America  had  now  reached 
a  point  from  which  it  could  not  turn  backward. 
The  feelings  of  a  great  part  of  the  people  were 
alienated  from  England,  and  a  deep  hostility 
was  planted  in  their  bosoms.  They  had  origi- 
nally asked  for  justice,  and  that  was  denied. 
Oppression  followed,  and  that  they  resisted. 
Then  came  the  British  armies,  with  fire  and 
sword,  to  consume  their  dwellings,  and  shed 
their  blood. 

A  high-spirited  people  were  not  lik«lyto  look 
on  these  things  but  with  resentment  Their 
love  and  respect  for  England  were  originallv 
very  strong.  These,  indeed,  lasted  up  to  the 
period  of  which  I  am  now  speaking.  But  now 
all  thoughts  of  reconciliation  were  abandoned. 
The  people  no  longer  asked  for  redress  ;  they 
cast  off  their  allegiance  to  the  king,  and  deter- 
mined to  be  free  ;  the  "  spirit  of  "76,"  which  is 
often  alluded  to,  was  the  earnest  voice  of  a  na- 
tion, resolving  that  they  would  risk  every  thing 
for  independence. 

In  June,  1776,  Congress  had  chosen  five  of 
their  members  to  consider  the  great  question, 
whether  the  Provinces  should  declare  them- 
selves a  Free  and  Independent  Nation.  These 
were  Jefferson.  Adams,  Franklin,  Sherman,  and 
Livingston.  They  reported  in  favor  of  so  doing ; 
and  Congress  agreed  with  them.  Independence 
was  solemnly  declared  on  the  fourth  day  of 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


REV 


446 


REV 


July.  The  declaration  was  written  by  Jefferson, 
and  signed  by  John  Hancock,  president.  It  was 
then  signed  by  every  other  member  of  Congress. 

This  declaration  has  become  famous  among 
all  nations  It  was  drawn  up  by  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson ;  anu  then  it  was  a  great  deal  discussed 
by  the  members  of  Congress,  and  many  amend- 
ments and  alterations  were  made.  It  was  a  long 
time  before  Congress  could  satisfy  themselves. 
One  gentleman  objected  to  one  word,  and 
another  to  another  word,  till,  as  Franklin  said 
to  Mr.  Jefferson,  it  fared  like  the  sign  of  a  hatter 
in  Philadelphia,  composed  in  these  words, ';  John 
Thompson,  hatter,  makes  and  sells  hats  for  ready 
money,"  with  the  figure  of  a  hat  at  the  end. 

Before  nailing  it  over  his  door,  the  hatter 
submitted  it  to  his  friends  for  correction.  One 
thought,  the  word  "  hatter "  of  no  use,  it  be- 
ing followed  by  the  words  "  makes  hats."  So 
"hatter"  was  struck  out.  A' second  said  that 
"  makes  "  might  as  well  be  omitted  ;  his  cus- 
tomers would  not  care  who  made  the  hats.  A 
third  thought  "ready  money"  was  useless;  it 
was  not  the  custom  of  the  place  to  sell  for  any 
thing  but  money.  These  were  brushed  out,  and 
it  now  read,  "John  Thompson  sells  hats."  "Sells 
hats!"  says  the  next  man  the  hatter  met; 
"why,  nobody  will  expect  you  to  give  them 
away."  "  Sells"  was  knocked  out,  and  then 
"  hats, "  because  there  was  one  painted  on  the 
board.  This,  with  "  John  Thompson,"  was  all 
that  remained.  The  declaration  was  trimmed 
in  much  the  same  manner.  But  it  satisfied 
every  body  at  last. 

This  story,  therefore,  only  applies  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
was  discussed  in  Congress.  As  it  was  finally 
passed  and  signed  by  the  members  of  Congress, 
it  was  one  of  the  most  noble  efforts  of  the  hu- 
man mind. 

The  people  received  and  read  it  with  great 
joy.  Independence  was  proclaimed,  with  great 
parade,  at  Philadelphia,  on  the  8th.  Cannon 
were  fired,  the  bells  rung,  bonfires  were  kindled, 
and  the  people  seemed  to  be  mad  with  joy.  On 
the  llth,  th?  declaration  was  read  to  each  brigade 
of  the  American  army,  then  assembled  at  New 
York,  and  received  with  prodigious  peals  of 
applause. 

The  yamc  evening,  the  statue  of  Georo-e  III 
erected  in  1770,  was  dragged  through  the 
streets,  by  the  "  sons  of  liberty ;  "  and  the  lead 
it  \v-i-f  made  of  was  melted  into  musket  balls. 
An  immense  multitude,  at  Baltimore,  received 
the  declaration  in  the  same  mariner ;  the  air 
ringing  with  shouts,  and  the  roar  of  cannon. 


The  king's  efngy  was  made  the  sport  of  the 
populace,  and  burnt  in  the  public  square. 

In  Boston,  the  declaration  was  read  from  the 
gallery  of  the  State-house,  to  an  immense  crowd, 
gathered  from  all  quarters.  Men,  women  and 
children  assembled  to  hear  it,  and  every  moment 
the  air  sounded  with  the  shouts  of  the  multi- 
tude. The  troops  were  drawn  up,  splendidly 
dressed  and  armed,  in  King  street,  which  from 
that  time  was  called  State  street. 

The  bells  rang,  the  people  shouted,  the  can- 
non thundered  and  blazed,  and  the  striped  ban- 
ners waved  from  the  steeples,  till  the  whole  air 
seemed  to  be  alive.  In  the  evening,  all  the 
ensigns  of  royalty,  English  lions,  sceptres  or 
crowns,  whether  graven,  or  painted,  were  torn 
in  pieces,  and  burnt  in  State  street. 

The  Virginian  Convention  voted,  that  the 
king's  name  should  be  struck  out  from  all  the 
public  prayers.  They  ordered,  that  the  great 
seal  of  that  Commonwealth  should  represent 
Virtue  as  the  guardian  genius  of  the  Province, 
resting  one  hand  upon  her  lance,  and  holding 
with  the  other  a  sword,  trampling  upon  tyranny, 
in  the  shape  of  a  prostrate  man,  with  a  crown 
fallen  from  his  head,  and  a  broken  chain  in  his 
hand. 

Such  was  the  declaration  of  independence, 
and  such  the  manner  in  which  it  was  received 
by  the  Americans.  They  had  now  declared  them- 
selves to  the  world  as  a  free  people  ;  but  ere  their 
freedom  could  be  established,  they  had  yet  to  pass 
through  a  long,  bloody  and  desolating  war. 

General  Washington  now  occupied  New 
York  and  Long  Island,  which  lies  a  few  miles 
from  the  city,  with  seventeen  thousand  troops. 
On  the  22d  of  August,  the  English  landed,  in 
great  force,  on  the  island,  and  a  very  hot  battle 
was  fought,  among  the  hills  and  "woods.  A 
whole  regiment  of  fine  young  men  from  Mary- 
land were  killed,  some  cannon  were  lost,  and 
the  Americans  retreated  to  the  northern  part  of 
the  island. 

Here  the  stormy  weather  kept  the  enemy 
from  attacking  the  camp  again.  But,  fearing 
an  assault  every  moment,  the  Americans  con- 
cluded to  pass  over  to  the  island  of  New  York, 
and  join  the  rest  of  the  army.  This  was  done 
in  the  night  of  August  20th.  They  kindled  up 
circles  of  bright  fires  in  their  camp,  to  deceive 
the  enemy,  a'nd  started  oft'  in  their  boats  at  11 
o'clock  in  the  evening. 

They  were  so  near  the  British  all  the  while, 
as  to  hear  the  sound  of  their  pickaxes,  and  now 
and  then  the  shout  of  a  British  soldier,  as  he 
walked  on  guard.  They  were  neither  seen  nor 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


447 


REV 


heard,  however.  The  fleet  of  boats  moved  off 
from  the  shore,  like  an  army  of  ghosts.  Not  a 
word  was  said,  no  drums  beat,  no  bugles  rang, 
no  colors  waved  in  the  breeze. 

A  fair  wind  favored  the  troops ;  they  crossed 
the  water  like  birds.  In  the  morning,  at  eight, 
when  the  fog  cleared  up,  which  had  covered 
them  in  the  passage,  and  the  sun  shone  out  bright 
and  warm  upon  the  green  shores,  the  wooded 
hill-tops  of  the  islands,  and  the  smooth  surface 
of  the  bay,  the  American  army  had  vanished. 
The  camp  was  deserted,  the  fires  had  gone  down, 
and  nothing  was  seen,  but  a  few  distant  boats, 
which  had  come  back  for  the  cannon. 

Previous  to  the  retreat  of  the  Americans, 
several  skirmishes  were  fought  between  the 
two  armies.  Two  forts,  one  belonging  to  the 
.  English,  and  the  other  to  the  Americans,  were 
within  half  gun  shot  of  each  other,  and  were 
only  separated  by  a  small  creek.  It  was  at  last 
agreed  between  the  British  and  American  offi- 
cers, that  the  sentinels  should  not  fire  upon 
each  other,  as  they  went  their  rounds.  So  they 
became  very  civil.  "  Give  us  a  quid  of  your 
tobacco,  my  good  friend,"  cried  the  English 
guard  to  the  American  sentinel.  "  Oh  !  cer- 
tainly," said  the  latter.  He  drew  his  twisted 
roll  from  his  pocket,  and  tossed  it  across  the 
creek  to  the  Englishman,  who  gnawed  off  a 
quid,  and  threw  it  back  again. 

The  British  army  now  pressed  the  Americans 
with  great  activity  ;  the  latter  were  driven  back 
from  point  to  point.  They  left  the  city  of  New 
York,  at  last,  and  the  British  entered  it.  A  few 
days  after,  a  terrible  fire  raged  in  the  place,  and 
consumed  more  than  a  thousand  houses.  The 
British  supposed  the  inhabitants  had  set  it  on 
fire,  and  were  so  angry,  as  to  throw. some  of 
them  into  the  flames. 

Washington  now  retreated  into  the  back  coun- 
try. The  British  scoured  the  Province  of  New 
York  with  their  troops,  and  covered  all  the 
shores  with  their  vessels.  Several  strong  forts 
were  taken, '  together  with  their  garrisons. 
Nothing  could  be  done  to  oppose  them.  The 
Americans  were  never  so  much  discouraged. 

General  Washington,  with  his  army,  marched 
into  New  Jersey,  and  attempted  to  harass  the 
British  army  there,  under  Cornwallis.  But 
they  were  too  strong,  and  Washington  was 
obliged  to  retreat  night  and  day:  over  mountain 
and\alley,  he  fled  before  them.  The  time  the 
militia  had  enlisted  for  was  short,  and  many  of 
them  went  home.  Whole  companies  deserted, 
and  the  army  was  so  small  in  December,  that 
Washington  knew  every  man  by  his  name. 
38* 


They  were  so  nearly  naked  and  ragged,  too, 
and  looked  so  miserable,  that  their  own  coun- 
trymen would  not  join  them.  Large  numbers 
went  over  to  the  enemy.  They  were  driven, 
week  after  week,  up  and  down  the  banks  of  the 
Delaware.  The  infantry  left  the  frozen  ground 
bloody  behind  them,  with  their  bare  and  sore 
feet.  They  were  so  closely  pursued,  that  they 
could  scarcely  cross  a  stream,  and  beat  down 
the  bridges  after  crossing  it,  before  the  enemy 
came  galloping  up  on  the  other  side. 

The  British  cavalry  traversed  the  country, 
with  their  large,  fine  horses,  and  elegant  uni- 
forms. The  hundred  or  two  horsemen  of  the 
American  army,  were  mounted  upon  wretched, 
worn-out  horses,  so  lean  and  frightful,  as  to  be 
the  constant  theme  of  ridicule  with  the  British 
soldiers.  The  riders  were  not  much  better. 
"  Ragamufims"  had  become  a  common  name  for 
them. 

These  were  gloomy  times  :  and  the  Ameri- 
can people  began  to  fear,  that  they  would  be 
crushed  in  their  struggle  for  freedom.  Many 
were  entirely  disheartened.  Some  persons  base- 
ly deserted  the  cause  of  their  country,  in  this 
hour  of  trouble,  and  went  over  to  the  enemy. 
But  Washington  remained  firm  and  undismay- 
ed. While  other  minds  were  shaken  with 
doubt  and  fear,  he  remained  steadfast  and  re- 
solved. Looking  deeply  into  the  future,  and 
placing  his  trust  in  Heaven,  he  seemed  to  pene- 
trate the  clouds,  that  shed  their  gloom  upon  the 
land,  and  to  see  beyond  them  a  brighter  and  a 
happier  day. 

He  always  appeared  before  his  soldiers  with  a 
ernile,  and  fought  or  fasted  with  them,  as  neces- 
sity required.  He  inspired  all  around  him  with 
courage,  and  wrote  many  letters  to  Congress, 
entreating  them  to  make  great  exertions  to  send 
him  assistance.  Accordingly,  they  endeavored 
to  rouse  the  country ,  by  representing  to  the  peo- 
ple the  necessity  of  an  immediate  increase  of 
the  army. 

This  appeal  was  not  without  its  effect.  Phi- 
ladelphia, in  a  very  short  time,  furnished  Wash- 
ington with  a  regiment  of  fifteen  hundred  noble 
fellows,  who  were  resolved  to  support  him  to  the 
last.  They  had  been  accustomed  to  the  gay 
company  and  high  living  of  the  city ;  but  they 
shouldered  the  musket,  slept,  with  a  mere  blan- 
ket around  them,  on  the  frozen  ground,  or 
in  sheds  and  barns ;  and  suffered  every  thing 
with  the  poorest  of  the  army. 

The  British  now  withdrew  into  winter  quar- 
ters. They  occupied  the  villages  for  man" 
miles,  up  and  down,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


REV 


448 


REV 


Delaware,  with  their  army.  Washington  was 
below  them,  on  the  other  side.  But  they  were 
tired  of  pursuing  htm ;  and  they  believed  that 
his  army  would  soon  dwindle  away,  and  the 
whole  coin.Lry  be  conquered.  They  scarcely 
took  the  trouble  to  set  guards  at  night. 

But  Washington  watched  them  like  a  lynx. 
On  ihe  night  ot'  December  25th,  he  crossed  the 
Delaware^again,  with  a  large  part  of  his  army. 
The  night,  was  dark,  stormy  and  cold.  The  river 
was  crowded  with  broken  ice,  rushing  together, 
and  sweeping  down  upon  its  swift  current.  But, 
notwithstanding  these  difficulties  and  dangers, 
the  riveF  was  passed  by  the  American  troops, 
and  they  marched  on  to  Trenton. 

They  entered  that  place  at  eight  in  the  morn- 
ing. A  large  body  of  Hessians  were  stationed 
there.  They  were  completely  surprised;  but 
they  fought  bravely  for  a  short  time.  Five 
hundred  cavalry  made  their  escape  ;  but  some 
fine  cannon  and  more  than  a  thousand  prisoners 
were  taken  by  the  Americans.  Cornwallis, 
who  lay  a  few  miles  off,  thought  so  little  of  the 
American  "  ragamuffins,"  at  this  time,  that  he 
mistook  the  noise  of  the  cannon  at  Trenton  for 
thunder. 

The  British  army  were  amazed  at  this  unex- 
pected event.  They  moved  and  marched  about, 
but  to  no  purpose.  Washington  started  off  for 
the  mountains  of  New  Jersey.  The  British 
were  close  upon  his  rear.  They  encamped  so 
near  him  one  evening,  that  they  thought  it  im- 
possible for  him  to  escape.  They  put  off  attack- 
ing him,  however,  til)  the  next  morning. 

The  Americans  kindled  up  their  fires,  as  usual, 
and  marched  oft'  at  one  o'clock,  without  noise. 
They  reached  Princeton  at  daybreak,  and  fell 
upon  the  British  there  so  suddenly  and  so  fierce- 
ly, that  sixty  of  them  were  killed,  and  three 
hundred  taken  prisoners.  Their  commanding 
officer  had  some  fears  of  an  attack,  and  had 
written  t>  the  commander  of  the  British  army,  a 
.  day  or  two  before,  for  a  reinforcement.  "  Don't 
be  alarmed."  was  the  answer;  "  with  a  corporal 
and  six  men,  you  may  scour  the  whole  coun- 
try ;  don't  be  alarmed."  They  found  themselves 
mistaken,  however,  as  we  have  seen.  Wash- 
ington now  formed  a  camp  at  Morristown.  Mil- 
itia came  to  him  from  all  parts. 

The  British  treated  their  prisoners  with  cru- 
elty. Hundreds  were  confined  in  the  New 
York  prisons.  They  were  often  insulted  as 
\  party  of  them  was  once  brought 
before  General  Howe,  to  be  tried.  An  English 
gentleman  pleaded  their  youth  in  iheir  favor. 
"  It  won't  do,"  said  the  general;  "  hang  up  the 


rascals  !  hang  them  up  !"  They  were  only  cart- 
ed through  the  streets,  however,  seated  on  cof- 
fins. Halters  were  tied  about  their  necks,  and 
the  British  soldiers  hooted  at  them. 


While  these  things  were  going  on,  late  in 
the  year  1776,  at  New  York,  Sir  Peter  Parker 
scoured  the  coasts  of  Pihode  Island  with  a  large 


squadron,  and  overran  the  whole  Province. 
Meanwhile,  a  man  by  the  name  of  Stuart  was 
sent,  by  the  British,  among  the  Indians  in  the 
high,  wild  lands  back  of  Virginia,  and  the 
other  southern  Colonies. 

The  Cherokees  were  persuaded  bv  him  to 
make  war  ;  and  they  rushed  in  upon  the  settle- 
ments of  the  whites,  burning  the  villages,  arid 
scalping  men,  women  and  children.  But  a 
large  American  force  soon  marched  into  their 
own  country.  Their  wigwams  were  burnt  to 
the  ground,  and  their  cornfields  trampled  under 
foot.  They  were  frightened  at  last,  and  begged 
for  peace. 

It  once  happened,  during  the  expedition 
against  the  Indians,  that,  the  Americans  hav- 
ing marched  a  long  way  among  the  hills.  Major 
Pickens  was  sent  ahead  with  twenty-five  men, 
as  a  scouting  party,  to  examine  the  country. 
One  morning,  as  he  and  his  party  waded 
through  the  tall  grass  on  the  bank  of  a  stream 
called  Little  River,  more  than  two  hundred 
Indians  came  rushing  out  on  a  ridge  of  land 
just  above  them.  "  Let  us  scalp  them,"  cried 
the  Indian  leader  to  his  men;  ;'  they  are  too 
few  to  shoot.  ' 

But  Major  Pickens  was  prepared  for  their 
onset.  His  men  were  sharp-shooters,  and  each 
man  had  his  rifle.  He  ordered  them  not  to  fire 
until  he  did;  to  take  sure  aim;  and,  having 
fired,  to  bury  themselves  in  the  grass,  and  load 
their  rifles.  The  Indian  chief  soon  came  up 
within  twenty-five  yards  of  the  little  band, 
yelling  arid  shaking  his  tomahawk.  Pickens 
stretched  out  his  rifle,  took  a  deliberate  aim, 
and  shot  him  dead. 

The  twenty-five  brave  riflemen  now  fired. 
The  Indians  fdl  on  all  sides.  They  yelled 
inon>  than  evor,  with  fury  and  terror,  dropped 
their  tomahawks,  and  fell  back  among  the  trees. 
Even  .there  the  rifles  were  too  sure  for  them. 
Not  an  Indian  could  show  himself  over  a  log  or 
a  rock,  but  a  bullet  instantly  whistled  through 
him. 

One  of  them  was  seen  running  his  gun 
through  the  roots  of  a  fallen  tree.  A  rifleman 
aimed  at  him  as  coolly  as  if  he  had  been  a 
wooden  mark,  hit  him  precisely  in  the  nose, 
and  laid  him  flat  on  his  back.  Another  Indian 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


449 


REV 


lifted  the  dead  body,  and  was  running  off  with 
it, — for  the  Indians  never  leave  the  dead. — 
when  another  rifleman  fired,  and  killed  him. 
Dozens  of  them  were  picked  off  in  this  way, 
and  the  rest  fled. 

A  few  such  skirmishes  as  these  made  the  In- 
dians soon  tired  of  fighting  the  Americans,  to 
which  they  had  been  instigated  by  the  British. 
The  next  year,  when  an  attempt  was  made  to 
set  them  upon  the  white  inhabitants  along  the 
frontiers,  they  replied  to  the  British  emissaries, 
that  "  the  hatchet  was  buried  so  deep  that  they 
could  not  find  it." 

In  the  spring  of  1777,  General  Howe  amused 
himself  by  sending  out  detachments  from  his 
camp  to  ravage  various  parts  of  the  country. 
On  the  2Gth  of  April,  Governor  Tryon  embark- 
ed at  New  York  with  a  detachment;  sailed 
through  the  Sound;  and  landed  at  Fairfield, 
Connecticut.  They  marched  through  the  coun- 
try in  battle  array,  and  reached  Danbury  in 
twenty  hours. 

As  they  came,  the  few  militia  who  were 
there  fled  at  full  speed.  The  British  began 
to  burn  and  demolish  every  thing  except  the 
houses  of  the  tories.  Eighteen  liouses  were 
consumed  ;  and  eight  hundred  barrels  of  pork 
and  beef,  two  thousand  barrels  of  flour,  and 
seventeen  hundred  tents  were  carried  off  or 
destroyed.  But  the  militia  now  began  to  mus- 
ter from  the  country  round  about. 

At  Ridgefield,  General  Arnold  blocked  up 
the  road  in  front  of  the  British,  who  were  now 
returning.  He  had  with  him  about  five  hun- 
dred men.  These  brave  fellows,  who  had' 
marched  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  in  the  rain, 
kept  up  a  brisk  fire  upon  the  enemy,  as  they 
came  on ;  and  stood  their  ground,  till  the  Brit- 
ish formed  a  lodgment  upon  a  hill  at  their  left 
hand.  They  were  then  obliged  to  give  way. 
The  British  rushed  on.  and"  a  whole  platoon 
fired  at  General  Arnold,  who  was  not  more 
than  thirty  yards  distant.  His  horse  was  killed. 
A  soldier  advanced  to  run  him  through  with  his 
bayonet ;  Arnold  shot  him  dead  with  his  pistol, 
and  escaped.  The  British  lost  more  than  two 
hundred  men.  but  made  good  their  retreat  to 
the  Sound.  Congress  presented  General  Ar- 
nold with  a  fine  war-horse,  richly  caparisoned, 
for  his  gallantry. 

By  way  of  retaliation,  on  the  24th  of  May, 
Colonel  Meigs,  an  American,  crossed  the  Sound 
with  one  hundred  and  seventy  men.  in  whale- 
boats,  and  fell  upon  the  enemy  at  Sagg  Harbor, 
on  Long  Island.  They  burned  twelve  vessels, 
destroyed  a  large  quantity  of  forage,  killed  six 


men,  and  brought  off  ninety  prisoners,  without. 
losing  one  of  their  own  men.  .  They  returned 
to  Guilford,  having  been  the  distance  of  ninety 
rfilles  in  twenty-five  hours  from  the  time  of 
their  departure.  Congress  ordered  an  elegant 
sword  to  be  presented  to  Colonel  Meigs. 

General  Howe  made  great  efforts,  in  the 
spring  of  1777,  to  persuade  the  Americans  to 
enlist  under  him.  They  were  promised  large 
wages  and  bounties ;  but  very  few  of  them 
could  be  wheedled  in  this  way.  They  hated 
the  Germans  even  more  than  they  did  the  Eng- 
lish. But  great  numbers  of  militia  crowded  to 
Washington's  camp,  at  Middle  Brook,  New  Jer- 
sey. His  army  amounted  to  fifteen  thousand 
men. 

He  was  so  strongly  intrenched  among  the 
hills,  that  Howe  dared  not  attack  him.  The 
summer  was  spent  in  marching  to  and  fro,  in 
New  Jersev.  without  effecting  much.  But  in 
July,  the  British  mustered  a  force  of  sixteen 
thousand  men,  at  New  York.  These  left  there, 
soon  after,  with  a  large  fleet.  An  attack  was 
expected  every  where  upon  the  coast ;  but  no 
one  knew  whither  they  were  bound.  Having 
been  off  at  sea,  with  high  winds,  for  a  long 
time,  they  entered  Chesapeake  Bay  at  last,  and 
landed  at  Turkey  Point. 

They  left  that  place  September  3d,  and, 
marching  towards  Philadelphia,  came  up  with 
Washington's  army  at  a  place  called  Chad's 
Ford,  on  the  river  Brandy  wine.  Cn  the  llth, 
they  had  a  warm  skirmish,  and  the  Americans 
were  driven  back.  Congress  removed  to  York 
town,  Virginia;  and  Howe  entered  Philadel 
phia,  in  great  triumph,  September  2(ith. 

The  Americans  were  defeated  again  at  Ger- 
mantown,  on  the  4th  of  October.  The  battle 
began  early  in  the  morning,  when  nothing 
could  be  seen  farther  than  thirty  yards.  Dur- 
ing the  whole  action,  which  lasted  nearly  three 
hours,  the  firing  on  both  sides  was  directed  by 
the  flash  of  each  ether's  guns.  The  smoke  of 
the  cannon  and  musketry,  mingled  with  the 
thick  fog,  rested  over  the  armies  in  clouds. 

The  Americans  saved  their  artillery,  even  to 
a  single  cannon,  which  had  been  dismounted. 
This  piece  belonged  to  General  Greene's  divi- 
sion ;  and  he  stopped  in  the  midst  of  the  re- 
treat, and  coolly  ordered  it  to  be  placed  in  a 
wagon.  In  this  manner  it  was  carried  off. 

General  Greene's  aid-de-camp,  Major  Burnet 
wore  a  long  cue  in  this  battle,  as  the  fashion 
then  was  in  the  army.  As  he  turned  round  to 
attend  to  the  cannon  just  mentioned,  his  cue 
was  cut  off  by  a  musket  ball  from  the  enemy. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


REV 


450 


REV 


"  Don't  hurry,  my  dear  major,"  cried  Greene, 
laughing  ;  "  pray  dismount,  and  get  that  long 
cue  of  yours  ;  don't  be  in  haste." 

The  English  were  driving  after  them  at  a  tre- 
mendous  rate,  cavalry,  caimon,  and  all.  The 
major  jumped  from  his  horse,  however,  and 
picked  up  his  cue.  Just  at  that  moment,  a  shot 
took  off  a  large  powdered  curl  from  the  head  of 
Greene.  The  major,  in  turn,  advised  him  to 
stop  and  pick  it  up  ;  but  he  rode  on  quietly,  and 
was  the  last  man  on  the  field. 

About  this  time,  a  smart  action  was  fought  at 
Red  Bank,  on  the  Jersey  side  of  the  Delaware, 
scj-i-n  miles  below  Philadelphia.  The  Ameri- 
c-.i-.i*  Ind  erected  batteries  here,  and  upon  Mud 
i-i!f  a  mile  distant,  in  the  middle  of 
B^^Hi  Nothing,  therefore,  belonging  to  the 
j^^^^Bould  pass  up  and  down  between  their 
camp,  which  was  now  at  Philadelphia,  and 
their  fleet  in  the  river  below. 

Two  ranges  of  chevaux-de-frise  were  placed 
in  the  channel.  They  stretched  from  the  isl- 
and nearly  to  the  bank. 

Howe  sent  down  two  thousand  Germans, 
under  Col.  Donop,  to  attack  the  Red  Bank  re- 
doubt. This  was  defended  by  four  hundred  men. 

This  number  was  so  small,  that  half  the 
redoubt  was  left  vacant,  and  a  line  was  drawn 
through  the  middle  of  it.  The  enemy  came  on 
fiercely  enough,  with  a  brisk  cannonade  ;  enter? 
ed  the  empty  part  of  the  redoubt,  and  shouted 
for  victory..  But  it  was  now  the  garrison's  turn. 
They  poured  out  such  a  tremendous  fire,  that 
the  Germans,  after  a  brief  conflict,  fled,  with 
the  loss  of  four  hundred  men.  Their  brave 
commander,  Donop,  was  killed.  Late  in  the 
season,  however,  these  fortifications  in  the  river 
were  abandoned. 

Washington  retired  into  winter  quarters,  at 
Valley  Forge,  sixteen  miles  from  Philadelphia. 
His  army  might  have  been  tracked,  by  the  blood 
of  their  feet,  in  marching,  without  shoes  or 
stockings,  over  the  hard,  frozen  ground.  Thou- 
sands of  them  had  no  blankets,  and  were  oblig- 
ed to  spend  the  night  in  trying  to  get  warm,  in- 
stead of  sleeping.  They  erected  log-huts  fur 
lodgings. 

For  a  fortnight,  they  nearly  starved.  They 
were  sometimes  without  bread  and  without 
meat.  A  person  passing  by  the  huts  of  these 
poor  fellows  in  the  evening,  might  h;i.vi-  si-en 
them,  through  the  crevices,  stretching  their 
cold  hands  over  the  fire,  and  a  soldier  occasion- 
ally coming  in  or  going  out,  with  nothing  but  a 
blanket  on  his  shoulders.  "  No  pay,  no  clothes, 
no  provisions,  no  rum,"  said  they  to  each  other. 


But  they  loved  Washington  and  their  country 
too  well,  to  desert  them  in  these  trying  times. 

While  a  British  force  lay  on  the  west  side  of 
Rhode  Island,  under  General  Prescott,  during 
this  last  season,  (1777.)  one  Barton,  a  militia 
major,  learned  their  situation  from  a  deserter, 
ana  planned  an  attack  upon  them.  He  collect? 
ed  his  regiment,  and  asked,  which  of  them 
would  hazard  their  lives  with  him.  If  any 
were  willing,  they  should  advance  two  paces. 
Every  man  came  forward ;  -they  knew  Barton 
well  for  a  brave  fellow. 

He  chose  thirty-six  of  them,  mustered  five 
whale-boats,  and  started  off  at  nine  o'clock  in  the 
evening.  The  men  promised  to  follow  him  at 
all  hazards.  lie  directed  them  to  sit  perfectly 
still,  like  statues,  and  obey  him.  Barton's  boat 
went  ahead,  distinguished  by  a  long  pole  run 
out  from  the  stem,  with  a  handkerchief  tied  to  it. 

As  they  rowed  by  Prudence  Island,  they 
heard  the  English  guard  cry,  <;  All's  well."  A 
noise  was  heard  on  the  main  land,  like  the 
trampling  of  horses ;  but,  as  the  night  was 
very  dark,  nothing  could  be  seen,  and  no  man 
whispered  a  word.  They  now  landed,  and  set 
off  silently  for  Prescott's  lodgings,  which  were 
a  mile  from  the  shore.  The  Americans  had 
to  pass  by  a  house  occupied  by  a  company  of 
troopers. 

"  Who  conies  there  ?"  cried  the  sentinel. 
They  said  nothing ;  and  a  few  trees  standing 
before  them,  their  number  could  not  be  seen. 
They  moved  on.  "  Who  comes  there?"  mut- 
tered the  sentinel  again.  "  Friends,"  replied 
Barton.  "  Friends.  '  says  the  soldier,  •'•  ad- 
vance, and  give  the  countersign."  "  Poh  ! 
poll !"  said  Barton  ;  "  We  have  no  countersign 
— have  you  seen  any  rascals  to-night  ?"  He 
rushed  upon  the  guard,  at  this  moment,  like  a 
lion,  and  threatened  to  blow  his  brains  out,  if 
he  uttered  a  syllable.  The  poor  fellow  was  hor- 
ribly frightened,  but  they  took  him  along  with 
them.  They  soon  readied  the  house,  burst  in 
the  door,  and  rushed  forward.  A  British  sol- 
dier, with  only  a  shirt  on,  rushing  out  at  the 
same  time,  ran  for  the  cavalry  house,  to  give 
the  alarm.  The  men  would  not  believe  him,  but 
laughed  at  him  for  being  frightened  at  ghosts. 
He  confessed  that  the  creature  (Barton)  was 
clothed  in  white — and  so  it  passed  oil'. 

-  Is  General  Prescott  here  •"  shouted  Barton, 
to  the  master  of  th«>  house.  "  i\'o.  sir  !  oh  no, 
sir  !"  said  the  poor  fellow,  scared  almost  out  of 
his  wits.  Nobody  in  the  house  seemed  to  know 
any  thing  about  Prescott.  "  Then."  shouted 
Barton,  at  the  head  of  the  staircase,  "  I  will 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


451 


REV 


burn  the  house  down  about  your  ears."  And 
he  seized  a  flaming  brand  from  the  fire  place. 

"  What  noise  is  this :"  cries  somebody  in  the 
next  chamber.  Barton  opened  the  door,  and 
found  an  elderly  gentleman  sitting  up  in  bed. 
"  Are  you  General  Prescott,  sir?"  "  Yes,  sir." 
"  You  are  my  prisoner,  then,"  said  Barton. 
Prescott  was  half  dressed  by  the  soldiers  in 
a  moment,  and  carried  off  to  the  shore,  with 
a  Major  Barrington,  who  had  leaped  from  a 
chamber  window. 

They  had  scarcely  rowed  through  the  Eng- 
lish fleet,  when  a  discharge  of  cannon  gave  the 
alarm.  Fifty  boats  pursued  them  in  the  dark. 
They  escaped,  however,  and,  in  six  hours  from 
the  time  of  starting,  landed  at  Warwick  Point. 
"  You  have  made  a  monstrous  bold  push,  ma- 
jor," said  Prescott,  as  they  stepped  ashore. 
"Thank  you,  sir,"  said  Barton,  with  a  bow; 
"  we  have  done  as  well  as  we  could."  This 
capture  occasioned  great  joy  throughout  the 
country. 

Having  seen  Washington's  army  in  their 
winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  we  shall  now 
follow  the  northern  army,  under  Gates,  and  the 
English  under  Burgoyne.  through  the  cam- 
paign of  1777.  The  latter  intended  to  break  his 
way  from  Canada,  up  the  river  Sorel,  through 
Lakes  Champlain  and  George,  and  the  river 
Hudson,  to  New  York.  He  had  under  his  com- 
mand one  of  the  finest  armies  ever  seen. 

The  Americans  were  driven  before  him,  from 
Champlain  almost  to  Albany.  Burgoyne  press- 
ed after  them ;  but  his  route  lay  through  the 
woods,  and  the  Americans  cut  far  TO  trees  on 
both  sides  of  the  road,  so  that  they  fell  across  it, 
and  blocked  it  up  entirely.  The  country  was 
so  covered  with  marshes,  and  crossed  by  creeks, 
that  the  British  were  obliged  to  build  no  less 
than  forty  bridges ;  one  of  them  was  a  log 
bridge,  extending  two  miles  across  a  swamp. 
July  30th,  Burgoyne  reached  Fort  Edward,  on 
the  Hudson. 

He  had  with  his  army  a  large  number  of  In- 
dian warriors,  and  they  ravaged  the  country  in 
the  most  horrible  manner.  One  of  them  mur- 
derefl  a  beautiful  American  girl,  Miss  McRoa. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  tory,  and  was  to  be 
married  to  a  young  English  officer.  The  latter 
sent  two  .Indians  to  guide  her  across  the  wood 
from  the  fort  to  his  own  station.  They  quar- 
relled on  the  way,  which  should  have  special 
charge  of  her,  and  one  of  them,  to  terminate  the 
dispute,  sunk  his  tomahawk  in  her  head,  and 
ended  her  life. 

The  spirit  of  the  whole  country  was  greatly 


excited  by  these  things ;  and  an  army  of  thir 
teen  thousand  m'en  was  collected  under  Gen- 
eral Gates,  to  oppose  Burgoyne.  Meanwhile, 
a  British  force,  under  General  St.  Leger,  had 
crossed  Lake  Ontario,  from  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  laid  siege  to  Fort  Schuyler,  on  the  southern 
side.  General  Herkimer  marched  northward 
with  eight  hundred  militia,  to  relieve  it.  He 
fell  into  an  ambuscade,  however,  in  the  woods, 
and  was  killed. 

In  his  last  moments,  though  mortally  wound- 
ed, he  was  seen  sitting  on  a  stump,  still  en- 
couraging his  men.  They  stood  firm,  and  sev- 
eral of  the  British  Indians  fell  at  their  first  fire.  - 
The  rest  were  so  enraged,  that  they  turned  upon 
the  lories  and  the  British,  and  murdered  seve- 
ral of  them.  The  battle  was  heard  at  the  fort, 
and  two  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  Americans 
came  out  to  reinforce  the  detachment.'  The 
British  were  wholly  routed.  The  Indians  flc 
howling  like  wild  beasts,  and  left  tlu-ir 
blankets,  tomahawks  and  deer-skins  behind. 

But  St.  Leger,  with  his  Indians  and  tories, 
still  besieged  Fort  Schuyler.  General  Arnold 
was  now  sent,  with  one  thousand  men,  to  at- 
tack them.  But  this  force  was  too  small,  and 
the  Americans  had  recourse  to  a.  stratagem  to 
frighten  the  enemy.  Colonel  Brooks,  after- 
wards governor  of  Massachusetts,  seized  upon 
one  Cuyler,  a  tory,  who  owned  a  large  farm- 
house. He  was  in  great  terror,  lest  the  Ameri- 
cans should  plunder  him ;  but  Brooks  agreed 
to  let  him  go,  and  spare  his  property,  if  he 
would  travel  to  Fort  Schuyler,  arid  tell  the  Brit- 
force  there,  that  Arnold  was  coming  upon  them 
with  an  immense  army. 

Cuyler  consented.  He  bored  his  coat  through 
in  two  or  three  places,  in  the  skirts,  and  made 
all  haste  across  the  woods  to  the  British  camp. 
He  informed  the  Indians  there,  that  Arnold  was 
rushing  upon  them  with  a  tremendous  force ; 
he  said  he  had  fled  before  them  for  his  life,  and 
showed  them  the  bullet-holes  in  his  old  coat,  in 
proof  of  his  story. 

The  Indians  were  frightened.  Nothing  could 
persuade  them  to  stay  with  St.  Leger.  "You 
told  us.''  said  they,  "  there  would  be  no  fight- 
ing for  us ;  that  we  should  smoke  our  pipes ; 
and  when  you  had  taken  the  prisoners  in  the 
fort,  we  were  to  have  the  pleasure  of  cutting 
their  throats.  But  this  won't  do."  According- 
ly, seven  or  eight  hundred  immediately  left 
him.  He  was  himself  so  alarmed,  that  he  fled 
with  his  troops,  and  left  his  baggage  behind 
him. 

Two  Indian  chiefs,  who,  it  seems,  understood 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


REV 


452 


REV 


the  plot,  followed  them  in  their  march,  and 
played  jokes  upon  the  officers.  One  of  the 
chiefs  had  loitered  behind  ;  and  just  as  the  offi- 
cers reached  a  deep,  muddy  place,  he  came 
running  up  to  them,  out  of  breath,  and  cried 
out,  "  They  are  coming !  they  are  coming  !" 
The  soldiers  threw  down  their  knapsacks,  and 
plunged  through  the  mire  as  fast  as  they  could 
jjOr-H^L  Leger  himself  was  completely  plaster- 
ed with  inud  from  head  to  foot. 

In  this  way,  Fort  Schuyler  was  relieved  from 
the  siege  without  bloodshed.  The  stratagem 
practised  by  the  Americans,  afforded  a  great 
deal  of  amusement  to  the  army. 

About  the  middle  of  August,  Burgoyne  sent 
five  hundred  Hessians  and  one  hundred  Indians, 
under  Colonel  Baum,  to  take  possession  of  a 
collection  of  American  provisions,  at  Benning- 
ton,  Vermont.  But  General  Stark  was  there, 
luckily,  with  eight  hundred  New  Hampshire 
and  Vermont  militia.  Colonel  Baum,  finding 
this  force  greater  than  his  own,  threw  up  tem- 
porary breastworks  for  defence,  and  sent  to 
Burgoyne  for  reinforcements.  Several  skir- 
mishes now  followed,  in  which  the  Americans 
had  the  advantage.  Animated  by  success,  they 
at  length  ventured  to  make  a  general  attack 
upon  the  breastworks  of  the  enemy.  They 
were  without  cannon,  and  destitute  even  of 
bayonets.  The  Hessians,  too.  fought  very  brave- 
ly for  two  hours. 

But  they  were  now  opposed  by  still  braver 
men.  The  Americans  rushed  into  the  very 
flash  of  their  cannon  and  musketry.  Stark  had 
said,  at  the  outset  of  the  battle,  "  My  fellow 
soldiers,  we  conquer  to-day,  or  this  night  Mary 
Stark  is  a  widow."  Such  deep  resolution 
seemed  to  be  in  the  breast  of  every  man.  They 
could  not  be  resisted.  Multitudes  of  the  ene- 
my fell  before  their  keen  and  well-directed  fire. 
Baum  himself  was  killed,  and  most  of  his  de- 
tachment either  lost  their  lives,  or  were  taken 
prisoners. 

The  Americans,  not  expecting  another  ene- 
my, had  dispersed  themselves  after  the  battle. 
Suddenly,  a  reinforcement  of  several  hundred 
British  troops,  under  Colonel  Breyman, arrived 
at  Bennington.  The  Americans  were  now  near 
losing  all  they  had  gained.  But  it  happened 
that  a  regiment,  under  Colonel  Warner,  reached 
the  place  soon  after.  These,  with  the  militia, 
immediately  made  an  attack  upon  the  enemy. 
They  fought  till  sunset,  when  the  British  re- 
treated, and,  under  cover  of  the  night,  the  great- 
er part  effected  their  escape. 


In  these  two  engagements,  four  hundred  of 
the  enemy  were  killed  and  wounded,  six  hun- 
dred were  taken  prisoners ;  and  two  hundred 
and  fifty  dragoon  swords,  eight  loads  of  bag- 
gage, and  twenty  horses,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Americans.  A  Vermont  clergyman,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  first  day's  battle,  mounted 
a  stump,  and  prayed  for  the  Americans.  The 
British  heard  him,  and  fired  at  him.  The  stump 
was  bored  through  with  their  bullets,  but  the 
clergyman  was  unhurt.  He  stepped  down. 
"  Now  give  me  a  gun,"  said  he  ;  and  he  fired 
the  first  shot  on  the  American  side. 

An  old  farmer  in  the  neighborhood  had  five 
sons  in  the  battle.  He  was  told  the  next  day, 
that  one  of  them  had  come  to  a  miserable  end. 
"What!"  cried  the  gray-headed  patriot,  "did 
he  leave  his  post  ?  did  he  run  from  the  enemy  ?" 
"  Oh  no.  sir  ;  worse  than  that — he  fell  among 
the  slain,  fighting  like  a  hero."  "  Then  I  am 
satisfied,"  said  the  old  man;  "bring  him  in; 
let  me  look  upon  my  noble  boy."  Ihe  corpse 
was  brought  in ;  he  wept  over  it.  He  then 
called  for  a  bowl  of  water,  and  a  napkin  ;  washed 
the  blood  away  with  his  own  trembling  hands, 
and  thanked  God,  that  his  son  had  died  for  his 
country. 

By  the  middle  of  September,  the  American 
army  under  Gates  was  within  three  miles  of  the 
great  army  of  Burgoyne,  on  the  Hudson.  The 
latter  was  now  severely  pressed  for  provisions, 
and  undertook  to  inarch  on  towards  Albany. 
The  Americans  met  him  at  Stillwater,  on  the 
19th  ;  a  fierce  battle  was  fought ;  and  the  Brit- 
ish could  advance  no  farther.  They  pitched 
their  camp  on  the  plains  of  Saratoga,  three  miles 
above  the  village,  within  cannon-shot  of  the 
American  lines. 

General  Clinton  was  at  this  time  attempting 
to  force  a  passage  up  the  Hudson,  from  New 
York ,  to  reinforce  Burgoyne.  Spies  and  scouts 
were  constantly  passing  between  the  two  armies. 
One  Palmer  was  at  last  caught  in  this  business, 
and  brought  into  the  camp  of  the  American 
general,  Putnam,  at  Pcekskill,  New  York.  He 
was  found  to  be  an  American  tory,  and  the 
Britisli  had  made  him  a  lieutenant  for  his  pains. 
Governor  Tryon  wrote  for  his  release,  and 
threatened  vengeance  if  he  were  executed. 

Putnam  addressed  the  following  note  to  the 
governor,  in  reply  : — 

"  SIK — Nathan  Palmer,  a  lieutenant  in  your 
service,  was  taken  in  my  camp  as  a  spy  ;  he 
was  tried  as  a  spy ;  he  was  condemned  as  a 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


453 


REV 


spy  ;  and  you  may  rest  assured,  sir,  he  shall  be 
hanged  as"  a  spy. 

I  nave  the  honor  to  be,  &c. 

ISRAEL  PUTNAM. 
To  his  Excellency  Governor  Tryon. 

P.  S.     Afternoon.     He  is  hanged." 

Hot  skirmishes  now  took  place  every  day  be- 
iween  the  two  armies  trt  Saratoga.  September 
23d,  a  cannonade  was  kept  up,  with  a  tremen- 
dous roar  and  blaze,  for  three  hours.  The  lield 
was  strown  with  the  killed.  An  English  cap- 
tain, with  forty-eight  men.  had  the  command  of 
four  fine  cannon.  He  fought  till  thirty-six  of 
his  men  were  killed.  His  horses  being  shot 
down  at  last,  the  cannon  were  left  to  the  Ameri- 
cans. 

Some  of  the  American  soldiers,  during  these 
skirmishes,  often  placed  themselves  in  the 
boughs  of  high  trees,  the  country  being  wild 
and  woody,  and  played  with  their  rifles  upon 
the  rear  and  flanks  of%he  enemy.  The  British 
officers  were  picked  off  like  birds.  Burgoyne 
himself  once  narrowly  escaped.  His  aid-de- 
camp, General  Phillips,  was  delivering  a  mes- 
sage to  him,  when  he  received  a  rifle  ball  in  his 
arm.  His  saddle  was  furnished  with  very  rich 
lace,  and  the  sharp-shooter  had  taken  him  for 
Burgoyne. 

October  7th,  the  whole  British  line  was  driven 
back  by  a  tremendous  charge.  The  German 
lines  stood  firm  to  the  last,  and  Colonel  Brooks 
was  ordered  to  attack  them.  He  galloped 
toward  them  at  the  head  of  his  regiment,  waving 
his  sword  ;  and  Colonel  Arnold  rushed  on  with 
him.  Arnold  was  wounded,  and  carried  off. 
Brooks  kept  on,  and  the  Germans  were  driven 
back.  Colonel  Cilley,of  New  Hampshire,  cap- 
tured a  cannon  with  his  own  hands,  and  was 
seen  astride  upon  it,  in  the  heat  of  the  battle, 
shouting  to  his  soldiers. 

In  this  battle,  Burgoyne  had  a  bullet  pass 
through  his  hat,  and  another  through  the  edge 
of  his  vest.     The  English  general  Frazer  fought 
nobly  for  a  long  time.     Colonel   Morgan   ob- 
served him  at  last,  called  up  one  of  his  best  rifle- 
:  pointed  him  out.     •'  Do  you  see  that 
'•oking  fellow,"  said  he,  "fighting  like 
a  lion  ?     It  is  Frazer.     I  honor  the  man — but  he 
must  die."     This  was  enough  for  the  rifleman. 
He  aimed,  and  Frazer  was  shot  dead. 

On  the  18th  of  October,  1777.  the  whole 
British  army  under  Burgoyne  surrendered  to 
General  Gates.  There  were  nearly  ten  thou- 
sand men,  including  t  Indians ;  forty  cannon, 
seven  thousand  muskets,  and  a  vast  quantity  of 
tents  and  cartridges.  The  whole  country  was 


filled  with  rejoicing.  The  thanks  of  Congress 
were  voted  to  Gates  an<<  jus  army.  But  the 
best  effect  of  the  victory  was,  that  the  French 
now  concluded  to  right  with  the  Americans 
against  England. 

Treaties  between  the  two  nations  were  signed 
February  t5th,  1778,  and  a  fast  sailing  schooner 
from  France  reached  Casco  Bay,  in  Maine,  In 
about  a  month,  with  the  news.  It  occasioned 
prodigious  joy  in  Congress,  in  the  army  at  Val- 
ley Forge,  and  over  the  whole  cquntry.  A 
French  fleet  arrived  on  the  coast  early  in  July. 

General  Clinton  knew  that  they  were  coming, 
and  therefore  thought  it  necessary  to  remove  to 
New  York.  He  left  Philadelphia  on  the  18th 
of  June,  and  inarched  through  New  Jersey,  to- 
ward the  latter  place.  The  British  army  had 
been  in  possession  of  Philadelphia  for  many 
months.  Tl/eir -departure  was  a  most  welcome 
event  to  the  inhabitants.  The  business  of  the 
city  was  very  much  interrupted  while  they 
were  there,  and  the  intercourse  of  the  inhabi- 
tants with  the  neighboring  towns  and  villages, 
was  attended  with  much  difficulty  and  vexation. 

The  following  is  the  story  of  "Captain  Plun- 
kett,  who  escaped  from  the  British,  while  they 
were  at  Philadelphia,  in  a  curious  manner.  He 
was  an  American  officer,  and,  being  taken  pris 
oner,  was  carried  to  that  city,  andliept  in  con- 
finement. Some  years  before,  he  had  formed  a 
very  pleasant  acquaintance  with  a  young  Qua- 
keress. She  became  apprized  of  his  situation, 
and  determined  to  effect  his  release.  Accord- 
ingly, she  privately  sent  him  the  uniform  of  a 
British  officer.  The  captain  put  it  on,  and  or- 
dered the  guard  to  open  the  door.  The  latter, 
taking  him  for  a  British  officer,  allowed  him  to 
pass  into  the  streets.  He  immediately  went  to 
the  house  of  the  young  Quakeress,  where  he 
remained  concealed  for  some  time.  His  bene- 
factress then  procured  for  him  an  old  market 
woman's  gown,  bonnet  and  shawl.  The  cap- 
tain dressed  himself  in  these,  and,  thus  disguised, 
set  out  to  leave  the  city.  The  British  soldiers, 
who  were  on  guard  at  "the  gate,  taking  him  for 
a  market  woman,  allowed  him  to  pass;  and  thus 
he  escaped  from  the  enemy. 

The  Americans  contrived  some  machines, 
which  were  filled  with  gunpowder,  and  sent 
down  the  ri  ver  Delaware,  near  to  the  city.  They 
expected  that  these  would  explode,  and  annoy 
the  Britisii  shipping;  they  did,  in  fact,  no 
damage,  but  the  British  were  very  much  alarm- 
ed ;  accordingly,  they  fired  cannon  at  every 
thing  they  saw  floating  in  the  river.  The 
Americans  heard  of  all  this,  and  they  were  very 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


REV 


454 


REV 


much  amused  with  it.  Mr.  Francis  Hopkinson, 
a  man  of  great  wit,  wrote  a  ballad  on  the  sub- 
ject, which  follows.  Sir  William,  spoken  of 
in  the  poem,  was  Sir  William  Howe,  the  British 
commander. 

THE    BATTLE    OF   THE    KEGS. 

GALLANTS,  attend,  and  hear  a  friend 

Trill  furth  harmonious  ditty: 
Strange  tilings  I'll  tell,  which  laie  befell 

In  Philadelphia  city. 
'Twas  early  day,  as  poets  say, 

Just  when  the  sun  was  rising, 
A  soldier  stood  on  log  of  wood, 

And  saw  a  thing  surprising. 
As  in  a  maze  he  stood  to  gaze, — 

The  truth  can't  be  denied,  sir, — 
He  spied  a  score  of  kegs,  or  more, 

Come  floating  down  the  tide,  sir. 
A  sailor  too,  in  jerkin  blue, 

This  strange  appearance  viewing. 
First  rubb'tl  !ii<  e^es,  in  great  surprise, 

Then  said,  "  Some  mischief's  brewing. 
"These  kegs  do  hold  the  rebels  bold, 

Pack'd  up  like  pickled  herring; 
And  they're  come  down  t'  attack  the  town, 

In  this  new  way  of  ferrying." 
The  soldier  flew,  the  sailor  too, 

And,  scar'd  almost  to  dt;atli,  sir, 
Wore  out  their  shot's,  to  spread  the  news,  M 

And  ran  till  out  of  breath,  sir. 
Now  up  and  down,  throughout  the  town, 

Most  frantic  scenes  were  acted  ; 
And  some  ran  here,  and  others  there, 

Like  men  almost  distracted. 
Some  fire  cried,  which  some  denied, 

But  said  the  earth  had  quaked  ; 
And  girls  and  boys,  with  Hideous  noise, 

Ran  through  the  streets  half  naked. 
Sir  William  he,  snug  as  a  flea, 

Lay  all  this  time  a  snoring, 
Nor  thought  of  harm,  as  he  lay  warm 

The  land  of  dreams  exploring. 
Now  in  a  fright  he  starts  upright, 

Awaketl  by  such  a  clatter : 
He  rubs  both  eyes,  and  boldly  cries, 

"  Alas,  what  is  the  matter?" 
At  his  bedside  he  then  espied 

Sir  Erskine  at  command,  sir  ; 
Upon  one  foot  he  had  one  boot, 

And  the  other  in  his  hand,  sir. 
tf  Arise,  arise  !"  Sir  F.rskine  cries  ; 

"  The  rebels— more's  the  pity — 
Without  a  boat,  are  all  afloat, 

And  ranged  before"  the  city. 
"  The  motley  crew,  in  vessels  new, 

With  Satan  for  their  guide,  sir, 
Pack'd  up  in  baz<,  or  wooden  kegs, 

Come  driving  down  the  tide,  sir. 
"  Therefore  prepare  for  bloody  war, — 

These  ki-gs  nnst  all  be  routed, 
Or  surely  we  di-spisni  shall  be, 

And  British  courage  doubted." 
TLie  royal  band  now  ready  stand, 

All  ranged  in  dread  array,  sir, 


With  stomach  stout,  to  see  it  out, 
And  make  a  bloody  day,  sir. 


The  cannons  roar  from  shore  to  shore, 

The  small  arms  make  a  rattle  ; 
Since  wars  began,  I'm  sure  no  man 

E'er  saw  s.>  strange  a  battle. 
The  rebel  dales,  the  rebel  vales, 

With  rebel  trees  surrounded, 
The  distant  woods,  the  hills  and  floods, 

With  rebel  echoes  sounded. 
The  fish  below  swam  to  and  fro, 

Attack'd  from  every  quarter; 
"  Why  sure,"  thought  they,  "  the  d 's  to  pay, 

'Mongst  folks  above  the'water." 
The  kegs,  'tis  said,  though  strongly  made, 

Of  rebel  staves  and  hoops,  sir. 
Could  not  oppose  their  powerful  foes, 

The  conquering  British  troops,  sir. 
From  morn  to  night,  these  men  of  might 

Display 'd  amazing  oourage, 
And  when  the  sun  was  fairly  down, 

Retired  to  aup  their  porridge. 
An  hundred  men,  with  each  a  pen, 

Or  more,  upon  my  word,  sir, 
It  is  most  true,  would  ''°.j>'  few, 

Their  valor  to  record, 'iJK~' 
Such  feats  did  they  perform  that  day, 

Against  tlie^e  wicked  kegs,  sir, 
That  years  to  come,  if  they  get  home, 

They'll  make  t.'ie.ir  boasts  and  brags,  sir. 

As  soon  as  Washington  heard  that  Clinton 
had  left  Philadelphia,  he  broke  up  his  quarters 
at  Valley  Forge,  and  followed  hard  after  him. 
A  hot  battle  was  fought  on  the  2-th.  near  Mon- 
mouth  court-house.  It  did  not  cease  till  the 
evening.  Washington  slept  upon  his  cloak 
under  a  tree,  expecting  more  fio-huiiir  in  the 
morning;  but  the  British  marched  off  in  the 
night.  Sixty  of  their  soldiers  were  found  dead 
on  the  battle-field,  without  wounds.  Fatigue 
and  the  excessive  heat  had  killed  them. 

In  the  beginning  of  this  battle,  one  Mblly 
Pitcher  was  occupied  in  carrying  water  from 
a  spring  to  a  battery,  where  her  husband  was 
employed  in  loading  and  firing  a  cannon.  He 
was  shot  dead  at  last,  and  she  saw  him  fall.  An 
officer  rode  up,  and  ordered  off  the  cannon. 
"  It  can  be  of  no  use.  now,"  said  he.  but  Molly 
stepped  up.  offered  her  services,  and  took  her 
husband's  place,  to  the  astonishment  of  the 
army.  She  fought  well,  and  half  pay  for  lift- 
was  given  her  by  Cono-ress.  She  wore  an 
epaulette,  and  was  called"  Captain  Molly,  ever 
after. 

In  the  midst  of  the  fight,  there  was  a  soldier, 
whose  gun-lock  was  knocked  off  by  a  bullet. 
At  the  same  instant,  a  soldier  at  his  side  was 
killed.  He  picked  up  (lie  dead  mini's  musket. 
and  was  preparing  to  lire,  when  a  bullet  entered 
the  muzzle  of  the  gun,  and  twisted  the  barrel 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


455 


REV 


into  the  shape  of  a  cork-screw.  Although  the  seized  him  by  'the  collar,  without  drawing  his 
bullets  were  flying  around  him  like  hail-stones,  sword.  The  colonel  drew  a  pistol  from  his  hoi- 
he  deliberately  knelt  down  upon  the  spot,  un-  ster,  aimed  it  at  the  Englishman's  heart,  and 
screwed  the  lock  from  the  musket  in  his  hand,  killed  him.  The  other  now  Seized  him. on  the 
and  fastened  it  to  his  own  gun,  which  he  had  other  side  ;  a  fierce  struggle  ensued.  The  colo- 
thrown  away.  In  a  few  minutes,  he  was  again  nel  received  a  severe  sword-gash  in  his  left  arm  ; 
prepared,  and  then  engaged  in  the  deadly  con-  but  he  drew  his  second  pistol  that  moment  with 
flict.  his  right,  placed  it  between  the  Englishman's 

No  other  great  battles  were  fought  during  the  eyes,  and  killed  him  by  a  shot  in  the  head.  Colo- 
campaign  of  1778.  The  armies  only  molested  nel  McLane  noto  stopped  the  flow  of  his  own 
each  other  by  sending  out  small  detachments,  blood,  by  crawling  into  a  mill-pond,  and  at  last 
One  Gray,  called  "  No  Flint  Gray,"  because  he  reached  the  American  camp, 
always  ordered  his  soldiers  to  carry  their  flints  In  the  camp  at  Morristown,  during  the  win- 
in  their  pockets,  and  use  the  bayonets  only,  lay  ter  and  the  spring  of  1779,  the  Americana  \vere 
in  wait  in  a  barn,  one  night,  for  a  British  party,  often  without  meat  or  bread  ;  and  they  ate  peas, 
He  set  guards  on  the  road,  but  these  fell  asleep,  barley,  and  almost  every  kind  of  horse-food,  but 

The  enemy  found  out  his  situation,  rushed  hay.     Salt  could  only  be  got  for  eight  dollars  a 

in  upon  him,  and  surprised  him  in  profound  bushel:    The  snow  was  four  feet  deep.     They 

slumber.     Sixty-seven,  out  of  one  hundred  and  had  nothing  but  a  bed  of  straw  and  a  blanket 

four  of  his  men,  were  cruelly  bayoneted  on  the  at  night.     They  made  log  huts  in  February, 

spot.     Twenty  were  made  prisoners,  and  a  few  which  were  tolerably  comfortable.     But  many 

escaped.      One  of.  these  had    eleven  bayonet  deserted,  and  the  rest  were  almost  discouraged, 

wounds  in  his  booty ;  but  he  lived  many  years  Small  parties  were  often  sent  out  by  each  of 

afterward.  the  armies  to  annoy  the  other.    On  one  occa-. 

Colonel  McLane,  of  Lee's  famous  legion  of  sion,  a  man  by  the  name  of  May  hew  was  pur- 
troopers,  had  a  narrow  escape.  He  had  planned  sued  through  the  snow  by  two  of  the  British 
an  attack  on  a  small  British  force  stationed  on  troopers.  They  gained  fast  upon  him.  and  he 
a  turnpike  road,  eight  miles  from  Philadelphia,  found  he  must  be  overtaken.  So  he  turned 
and  rode  ahead  with  a  single  soldier,  to  point  about,  and  asked,  if  they  would  give  him  quar- 
out  the  way  for  his  men.  It  was  in  the  gray  ter.  "  Yes,  you  dog."  shouted  both  of  them, 
of  the  morning.  His  cqmrade  suddenly  shouted,  "we'll  quarter  you."  Upon  this,  May  hew 
"ColoneL  the  British!"  spurred  his  horse,  and  resolved  to  give  them  one  shot.  He  fired  at 
was  out  of  sight  in  a  moment.  the  foremost,  who  immediately  yelled  out. 

There,  indeed,  were  the  enemy  all  about  him.  "  The  rascal  has  broken  my  leg."  Both  of  them 

They  had  lain  in  ambuscade,  and  thus  suddenly  wheeled  about,  and  galloped  away  as  fast  as 

came  upon  him.     A  do/en  shots  were  fired,  but  they  could  go. 

his  horse  only  was 'wounded  in  the  flank.    This  Little  was  done   on   either  side   during  the 

spurred  the  animal  on  at  such  a  furious  rate,  year   1779.      The   British  main   army,   under 

that  he  dashed  through  the  woods  like  a  hawk.  Clinton,  was  at  New  York;  and  the  Americans. 

The  colonel  now  came  up  with  a  farm-house  by  under  Washington,  were  among  the  Highlands, 

the  road-side,  when  a  number  of  British  officers  above  that  city,  on  the  river  Hudson.     In  the 

observed  him  as  he  passed      They  thought  he  spring,  a  British  force  was  sent  to  ravage  the 

was  on  his  way  to  the  English  army,  which  coast  of  Virginia.     They  destroyed  every  thing 

was  directly  ahead.  in    their   way — villages',   shipping   and    stores. 

He  dashed  by,  and  they  soon  found  out  their  The  Virginians  sent  to  the  British  general  to 

mistake,  and   pursued   him.      His  horse  went  ask,  "  what  sort  of  war  this  was."     He  replied, 

with   such    speed,  however,  over  fences    and  that  "  all  rebels  must  be  so  treated." 

fields,  and  every  other  obstacle,  that,  at  last,  A  month  or  two  afterwards,  Governor  Tryon 

only  two  men  continued  to  pursue  him.     These  was  sent  to  commit  similar  havoc  in  Connecti- 

came  up  with  him  at  the  ascent  of  a  small  hill,  cut.     Colonel  Whiting  had  mustered  the  militia 

the  three  horses  so  exhausted,  that  neither  could  at  Fairfield.     Tryon  came  to  that  place,  and 

be  forced  out  of  a  walk.     One  of  the  soldiers  commanded  him  to  surrender.    He  gave  him 

cried,  "  Surrender,  you  rebellious  rascal,  or  we  an    hour   for  consideration  ;    but,   before   that 

will  cut  you  to  pieces."  time   had   elapsed,   his   soldiers  set  the   town 

The  colonel  made  no  reply,  but  laid  his  hand  on  fire,  and  a  great  part  of  it  was  laid  in  ashes, 

on  his  pistols.    The  man  now  came  up,  and  At  New    Haven,  all  possible    damage   was 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


REV 


456 


REV 


done.  The  haibor  was  covered  over  with 
feathers,  poured  out  from  the  beds  of  the  peo- 
ple. Desks,  trunks,  closets  and  chests  were 
broken  open  ;  the  women  were  robbed  of  their 
buckles,  rings,  bonnets  and  aprons.  East  Ha- 
ven was  afterwards  burnt,  and  Norwalk  shared 
a  similar  fate. 

At  a  place  near  Stamford,  the  British  came 
upon  General  Putnam,  who  had  one  hundred 
and  fifty  militia-men  with  him,  and  two  can- 
non. With  these,  he  kept  the  enemy  at  bay 
tor  some  time.  He  tJien  ordered  the  soldiers 
into  a  swamp  hard  by,  where  the  British  troop- 
ers could  not  follow  ;  and  he  himself  rode  at  full 
gallop  down  a  steep  rock  behind  the  meeting- 
bouse.  Nearly  one  hundred  steps  had  been 
hewn  in  it,  like  a  flight  of  stairs,  for  the  people 
to  ascend  in  going  to  meeting.  The  troopers 
stopped  at  the  brink,  and  dared  not  follow  him. 
He  escaped  with  a  bullet-hole  through  his  hat. 

In  July,  a  fleet  of  thirty-seven  snr.ill  vessels 
was  fitted  out  from  Boston,  with  fifteen  hun- 
dred militia  on  board,  under  General  Wads- 
worth  and -General  Lovell.  The  object  was,  to 
drive  the  British  from  the  Penobscot  river,  in 
Maine,  where  they  had  built  a  fort  at  a  pi  nee 
called  Bagaduce  then,  now  Castine.  They 
were  near  succeeding,  when  a  Britisli  fleet  ap- 
peared off  the  mouth  of  the  river.  They  were 
obliged  to  leave  their  vessels,  and  most  of  the 
troops,  after  some  fighting,  escaped  across  the 
wild  lands  of  Maine,  to  the  settlements  on  the 
river  Kennebec. 

On  the  Hudson,  the  Americans  were  more 
successful.  On  the  15th  of  July,  Washington 
sent  General  Wayne  up  the  river  with  twelve 
hundred  men,  to  attack  a  strong  British  fort 
called  Stony  Point.  At  eleven  in  the  evening, 
Wayne  arrived  within  a  mile  or  two  of  the  fort. 
The  troops  were  now  formed  into  two  columns. 
Colonel  Fleury  marched  on  in  front,  with  one 
hundred  and  fifty  volunteers,  guided  by  twenty 
picked  men.  They  marched  silently,  with 
unloaded  guns  and  fixed  bayonets.  A  disor- 
derly fellow,  who  persisted  in  loading  liis  gun, 
was  run  through  the  body  by  his  captain. 

No  man  was  suffered  to  fire.  The  fort  was 
defended  by  a  deep  swarnp,  covered  with  water. 
The  troops  marched  through  it.  waist  deep. 
They  proceeded  with  charged  bayonets,  under 
a  tremendous  fire  of  cannon  and  musketry  from 
the  British,  till -the  two  columns  met  m  the 
centre  of  the  fort.  The  garrison,  six  hundred 
in  number,  were  taken  prisoners,  with  fifteen 
cannon,  and  a  large  quantity  of  stores.  The 
Americanslo  st  a  hundred  men  :  seventeen  of  the 


twenty  picked  men,  who  marched  in  front,  were 
among  the  number. 

General  Lincoln  commanded  in  the  Southern 
Provinces  during  1779,  the  British  still  holding 
possession  of  Savannah.  He  besieged  them 
there  with  the  help  of  the  French  fleet,  but  was 
driven  off.  Prevost,  the  British  general,  him- 
self, met  with  the  same  bad  luck  in  besieging 
Charleston.  South  Carolina.  The  people  resist- 
ed him  nobly,  with  some  assistance  from  Lin- 
coln, and  the  siege  was  abandoned. 

But  Prevost  ravaged  the  country,  burning 
and  plundering  without  mercy.  T.he  tories 
joined  him,  and  the  negro  slaves- were  hired  to 
serve  him  as  spies  and  scouts.  Peter  Francisco, 
an  American  trooper,  made  himself  famous  at 
this  time.  A  British  plundering  dragoon  enter- 
ed a  hut  in  the  country,  where  lie  happened  to 
be,  and  ordered  him  to  "  deliver  up  every  thing, 
or  die." 

"  I  have  nothing  to  deliver,"  said  Peter,  who 
was  unarmed  }  "  do  as  you  please."  li  OH'  with 
those  great  silver  buckles  on  your  shoes,  you 
scoundrel !"  said  the  dragoon.  (i  Take  them,  if 
you  like,"  answered  Peter:  "I  will  not  give 
them."  The  soldier  stooped  to  cut  them  off 
with  his  knife,  placing  his  sword  under  his 
arm.  with  the  hilt  towards  Peter.  He  seized 
upon  it.  and  struck  the  dragoon  with  such  force 
as  to  sever  his  head  from,  his  body  at  a  single 
blow. 

Sergeant  Jasper  was  another  brave  fellow, 
who  has  been  mentioned  before.  He  once 
went  secretly,  with  a  young  friend  of  his.  by 
the  name  of  Newton,  to  visit  his  brother,  a  sol- 
dier at  a  British  fort.  As  lie  stayed  there  a  day 
or  two,  his  brother  took  him  to  s'ee  some  Amer- 
ican prisoners,  just  brought  in.  They  were 
all  hind-cuffed.  There  was  a  young  woman 
among  the  rest,  with  her  husband,  and  a  beau- 
tiful little  boy,  five  years  old,  leaning  his  head 
on  her  bosom,  and  weeping. 

Jasper  and  Newton  were  hardlv  able  to  bear 
this.  They  walked  to  a  wood  "near  by.  "  I 
shall  not  live  long,"  said  Jasper.  "  Why  so?" 
said  the  other.  "  Why,  the  thought  of  that 
poor  woman  haunts  me.  I  shall  die,  if  I  do  not 
save  them."  "That  is  my  mind,  exactly," 
said  Newton,  grasping  Jasper's  hand.  "  Go 
on,  my  brave  friend  ;  I  will  stand  by  you  to  tlie 
last." 

After  breakfast,  the  prisoners  were  sent  on 
towards  Savannah,  under  a  guard  of  ten  armed 
men.  The  two  friends  followed  them  through 
the  woods,  but  without  arms.  Thinking  they 
would  stop  at  the  Spa,  a  famous  spring  two 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


REV 


457 


REV 


miles  from  Savannah,  they  went  secretly  round 
to  that  place,  and  concealed  themselves  in 
the  bushes.  By  and  by,  the  party  came  up, 
and  the  prisoners  were  suffered  to  rest  at  the 
spring. 

Two  men  kept  guard  with  thek  muskets, 
while  two  more  came  to  the  sprinMbr  water. 
•The  others  piled  their  arms  up,  and  sat  down  at 
a  distance.  The  two  guards  now  rested  their 
guns  against  a  tree,  and  began  drinking  from 
their  canteens.  "  Now's  the  time,"  cried  Jas- 
per. At  the  same  instant,  the  two  heroes 
sprang  from  the  bushes,  snatched  the  two  mus- 
kets, and  shot  down  the  two  guards. 

By  this  time,  two  of  the  soldiers  had  seized 
upon  their  guns.  But  they  were  instantly 
knock  down.  Jasper  and  .Newton  stood  over 
the  pile  of  guns,  and  ordered  the  other  six  to 
surrender.  They  were  glad  to  do  so.  The 
American  prisoners  were  now  armed,  and  the 
hand-cuffs  were  taken  from  them,  and  put  upon 
the  British  soldiers,  and  the  party  soon  reach]) 
ed  the  American  camp. 

During  the  year  1780,  nothing  of  great  conse- 
quence was  done  in  the  Northern  Provinces. 
The  two  armies  lay  near  each  other,  the  British 
being  in  New  York,  and  the  Americans  on  the 
Hudson  ;  but  no  battles  were  fought. 

When  the  British  troops  took  New  York,  and 
the  Americans  had  retired  some  distance  up  the 
North  River,  De  Lancey  joined  the  British,  took 
a' colonel's  commission,  and  raised  a  regiment 
of  horse,  which  was  called  Le  Lancey's  corps. 
The  other  took  a  captain's  commission  in  the 
American  army  ;  and  now,  feelings  of  hostility 
took  the  place  of  the  former  friendship  and  kind- 
ness that  subsisted  between  them. 

The  British  often  sent  out  parties  to  procure, 
in  whatever  way  they  could,  cattle,  sheep,  &c., 
for  food.  On  one  occasion,  such  a  party  had 
collected  a  large  number  of  these  animals,  and 
|  succeeded  in  driving  them  within  the  British 
lines,  before  thev  were  discovered.  The  place 
to  which  they  had  conveyed  their  plunder,  was 
within  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  of  New  York,  and 
was  considered  a  place  of  security.  Captain 
Moulton  was  one  of  the  most  active  partisans  in 
the1  American  army,  and  was  often  employed  in 
enterprises  which  required  both  daring  and  dex- 
terity. 

0  Being  well  acquainted  with  the  country,  the 
posts  where  the  British  were  stationed,  and  also 
the  place  where  they  had  retired  with  their  plun- 
der, he  requested  and  obtained  permission  to 
*  attempt  its  recapture.  In  this  service,  he  had 
about  one  hundred  men  under  his  command. 


His  plan  was,  to  avoid  the  British  posts, 
upon  liis  prey,  take  them  by  surprise,  and  make 
his  retreat  before  any  alarm  could  be  given. 
Unless  completely  successful,  the  destruction  of 
the  whole  party  seemed  inevitable.  It  was  about 
thirty  or  forty  miles  from  the  head-quarters  of 
the  American  army  to  the  scene  of  action,  which 
lay  several  miles  within  the  enemy's  lines. 

Captain  M.  and  his  party  began  their  march 
about  noon.  He  ordered  several  of  his  men  to 
keep  half  a  mile  or  more  in  advance,  to  guard 
against  surprise.  At  sunset,  they  were  about 
ten  or  fifteen  miles  from  the  place  where  they 
expected  (o  find  the  cattle.  They  rested  till 
midnight,  and  then  set  off  for  the  scene  of  ac- 
tion. They  found  all  still  and  quiet  on  their 
route.  When  within  a  mile,  they  halted,  and 
Captain  M.  gave  directions  as  to  the  assault, 
which  he  intended  to  make  soon  after  day-break. 
He  ordeied  his  men  not  to  fire  a  gun,  but  told 
them  to  rush  upon  those  who  guarded  the  cat- 
tle, and  kill,  or  take  them  prisoners. 

These  orders  were  strictly  obeyed,  and  the 
surprise  was  complete.  In  less  than  an  hour, 
the  cattle  were  collected,  and,  with  a  few  pris- 
oners, were  on  their  way  to  the  American  camp, 
under  the  escort  of  twenty  men,  who  were  di- 
rected by  Captain  M.  to  push  on  as  fast  as  possi- 
ble, until  they  had  passed  a  large  open  plain, 
•which  lay  in  their  route.  He  was  to  stay  with 
the  rest  of  the  party,  and  destroy  the  stores  which 
they  could  not  convey  away,  and  was  then  to 
follow  and  endeavor  to  overtake  them,  by  the 
time  they  had  crossed  the  plain. 

It  was  two  hours  after  his  first  arrival,  before 
Captain  M.  commenced  his  return.  His  situa- 
tion he  knew  to  be  extremely  critical.  Colonel 
De  Lancey  was  stationed  but  ten  or  twelve 
miles  distant,  with  his  regiment  of  horse  ;  and 
he  feared  he  would  be  upon  him  before  he  could 
join  the  rest  of  the  party.  He  had  just  reached 
the  plain  already  mentioned,  when  he  heard  the 
tramp  of  horses,  and  saw  a  troop  of  cavalry 
coming  at  full  £allop  upon  him.  He  ordered^ 
his  men  to  push  on,  hoping  to  cross  the  plain 
before  he  was  overtaken.  But  he  had  only 
reached  the  middle,  when  De  Lancey  and  hut 
troop  had  come  very  near. 

Captain  Moulton  immediately  halted,  and 
formed  his  men  in  a  hollow  square,  ordering 
the  front  line  to  kneel  on  one  knee,  and  present 
their  bayonets,  resting  the  butt-end  of  the  gun 
on  the  ground  ;  the  others  to  present  theirs  over 
the  heads  of  their  comrades.  He  warned  them 
not  to  fire  a  gun,  and  not  to  speak ;  but  to  be 
unmoved,  firm  and  steadfast.  Scarcely  were 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 





REV 


458 


REV 


iy  thus  formed,  when  the  horse,  to  the  num-  "Are  you,  indeed?"  said  the  scouts;  "then 
her  of  two  or  three  hundred,  came  on  at  full  we'll  see  about  that!  "  They  found  his  papers 
charge,  appearing  as  if  they  would  ride  over  ^Jte  in  his  boots.  He  offered  them  his  gold  watch, 
little  band,  and  trample  them  to  the  earth.  horse  and  purse,  if  they  would  release  him  ;  but 
But  in  vain  did  meir  riders  urge  them  to  the  they  told  him  they  knew  their  business  too  well. 
onset.  When  within  a  rod  of  the  bristling  bay-  He  was  carried  to  the  camp,  and  though  a  brave 
onets,  they  recoiled,  and,  wheeling  to  the  right  and  accomplished  young  man,  yet  he  wascon- 
_and  left,  passed  round  the  corps,  and  formed  for  demned  anWianged,  according  to  the  usages  of 
"another  charge,  which  was  made  with  little  sue-  war,  as  a  spy.  Even  the  Americans  shed  many 
cess.  They  could  only  bring  their  horses  ne^ir  tears  for  him.  The  scouts  were  handsomely  re- 
enough  to  clash  their  swords  upon  the  bayonets,  warded. 

but  without  reaching  the  soldiers.    A  few  pistols  Arnold   escaped   from  West  Point  in  great 

were  fired,  but  without  effect.     Colonel  De  L.  haste.     Andre  had  contrived  to  send  him  notice 

then  called  upon  Captain  M.  to  surrender,  but  of  his  capture.    He  was  dining  with  some  of  his 

received  no  answer.    At  length  the  horsemen  friends,  when  the  letter  came.     They  saw  he 

wheeled  about,  and  were  preparing  for  a  third  was  very  much  agitated.     He  started  up,  and 

charge.     Captain  M.  then  spoke  to  De  Lancey  :  looked  wild ;  made  an  excuse  to  go  out,  and  they 

— "  It  you  jnake  another  assault  upon  us,  I  will  saw  nothing  more  df  him.     He.  went  to  New 

order  twenty  balls  to  be  put  through  your  heart,  York,  and  joined  the  British  army;  was  paid 

though  we  aie  sacrificed  the  next  moment!"  about  fifty  thousand  dollars,  and  was  appointed 

De  Lancey  knew  this  to  be  no  idle  threat.     He  a  general  in  the  British  service,  for  his  intended 

therefore  retifed  with  his  men,  and  left  the  little  Reason.     His  name  was  covered  with  everlast- 
patriot  band  to  pursue  their  march.     The  next 
day,  they  arrived  at  head  quarters,  with  their 


plunder  and  prisoners. 


g  shame  and  disgrace.      Even  his  gallantry 
nd  decided   military  talents  were  overlooked 
and  forgotten  in  his  infamy.    The  British  them- 


The  most  important  event  of  this  year,  was  selves  despised  him.     After  the  war.  he  went  to 

the  treason  of  General  Arnold.    He  commanded  England,  where  he  lived  many  years  in  obscu- 

a  very  strong  fort  at  West  Point,  sixty  miles  rity  and  contempt. 

from  New  York,  on  the  North  River.     He  un-  the    head-quarters   of  General  Washington 

dertook  to  deliver  it  into  the  possession  of  the  were  at  Tappan.  on  the  Hudson,  at  the  time  he 

British.  heard  of  Arnold's  treason.    Having  taken  meas- 

Major  Andre,  a  young  British  officer,  went  ures  to  put  the  fort  in  a  state  of  security,  he  ap- 

on  shore  in  the  night  from  a  British  ship  in  the  pointed  a  court-martial,  to  try  Andre.     After 

river,  to  arrange  the  business  with  Arnold.   The  a.  very   deliberate  examination,   he  was  found 

two  officers  met  privately  at  some  distance  from  guilty,  and  condemned  to  be  hanged  as  a  spy. 

the  fort.     Arnold  agreed,  for  a  certain  sum  of  When  the  gallant  young  officer  heard  that  he 

money,  and  other  considerations,  to  surrender  was  condemned  to  be  hanged,  he  wrote  a  yery 

the  fort,  with  the  garrison,  cannon  and  ammu-  pathetic  letter  to  Washington,  praying  that  he 

nition,  into  the  hands  of  the  British  commander,  might  be  shot,  and  die  as  a  soldier,  rather  than 

In  settling  the  details  of  this  business,  Andre  be  executed  like  a  felon. 

was  detained  till  the  next  day ;  and  then  the  No  man  had  a  kinder  heart  than  General 
boatmen  refused  to  carry  him  back.  He  had  to  Washington ;  and  he  would  gladly  have ^granted 
return  by  land,  and  to  pass  by  the  American  the  request  of  the  unfortunate  young  English- 
camp,  on  his  way  to  New  York.  He  was  fur-  man.  But  duty  to  his  country  would  not  per- 
nished  with  a  horse,  and  exchanged  his  uniform  mit  him  to  soften  the  sentence  of  the  law.  He 
for  a  common  coat.  was  very  anxious  to  bring  Arnold  to  justice,  and 

He  thought  himself  already  out  of  danger,  imagine'd  that,  if  he  could  be  taken,  Andre  might 
when,  as  he  trotted  quietly  on  through  the  be  set  free.  He  resolved  to  make  an  attempt, to 
woods,  he  was  stopped  by  three  Americans,  who  effect  these  desirable  objects,  and.  having  form- 
were  scouting  between  the  out-posts  of  the  two  ed  his  plan,  Washington  sent  to  Major  L,ee  to 
armies.  "  Who  goes  there  ?  "  cried  the  first,  repair  to  head-quarters,  at  Tappan.  "  I  have 
Hoizing  his  bridle.  Andre  was  frightened,  and  sent  for  you,"  said  General  Washington,  "in 
•  I  he  scout  where  he  belonged.  "  Below,"  the  expectation  that  you  have  some  one  in  your 
answered  he,  meaning  New  York.  corps,  who  is  willingto  undertake  a  delicate  and 

"So  do  I,"  said  Andre,  deceived;  "I'm  a  hazardous  project.   Whoever  comes  forward  will  , 

British  officer,  in  oreat  haste;  don't  stop  me."  confer  great  obligations  upon  me  personally,  and, 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


459 


REV 


in  behalf  of  the  United  States,  I  will  reward  him 
amply.  No  time  is  to  be  lost;  he  must  proceed, 
if  possible,  to-night.  1  intend  to  seize  Arnold, 
and  save  Andre.  ' 

Major  Lee  named  a  sergeant-major  of  his 
corps,  by  the  name  of  Champe,  a  native  of  Vir- 
ginia, a  man  full  of  bone  and  muscle,  with  a 
countenance  grave,  thoughtful,  and  taciturn,  of 
tried  courage,  and  inflexible  perseverance. 

Champe  was  sent  for  by  Major  Lee,  and  the 
plan  proposed.  This  was  for  him  to  desert  ;  to 
escape  to  New  York  ;  to  appear  friendlv  to  the 
enemy;  to  watch  Arnold,  and,  Upon  some  fit 
opportunity,  with  the  assistance  of  some  one 
whom  he  could  trust,  to  seize  him,  and  conduct 
him*  to.  a  place  on  the  river,  appointed,  where 
boats  should  be  in  readiness  to  bear  them  away. 

Champe  listened  to  the  plan  attentively  ;  but, 
with  the  spirit  of  a  man  of  honor  and  integrity, 
replied,  "  that  it  was  not  danger  nor  difficulty 


that  deterred  him  from  immediately  accepting 
the  proposal,  but  the  ignominy  of  desertion,  and 
the  hypocrisy  of  enlisting  with  the  enemy." 


To  these  objections  Lee  replied,  that  although 
he  would  appear  to  desert,  yet,  as  he  obeyed  the 
call  of  his  commander-in-chief,  his  departure 
could  not  be  considered  as  criminal  ;  and  that, 
if  hg_  suffered  in  reputation  for  a  time,  the  mat- 
ter. would  one  day  ke  explained  to  his  credit. 
As  to  the  second  objection,  it  was  urged,  that  to 
bring  such  a  man  as  Arnold  to  justice,  loaded 
with  guilt  as  he  -was  ;  and  to  save  Andre,  so 
young,  so  ar.complished,  so  beloved;  to  achieve 
so  much  good  in  the  cause  of  his  country,  was 
more  than  sufficient  to  balance  a  wrong,  exist- 
ing only  in  appearance. 

The  objections  of  Champe  were  at  length  sur- 
mounted, and  he  accepted  the  service.  It  was 
now  eleven  o'clock  at  night.  With  his  instruc- 
tions in  his  pocket,  the  sergeant  returned  to 
camp;  and,  taking  his  cloak,  valise  and  orderly 
book,  drew  his  horse  from  the  picket,  and  mount- 
ed, putting  himself  upon  fortune. 

Scarcely  had  half  an  hour  elapsed,  before 
Captain  Carnes,  the  officer  of  the  day,  waited 
upon  Lee,  who  was  vainly  attempting  to  rest, 
and  informed  him,  that  one  of  the  patrol  had  fal- 
len in  with  a  dragoon,  who,  being  challenged, 
put  spurs  to  his  horse,  and  escaped.  Lee,  hoping 
to  conceal  the  flight  of  Champe,  or  at  least  to 
delay  pursuit,  complained  of  fatigue,  and  told 
the  captain  that  the  patrol  had  probably  mistaken 
a  countryman  for  a  dragoon.  Carnes,  however, 
was  not  thus  to  be  quieted  ;  and  he  withdrew  to 
assemble  his  corps.  On  examination,  it  was 
found  that  Champe  was  absent.  The  captain 


now  returned,  and  acquainted  Lee  with  the  dis- 
covery, adding,  that  he  had  detached  a  party  to 
pursue  the  deserter,  and  begged  the  Major's 
written  orders. 

After  making  as  much  delay  as  practicable 
without  exciting  suspicion,  Lee  delivers  his  or- 
ders, in  which  he  directed  the  party  to  take 
Champe,  if  possible.  "  Bring  him  alive, "  said 
he,  "  that  he  may  suffer  in  the  presence  of  the 
army  ;  but  kill  him  if  he  resists,  or  tries  to  escape 
after  being  taken." 

A  shower  of  rain  fell  soon  after  Champe's  de- 
parture, which  enabled  the  pursuing  dragoons 
to  lake  the  trail  of  his  horse  ;  his  shoes,  in  com- 
mon with  those  of  all  the  horses  of  the  corps, 
being  made  in  a  peculiar  form,  and  each  having 
a  private  mark,  which  was  to  be  seen  in  the  path. 

Middleton,  the  leader  of  the  pursuing  party, 
left  the  camp  a  few  minutes  past  twelve,  so  that 
Champe  had  the  start  of  but  little  more  than  an 
hour — a  period  by  far  shorter  than  had  been  con- 
templated. During  the  night,  the  dragoons  were 
often  delayed  in  the  necessary  halts  to  examine 
the  road ;  but,  on  the  coining  of  morning,  the 
impression  of  the  horse's  shoes  was  so  apparent, 
that  they  pressed  on  with  rapidity.  Some  miles 
above  Bergen,  a  village  three  miles  north  of 
New  York,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Hudson, 
ou  ascending  a  hill,  Champe  was  seen  not  more 
than  half  a  mile  distant.  Fortunately,  Champe 
descried  his  pursuers  at  the  same  moment,  and, 
conjecturing  their  object,  put  spurs  to  his  horse, 
with  the  hope  of  escape. 

By  taking  a  different  road,  Champe  was,  for 
a  time,  lost  sight  of;  but,  on  approaching  the 
river,  he  was  again  perceived.  Aware  of  his 
danger,  he  now  lashed  his  valise,  containing  his 
clothes  and  orderly  book,  to  his  shoulders,  and 
prepared  himself  to  plunge  into  the  river,  if  ne- 
cessary. Swift  was  his"  flight,  and  swift  the 
pursuit.  Middieton  and  his  party  were  within 
a  few  hundred  yards,  when  Champe  threw  him- 
self from  his  horse,  and  plunged  into  the  river, 
calling  aloud  upon  some  British  galleys,  at  no 
great  distance,  for  help.  A  boat  was  instantly 
despatched  to  the  sergeant's  assistance,  and  a  fire 
commenced  upon  the  pursuers.  Champe  was 
taken  on*board,  and  soon  after  carried  to  New 
York,  with  a  letter  from  the  captain  of  the  gal- 
ley, fetating  the  past  scene,  all  of  which  he  had 
witnessed. 

The  pursuers  having  recovered  the  sergeant's 
horse  and  cloak,  returned  to  camp,  where  they 
arrived  about  three  o'clock  the  next  dny.  On 
their  appearance  with  the  well  known  horse,  the 
soldiers  made  the  air  resound  with  the  acclaiua- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


REV 


460 


REV 


tion  that  the  scoundrel  was  killed.  The  agony 
of  Lee,  for  a  moment,  was  past  description,  lest 
the  faithful,  honorable,  intrepid  Champe  had 
fallen.  But  the  truth  soon  relieved  his  fears, 
and  he  repaired  to  Washington  to  impart  to 
him  the  success,  thus  far,  of  his  plan. 

Soon  after  the  arrival  of  Champe  in  New 
York,  he  was  sent  to  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who 
treated  him  kindly,  but  detained  him  more  than 
an  hour  in  asking  him  questions ;  "to  answer 
some  of  which,  without  exciting  suspicion,  re- 
quired all  the  art  the  sergeant  was  master  of. 
He  succeeded,  however,  and  Sir  Henry  gave 
him  a  couple  of  guineas,  and  recommended  him 
to  Arnold,  who  was  wishing  to  procure  Ameri- 
can recruits.  Arnold  received  him  kindly,  and 
proposed  to  him  to  join  his  legion.  Champe, 
however,  expressed  his  wish  to  retire  from  war ; 
but  assured  the  general,  if  he  should  change  his 
mind,  he  would  enlist. 

Champe  found  means  to  communicate  to  Lee 
an  account  of  his  adventures;  but,  unfortunate- 
ly, he  could  not  succeed  in  taking  Arnold,  as 
was  wished,  before  the  execution  of  Andre. 
Ten  days  before  Champe  brought  his  project  to 
a  conclusion,  Lee  received  from  him  his  final 
communication,  appointing  the  third  subsequent 
night  for  a  party  of  dragoons  to  meet  him  at 
Hoboken,  opposite  New  York,  when  he  hoped 
to  deliver  Arnold  to  the  officers. 

Champe  had  enlisted  into  Arnold's  legion, 
from  which  time  he  had  every  opportunity  he 
could  wish,  to  attend  to  the  habits  of  the  gene- 
ral. He  discovered  that  it  was  his  custom  to 
return  home  about  twelve  every  night,  and  that, 


previously  to  going  to  bed,  he  always  visited 
irden.     During  this  visit,  the  conspirators 


the  ga 


were  to  seize  him,  and,  being  prepared  with  a 
gag,  they  were  to  apply  the  same  instantly. 

Adjoining  the  house  in  which  Arnold  resided, 
and  in  which,  it  was  designed  to  seize  and  gag 
him.  Champe  had  taken  off  several  fence-pal- 
ings, and  replaced  them,  so  that  with  ease,  and 
without  noise,  he  could  readily  open  his  way  to 
the  adjoining  alloy.  Into  this  alley  he  intended 
to  convey  his  prisoner,  aided  by  his  companion. 
one  of  two  associates,  who  had  been  introduced 
by  the  friend  to  whom  Champe  had  been  origi- 
nally made  known  by  letter  from  the  com- 
inander-in-chief,  and  with  whose  aid  and  coun- 
sel he  had  so  far  conducted  the  enterprise.  His 
other  associate  was  with  the  boat,  prepared  at 
one  of  the  wharves  on  the  Hudson  River,  to  re- 
ceive the  party. 

Champe  and  his  friend  intended  to  place 
themselves  each  under  Arnold's  shoulder,. and 


thus  to  bear  him,  through  the  most  unfrequented 
alleys  and  streets,  to  the  boat,  representing  Ar- 
nold, in  case  of  being  questioned,  as  a  drunken 
soldier,  whom  they  were  conveying  to  the 
guard-house. 

When  arrived  at  the  boat,  the  difficulties 
would  be  all  surmounted,  there  being  no  dan- 
ger nor  obsto.de  in  passing  to  the  Jersey  shore. 
These  particulars,  as  soon  as  made  known  to 
Lee,  were  communicated  to  the  commander-in- 
chief,  who  was  highly  gratified  with  the  much 
desired  intelligence.  He  requested  Major  Lee 
to  meet  Chanl|>e.  and  to  take  care  that  Arnold 
should  not  be  hurt. 

The  day  arrived,  and  Lee,  with  a  part^  of 
accoutred  horses, — one  for  Arnold,  one. for  the 
sergeant,  and  the  third  for  his  associate,  who 
was  to  assist  in  securing  Arnold, — left  the  camp, 
never  doubting  the  success  of  the  enterprise, 
from  the  tenor  of  the  last  received  communica- 
tion. The  party  reached  Hoboken  about  mid- 
night, where  they  were  concealed  in  the  ad- 
joining wood ;  Lee,  with  three  dragoons  sta- 
tioning himself  near  the  shore  of  the  river. 
Hour  after  hour  passed,  but  no  boat  approached. 

At  length  the  day  broke,  and  the  major  re- 
tired to  his  party,  "and,  with  his  led  horses, 
returned  to  the  camp,  where  he  proceeded  to 
head-quarters,  to  inform  the'  general  of  the  much 
lamented  disappointment,  as  mortifying  as  it 
was  inexplicable.  Washington,  having  perus- 
ed Champe's  plan  and  communication,  had  in- 
dulged the  presumption .  that  at  length  the  object 
of  his  keen  and  constant  pursuit  was  sure  of 
execution,  and  did  not  dissemble  the  joy  which 
such  a  conviction  produced.  He  was  chagrined 
at  the  issue,  and  apprehended  that  his  faithful 
sergeant  must  have  been  detected  in  the  last 
scene  of  his  tedious  and  difficult  enterprise. 

In  a  few  days.  Lee  received  an  anonymous 
letter  from  Charnpc's  patron  and  friend,  inform- 
ing him,  that  on  the  day  preceding  the  night 
fixed  for  the  execution  of  the  plot,  Arnold  had 
removed  his  quarters  to  another  part  of  the 
town,  to  superintend  the  embarkation  of  troops, 
preparing,  as  was  rumored,  for  an  expedition  to 
be  directed  by  himself;  and  that  the  American 
legion,  consisting  chiefly  of  American  deserters, 
had  been  transferred  from  their  barracks  to  one 
of  the  transports,  it  being  apprehended  that,  if 
left  on  shore  until  the  expedition  was  ready, 
many  of  them  might  desert. 

Thus  it  happened,  that  John  Champe,  instead 
of  crossing  the  Hudson  that  night,  was  safely 
deposited  on  board  one  of  the  fleet  of  transports, 
from  whence  he  never  departed,  until  the  troops 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


461 


REV 


under  Arnold  landed  in  Virginia.  Nor  was  he 
able  to  escape  from  the  British  army  until  after 
the  junction  of  Lord  Cornwallis  at  Petersburg, 
when  he  deserted ;  and,  proceeding  high  up 
into  Virginia,  he  passed  into  North  Carolina, 
and,  keeping  in  the  friendly  districts  of  that 
state,  sjifely  joined  the  army  soon  after  it  had 
passed  the  Congaree,  in  pursuit  of  Lord  Rawdon. 

His  appearance  excited  extreme  surprise 
among  his  former  comrades,  which  was  not  a 
little  increased,  when  they  saw  the  cordial  re- 
ception he  met  with  from  the  late  Major,  now 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Lee.  His  whole  story  was 
soon  known  to  the  corps,  which  re-produced  the 
love  and  respect  of  officers  and  soldiers,  hereto- 
fore invariably  entertained  for  the  sergeant, 
heightened  by  universal  admiration  of  his  late 
daring  and  arduous  attempt. 

Champe  was  introduced  to  General  Greene, 
who  very  cheerfully  complied  with  the  promise 
made  by  the  commander-in-chief,  so  far  as  in 
his  power ;  and,  having  provided  the  sergeant 
with  a  good  horse,  and  money  for  his  journey, 
sent  him  to  General  Washington,  who  munifi- 
cently anticipated  every  desire  of  the  sergeant, 
and  presented  him  with  a  discharge  from  fur- 
ther service,  lest  he  might,  in  the  vicissitudes 
of  war,  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy ,  when, 
if  recognised,  he  was  sure  to  die  on  a  gibbet. 

When  General  Washington  was  called  by 
President  Adams,  in  1798,  to  the  command  of 
the  army,  prepared  to  defend  the  country  against 
French  hostility,  he  sent  to  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Lee,  to  inquire  for  Champe  ;  being  determined 
to  bring  him  into  the  field  at  the  head  of  a  com- 
pany of  infantry.  Lee  sent  to  Loudon  county, 
Virginia,  where  Champe  settled  after  his  dis- 
charge from  the  army  ;  when  he  learned  that 
the  gallant  soldier  had  removed  to  Kentucky, 
where  he  soon  after  died. 

We  must  now  return  to  our  history.  Con- 
gress continued  to  make  great  efforts  to  supply 
the  army,  though  the  paper  money  they  had 
issued  was  worth  so  little,  that  a  soldier  would 
give  forty  of  these  dollars  for  a  breakfast,  and  a 
colonel's  pay  would  hardly  find  oats  for  his 
horse.  The  merchants  of  Philadelphia  raised  a 
large  sum  of  better  money,  however,  and  sent 
it  to  the  arrny.  The  ladies  of  that  city  furnish- 
ed a  large  quantity  of  clothing. 

But  the  British,  all  this  time,  were  overrun- 
ning the  two  Carolinas.  They  had  taken 
Charleston  on  the  llth  of  May,  1780,  after  a  long 
siege,  and  a  brave  defence  by  General  Lincoln. 

General  Gates  was  soon  after  sent  to  take 
command  of  the  southern  army .  He  was  joined 


by  hundreds  of  the  Carolina  militia.  Congress 
sent  him  some  fine  Maryland  and  Delaware 
troops  also.  They  had  a  very  long  and  hard 
march  through  the  woods,  finding  nothing  to 
eat  on  the  way,  but  peaches  and  green  corn, 
with  now  and  then  a  flock  of  wild  turkeys,  or  a 
drove  of  wild  hogs.  But  they  were  brave  men, 
and  did  not  murmur.  They  even  joked  each 
other  on  account  of  their  thin  faces,  and  lank 
legs.  .  • 

A  battle  took  place  on  the  16th  of  August, 
near  Camden,  South  Carolina,  between  Gates 
and  the  British  under  Lord  Cornwallis.  The 
former  was  defeated,  and  fled  eighty  miles  into 
the  back  country.  The  lean,  northern  soldiers 
we  have  just  mentioned,  fought  nobly  an  hour 
after  all  the  rest  had  been  routed  like  an  army  of 
sheep.  The  brave  Baron  De  Kalb  was  wound- 
ed in  eleven  places.  He  fell  from  his  horse,  and 
died  in  the  hands  of  the  British.  He  was  a 
Frenchman,  and  sent  his  compliments,  in  his 
last  moments,  to  "his  gallant  Maryland  and 
Delaware  soldiers." 

Generals  Marion  and  Sumpter  gave  the  Brit- 
ish great  trouble  during  this  campaign.  Small 
parties  of  the  mountain  militia  joined  them,  and 
they  swept  down  upon  the  enemy,  wherever 
they  could  find  them  in  small  parties.  The  far- 
mers' wives  furnished  them  pewter  spoons  and 
platters,  to  make  into  bullets ;  and  they  forged 
swords  of  scythes  and  the  saws  of  saw-mills. 

In  October,  sixteen  hundred  of  these  moun- 
taineers mustered  together  to  attack  a  British 
force  under  Major  Ferguson,  who  had  encamp- 
ed not  far  from  the  mountains.  P'or  weeks, 
they  had  no  salt,  bread,  or  spirits;  they  slept 
upon  boughs  of  trees,  without  blankets,  drank 
only  from  the  running  streams,  and  lived  upon 
wild  game,  or  ears  of  corn,  and  pumpkins,  roast- 
ed by  their  great  log-fires  in  the  woods. 

They  were  to  assault  Ferguson  in  three  par- 
ties, and  Colonel  Cleaveland  addressed  his  party 
in  these  words  :  "  My  brave  boys,  we  have  beat 
the  red-coats  and  the  tories,  and  we  can  beat 
them  again.  They  are  all  cowards.  You  must 
fight,  each  man  for  himself,  without  orders. 
Fire  as  quick  as  you  can,  and  stand  as  long  as 
you  can.  If  you  must  retreat,  get  behind  the 
trees — don't  run,  my  fine  fellows,  don't  run  !" 
"  iturrah  for  the  mountaineers !"  cried  they, 
and  rushed  down  upon  the  enemy. 

The  Americans  were  driven  back  at  the  point 
of  the  bayonet ;  but  they  only  lay  down  among 
the  logs  and  rocks,  and,  being  sharp-shooters, 
killed  more  than  two  hundred  of  the  enemy. 
Ferguson  was  killed  himself,  and  eight  hundred 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


REV 


462 


REV 


of  his  soldiers  surrendered.  Ten  of  the  most 
savage  tories,  notorious  rascals,  were  hung  up 
on  the  neighboring  trees. 

With  the  year  178] ,  on  which  we  now  enter, 
the  war  dresv  rapidly  toward  a  close.  It  was 
carried  on  almost  entirely  in  the  Southern  Prov- 
inces. General  Greene  was  appointed  to  com- 
mand the  American  forces  in  that  quarter.  At 
the  time  of  his  arrival,  they  were  a  miserable, 
half-starved  militia,  of  three  thousand  men. 
They  marked  the  frozen  ground  with  the  blood 
of  their  bare  feet,  and  lived  half  the  time  upon 
frogs,  taken  from  the  swamps,  wild  game,  rice, 
and  wretchedly  lean  cattle. 

But  they  were  soon  reinforced ;  and  small 
parties,  under  Sumpter,  Marion,  Morgan,  and 
others,  often  annoyed  the  forces  of  Cornwallis. 
Colonel  Washington  laid  siege  to  a  strong  block- 
house near  Camden,  defended  by  a  British 
colonel,  and  a  hundred  tories.  He  had  no  can- 
non, and  few  men ;  but  he  carved  out  a  few 
pine  logs  in  the  shape  of  cannon,  mounted  them 
on  wheels,  and  summoned  the  tories  to  surren- 
der. They  were  frightened  at  the  appearance 
of  his  big  cannon,  and  surrendered.  Not  a  shot 
was  fired  upon  either  side. 

On  the  17th  of  January,  Colonel  Morgan, 
with  eight  hundred  militia,  was  attacked  at  a 
place  called  the  Cowpens,  in  South  Carolina,  by 
Tarleton,  a  famous  British  officer,  with  eleven 
hundred  men  and  two  cannon.  The  enemy 
rushed  on  with  a  tremendous  shout.  The  front 
line  of  militia  were  driven  back.  Tarleton  pur- 
sued them,  at  full  gallop,  with  his  troopers,  and 
fell  upon  the  second  line.  They  too  were  giv- 
ing way. 

At  this  moment,  Colonel  Washington  charged 
Tarleton  with  forty-five  militia-men,  mounted, 
and  armed  as  troopers.  The  whole  line  now  ral- 
lied under  Colonel  Howard,  and  advanced  with 
fixed  bayonets.  The  British  fled.  Their  cannon 
were  left  behind ;  three  hundred  British  soldiers 
were  killed  and  wounded,  and  five  hundred  were 
taken  prisoners ;  eight  hundred  muskets,  sev- 
enty negroes,  and  one  hundred  dragoon  horses, 
also  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Americans.  Many 
British  officers  were  killed.  Morgan  always 
told  his  sharp-shooters  "  to  aim  at  the  epaulettes, 
and  not  at  the  poor  rascals  who  fought  for  six- 
pence a  day." 

General  Greene  was  now  driven  back,  by 
Cornwallis,  into  North  Carolina.  The  latter 
pursued  him  through  the  Province,  over  moun- 
tains and  swamps,  and  arrived  at  the  river  Dan, 
just  as  Greene  had  crossed  it.  Cornwallis  now 
found  it  necessary  to  turn  about;  and  so  he 


marched  back,  and  Greene  soon  followed  him 
with  new  forces. 

Sumpter  joined  him  at  Orangeburg,  having 
received  orders  to  do  so  during  his  hasty  retreat 
before  the  enemy.  It  seems  Greene  could  find 
no  man  in  his  army  who  would  carry  the  mes 
sage  to  Sumpter.  A  country  girl,  named  Emilj- 
Geiger,at  last  offered  her  services,  and  was  sent 
She  was  taken  by  the  British,  and  confined  fo) 
the  purpose  of  being  searched.  She,  however, 
ate  up  the  letter  which  she  carried,  piece  by 
piece.  They  released  her,  to  go  home,  as  thej 
supposed ;  but  she  took  a  roundabout  way . 
reached  Sumpter's  camp  safely,  and  delivered 
her  message,  in  her  own  words. 

The  Americans  were  defeated  near  Guilfon* 
court-house  on  the  loth  of  March.  But  Corn 
wallis  retreated  soon  after.  He  had  suffered 
great  loss,  and  his  army  was  small.  A  militia 
colonel  cried  out  in  this  battle,  as  the  British 
were  marching  up,  "  They  will  surround  us.' 
He  was  frightened  himself,  and  frightened  his 
soldiers  so  much,  that  they  gave  way,  while  the 
enemy  were  one  hundred  and  forty  yards  distant . 

Colonel  Washington,  at  the  head  of  his  troop 
ers,  nearly  captured  Cornwallis  in  this  battle. 
He  was  just  rushing  upon  the  British  genera), 
when  his  c;ip  fell  from  his  head.  As  he  leaped 
to  the  ground  for  it,  the  leading  American  officer 
behind  him  was  shot  through  the  body,  and  ren- 
dered unable  to  manage  his  horse.  The  animal 
wheeled  round,  and  galloped  off  with  his  rider  ; 
and  the  troop,  supposing  it  was  Washington's  ta  • 
der,  wheeled  about  also,  and  rode  offat  full  speed. 

Fort  Watson,  between  Camden  and  Charles- 
ton, surrendered,  in  April,  with  114  men,  t> 
General  Marion.  The  fort  was  built  on  a  mound 
of  earth  thirty  feet  high  ;  but  Marion,  with  his 
mountaineers,  had  raised  a  work  which  over- 
looked it  in  such  a  manner,  that  not  a  man  in 
the  fort  could  show  his  head  over  the  parapets, 
or  scarcely  point  his  musket  through  a  hole  in 
tiie  walls,  but  the  riflemen  above  would  shoot 
him.  Greene  was  again  defeated  at  Camden . 
on  the  25th  of  April,  by  nine  hundred  English 
under  Lord  Rawdon. 

But  in  a  month  or  two,  the  British  lost  sb 
forts,  and  that  of  Augusta  was  among  them 
Here  there  were  three  hundred  men,  as  a  garri 
son,  who  almost  buried  themselves  undei 
ground,  while  the  Americans  were  building  up 
batteries  within  thirty  yards,  which  swept  the 
fort  through  and  through.  Greene  and  all  his 
officers,  and  all  his  men,  fought  nobly  the  whole 
season.  "  I  will  recover  the  Province,"  said  the 
general, "  or  die  in  the  attempt."  It  is  remarka- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


463 


REV 


ble,  that  although  his  force  was  much  inferior  to 
that  of  Cornwallis,  and  though  he  was  frequently 
defeated,  yet,  by  his  admirable  mano2uvres,  the 
result  of  the  campaign  was  entirely  favorable  to 
the  Americans,  and  injurious  to  the  British. 

Greene  attacked  the  enemy  at  Eutaw  Springs, 
September  8th,  and  completely  defeated  them, 
killing  and  capturing  eleven  hundred  of  their 
best  soldiers.  In  pursuing  the  enemy,  one 
Manning  found  himself  surrounded  by  them. 
He  seized  upon  a  small  British  officer;  and,  be- 
ing himself  a  stout  man,  placed  him  on  his 
shoulders,  and  retreated,  the  English  not  daring 
to  fire  at  him.  The  little  officer  was  horribly 
frightened,  but  Manning  took  good  care  of  him. 

The  war  was  closed  by  the  capture  of  Corn- 
wallis, at  Yorktown,  on  York  River,  Virginia. 
He  had  left  Carolina,  and  now  expected  to  over- 
run Virginia.  But  in  September,  the  Ameri- 
cans and  French,  under  Washington,  surround- 
ed him  from  all  quarters,  on  the  land  ;  while  the 
French  fleet,  riding  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  blocked 
up  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  and  kept  the  Eng- 
lish fleet  from  coming  in. 

It  was  impossible  for  Clinton,  with  all  his 
forces  at  New  York,  to  reinforce  Cornwallis. 
Washington  had  kept  him  in  fear  all  summer, 
and  made  him  believe,  till  the  last  moment,  that 
he  was  to  be  besieged  in  New  York.  It  was  not 
till  August  24th,  that  Washington  left  his  camp 
on  the  Hudson,  and  marched  through  New  Jer- 
sey and  Pennsylvania,  to  the  head  of  the  Chesa- 
peake. The  French  Admiral  De  Grasse,  who 
had  just  arrived,  carried  the  American  forces 
down  the  bay  to  Yorktown. 

The  army  passed  through  Philadelphia,  on 
this  march,  in  the  most  splendid  style.  The 
line  was  more  than  two  miles  long.  The  streets 
were  crowded  with  spectators;  and  the  win- 
dows, to  the  highest  stories,  were  filled  with  la- 
dies, waving  their  handkerchiefs,  as  the  gallant 
troops  passed  by.  It  was  a  magnificent  specta- 
cle. There  was  Washington,  with  all  his  sren- 
erals  ;  the  French  Count  Rochambeau,  with  all 
his;  General  Knox,  with  one  hundred  fine  can- 
non; and  the  whole  army,  pressing  on  with 
proud  steps  and  a  noble  confidence.  The  music 
was  beautiful ;  every  body  thought  they  would 
conquer ;  and,  just  at  this  time,  news  came,  that 
the  French  fleet  had  arrived  in  the  Chesapeake. 
The  city  rang  with  the  shouts  of  the  immense 
multitude. 

By  the  7th  of  October,  Cornwallis  was  com- 
pletely besieged.  He  had  raised  intrench- 
rnents;  but  the  allied  army,  the  Americans  and 
French,  had  erected  breast- works  all  about  him, 


circle  after  circle,  and  now  opened  a  battery  of 
one  hundred  cannon.  They  fired  day  and  night. 
The  roar  was  terrible.  The  ground,  for  miles, 
shook  with  it ;  and  the  bombs  and  shells  were 
seen  whirling  and  crossing  each  other  in  the 
dark  sky,  and  blazing  like  comets. 

If  they  fell  upon  the  ground,  it  was  torn  up 
for  a  rod  around,  and  dozens  were  killed  when 
they  burst.  The  bombs  sometimes  went  over 
the  heads  of  the  enemy,  and  fell  among  the  Brit- 
ish vessels  in  the  harbor,  near  the  British  works 
at  Gloucester  Point,  on  the  other  side  of  the  river. 
The  water  spouted  in  columns  as  they  fell. 

One  night,  an  attack  was  made  upon  two  re- 
doubts, which  the  British  had  built  out  so  far, 
that  they  stood  in  the  way  of  some  American 
works  just  building  around  them.  The  French 
were  ordered  to  take  one  redoubt,  and  the  Amer- 
icans, under  Lafayette,  the  other.  The  two 
parties  tried  to  out-do  each  other.  Lafayette 
carried  his  redoubt  first,  however,  and  sent  his 
aid-de-camp  to  the  leader  of  the  French  party, 
through  all  the  fire  of  the  batteries,  to  tell  him  he 
was  in.  "So  will  I  be,"  said  the  Frenchman,  "  in 
five  minutes;"  and  he  performed  his  promise. 

Cornwallis  surrendered  on  the  19th.  His  ar- 
my, of  about  seven  thousand  men,  marched  out, 
at  two  o'clock,  and  passed  between  the  Ameri- 
can line  on  one  side,  and  the  French  on  the 
other,  stretched  out  for  more  than  a  mile.  They 
were  all  dressed  in  their  most  splendid  uniforms, 
with  fine  music,  and  colors  flying.  The  Eng- 
lish marched,  carrying  their  colors  bound  up, 
with  a  slow  and  solemn  step. 

The  English  general  rode  up  to  Washington, 
at  the  head  of  the  line,  and  excused  the  absence 
of  Cornwallis,  who  feigned  sickness.  Wash- 
ington pointed  liim  politely  to  General  Lincoln, 
and  the  latter  directed  him  to  a  large  field,  where 
the  whole  British  army  laid  down  their  arms, 
and  were  led  away  prisoners.  After  this  capture, 
the  English  gave  up  all  hopes  of  success.  No 
fighting  of  any  consequence  took  place,  after 
this,  upon  the  land. 

The  British  troops  were  wholly  withdrawn 
from  the  United  States  of  America  in  the  fol- 
lowing season.  The  terms  of  peace  with  Eng- 
land were  settled  by  the  British  and  American 
ambassadors  at  Paris,  in  November,  1782. 

The  3d  of  November,  1783,  was  fixed  upon 
by  Congress  for  the  final  disbanding  of  the 
American  army.  On  the  day  previous,  Wash- 
ington issued  his  farewell  orders,  and  bade  an 
affectionate  adieu  to  the  soldiers  who  had  fought 
with  him  in  the  great  struggle,  which  was  now 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


RHO 


464 


RIC 


Soon  after  taking  leave  of  the  army,  General 
Washington  was  called  to  the  still  more  painful 
hour  of  separation  from  his  officers,  greatly  en- 
deared to  him  by  a  long  series  of  common  suf- 
ferings and  dangers. 

The  officers,  having  previously  assembled  in 
New  York  for  the  purpose,  General  Washing- 
ton now  joined  them,  and,  calling  for  a  glass  of 
wine,  thus  addressed  them  :  "  With  a  heart  full 
of  love  and  gratitude,  I  now  take  my  leave  of 
you.  I  most  devoutly  wish  that  your  latter  days 
may  be  as  prosperous  and  happy,  as  your  former 
ones  have  been  glorious  and  honorable." 

Having  thus  affectionately  addressed  them, 
he  took  each  by  the  hand,  and  bade  him  fare- 
well. Followed  by  them  to  the  side  of  the  Hud- 
son, he  entered  a  barge,  and,  while  tears  flowed 
down  his  cheeks,  he  turned  towards  the  com- 
panions of  his  glory,  and  bade  them  a  silent  adieu. 

Thus  ended  the  American  Revolution. 

REYNOLDS,  Sir  Joshua,  an  eminent  En- 
glish painter,  born  at  Plympton  in  Devonshire, 
in  1723.  He  was  particularly  celebrated  for  his 
portraits,  in  which  he  rejected  the  stiff,  formal 
style  of  his  predecessors.  In  1709  he  was  elect- 
ed president  of  the  royal  academy  and  received 
the  honor  of  knighthood.  He  lived  in  habits 
of  intimacy  with  Johnson,  Garrick,  Burke,  and 
other  eminent  men  of  his  time,  and,  although 
afflicted  with  incurable  deafness  in  the  latter 
part  of  his  life,  enjoyed  conversation  by  means 
of  a  trumpet.  In  1791  his  eyesight  failed,  and 
the  following  year  he  died,  at  the  age  of  seventy. 

Mr.  Burke  once  observed  to  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds— "  What  a  delight  you  have  in  your  pro- 
fession."— "  No,  Sir,"  said  Dr.  Johnson,  taking 
up  the  question,  "  Reynolds  only  paints  to  get 
money — "  Miss  Hannah  Moore,  who  was  pre- 
sent, defending  Sir  Joshua,  insisted  that  the 
pleasure  experienced  by  the  artist  was  derived 
from  higher  and  more  luxuriant  sources  than 
mere  pecuniary  consideration.  "  Only  answer 
me,"  said  the  moralist,  in  an  impressive  tone, 
"  did  Leander  swim  the  Hellespont  merely  be- 
cause he  was  fond  of  swimrninor?" 

RHODE  ISLAND,  one  of  the  United  States, 
bounded  N.  and  E.  by  Massachusetts,  S.  by  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  and  W.  by  Connecticut;  con- 
taining 1350  square  miles,  and  108,830  inhabi- 
tants. 

COUNTIES  AND    SHIRE   TOWNS. 

Bristol         -         -         -         Bristol 
Kent  -         -         -         East  Greenwich 

Newport    ...         Newport 
Providence          -         -         Providence. 
Rhode  Island  is  extensively  engaged  in  man- 


ufactures. The  principal  article  is  cotton  goods. 
The  land  in  the  vicinity  of  Narraganset  bay  is 
very  fertile,  in  other  parts  poor.  Brown  Uni- 
versity, at  Providence,  is  a  well-endowed  and 
flourishing  institution  ;  and  education  generally 
receives  careful  attention.  Roger  Williams,  "a 
minister  who  was  driven  from  Massachusetts 
on  account  of  his  religious  principles,  made  the 
first  settlement  in  this  state  at  Providence  in 
1G3G.  He  established  a  community  in  which 
persecution  f  r  religion  was  unknown.  The 
official  s!  -k  of  the  state  is  the  state  of  Rhode 
Island  and  Providence  Plantations.  The  island 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  state  is  in  Narra- 
ganset bay,  is  about  15  miles  long  and  3  broad, 
healthy  and  pleasant,  and  containing  3  town- 
ships, Newport,  Portsmouth,  and  Middletown. 

RHODES,  an  island  in  the  Grecian  archi- 
pelago, 10  miles  from  the  southern  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  It  was 
formerly  celebrated  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil, 
its  consecration  to  the  gods,  and  its  wonderful 
works  of  art,  including  the  celebrated  Colossus 
(see  Colossus  of  Rhodes).  It  was  made  a  Roman 
province  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  In  1309 
the  knights  of  St.  John  held  possession  of  it  but 
were  forced  to  surrender  it  to  Soliihan  II,  in 
1522. 

RICHARD  I,  king  of  England,  surnamed 
CCEUT  de  Lion,  was  born  at  Oxford,  llf>7,  and 
was  crowned  at  London  Sept.  3,  1189  ;  released 
the  king  and  people  of  Scotland  from  their  oaths 
of  homage  they  had  taken  to  his  father,  for 
10,000  marks,  Dec.  5,  1189;  embarked  at  Do- 
ver, Dec.  II  ;  set  out  on  the  crusade,  and  joined 
Philip  of  France  on  the  plains  of  Ve/elay,  June 
29,  1  190  ;  took  Messina  the  latter  end  of  the 
year;  married  Berengera,  daughter  of  the  kimr 
of  Navarre.  May  12,  1191;  defeated  the  Cypri- 
ans, and  took  their  king  prisoner,  1191  ;  and 
was  taken  prisoner  near  Vienna,  on  his  return 
home,  by  Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria,  Dec.  20, 
lli)2,  by  whom  he  was  detained  two  years,  and 
was  ransomed  for  40.000J.,  and  set  at  liberty  at 
aMentz.  lie  returned  to  England  March  20, 
119-1.  but  a  war  breaking  out  between  England 
and  France,  King  Richard  besieged  the  castle 
of  Chaluz,  near  Li 


imoges,  in  Normandy, 
he  was  shot  with  an  arrow,  and  died  April  (j, 
1199;  he  was  buried  at  Fontevraud,  and  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother. 

RICHARD  II,  King  of  England,  was  born 
at  Bourdeaux  in  13o7,  and  succeeded  King  Ed- 
ward III  in  1377.  Being  only  eleven  years  old 
when  he  came  to  the  crown,  the  kingdom  was 
governed,  during  his  minority,  by  his  uncles, 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


RIC 


465 


RID 


the  Dukes  of  Lancaster  and  Gloucester.  His 
reign  was  disturbed  by  the  famous  rebellion  of 
Wat  Tyler  and  Jack  Straw.  He  next  found 
himself  involved  in  a  war  with  the  barons,  who 
forced  him  at  last  to  sacrifice  his  misleading  fa- 
vorites to  their  revenge.  But  the  events  which . 
proved  most  fatal  to  him  were  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester's  death,  whom  he  caused^  to  be 
smothered,  and  his  unjust  seizure  of  the  Duke 
of  Lancaster's  goods  upon  his  decease.  Upon 
these  provocations,  Richard,  having  gone  to 
Ireland  to  pacify  a  disturbance  there,  Henry, 
the  young  Duke  of  Lancaster,  landed  in  England 
with  some  forces,  which  soon  increased  to  a jrieat 
number  by  the  discontented  party.  The  Duke 
of  York,  whom  King  Richard  had  left  to  govern 
the  kingdom  in  his  absence,  could  gain  but  little 
assistance  to  oppose  the  Duke  of  Lancaster. 
The  king's  affairs  now  bore  so  dismal  an  aspect, 
that  he  offered  to  resign  his  crown.  On  this, 
he  was  conducted  to  London,  where  he  was 
lodged  in  the  Tower.  A  parliament  was  sum- 
moned at  Westminster,  in  which  King  Richard 
was  charged  with  the  breach  of  his  coronation 
oath,  in  thirty-two  articles  ;  the  result  of  which 
was,  his  solemn  resignation  of  the  crown  to  his 
cousin  Henry,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  which  was 
accepted  by  the  parliament.  Thus  the  house 
of  Lancaster  obtained  the  throne  in  the  person 
of  this  Henry  IV  of  that  name ;  till  the  house 
of  York  prevailing  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI, 
the  Lancasteriaa  line  lost  the  crown.  Upon 
this  resignation,  King  Richard  was  removed  to 
Pomfret  Castle,  where  he  was  soon  after  mur- 
dered, Feb.  13,  1400. 

RICHARD  III,  formerly  duke  of  Gloucester, 
was  the  youngest  brother  of  King  Edward  IV, 
and  the  last  king  of  England  of  the  line  of  York. 
This  wicked  prince,  to  obtain  the  crown  and 
secure  it  when  it  was  in  his  possession,  spared 
nothing  that  stood  in  his  way.  Having  first 
killed  King  Henry  VI,  and  Prince  Edward  his 
son,  he  next  procured  tne  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Clarence,  his  own  brother,  by  an  impeachment 
of  high-treason  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  Ed- 
ward'dying,  left  two  sons  in  their  nonage,  Ed- 
ward V,  his  next  successor,  and  Richard.  Be- 
fore Edward  could  be  crowned,  Richard,  his 
uncle,  seated  himself  on  the  throne  by  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham. 

This  being  done,  he  had  Edward  and  his 
brother,  then  in  the  Tower,  smothered  in  their 
beds.  There  was  then  at  the  court  of  the  Duke 
of  Bretagne,  in  France,  Henry,  earl  of  Rich- 
mond, the  next  heir  to  the  house  of  Lancaster, 
whose  advancement  to  the  crown  Buckingham, 


with  some  others  of  the  conspiracy,  resolved 
upon ;  with  this  sage  proviso,  that  Henry  should 
consent  to  rnarry  the  Lady  Elizabeth,  eldest 
daughter  of  King  Edward  IV,  in  order  to  unite 
the  two  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster ;  but  be- 
fore the  plot  was  carried  into  execution,  the 
duke  being  betrayed  by  an  old  servant  of  his, 
lost  his  head  without  any  form  of  trial.  Henry, 
in  the  mean  time,  was  preparing  to  come  over, 
and  landed  soon  after  with  200  men  at  Milford 
Haven.  At  last,  with  a  body  of  5000  men,  he 
encountered  King  Richard  at  Bosworth,  in  Lei- 
cestershire, in  14ts5.  The  battle  was  sharp,  and 
some  time  doubtful ;  and  at  last  Henry  gained 
the  day,  and  by  this  single  victory  obtained  the 
crown.  Richard  was  killed  in  the  field,  and 
was  buried  at  Leicester.  (See  Boswrrrtk  Field.) 

King  Richard  is  erroneously  represented  as 
a  deformed  person.  He  was  of  small  stature, 
but  not  otherwise  noticeable.  Walpole  has 
done  much  towards  removing  some  of  the  darker 
stains  upon  his  character. 

RICHELIEU,  (Armand  Jean  du  Plessis),  a 
cardinal  and  statesman,  was  born  of  a  noble 
family  at  Paris,  in  1585.  He  studied  in  the 
Sorbonne,  and  in  1607  obtained  the  bishopric 
of  Lucon.  He  was  also  appointed  grand-al- 
moner, and  in  1G16  made  secretary  of  state. 
When  Mary  de  Medici  fell  into  disgrace,  Rich- 
elieu was  banished  to  Avignon,  where  he  wrote 
his  "  Method  of  Controversy."  Being  soon 
after  recalled  to  court,  he  brought  about  a  rec- 
onciliation between  the  king  and  queen,  for 
which  he  was  rewarded  with  a  cardinal's  hat, 
and  appointed  prime  minister,  in  which  situa- 
tion he  displayed  extraordinary  talents.  He 
subdued  the  Protestants,  reduced  Savoy,  hum- 
bled Spain,  struck  terror  into  Germany,  and 
commanded  the  admiration  of  all  Europe.  In 
the  midst  of  this  splendor,  he  died  Dec.  4, 
J  642,  and  was  buried  at  the  Sorbonne,  where 
Girardon  constructed  a  magnificent  mausoleum 
to  his  memory. 

RIDLEY  (Nicholas),  a  Protestant  martyr, 
was  born  in  Northumberland.  To  qualify  him- 
self for  divinity,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  studied 
some  time  in  the  Sorbonne.  On  his  return  he 
was  chosen  proctor  of  the  university,  in  which 
capacity  he  signed  the  declaration  against  the 
papal  supremacy.  He  was  also  elected  public 
orator,  and  archbishop  Cranmer  made  him  his 
chaplain.  Soon  after  this  he  became  master  of 
Pembroke  Hall,  with  which  he  held  some  con- 
siderable church  preferment  at  Canterbury  and 
Westminster.  On  the  accession  of  Edward  VI, 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Rochester;  and, 


\ 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY 


ROB 


466 


ROB 


m  1550,  was  translated  to  London,  where  he 
discharged  the  duties  of  his  office  with  unwea- 
ried diligence.  He  was  also  employed  in  all 
the  ecclesiastical  measures  of  that  reign,  par- 
ticularly in  the  compiling  of  the  liturgy,  and  the 
framing  of  the  articles  of  religion.  But  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  occurrences  in  the  life 
of  this  great  prelate,  was  that  of  inciting  King 
Edward  to  endow  the  three  great  foundations 
of  jChrist's,  Bartholomew's,  and  St.  Thomas's 
hospitals.  It  was  the  misfortune,  however,  of 
the  bishop,  to  become  the  dupe  of  the  Duke  of 
Northumberland,  who  prevailed  upon  him  to 
concur  in  the  proclamation  of  Lady  Jane  Grey. 
For  this  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  and 
after  a  confinement  of  eight  months,  sent  to 
Oxford,  there  to  hold  a  disputation  with  the  tri- 
umphant party.  This  mockery  was  followed 
by  a  degradation  from  the  episcopal  dignity, 
and  sentence  of  condemnation  to  the  flames, 
which  he  endured  with  the  venerable  Latimer 
before  Baliol  College,  Oct.  15,  lf>55. 

RIZZIO  (David),  a  Piedmontese  musician, 
who  ingratiated  himself  into  the  favor  of  Mary 

Sueen  of  Scotland.  He  became  her  secretary 
or  French  despatches,  and  was  the  only  avenue 
by  which  honors  or  emolument  could  be  ob- 
tained ;  at  the  same  time  that  he  became  more 
and  more  obnoxious  to  the  whole  kingdom, 
particularly  to  the  nobles.  He  was  barbarously 
assassinated  by  Darnley,  the  husband  of  Mary, 
on  the  suspicion  of  a  criminal  intercourse  be- 
tween her  and  Rizzio. 

ROBERT  II,  king  of  Scotland,  and  first  of 
the  Stuarts,  succeeded  David  Bruce,  his  uncle, 
in  1371.  At  the  solicitation  of  Charles  V  of 
France,  he  invaded  England,  took  Berwick  and 
Perth,  and  defeated  15,000  English,  who  invaded 
Scotland,  under  General  Talbot.  A  truce  being 
agreed  upon  betwixt  the  English  and  French 
soon  after,  in  which  the  Scots  were  compre- 
hended, the  English  invaded  the  Scots  before 


the  publication,  wasting  the  lands  of  the  Doug- 
being ended, 
the  Scots  invaded  England  ;  on  which,  Richard 


lasses  and  Lindsays.     The  truce  being  en 


II  invaded  Scotland  with  60,000  foot  and  8000 
horse.  The  Scots,  not  having  force  enough  to 
fight  him,  invaded  England  again,  to  divert  him. 
The  Scots  designed  to  invade  England  again, 
but  knowing  the  king  to  be  of  a  peaceable  in- 
clination, and  his  eldest  son  unfit  for  war,  they 
made  application  to  Robert,  earl  of  Fife,  the 
second,  and  levied  30,000  men  privately  for  the 
expedition. 

The  Scots  divided  their  army  into  two  parts  ; 
the  greatest  commanded  by  the  king's  two  sons, 


marched  towards  Carlisle.  Douglas,  with  300 
horse  and  2000  foot  entered  Northumberland. 
The  great  army  carried  all  before  them  without 
opposition ;  but  Douglas,  having  wasted  the 
country  as  far  as  Durham,  came  before  New- 
castle, and  threatened  it  with  a  siege.  He  staid 
before  the  town  two  days,  which  were  spent  in 
skirmishes;  and  at  last  the  generals,  Douglas 
and  Percy  agreed  upon  a  personal  rencounter, 
wherein  Percy  was  dismounted  and  disarmed ; 
but  his  men  coming  to  his  rescue,  he  was  saved. 
Douglas  now  inarched  off  with  his  men,  and 
attacked  Otterburn  castle.  Douglas  resolved 
to  stay  there  and  answer  Percy's  challenge; 
who,  inarching  against  hirn  with  10.UOU  men. 
had  nearly  surprised  him  at  supper. 

But  the  alarm  being  given,  and  the  Scots  ad- 
vantageously posted,  the  battle  began  with  great 
vigor.  Douglas  broke  into  the  thick  of  the  en- 
emy, and  made  a  terrible  slaughter,  but  before 
his  men  came  up,  he  had  received  three  mortal 
wounds.  The  English,  at  length,  were  totally 
routed,  1840  slain,  1000  wounded,  and  1040 
taken  prisoners.  The  Scots  carried  off  the  Mer- 
cies, with  four  hundred  prisoners  of  note  ;  dis- 
missed the  rest;  took  Douglas's  corpse,  with 
those  of  other  great  men,  along  with  them,  and 
buried  them  at  Melrose.  This  victory  was  ob- 
tained July  21 .]  388,  but  Douglas  was  so  deeply 
lamented, "that  both  the  Scots  armies  returned 
home  as  melancholy  as  if  they  had  been  con- 
quered. King  Robert  died  April  19,  1390,  in 
the  1 9th  year  of  his  reign. 

ROBERT  III,  called  John  Robert,  succeeded 
Robert  II  in  1390.  He  was  the  first  who  cre- 
ated dukes  in  Scotland ;  and  his  brother,  the 
viceroy,  was  made  Duke  of  Albany ;  but  Doug- 
las refused  this  new  title.  A  war'happened  af- 
terwards with  England,  in  which  the  Earl  of 
March  took  part  with  the  English,  who  invaded 
the  kingdom,  and  besieged  Edinburgh  castle ; 
the  English  returning  without  having  effected 
their  purpose,  the  ScotB  invaded  Northumber- 
land, and  were  surprised  and  defeated  on  re- 
turning with  their  spoil ;  when  Archibald  Doug- 
las gathered  10,000  men,  but  was  defeated, 
taken  prisoner,  and  many  of  the  nobles  slain, 
by  Henry  Percy  of  Northumberland,  and  George 
earl  of  March  abovementioned,  May  7,  1401. 

In  the  mean  time  all  things  went  to  ruin  in 
Scotland,  by  the  tyranny  of  the  governor,  who 
starved  his  nephew,  the  prince,  to  death;  so 
that  the  king  was  obliged  to  secure  James  by 
sending  him  to  France;  but  landing  at  Flam- 
borougn  in  Yorkshire,  he  was  detained  prisoner 
by  the  English,  contrary  to  the  truce,  which  so 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ROD 


467 


ROM 


afflicted  his  father,  that  he  died  April  1,  1406, 
and  the  government  was  settled  upon  his  broth- 
er ;  during  whose  administration -the  English 
invaded  Scotland,  and  overran  the  southern 
counties. 

In  1419  auxiliaries  were  sent  to  France  under 
the  Earl  of  E^jchan.  who  defeated -the  Duke  of 
Clarence ;  foBB^t  the  Earl  of  Buchan  was 
made  Lord  Hi^^Pnstable  of  France.  Robert, 
the  governor  of  Scotland,  died  in  1420,  and  his 
son  Murdo  succeeded  him:  during  whose  re- 
gency more  auxiliaries  were  sent  to  France, 
and  Douglas  was  created  Duke  of  Touraine  in 
that  kingdom  ;  but  they  were  twice  defeated  by 
the  English,  under  John  duke  of  Bedford,  who 
carried  James  I  kin»  of  Scotland  with  him.  be- 
ing still  prisoner  sfnce  his  arrival  at  Flambo- 
rough.  James  being  prevailed  upon  to  forbid 
his  subjects  to  fight  against  that  army  where 
he  was  in  person,  they  answered,  that  they  did 
not  acknowledge  him  for  their  king  while  he 
was  in  the  power  of  his  enemy.  But  not  long 
after,  Murdo,  the  governor,  "being  displeased 
witii  the  insolence  of  his  own  sons^James  1  was 
ransomed  and  brought  home  in  1423. 

ROCKINGHAM,  Charles  Watson  Went- 
worth,  Marquis  of,  came  into  power  on  the 
dissolution  of  the  Grenville  administration,  in 
1765,  and  was  appointed  first  Lord  of  the  Trea- 
sury. He  was  a  nobleman  possessing  but  a 
mediocrity  of  understanding,  and  noway  scal- 
culated  to  warrant  the  expectation  of  his  long 
continuance  in  office  :  he  was,  however,  a  man 
of  disinterested  principles  and  unaffected  patri- 
otism. The  chief  business  of  his  administration 
was  to  undo  all  that  his  predecessors  had  done, 
particularly  repealing  the  stump  and  cider  acts. 
In  1766  he  was  succeeded  in  his  office  by  the 
Duke  of  Grafton. 

RODNEY.  Caesar,  n  signer  of  the  American 
declaration  of  independence,  was  born  at  Dover. 
Delaware,  about  1730.  He  successively  filled 
the  offices  of  high  sheriff,  justice  of  the"  peace, 
and  judge  of  the  lo\ver  courts,  and  represented 
his  county  in  the  provincial  legislature.  In 
1775  he  was  made  brigadier-general.  In  1777 
he  remained  for  two  months  "in  the  camp  near 
Princeton,  laboriously  occupied.  For  four  years 
he  was  president  of  his  state,  but  retired  from 
office  in  1782,  and  died  the  following  year. 

RODNEY,  George,  Brydges,  admiral,  was 
the  gon  of  captain  Henry  Rodney  a  naval  officer. 
He  was  born  in  1717,  entered  early  into  the 
navy,  and  in  1742  obtained  the  command  of  a 
ship.  In  1749  he  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Newfoundland ;  and  on  his  return,  in  11 


rjf 


married  the  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Northampton. 
In  1759  he  was  made  Admiral  of  the  Blue ;  and 
the  same  year  destroyed  the  stores,  prepared  at 
Havre  de  Grace,  for  an  invasion  of  England. 
In  1761  he  served  on  the  West  India  station 
with  such  activity,  that  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
,war  he  was  made  a  baronet.  In  J768  he  was 
elected  into  parliament  for  Northampton ;  but 
the  contest  ruined  his  estate.  In  1771  he  went 
to  Jamaica  as  commander-in-chtef ;.  and  at  the 
expiration  of  the  term  of  service,  retired  to 
France,  where  overtures  were  made  to  him  on 
the  part  of  that  government,  which  he  refused 
with  indignation.  In  1779  he  was  again  called 
into  employment;  and  the  year  following,  by 
defeating  the  Spanish  fleet,  off  Cape  St.  Vin- 
cent, he  saved  Gibraltar.  After  this  he  went 
to  the  West  Indies,  where,  on  the  12th  of  April, 
17c2.  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  Count  de 
Grasse ;  for  which  he  was  made  a  peer.  He- 
died  in  London,  May  24,  171J2. 

ROE,  Sir  Thomas,  a  statesman,  was  born 
about  1 560,  at  Low  Lay  ton,  in  Essex,  and  ed- 
ucated at  Magdalen  college,  Oxford ;  after  which 
lie  became  a  student  of  one  of  the  Inns  of  court. 
In  1604  he  was  knighted,  and  soon  after  went 
to  make  discoveries  in  America.  In  1G14  he 
was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  Mogul,  at  whose 
court  he  remained  three  years.  In  1G21  lie 
went  in  the  same  capacity  to  Constantinople, 
and  during  his  residence  there,  collected  a  num- 
ber of  manuscripts,  which  he  presented  to  the 
Bodleian  library.  In  1629,  Sir  Thomas  negoti- 
ated a  peace  between  Poland  and  Sweden:  and 
it  was  by  his  advice,  that  Gustavus  Adolphus 
entered  Germany,  where  he  gained  the  battle 
of  Leipsic.  In  1640  he  was  chosen  to  repre- 
sent the  university  of  Oxford  in  parliament. 
The  next  year  he  was  sent  ambassador  to  the 
diet  of  Ratisbon,  and  on  his  return  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  Garter.  He  died  in  1644.  »- 

ROME,  a  city  of  Italy,  the  capital  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  situate  on"  the  banks  of  the  river 
Tiber,  at  the  distance  of  about  sixteen  miles 
from  the  sea.  The  name  of  its  founder,  and  the 
manner  of  its  foundation,  are  not  precisely 
known.  Romulus,  however,  is  universally 
supposed  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  that 
celebrated  city,  on  the  2flth  of  April,  according 
to  Varro.  in  the  year  3%1  of  the  Julian  period, 
3251  years  after  the  creation  of  the  worW,  753 
before  the  birth  of  Christ.  431  years  after  the 
Trojan  war,  and  in  the  4th  year  of  the  sixth 
Olympiad. 

In  its  original  state.  R,ome  was  but  a  small 
castle  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Palatine ;  and 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


ROM 


468 


ROM 


;he  founder,  to  give  his  foDowers  the  appear- 
ance of  a  nation  or  a  barbarian  horde,  was 
obliged  to  erect  a  standard  as  a  common  asylum, 
for  every  criminal,  debtor,  or  murderer,  who 
fled  from  their  native  country  to  avoid  the  pun- 
ishment which  attended  them.  From  such  an 
assemblage  a  numerous  body  was  soon  collected, 
and  before  the  death  of  the  founder,  the  Ro- 
mans had  covered  with  their  habitations,  the 
\  Palatine,  Capitoline,  Aventine,  Esquiline  hills, 
I  with  Mount  Caelius,  and  Q,uirinalis. 

After  many  successful  wars  against  the  neigh- 
/  boring  states,  the  views  of  Romulus  were  di- 
/  reeled  to  regulate  a  nation  naturally  fierce,  war- 
like, and  uncivilized.  Under  the  successors  of 
Romulus,  the  power  of  Rome  was  increased, 
and  the  boundaries  of  her  dominions  extended ; 
while  one  was  employed  in  regulating  the  forms 
of  worship,  and  inculcating  in  the  minds  of  his 
subjects  a  reverence  for  the  Deity,  another  was 
engaged  in  enforcing  discipline  among  the  ar- 
my, and  raising  the  consequence,  of  the  soldiers 
in  the  government  of  the  state ;  and  a  third 
made  the  object  of  his  administration  consist  in 
adobninf  his  capital,  in  beautifying  its  edifices, 
and  in  fortifying  it  with  towers  and  walls. 
\  During  244  years  the  Romans  were  governed 
by  kings,  but  the  tyranny,  the  oppression,  and 
e  violence  of  the  last  of  these  monarchs,  and 
'his  family,  became  so  atrocious,  that  a  revo- 
[lution  was  effected  in  the  state,  and  the  demo- 
cratical  government  was  established.  The 
monarchical  government  existed  under  seven 
princes,  who  began  to  reign  in  the  following 
order :  Romulus,  B.  C.  753 ;  and  after  one 
year's  interregnum.  Numa,  715 ;  Tullus  Hosti- 
lius,  672  ;  Ancus  Martins,  64(1 ;  Tarquin  Pris- 
cus,  616;  Servius  Tullius,  578;  and  Tarquin 
the  Proud,  534,  expelled  2S-,years  after,  B.  C. 
504 ;  and  this  regal  administration  has  been 
properly  denominated  tlie  infancy  of  the  Roman 
empire. 

After  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  from  the 
throne,  the  Romans  became  more  sensible  of 
their  consequence  :  with  their  liberty  they  ac- 
quired a  spirit  of  faction,  and  bepame  so  jealous 
of  their  independence,  that  the  first  of  their  con- 
suls who  had  been  the  most  zealous  and  ani- 
mated in  the  assertion  of  their  freedom,  was 
I  banished  •  from  the  city  because  he  bore  the 
Inarne,  and  was  of  the  family  of  the  tyrants  ;  and 
-lother,  to  stop  their  suspicions,  was  obliged  to 
ill  down  his  house,  whose  stateliness  and 
;agnificence  above  the  rest,  seemed  incompati- 
I»le  with  the  duties  and  the  rank  of  a  private 


To  the  fame  which  their  conquests  and  dailj 
successes  had  gained  abroad,  the  Romans  were 
not  a  little  indebted  for  their  gradual  rise  to 
superiority  ;  and  to  this  may  be  added  the  poli- 
cy of  the  census,  which  fivery  fifth  year  told 
them  their  actual  strength,  and  how  many  citi- 
zens were  able  to  bear  ariiis^fcAjid,  indeed,  it 
was  no  small  satisfaction  t|^INFP't'>  who  were 
continually  making  war,  ^P^^hat  in  spite  of 
all  the  losses  which  they  might  sustain  in  the 
field,  the  increase  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  city 
was  prodigious,  and  almost  incredible  :  and  had 
Romulus  Jived  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  he 
would  have  been  persuaded  with  diiliculty  of 
the  great  number  of  inhabitants  contained  with- 
in those  walls,  which,  in  the  most  flourishing 
period  of  his  reign,  could  scarce  muster  an  ar- 
my of  3000  infantry  and  300  horse. 

But  when  Rome  had  flourished  under  the 
consular  government  for  about  120  years,  and 
had  beheld  with  pleasure  the  conquests  of  her 
citizens  over  the  neighboring  states  and  cities, 
which,  according  to  a  Roman  historian,  she  was 
ashamed  to  recollect  in  the  summit  of  her  pow- 
er, an  irruption  of  the  barbariims  of  Gaul  ren- 
dered her  very  existence  prj/canous,  and  her 
name  was  nearly  extinguished.  The  valor  of 
an  injured  individual,  Camillus,  saved  it  from 
destruction,  yet  not  before-  its  buildings  and 
temples  were  reduced  ta  ashes. 

This  celebrated  event,  which  gave  the  appel- 
lation of  another  founder  of  Rome  to  Camillus. 
has  been  looked  upon  as  a  glorious  era  to  the 
Romans.  But  no  sooner  were  they  freed  from 
the  fears  of  their  barbarian  invaders,  than  they 
turned  their  arms  against  those  states  which  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  their  superiority,  or  yield 
their  independence.  Their  wars  with  Pyrrhus 
and  the  Tarentines,  displayed  their  character  in 
a  different  view  ;  if  they  "before  had  fought  for 
freedom  and  independence,  they  now  drew  their 
swords  for  glory  ;  and  here  we  may  see  them 
conquered  in  the  field,  and  yet  refusing  to  grant 
that  peace  for  which  their  conqueror  himself 
had  sued.  The  advantages  they  gained  from 
their  battles  with  Pyrrhus  were  many.  The 
Roman  name  became  known  in  Greece,  Sicily, 
and  Africa,  and  in  losing  or  gaining  a  victory, 
the  Unmans  were  en:i!iletl  to  examine  the  ma- 
noeuvres, observe  the  discipline,  and  contem- 
plate the  order  and  the  encampments  of  those 
soldiers  whose  friends  and  ancestors  had  accom- 
panied Alexander  the  Great  in  the  conquest  of 
Asia. 

Italy  became  subjected  to  the  Romans  at  the 
end  of  the  war  with  the  Tarentines,  and  that 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


ROM  4( 

period  of  time  has  been  called  the  second  age, 
or  tha  adolescence  of  the  Roman  empire.  Af- 
ter this  memorable  era,  they  tried  their  strength 
not  only  with  distant  nations,  but  also  upon  a 
new  element ;  and  in  the  long  wars  which  they 
waged  against  Carthage,  they  were  successful, 
and  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  the  sea :  and 
though  Hannibal  for  sixteen  years  kept  them 
in  continual  alarms,  hovered  round  their  gates, 
and  destroyed  their  armies  almost  before  their 
walls,  yet  they  were  doomed  to  conquer,  and 
soon  to  add  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia  and  the 
provinces  of  Asia  to  their  empire. 

Yet  while  their  conquests  were  so  extensive 
abroad,  we  find  them  torn  by  factions  at  home  ; 
and  so  far  was  the  resentment  of  the  poorer  cit- 
izens carried,  that  we  see  the  enemv  at  the  gates 
of  the  city,  while  all  are  unwilling  to  take  up 
arms  and  to  unite  in  the  defence  of  their  com- 
mon liberty.  The  senators  and  nebles  were 
ambitious  of  power,  and  endeavored  to  retain  in 
their  hands  that  influence  which  had  been  ex- 
ercised with  so  much  success,  and  such  cruelty, 
by  their  monarchs.  This  was  the  continual 
occasion  of  tumults  and  sedition.  The  people 
were  jealous  of  their  liberty.  The  oppression 
of  the  nobles  irritated  them,  and  the  stripes  to 
which  they  were  too  often  exposed  without 
mercy,  were  often  productive  of  revolutions. 

The  plebeians,  though  originally  the  poorest 
and  most  contemptible  citizens  of  an  indigent 
nation,  whose  food  in  the  first  ages  of  the  em- 
pire was  only  bread  and  salt,  and  whose  drink 
was  water,  soon  gained  rights  and  privileges  by 
their  opposition.  Though  really  slaves,  they 
became  powerful  in  the  state  ;  one  concession 
from  the  patricians  produced  another,  and  when 
their  independence  was  boldly  asserted  by  their 
tribunes,  they  were  admitted  to  share  in  the 
highest  offices  of  the  state,  the  law*  which  for- 
bade the  intermarriage  of  plebeian  and  patrician 
families  were  repealed,  and  the  meanest  peasant 
could  by  valor  and  fortitude  be  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  dictator  and  consul.  It  was  not  till  these 
privileges  were  obtained  by  the  people  from  the 
senate,  that  Rome  began  to  enjoy  internal  peace 
and  tranquillity,  her  battles  were  then  fought 
with  more  vigor,  her  soldiers  were  more  anima- 
ted, and  her  sovereignty  was  more  universally 
established. 

But  supreme  power,  lodged  in  the  hands  of  a 
factious  and  ambitious  citizen,  becomes  too  often 
dangerous.  The  greatest  oppression  and  tyran- 
ny took  the  place  of  subordination  and  obedi- 
ence ;  and  from  those  causes  proceeded  the  un- 
parralleled  slaughter  and  effusion  of  blood  under 


\)  ROM 

a  Sylla  and  a  Marius.  It  has  been  justly  ob- 
served, that  the  first  Romans  conquered  their 
enemies  by  valor,  temperance,  and  fort'*. -de, 
their  moderation  also  and  their  justice  were 
well  known  among  their  neighbors,  and  not  only 
private  possessions,  but  even  mighty  kingdoms 
and  empires,  were  left  in  their  power,  to  be  dis- 
tributed among  a  family,  or  to  be  ensured  in  the 
hands  of  a  successor. 

They  were  also  chosen  utopires  to  decide 
quarrels,  but  in  this  honorable^ffice  they  con- 
sulted their  own  interest ;  they,  artfully  sup- 
ported the  weaker  side,  that  the  more  powerful 
might  be  reduced-juid  gradually  become  their 


m. 

Under  J.  Csesar  anl^Pompey,  the  raafe  of  civil 
war  was  carried  to  unprecedented  excess  :  it 
was  not  merely  taavenge  a  private  injury,  but  it 
was  a  contest  for  the  sovereignty  ;  and  though 
each  of  the  adversaries  wore  the  mask  of  pre- 
tended sincerity,  and  professed  himself  to  be  the 
supporter  of  the  republic,  no  less  than  the  abo- 
lition of  freedom  and  the  public  liberty  was  the 
aim.  What  Julius  began,  his  adopted  son 
achieved:  the  ancient  spirit  of  national  inde- 
pendence was  extinguished  at  Rome ;  and  after  ., ' 
the  battle  of  Actium,  the  Romans  seemed  una-  — 
ble  to  govern  themselves  without  the  assist- 
ance of  a  chief,  who,  under  the  title  of  zmpera- 
tor,  an  appellation  given  to  every  commander 
by  his  army  after  some  signal  victory,  reigned 
with  as  much  power  and  as  much  sovereignty 
as  another  Tarquin. 

Under  their  emperors,  the  Romans  lived  a 
luxurious  and  indolent  life,  they  had  long  forgot 
to  appear  in  the  field,  and  their  wars  were  left 
to  be  waged  by  mercenary  troops,  who  fought 
without  spirit  or  animosity,  and  who  were  ever 
ready  to  yield  to  him  who  bought  their  allegi- 
ance sud  fidelity  with  the  greatest  sums  of 
money.  Their  leaders  themselves  were  not  the 
most  prudent  or  the  most  humane ;  the  power 
which  they  had  acquired  by  bribery  was  indeed 
precarious,  and  among  a  people,  where  not  only 
the  highest  offices  of  the  state,  but  even  the 
imperial  purple  itself  are  exposed  to  sale,  there 
cannot  be  expected  much  happiness*or  tranquil- 
lity in  the  palace  of  the  emperor. 

The  reigns  of  the  successors  of  Augustus 
were  distinguished  by  variety ;  one  was  the 
most  abandoned  and  profligate  of  men.  whom 
his  own  vices  and  extravagance  hurried  out  of 
the  world,  while  his  successor,  perhaps  the 
most  clement,  just,  and  popular  of  princes,  was 
sacrificed  in  the  midst  of  his  guards  and  attend 
ants,  by  the  dagger  of  some  ofiended  favorite  or 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


ROM 


470 


ROM 


disappointed  eunuch.  Few  indeed  were  the 
emperors  of  Rome  whose  days  were  not  short- 
ened by  poison,  or  the  sword  of  an  assassin.  If 
one  for  some  time  h:id  the  imprudence  to  trust 
himself  in  the  midst  of  a  multitude,  at  last,  to 
perish  by  hid  own  credulity,  the  other  consult- 
ed his  safety,  but  with  no  better  success,  in  the 
innumerable  chambers  of  his  palace, and  changed 
every  day,  to  elude  discover}',  the  place  of  his 
retirement  After  they  had  been  governed  by  a 
race  of  princes,  remarkable  for  the  variety  of 
their  characters,  the  Roman  possessions  were 
divided  into  two  distinct  empires,  by  the  enter- 
jrising  Constantine,  A.  D.  328.  Constantino- 
jbecame  the'  seat  of  the  eastern  empire,  and 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  west- 
emperors,  and  continued  to  be  the  capital 

their  dominions. 

In  the  year  800  of  the  Christian  era,  Rome 
with  Italy  was  delivered  by  Charlemagne,  the 
then  emperor  of  the  west,  into  the  hands  of  the 
pope,  who  still  continues  to  hold  the  sovereign- 
ty, and  to  maintain  his  independence  under  the 
ame  of  the  Ecclesiastical  States. 

The  original  poverty  of  the  Romans  has  often 
been  disguised  by  their  poets  and  historians, 
who  wished  it  to  appeal  that  a  nation  who  were 
masters  of  the  world,  had  had  a  better  begin- 
ning than  a  race  of  shepherds  and  robbers.  Yet 
it  was  to  this  simplicity  they  were  indebted  for 
their  successes.  Their  houses  were  originally 
destitute  of  every  ornament,  they  were"  made 
with  unequal  boards,  and  covered  with  mud, 
and  these  served  them  rather  as  a  shelter  against 
the  inclemency  of  the  seasons  than  for  relaxa- 
tion and  ease.  Till  the  age  of  Pyrrhus,  they 
despised  riches,  and  many  salutary  laws  were 
enacted  to  restrain  luxury  and  to  punish  indo- 
lence. They  observed  great  temperance  in  their 
meals  ;  young  men  were  not  permitted  to  drink 
wine  till  they  had  attained  their  30th  year,  and 
it  was  totally  forbidden  to  women. 

Their  national  spirit  was  supported  by  pol- 
icy;  the  triumphal  procession  of  a  conqueror 
along  the  streets  amidst  the  applause  of  thou- 
sands, was  well  calculated  to  promote  emuli- 
tion ;  and  the  number  of  gladiators  who  wen: 
regularly  introduced,  notonlv  in  public  games 
and  spectacles,  but  also  at  "private  meetings, 
served  to  cherish  their  fondness  for  war,  whilst 
it  steeled  their  hearts  against  the  calls  of  com- 
passion ;  and  when  they  could  tr»ze  with  plea- 
sure upon  wretches  whom  they  forcibly  obliged 
to  murder  one  another,  they  were  not  inactive 
in  the  destruction  of  those  whom  they  consid- 
ered as  inveterate  foes  or  formidable  rivals  in 
the  field. 


In  tlifir  punishments,  civil  as  well  as  milita- 
ry, the  Romans  were  strict  and  rigorous ;  a  de- 
serter was  severely  whipped  and  sold  as  a  slave, 
and  the  degradation  from  the  rank  of  a  soldier 
and  dignity  of  a  citizen  was  the  most  ignomin- 
ious stigma  which  could  be  affixed  upon  a  se- 
ditious mutineer. 

The  transmarine  victories  of  the  Romans 
proved  at  last  the  ruin  of  their  innocence  and 
bravery.  They  grew  fond  of  the  luxury  of  the 
Asiatics  :  and  conquered,  by  the  vices  and  indo- 
lence of  those  nations  whom  they  had  subdued, 
they  became  as  effeminate  and  as  dissolute  as 
their  captives.  Marcellus  was  the  first  who  in- 
troduced a  taste  for  the  fine  arts  among  his 
countrymen.  The  spoils  and  treasures  that 
were  obtained  in  the  plunder  of  Syracuse  and 
Corinth,  rendered  the  Romans  partial  to  ele 
pant  refinement  and  ornamental  equipage. 
Though  Cato  had  despised  philosophy,  and  de- 
clared that  war  was  the  only  profession  of  his 
countrymen,  the  Romans,  by  their  intercourse 
with  the  Greeks,  soon  became  fond  of  litera- 
ture ;  and  though  they  had  once  banished  the 
sophists  of  Athens  from  their  city,  yet  they  be- 
held with  rapture  their  settlement  among  them 
in  the  principal  towns  of  Italy,  after  the  con- 
quest of  Achaia. 

They  soon  after  began  to  imitate  their  pol- 
ished captives,  and  to  cultivate  poetry  with  suc- 
cess. From  the  valor  of  their  heroes  and  con- 
querors, indeed,  the  sublirnest  subjects  were 
offered  to  the  genius  of  their  poets;  but  of  the 
little  that  remains  to  celebrate  the  early  victo- 
ries of  Home,  nothing  can  be  compared  to  the 
nobler  effusions  of  the  Augustan  age. 

There  were  no  less  than  420  temples  at  Rome, 
crowded  with  statues,  the  priests  were  nume- 
rous, and  each  divinity  hid  a  particular  college 
of  sacerdotal  servants.  Tht»ir  wars  were  de- 
clared in  the  most  awful  and  solemn  manner, 
and  prayers  were  always  offered  in  the  temples 
for  the  prosperity  of  Rome,  when  a  defeat  had 
been  sustained,  or  a  victory  won.  The  power 
of  fathers  over  their  children  .was  very  exten- 
sive, and  indeed  unlimited ;  they  could  sell 
them  or  put  thorn  to  death  at  pleasure,  without 
the  forms  of  a  trial,  or  the  interference  of  tho 
civil  magistrate.  Many  of  their  ancient  fami- 
lies were"  celebrated  for  the  great  men  whom 
they  had  produced,  but  thc^vigorous  and  inter- 
ested part  they  took  in  the  government  of  the 
republic  exposed  them  oi'ten  to  danger;  and 
some  have  observed  that  the  Romans  sunk  into 
indolence  and  luxury  when  the  Cornelii,  the 
Fabii,  the  /Emilii,  the  Marcelli,  Are.,  who  had 
BO  often  supported  their  spirit  and  led  them  to 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ROM 


471 


ROM 


victory,  had  been  extinguished  in  the  bloody 
wars  of  Marius  and  of  the  two  triumvirates. 
When  Rome  was  become  powerful,  she  was 
distinguished  from  other  cities  by  the  flattery 
of  her  neighbors  and  citizens  ;  a  form  of  wor- 
ship was  established  to  her  as  a  deity,  and  tem- 
ples were  raised  in  her  honor,  not  only  in  the 
city  but  in  the  provinces. 

EMPERORS,  from  Julius  Csesar  to  Jovian,  dis- 
tinguishing the  length  of  their  reign  and  its 
commencement. 


It  was  at  first  nearly  square,  containing  about 
1000  houses,  and  was  almost  a  mile  in  circum- 
ference; but  in  its  most  flourishing  state  the 
walls  surrounded  a  space  of  50  mfles,  and  it 
reckoned  4,000,000  of  inhabitants.  The  gates, 
at  the  death  of  Romulus,  were  four;  but  at 
length  it  had  no  less  than  37,  the  principal  of 
which  were  Triumphalis,  Esquilina,  Flaminia, 
Carmentalis,  Quirinalis  and  Viminalis. 

Romulus  divided  the  city  into  three  tribes; 
to  these  Servius  Tullus  added  a  fourth ;  but 
Augustus  found  it  necessary,  for  ^he  better 

Augustus383' 43  —    30      order  and  government  of  the  city,  to  divide  it 

A.D.    into  14  regions  or  wards. 

Tiberius   22—    14          Rome  abounded  with  magnificent  buildings  ; 

ChiifdiiTs  14  —    40      Temples,  Theatres,  Amphitheatres,  and  places 

Nero..!"  "."!.' .'.'.'.'.'  14 54      f°r  exercise  or  amusements,  buildings,  for  the 

Galba,  Otho  and  Vitellius  U —    C9      assemblies  of  the  people,  public  places,  piazzas 

Vespasian    Ift—    69      or  porticoes,   columns,   triumphal   arches   and 

Domlt'ian 15 8J       trophies,  aqueducts,   public   sewers  and   high- 

Nerva    ..'.'.'..               ,'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.    1 —    96      roads.    The  chief  temples  were  the  Capitol,  the 
Trajan  '.'.'. '"*.'.!"'.'.'.'.'."'' "'!'.° 19—    97      Pantheon,  the   temple  of  Janus,  and  that  of 

^USS-i*?!:::                                :::  »  -  161  The^Pantheori  was  built  by  Agrippa,  son-in- 

Commodas" .'.'.' !.°  ''.'*'"'''.'.'"'.'.''!!""'!''  13  —  ISO  law  to  Augustus,  and  dcdi§ated  to  all  the  gods  : 

Pertinax  1  —  193  it  is  of  a  circular  form,  and  has  no  windows; 

Severus .• 17  —  ^194  but  its  roof,  which  is  in  the  shape  of  a  dome, 

Hel?ogabai us ".'.'..'...'.'.'.'.'..'..'..'...'.'..'..'.'.'.'    4  —  2)8  nas  an  opening  on  the  top  for  the  admission  of 

Alexander   13  —  222  h'ght.     The  top  was  covered  with  silver  plates, 

Maximinus 3  —  235  but  their  place  is  now  supplied  with  lead ;  the 

Gordiaii,jun 6  —  238  walls  in  the  inside  were  either  solid  marble,  or 

Decins  ".'!!"!' "°"!'''"°."!!""°°!'°."''    b  —  249  incrusted;  the  front  on  the  outside  was  covered 

Gallus 3  —  251  with  brazen  plates  gilt;   and  the  gate  was  of 

Gaiiienus 14  —  254  brass,   of  extraordinary  work   and  size.     It   is 

Au'ren'u!  5  —  270  now    ca"ed    tne   Rotunda,  and   is  a  Christian 

Tacitus...*.                        .".'..'..'..'.'..'.'.'.'.'.    1  275  church,  consecrated  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  All 

Probus  \.\.................\\..... .......    C  —  276  (Saints:  the  ascent  to  it  was  by  12  steps;  but 

Numenan    2  —  282  the   descent   is   now   by   as    many,   the   earth 

c^«L'a-^v-:::::;;r.-::::::::  23  =  304  <7™d  being ^  much  ™«ed  by  the  demolition 

Constantine  the  Great 30  —  307  of  houses.  Ihe  temple  of  baturn  served  for 

Constantius  11  24  —  337  the  public  treasury,  as  being  the  most  secure 

•Julian  2  —  36 1  place  in  the  city  :  here  were  preserved  the  mi- 

°ovuin  ' litary  ensigns,  among  which  were  the  public 

Valentinian  succeeded  in  364.  when  the  em-  records  and  registers,  the  great  ivory  tables,  con- 

pire  was  divided  into  the  eastern  and  western  taining  a  list  of  all  the  tribes,  and  the  schemes 

branches,  of  which  the  latter  terminated  in  476,  of  the  public  accounts.  The  temple  of  Janus 

and  the  former  in  1453,  when  Constantinople  was  remarkable  for  its  two  brazen  gates,  one 

was  taken  by  the  Turks.  on  each  side  ;  which  were  to  be  open  in  time  of 

The  following  description  of  the  city  of  Rome  war,  and  shut  in  time  of  peace.  There  were 

will  prove  interesting  and  useful.  numerous  temples  dedicated  to  Apollo,  Juno, 

Rome  was  built  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Mars,  and  other  gods :  there  were  also  build- 
Tiber,  on  seven  hills  called  Palatinus,  Capito-  ings  called  curiae,  where  the  inhabitants  of  each 
linus,  Aventinus,  Quirinalis,  Coslius,  Viminalis,  curia  or  parish  met  to  perform  divine  service, 
and  Esquilinus  :  as  the  city  increased  in  size,  The  theatres  were  of  a  semi-circular  form  ; 
three  others  were  added  ;  the  Janiculum,  Vatica-  sometimes  so  large  as  to  contain  80,000  persons  : 
nus  and  Hortulorum.  the  seats  rose  one  above  another;  and  were 
40* 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  HISTORY. 


ROM 


472 


ROM 


divided  into  three  ranges,  appropriated  to  the 
senators,  knights,  and  commons.  Amphithea- 
tres were  buildings  of  a  round  or  oval  shape, 
appropriated  to  the  greater  shows  of  gladiators, 
wild  beast*.  &c. 

A  circus  was  a  place  used  for  the  celebration 
of  chariot  races  and  other  popular  sports,  and 
for  making  harangues ;  they  were  usually  ob- 
long,  with  ranges  of  seats  for  the  convenience 
of  the  spectator's.  The  most  remarkable  was 
the  Circus  Maximus  :  it  was  a  mile  in  circum- 
ference ;  containing  seats  for  150,000  spectators, 
and  was  extremely  beautiful. 

'fhe  NaumaehiiE  were  pkces  for  exhibiting 
i  naval  engagements,  built  nearly  in  the  form  of 
\a  circus:  some  of  them  were  of  such  amazing 
jextent,  that  considerable  fleets  engaged  in  them 
without  inconvenience.  The  principal  public 
place  in  Rome  was  the  Forum  Romanum  ;  the 
/  Campus  Martius,  or  field  of  Mars,  was  without 
/  the  city.  The  Forum  was  a  large  oblong  open 
j  space,  where  the  tissemblies  of  the  people  were 
/  held,  where  justice  was  administered,  and  pub- 
lie  business  transa^ed :  it  was  entirely  sur- 
rounded  witli  archea  porticoes,  within  which 
were  spacious  halls  called  basilicse,  where  courts 
of  justice  might  sit  for  the  decision  of  private 
affairs.  The  "Campus  Martius  was  a  large  plain 
along  the  Tiber,  where  the  Roman  youth  prac- 
tised all  kinds  of  feats  of  activity,  and  learned 
the  use  of  arms :  it  was  adorned  with  the  s'a- 
tues  of  famous  men,  and  with  triumph;*!  arches, 
columns,  porticoes,  and  other  magnificent,  struc- 
tures. The  piazzas,  or  porticoes,  were  am«ng 
the  most  splendid  ornaments  of  the  city,  being 
supported  on  marble  pillars,  and  adorned  with 
statues.  They  were  used  chiefly  for  walking 
and  riding  under  cover :  under  these  also  au- 
thors recited  their  works,  and  philosophers  dis- 
puted. Many  pillars  were  erected  at  Rome  in 
honor  of  great  men,  or  to  commemorate  illus- 
trious actions ;  the  most  remarkable  are  those 
of  Trajan  and  Antoninus  Pius.  Trajan's  pillar, 
which  is  still  standing  in  the  middle  of  a  forum, 
is  composed  of  '1-1  pieces  of  marble,  so  curiously 
cemented  as  to  appear  but  one:  its  height  is 
1'2^  feet;  and  it  has  in  the  inside  185  steps  for 
ascending  to  the  top,  and  40  windows  for  the 
admission  of  light :  its  diameter  at  the  bottom 
is  1'2  feet,  and  at  the  top  ten  feet.  On  the  pillar 
are  represented  the  warlike  exploits  of  Trajan 
and  his  army  ;  on  the  top  was  a  colossal  statue 
of  that  emperor,  20  feet  high,  holding  in  his 
left  hand  a  sceptre,  and  in  his  right  hand  a  hollow 
globe  of  gold  containing  his  ashes;  but  this  has 
\  been  taken  down,  and  a  statue  of  St.  Peter 


erected  in  its  place.  The  pillar  of  Antoninus 
is  another  of  the  most  precious  remains  of  an- 
tiquity :  the  sculpture  and  other  ornaments 
resemble  those  on  Trajan's  pillar,  but  the  work- 
manship is  greatly  inferior;  it  is  170  feet  high, 
the  steps  of  ascent  are  I'M,  and  the  windows  5(i. 
Triumphal  arches  were  erected  in  honor  of  il- 
lustrious generals,  who  had  gained  signal  victo- 
ries in  war:  several  of  them  are  still  standing. 
At  first  they  were  built  of  brick  or  stone,  but 
afterwards  magnificently  of  marble  ;  they  had 
a  large  arched  gate  in  the  middle,  and  two 
small  ones  on  each  side,  ornamented  with  co- 
lumns and  statues,  and  various  figures  done  in 
sculpture.  The  aqueducts  were,  by  far,  the 
noblest  proofs  of  the  granduer  of  the  empire  : 
some  of  these  wonderful  channels  brought  water 
from  upwards  of  (>()  miles  through  rocks  and 
mountains,  and  over  valleys:  supported  on 
arches  in  some  places  above  109  feet  high,  one 
row  being  placed  above  another.  The  common 
sewers  were  subterranean  channels,  constructed 
with  amazing  strength,  to  carry  the  filth  of  the 
city  into  the  Tiber.  Agrippa  caused  seven 
streams  to  meet  together  under  ground  in  one 
channel,  with  such  a  rapid  current  as  to  carrv 
all  before  it:  sometimes  when  these  stream's 
were  swelled  with  immoderate  rains,  they  car- 
ried away  huge  pieces  of  stone  and  timbe'r.  yet 
•  the  fabric  received  no  detriment;  sometimes 
terrible  earthquakes  shook  the  foundations  of  the 
city,  but  these  channels  remained  impregnable. 
The  public  ways  were  among  the  greatest  of 
the  Roman  works,  and  were  made  with  amazing 
labor  and  expense.  The  Via  Appia  was  per- 
haps the  most  noble  ;  it  was  carried  to  a  distance 
of  350  miles,  and  was  made  of  stones  from  one 
to  five  feet  square,  but  so  artfully  joined  as  to 
seem  one  ;  under  which  there  were  two  layers, 
the  first  of  rough  stones  cemented  with  mortar, 
and  the  second  of  gravel.  Although  this  road 
has  been  constructed  upwards  of  2,000  years, 
parts  of  it  still  remain  entire. 

Romuius.  soon  after  tlu-  foundation  of  Rome, 
divided  the  inhabitants  into  three  tribes,  and 
each  tribe  into  ten  curins ;  but  the  number  of 
tribes  was  by  degrees  increased  to  :'>">.  The 
Roman  people  were  also  divided  into  two  ranks, 
called  patricians  and  plebeians  ;  to  which  another 
order  was  afterwards  added,  called  equit.es.  The 
patricians  were  so  called  from  the  patres,  or  fa- 
thf>rs.  who  composed  the  senate  ;  they  were  like- 
wise called  patrones,  or  pntrons.  The  plebeians 
were  so  called  from  plebs,  the  common  people ; 
they  were  also  termed  client.es,  or  clients.  The 
patricians  were  called  patrones,  and  the  pie- 


\ 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ROM 


473 


ROM 


oeians  clientes  because  the  patricians  were  ap- 
pointed to  watch  over  and  protect  the  plebeians, 
and  were  their  counsellors  and  advocates  ;  while 
the  plebeians,  who  were  obliged  to  choose  pat- 
rons, were  expected  to  serve  them  with  fidelity, 
to  pay  them  all  possible  deference,  and  even  to 
assist  with  money,  if  requisite. 

The  equites,  or  knights  did  not  at  first  form 
a  distinct  order  in  the  state  :  they  were  chosen 
into  the  equestrian  order  by  the  censor,  and 
presented  with  a  horse  at  the  public  expense, 
and  with  a  gold  ring  :  they  were  taken  promis- 
cuously from  among  such  of  the  patricians  and 
plebeians  as  had  attained  their  eighteenth  year, 
and  whose  fortune  amounted  to  3  ,£291.  Among 
the  Romans  there  were  nobiles,  novi,  and  igno- 
biles;  also  ingenui,  liberti,  and  libertini.  The 
nobiles  were  those  whose  ancestors  had  held  the 
office  of  consul,  prtBtor,  censor,  or  curule  sedile: 
they  had  a  right  to  make  images  of  themselves, 
which  were  kept  with  care  by  their  descendants, 
and  were  carried  out  at  funerals.  Those  who 
were  the  first  of  their  family,  who  had  raised 
themselves  to  any  of  the  above  offices,  were 
denominated  homines  novi,  new  men,  or  up- 
starts. The  Romans  called  those  ignobiles  who 
had  no  images  of  their  own.  or  of  their  ancestors. 
They  whose  parents  had  always  been  free,  were 
called  ingenui  ;  slaves  who  had  been  made  free, 
were  called  liberti  and  libertini.  The  Romans 
had  slaves,  who  not  only  did  all  domestic  servi- 
ces, but  were  likewise  employed  in  various 
trades  and  manufactures.  Men  became  slaves 
by  being  taken  in  war,  by  being  born  in  a 
state  of  servitude,  or  criminals  were  reduced  to 
slavery  by  way  of  punishment.  The  Roman 
slaves  were  publicly  sold  in  a  market-place,  and 
were  at  the  absolute  disposal  of  the  buyer,  not 
being  esteemed  as  persons,  but  as  things  or 
effects.  Among  the  Romans,  those  who  en- 
deavored to  ingratiate  themselves  with  the  peo- 
ple were  called  populares;  while  those  who 
favored  the  interests  of  the  senate,  and  the 
passions  of  the  great,  received  the  appellation  of 
the  optimates. — but  this  was  a  distinction  of 
party,  and  not  of  rank  or  dignity. 

The  senate  was  the  chief  council  of  state  in 
Rome,  or  a  body  of  magistrates  intrusted  with 
the  care  of  putting  the  laws  into  execution,  and 
was  instituted  by  Romulus,  to  be  the  perpetual 
council  of  his  newly-formed  state.  At  its  crea- 
tion, it  consisted  of  100  persons,  whom  Romu- 
lus chose  from  among  such  of  the  inhabitants 
as  were  most  illustrious  for  their  birth,  wisdom, 
and  integrity. 

The  senators  were  called  patres,  or  fathers, 


on  account  of  their  age,  gravity,  and  the  pater- 
nal care  they  had  of  the  state.  Under  the  suc- 
cessors of  Romulus,  and  in  the  time  of  the  re- 
public, the  number  of  senators  was.  by  degrees, 
increased  to  upwards  of  1,000;  but  Augustus 
reduced  them  to  BOO.  The  kings  had,  at  first, ; 
the  sole  right  of  naming  senators;  but  they' 
were  afterwards  chosen  by  the  consuls,  and  at 
last  by  the  censors  only. 

At  first  only  patricians  were  admitted  to  a 
seat  in  the  senate ;  but  afterwards  the  plebeians 
and  equites  were  admitted.  Those  who  were  ' 
appointed  senators,  were  to  be  possessed  of  an 
estate  of  not  less  than  9,1 7~>l.  sterling,  and  to  be 
upwards  of  30  years  of  age.  They  were  nomi- 
nated and-  enrolled  by  the  censors ;  besides 
which,  several  great  offices  qualified  those  who 
filled  them,  for  a  place  in  the  senate  ;  and  mili- 
tary services  sometimes  procured  admission. 

Beside  a  want  of  sufficient  revenue,  no  one 
could  sit  in  the  senate  who  had  exercised  a,  low 
trade,  or  whose  father  had  been  a  slave.  The 
senators  were  distinguished  by  an  oblong  stripe 
of  purple,  sewed  on  the  forepart  of  their' senato- 
rial gown  ;  and  black  buskins  reaching  to  the 
middle  of  die  leg.  with  the  letter  C  in  silver  on 
the  top  of  the  foot.  The  chief  privilege  of  the 
senators  was  their  having  a  particular  place  at 
the  public  spectacles,  called  orchestra  ;  it  was 
next  the  stage  in  the  theatre,  and  next  the  arena, 
or  open  space,  in  the  amphitheatre.  The  senate 
was  assembled  at  first  by  the  kings,  and  after 
their  expulsion  by  the  consuls  and  praetors;  it 
could  also  be  summoned  by  the  tribunes  of  the 
people,  even  against  the  will  of  the  consuls. 
The  kings  were  said  at  one  time  to  act  accord- 
ing to  the  counsel  of  the  senate  :  afterwards 
Tarquin  banished  or  put  to  death  the  senators, 
as  he  chose,  and  again,  after  the  regal  govern- 
ment was  abolished,  the  power  of  the  senate 
was  raised  to  its  highest  pitch. 

The  senate  could  be  held  only  in  a  temple, 
that  is,  a-  place  consecrated  by  the  augurs :  it 
was  assembled  commonly  within  the  city  ;  but 
it  met  without  the  walls  for  the  reception  of 
foreign  ambassadors,  and  of  their  own  generals, 
who  were  never  permitted  to  come  within  the 
walls  while  in  actual  command.  The  senate 
assembled  usually  three  times  a  month,  but  was 
often  called  together  on  other  days  for  the  des- 
patch of  business;  and  in  it  nothing  could  be; 
done  before  the  rising  nor  after  the  setting  of/ 
the  sun. 

Before  the  business  of  the  senate  commenced, 
the  consul, or  magistrate  who  presided,  offered  a 
sacrifice;  and  on  entering  the  senate-house  the 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


ROM  474  ROM 

members  rose  to  do  him  honor;  he  then  propos-  person  might  act  as  a  priest  and  a  judge,  regu- 

ed  the  business  to  them.     The  senate  was  con-  late  the  police  of  the  city,  direct  the  affairs  of 

suited  on  every  thing  pertaining  to  the  admin-  the  empire,  and  command  an  army.     The  ma- 

istration  of  the  state,  except  the    creation  of  gistrates  of  Rome  were  elective ;  and,  previous 

.    magistrates,  the  passing  of  laws,  and  the  deter-  to  their  election,  they   were  called  candidati, 

mination  of  war  or  peace ;  ail  which  properly  from  a  white  shining  robe  which  they  wore 

belonged  to  the  Roman  people.  while  soliciting  the  votes  of  the  people.     The 

The  magistrate  presiding  asked  the  opinion  candidate  for  an  office  was  obliged  to  be  present 

\    of  every  member  individually,  beginning  with  in  person,  and  to   be  approved  by  the  magis- 

l;  the  oldest  senator,  or  with  the  consuls  elect;  trates :  he   declared   his  intention  generally    a 

;  and  all  that  pleased  stood  up  and  gave  their  year  before  the  election  ;  and  the  interval  was 

:   judgment  upon  the  point :  but  when  they  only  spent  in  securing  his  friends,  and  gaining  the 

assented  to  ftie  opinion  of  another,  they  continu-  favor  of  the  people  by  every  popular  art. 

ed  sitting.    They  who  addressed  the  senate  had        The  Roman  magistrates  were  variously  divid- 

the  privilege  of  speaking  as  long  as  they  pleased,  ed  :  the  most  proper  and  commodious  division 

and  of  introducing  in  their  speech  many  things  is  into  ordinary,  extraordinary  and  provincial. 

foreign  to  the  subject;  so  that  when  any  mem-  The  magistrates  in  Rome,  called  ordinary,  were 

her  wished  to  hinder  the  passing  of  a  decree,  he  those  who   were  created  at   stated  times,  and 

protracted  his  speech  till  after  sunset.     As  it  were  constantly   in  the  republic.      The  chief 

r     was  not  lawful  for  the  consul  to  interrupt  an  ordinary  magistrates  were  the  consuls,  praetors, 

orator,  those  who  abused  this  right  were  some-  censors,  tribunes,  sediles,  and   queestors.     The 

times   forced   to   desist  from   speaking  by  the  extraordinary   magistrates  were   such  as  were 

noise  and  clamor  of  the  other  senators.  not  constantly  and  statedly  elected  in  the  re- 

When  as  many  as  wished  to  address  the  sen-  public,  but  arose   out  of  some  public  disorder 

\     ate   had   concluded,   the   presiding    magistrate  or  emergency.     The  extraordinary  magistrates 

made  a  short  report  of  their  several  opinions,  were  the  dictator  and  master  of  horse,  the  de- 

;    and  then  ordered  the  senate  to  divide  one  party  cemviri,  military  tribunes,  and  interrex.     The 

to  one  side  of  the  house,  and  the  opposite  to  the  magistrates  of  Rome  were  termed  provinciales 

•    other ;  the  number  being  told,  a  majority  decided  when  they  were  appointed  to  the  government 

the  debate.     After  the  division  of  the  senate,  a  of  a  province  or  distant  part  of  the  empire.     In 

decree  w?is  made  out  according  to  the  opinion  the  beginning  of  the  Roman  republic,  the  ma- 

of  the  majority,  and  the  names  of  those  who  had  gistrates  were  chosen  only  from  the  patricians ; 

been  most  anxious  for  the  decree  were  usually  but  afterwards,  indiscriminately,  from  the  other 

prefixed  to  it;  it  was  then  taken  to  the  tribunes  orders.     All  magistrates  were  obliged,  within 

of  the  people,  for  their  approbation  or  rejection,  five  days  after  entering  on  their  office,  to  swear 

When  the  opinions  of  the  senators  were  ask-  that  they  would  observe  the  laws  ;  and  after  the 

ed,  as   related  above,  the    decree  was   termed  expiration  of  their  office,  they  might  be  brought 

senatus  consultum  ;  but  when  in  cases  of  little  to  trial,  if  they  had  done  any  thing  amiss. 
concern,  or  such  as  required  expedition,  a  de-         We  must  now  only  notice  the  Roman  games, 

cree    was   made    without   any   opinions   being  The    Roman   games,   as   constituting   part   of 

asked,  it  was  called  senatus  consultum  per  dis-  religious  worship,  were  always  consecrated  to 

cessionem.     A  decree  could  be  prevented  from  some  god,  and  were  either  stated,  or  vowed  by 

I    passing  the  senate  by  the   interposition  of  the  generals  in  war,  or  celebrated  on  extraordinary 

tribunes  of  the  commons ;  it  might  be  done  also  occasions  :  the  most  celebrated  games  were  those 

\  by  a  magistrate  of  equal  authority  with   him  of  the  circus.     The  shows  exhibited  in  the  cir- 

who  proposed  the  business,  or  when  the  num-  cus   maximus  were  chariot  and   horse    races  ; 

ber  of  senators  required  by  law  was  not  present,  contests  of  agility  and  strength  ;  a  mock  fight 

The  proceedings  of  the  senate  were  private  on  horseback ;  the  combat  of  wild  beasts ;  the 

till  Julius  Ccesar  appointed  that  they  should  be  representation  of  a  horse  and  foot  battle  ;  and 

published.     When  affairs  of  secrecy  were  dis-  the  sham  sea-fight. 

cussed,  the  clerks  and  other  attendants   were         The   charioteers  were   distributed    into  Tour 

not  admitted ;  but  what  passed  was  written  by  parties  or  factions  distinguished  by  their  diffe- 

j    some  of  the  senators.  rent  colored  dress.     The  spectators  favored  one 

A  magistrate  in  the  Roman  republic  was  a  or  the  other  color,  as  humor  or  caprice  inclined 

,    person  invested  with  public  authority,  either  them.     In  the  time   of  Justinian,  30,000  men 

religious,  civil,  or  military;  so  that  the  same  lost  their  lives  at  Constantinople  in  a  tumult 


ISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ROM 


raised  by  contention  among  the  partisans  of 
these  several  colors.  These  were  running, 
leaping,  boxing,  wrestling,  and  throwing  the 
quoit  :  boxers  covered  their  hands  with  u  kind 
of  gloves,  which  had  lead  or  iron  sewed  into 
them,  to  make  the  stroke  fall  with  a  greater 
weight.  The  combats  between  wild  beasts  were 
various  :  sometimes  a  tiger  being  matched  with 
a  lion,  sometimes  a  lion  with  a  bull,  a  bull  with 
an  elephant,  a  rhinoceros  with  a  bear,  &c.  :  men 
also  fought  with  wild  beasts,  being  either  forced 
to  it  by  punishment,  as  the  primitive  Christians 
often  were  ;  or  they  fought  voluntarily,  or  for  hire. 

There  were  iiaumachiae  or  naval  combats 
which  were  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  ac- 
quiring naval  discipline  :  in  later  times,  how- 
ever. those  who  fought  were  composed  of  cap- 
tives or  condemned  malefactors,  who  fought  to 
death,  unless  saved  by  the  clemency  of  the  em- 
peror. 

The  gladiators  were  men  who  fought  with 
weapons  in  a  public  circus,  for  the  entertain- 
ment of  the  public.  These  shows  seem  to  have 
taken  their  rise  from  the  custom  of  slaughter- 
ing captives  at  the  tombs  of  those  slain  in  battle, 
which  was  supposed  to  appease  their  manes, 
but  from  which  humanity  recoils  with  horror. 
Gladiators  were  at  first  composed  of  captives, 
slaves,  and  of  condemned  malefactors,  who 
were  regularly  trained  for  the  combat  ;  yet  in 
the  more  degenerate  period  of  the  empire,  free- 
born  citizens,  and  even  senators  engaged  in  this 
dangerous  and  disgraceful  employment.  The 
gladiators  were  named  after  the  arms  thev  used  : 
the  most  remarkable  were  the  retiarii  and  the 
secutores.  The  rPtiarius  wore  a  short  tunic, 
with  his  head  bare  :  he  held  in  his  left-hand  a 
trident,  or  three-pointed  spear  ;  and  in  his  right, 
a  net.  with  which  he  endeavored  to  entangle 
his  adversary,  that  with  his  trident  he  might 
despatch  him.  The  secutor,  or  follower,  was 
armed  with  a  helmet,  a  shield,  and  a  sword,  and 
was  matched  with  the  retiarius  :  if  the  latter 
missed  his  aim  in  throwing  the  net,  he  attempt- 
ed by  flight  to  gain  time  for  a  second  cast  ; 
while  the  secutor  pursued  to  prevent  his  design 
by  despatching  him. 

"The  Romans  were  unacquainted  with  drama- 
tic entertainments,  or  stage-plays,  for  some  cen- 
turies after  the  building  of  the  city  :  they  were 
first  introduced  at  Rome  on  account  of  a  pesti- 
lence, to  appease  the  divine  wrath  :  they  were 
divided,  as  with  us,  into  tragedy,  comedy,  and 
pantomime.  The  Roman  tragedy  and  comedy 
were  wholly  borrowed  from  the  Greeks,  and 
nearly  resembled  ours  :  their  chief  difference 


^#MW-^^ 

consisted  in   the  chorus;   this  was   usually 
company    of  actors,   which   remained   on   the 
stage  singing  and  conversing  on  the  subject  in 
the  intervals  of  the  acts. 

The  modern  city  of  Rome  contain 
inhabitants.         •*"  1'  liTa   mi"  •"'"^ 

ROMILLY,  Sir  Samuel,  ari  eminent  lawyer 
was  born  March  1, 1757.  In  1783  he  was  called 
to  the  bar.  At  length  he  rose  to  distinction  in 
the  Court  of  Chancery  ;  and.  in  the  last  admin- 
istration of  Mr.  Fox,  was  made  solicitor-general. 
When  the  party  to  whom  he  was  attached  went 
out  of  office,  he  also  retired.  He  exerted  him- 
self in  endeavoring  to  effect  a  revision  of  the 
criminal  code,  with  a  view  to  the  limitation  of 
capital  punishments  to  a  few  heinous  offences; 
on  which  subject  he  published  an  able  pam- 
phlet ;  as  he  also  did  another  against  the  erec- 
tion of  the  office  of  vice-chancellor  The  death 
of  this  eminent  man  was  most  melancholy. 
Shocked  at  the  loss  of  his  lady,  who  died  in  the" 
Isle  of  Wight,  he  became  delirious,  and  de- 
stroyed himself,  November  2,  1818. 

ROMULUS,  founder  of  Rome,  was  born  at 
the  same  birth  with  Remus ;  but  of  what  pa- 
rents it  is'  impossible  to  say,  as  the  account  of 
their  origin  is  involved  in  much  fable  and  mys- 
tery. They  undertook  to  build  a  city,  hoping 
that  it  would  become  a  warlike  and  powerful 
nation.  Romulus  marked  with  a  furrow  the 
place  where  he  wished  to  erect  the  walls ;  but 
their  slenderness  was  ridiculed  by  Remus,  who 
leaped  over  them  with  the  greatest  contempt. 
This  irritated  Romulus,  and  Remus  was  imme- 
diately put  to  death,  either  by  the  hand  of  his 
brother  or  one  of  the  workmen. 

When  the  walls  were  built,  the  city  was  with- 
out inhabitants;  but  Romulus,  by  making  an 
asylum  of  a  sacred  grove,  soon  collected  a  num- 
ber of  fugitives,  foreigners,  and  criminals,  whom 
he  received  as  his  lawful  subjects.  Yet  however 
numerous  these  might  be,  they  were  despised  by 
the  neighboring  inhabitants,  and  none  were  will- 
ing to  Form  ma'triinonial  connexions  with  them. 

But  Romulus  obtained  by  force  what  was  de- 
nied to  his  petitions.  The  Romans  celebrated 
games  in  honor  of  the  god  Consus,  and  forcibly 
carried  away  all  the  females  who  had  assembled 
there  to  be  spectators  of  these  unusual  exhibi 
tions.  These  violent  measures  offended  the 
neighboring  nations ;  they  made  war  against  the 
ravishers  with  various  success,  till  at  last  they 
entered  Rome,  which  had  been  betrayed  to  them 
by  one  of  the  stolen  virgins.  A  violent  engage- 
ment was  begun  in  the  middle  of  the  Roman 
forum :  but  the  Sabines  were  conquered,  or,  ac 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


ROO 


476 


ROS 


cording  to  Ovid,  the  two  enemies  laid  down  their 
arms  when  the  women  had  rushed  between  the 
two  armies,  and  by  their  tears  and  entreaties 
raised  compassion  in  the  bosoms  of  their  parents 
and  husbands. 

The  Sabines  left  their  original  possessions  and 
came  to  live  in  Rome,  where  Tatius,  their  king, 
shared  the  sovereign  power  with  Romulus. 
The  introduction  of  the  Sabines  into  the  city  of 
Rome  was  attended  with  the  most  salutary  con- 
sequences ;  and  the  Romans,  hy  pursuing  this 
plan,  and  admitting  the  conquered  nations 
among  their  citizens,  rendered  themselves  more 
powerful  and  more  formidable.  Afterwards 
Romulus  divided  the  lands  which  he  had  ob- 
tained by  conquest ;  one  part  was  reserved  for 
religious  uses,  to  maintain  the  priests,  to  erect 
temples,  and  to  consecrate  altars  ;  the  other  was 
appropriated  for  the  expenses  of  the  state  ;  and 
the  third  part  was  equally  distributed  among  his 
subjects,  who  were  divided  into  three  classes  or 
tribes. 

The  most  aged  and  experienced,  to  the  num- 
ber of  100,  were  also  chosen,  whom  the  mon- 
arch might  consult  in  matters  of  the  highest  im- 
portance, and  from  their  age  they  w*re  called 
senators,  and  from  their  authority  patres.  The 
whole  body  of  the  people  were  also  distinguish- 
ed by  the  name  of  patricians  and  plebeians,  pa- 
tron and-  client,  who  by  mutual  interest  were 
induced  to  preserve  the  peace  of  the  state,  and 
to  promote  the  public  good. 

Some  time  after,  Romulus  disappeared,  as  he 
was  giving  instructions  to  the  senators ;  and  the 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  happened  at  that  time, 
was  favorable  to  the  rumor  which  asserted  that 
the  king  had  been  taken  up  to  heaven,  714  B. 
C.  after  a  reiim  of  39  years. 

RONCESVALLES,  a  valley  in  Navarre, 
where  the  army  of  Charlemagne,  on  their  return 
from  an  expedition  to  that  country,  were  at- 
tacked in  the  narrow  passes  of  the  mountains, 
and  all  that  were  separated  from  the  main  body 
were  killed,  among  whom  were  several  chiefs 
of  note. 

ROOKE,  Sir  George,  a  gallant  English  ad- 
miral,  was  born  in  Kent  in  1(>50.  He  entered 
early  into  the  naval  service,  and  had  the  com- 
mand of  several  expeditions  in  the  reigns  of 
King  William  and  Queen  Anne  ;  all  of  which 
he  conducted  with  equal  skill  and  courage.  In 
1702  he  attacked  the  French  fleet  in  the°harbor 
of  Vigo,  and  took  several  galleons  and  men-of- 
war,  besides  destroying  a  number  of  others.  In 
1704  he  made  himself  master  of  Gibraltar  ;  not- 
withstanding which,  such  w&s  the  violence  of 


party,  Sir  George  was  soon  afterwards  super 
seded  by  the  Whigs,  who  endeavored  to  lessen 
his  services  by  representing  them  as  the  effects 
of  mere  chance  and  good  fortune.  He  died  Jan- 
uary 24,  1709.  When  he  made  his  will,  some 
of  his  friends  wondered  at  the  slenderness  of  his 
circumstances,  considering  what  employments 
he  had  been  engaged  in ;  to  whom  the  dying 
hero  said,  "  I  do  not  leave  much,  'tis  true  ;  but 
what  I  do  leave  was  honestly  gotten  ;  it  never 
cost  a  seaman  a  tear,  nor  the  nation  a  farthinov' 

ROSCOE,  William,  was  born  in  1732,  oi 
humble  parents,  and,  having  received  a  com- 
mon education,  was  articled,  at  an  early  age,  to 
an  attorney  at  Liverpool.  He  soon  mastered, 
by  dint  of  hard  study,  the  Latin,  French,  and 
Italian  languages,  while  he,  at  the  same  time, 
neither  neglected  his  business  nor  the  study  of 
the  English  Classics.  His  first  poetical  work. 
Mount  Pleasant,  was  written  at  the  age  of  six- 
teen. As  a  banker,  Mr.  Roscoe  was  unsuc- 
cessful. His  most  important  and  celebrated 
works  are  the  Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  and 
the  Life  of  Leo  X.  He  died  in  1831 ;  arid  his 
memory  is  affectionately  cherished  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Liverpool,  whose  taste  he  endeavor- 
ed to  improve,  and  whose  public  works  he  ably 
and  strenuously  supported. 

ROSE,  George,  a  statesman,  was  the  son  of 
an  episcopal  clergyman  at  Drechin,  in  the  shire 
of  Angus,  and  was  born  there,  in  1744.  He 
was  brought  up  under  an  uncle,  who  kept  a 
school  near  London,  after  which  he  went  into 
the  navy,  and  became  a  purser  ;  but,  by  the  in- 
terest of  the  Earl  of  Marchmont,  he  was  taken 
from  thence,  and  made  keeper  of  the  records  in 
the  Exchequer.  Here  his  talents  for  business 
were  soon  discovered,  and  he  was  appointed  to 
superintend  the  publication  of  the  Domesday 
Book;  after  which  he  was  employed  to  com- 
plete the  journals  of  the  Lords,  in  thirty-one 
volumes,  i'olio.  From  this  period  his  advance- 
ment was  rapid,  and  his  services  were  duly  ap- 
preciated and  engaged,  by  almost  every  admin- 
istration. Mr.  Pitt,  in  particular,  placed  un- 
bounded confidence  in  his  judgment  on  subjects 
of  trade  and  finance;  and,  when  Pitt  returned 
to  power,  after  the  short  pcucc,  Mr.  Rose  was 
made  president  of  the  board  of  trade,  and  trea- 
surer of  the  navy.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Pitt, 
another  change  "occurred ;  but,  when  the  ad- 
ministration formed  by  Lord  Grenville  retired, 
Mr.  Rose  resumed  his  former  station,  and  con- 
tinued in  it  till  his  death,  which  happened  at 
Cuil'iicls,  his  seat  in  Hampshire.  Jan.  13,  1818. 

ROSS,  George,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


RUS 


477 


RUS 


of  Independence,  born  in  1730.  at  Newcastle, 
Delaware,  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman.  At  the 
age  of  eighteen,  having  been  admitted  to  prac- 
tise law,  he  settled  at  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  for  some  years  a  member  of  Congress, 
and  discharged  the  duties  of  his  office  to  the 
entire  satisfaction  of  his  numerous  constituents. 
In  July.  1779,  an  attack  of  the  gout  put  an  end 
to  his  life  in  his  fiftieth  year. 

ROUEN,  anciently  Kothomagus,  a  city  of 
France,  formerly  capital  of  the  province  of  Nor- 
mandy, situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Seine,  86  N.  VV.  of  Paris.  Population  88,000. 
It  was  besieged  by  Henry  V.  of  England  in 
1418,  and  taken  after  a  siege  of  five  months,  but 
again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French  in  144vt. 

RUPERT  Prince,  the  third  son  of  Frederic, 
king  of  Bohemia,  by  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
James  I.  He  was  born  in  1C1U,  and  received 
an  education  adapted  to  the  military  service. 
In  the  civil  wars  of  England,  while  his  elder 
brother  became  a  pensioner  to  the  parliament, 
prince  Rupert  adhered  steadfastly  to  his  royal 
uncle,  and  defeated  the  rebels  in  several  en- 
gagements ;  for  which  the  king  honored  him 
with  the  garter,  and  made  him  a  peer.  The 
prince,  however,  was  more  successful  as  a 
naval  commander  than  on  the  land,  particularly 
after  the  restoration,  in  the  great  Dutch  war,  on 
the  conclusion  of  which  he  led  a  retired  life, 
occupied  wholly  in  scientific  pursuits.  He  died 
in  London  in  1082,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

RUSSELL,  William,  first  duke  of  Bedford, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Francis,  the  fourth  earl  of 
Bedford,  and  was  born  in  1614.  He  received 
his  education  at  Magdalen-college,  Oxford,  and 
at  the  coronation  of  Charles  I,  was  created  knight 
of  the  oath.  In  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war, 
he  acted  against  the  king,  and  commanded  the 
reserve  of  horse  in  the  battle  of  Edgehill ;  but 
in  1645,  he  joined  the  royal  standard,  and  fought 
with  great  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Newbury. 
His  estate,  in  consequence,  was  put  under  se- 
questration, but  on  his  submission  to  the  parlia- 
ment it  was  restored.  He  then  led  a  private  life 
till  the  return  of  Charles  II,  when  he  assisted  at 
the  coronation,  and  was  made  a  knight  of  the 
garter.  He  also  attended  the  coronation  of 
William  and  Mary,  and  in  1G'>4.  was  created 
Duke  of  Bedford.  "  He  died  in  1700. 

RUSSELL,  William,  lord,  third  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  about  1641  He  received 
a  private  education  under  puritanical  teachers. 
His  early  life,  however,  appears  to  have  been 
rather  dissipated,  till  he  married,  in  1667.  the 


excellent  daughter  of  Lord  Southampton.  On 
becoming  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  for  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  Duke  of  York :  and  at  length  be- 
came so  far  involved  in  a  conspiracy  for  effecting 
a  revolution,  that,  when  the  Rye-house  plot  was 
discovered,  an  indictment  was  preferred  against 
him,  and  he  was  condemned  at  the  Old  Bailey. 
Great  exertions  were  made  to  save  his  life,  but 
all  without  effect,  and  he  was  beheaded  in  Lin- 
coln's-Inn-fields,  July  18, 1(583.  After  the  revo- 
lution an  act  was  passed,  to  annul  and  make 
void  the  proceedings  against  Lord  Russell.  His 
widow,  lady  Rachel,  died  Sept.  29,  1723,  at  the 
age  of  87. 

RUSSIA.  This  great  empire  contains  half 
of  Europe,  stretches  across  the  north  of  Asia, 
and  includes  vast  possessions  in  North  America, 
thus  almost  girding  the  entire  globe.  It  has  an 
area  of  about  8.000,000  square  miles,  with  about 
G5.000,000  inhabitants.  The  revenue,  before 
the  last  Polish  rebellion,  was  $55.000,000,  and 
the  public  debt,  in  1824,  $170,000,000.  The 
subject  of  education  has  received  the  attention 
of  goveuMwent.  but  not  many  years  ago,  even 
the  Ri^^lt  nobles  were  shamefully  ignorant. 
The  c«Wion  of  the  peasants  is  deplorable: 
they  are  the  property  of  the  crown  or  of  indi- 
viduals, and  are  transferred  with  estates,  being 
considered  in  the  light  of  irrational  live  stock. 

A  traveller  gives  the  following  account  of  a 
curious  scene  which  he  witnessed  in  Russia  : 
I  had  been  some  years  in  St.  Petersburg  before 
my  mind  had  become  familiarized  with  the  bru- 
tal abasement  of  the  serfs  in  the  surrounding 
country.  It  is  strange  for  one  used  to  a  free 
country,  to  observe  the  feudal  system,  in  its 
strictest  sense,  still  holding  its  ground  in  a  part 
of  the  continent  of  Europe  surrounded  by  en- 
lightened and  civilized  countries,  which,  how- 
ever, do  not  exert  the  least  influence  upon  it. 
The  Russian  peasant  is  treated  more  harshly 
than  the  West  Indian  negro;  like  him,  he  is 
not  his  own  master,  like  him,  he  has  no  family  ; 
he,  and  his  children,  may  be  sold  at  any  mo- 
ment. He  is  forced  to  die  upon  his  natal  soil, 
pursued  through  life  by  a  tyrannical  master, 
who  often  wreaks  his  vengeance  on  his  slave 
by  depriving  him  of  the  necessaries  of  life;  he 
cannot  go  to  seek  subsistence  in  other  lands,  but 
must  die.  consuming  himself  with  silent  grief. 
Nay — the  peasant  has  no  wrongs — he  is  a  mere 
machine,  moved  only  by  the  rod  of  his  driver. 

But  let  us  drop  this  grave  style,  and  look 
upon  the  sunny  side  of  Russian  manners,  and 
nothing  is  so  droll  as  the  nuptial  ceremonies 


CYCLO.PEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


RUS 


478 


RUS 


which  take  place  at  the  fete  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul,  at  Petrowski,  a  village  about  15  leagues 
from  St.  Petersburg. 

This  festival  always  attracts  a  crowd  of  curi- 
ous spectators ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  penetrate 
into  the  centre  of  the  village,  in  the  midst  of 
the  ceremonies,  without  you  are  accompanied 
by  a  man  of  some  authority  or  rank.  It  was 
with  the  painter  of  the  empress  mother,  on 
whose  estates  the  ceremony  takes  place,  that 
I  saw  the  singular  spectacle. 

On  approaching  we  witnessed  the  arrival  of 
a  crowd  of  young  girls,  eacii  having  a  flower  or 
a  ribbon  in  their  hair,  and  mounted  upon  little 
horses,  some  of  which  were  forced  to  carry 
double  and  even  treble.  Their  mothers  accom- 
panied them  armed  with  stout  cudgels.  The 
young  men  appeared  clad  in  bridal  garments. 
Nothing  is  as  ugly  as  the  Russian,  particularly 
those  of  Petrowski,  and  this  rendered  the  scene 
grotesque  in  the  extreme. 

The  young  girls  were  drawn  up  in  lines 
along  the  street  of  the  village,  and  the  suitors 
approached,  like  Turks  in  the  slave-market  of 
Stamboul,  examined,  and  made  CMMjarisons; 
and  when  one  of  them  found  a  bea^^Bhat  suit- 
ed him,  without  a  word,  he  pusheiWIr  out  of 
the  line,  and  shoved  her  into  a  neighboring 
house  to  await  the  conclusion  of  the  bargain. 
Parents  have  no  right  to  interfere  with  the 
choice  of  their  children,  only  if  the  mother  ob- 
jects to  the  suitor  of  her  girl,  she  commonly 
amuses  herself  at  his  expense  by  giving  him  a 
sound  beating  with  her  cudgel.  The  Lutheran 
minister  and  the  magistrate  preside  at  these  es- 
pousals, registering  the  names  of  the  couples, 
and  the  definitive  celebration  of  the  marriages 
takes  place  about  eight  days  after. 

In  the  ninth  century,  the  Scandinavians, 
who  were  Danes,  Normans,  or  Norwegians,  arid 
Swedes,  emigrated  from  the  north,  and,  cross- 
ing the  Baltic,  settled  in  this  country.  These 
intruders  were  called  Waregers,  from  which 
the  name  of  Russes  or  Russians  is  derived. 
After  subduing  Courland,  Livonia,  and  Estho- 
nia,  the  Waregers  were  offered  the  government 
of  the  whole  country,  and,  embracing  the  pro- 
posal, deputed  to  the  office  three  brothers  of 
known  abilities  and  valor,  whose  names  were 
Ruric,  Sineus.  and  Truwor.  They  reigned 
very  amicably  together,  and  made  considerable 
additions  to  their  respective  territories,  all  of 
which  at  length  devolved  on  Ruric,  by  the  death 
of  Sineus  and  Truwor,  who  left  no  issue. 

Ruric  left  his  dominions  in  878,  to  his  son 
Igor,  a  minor,  under  the  care  of  a  relation 


named  Olech,  who  governed  with  great  ability 
and  integrity  during  the  nonage  ofthe  young 

Srince,  and  who  undertook  an  expedition  a"gainst 
onstantinople,  which  he  besieged  for  some 
time, -and  at  length  compelled  the  emperor  to 
purchase  peace  at  a  stipulated  price.  On  the 
death  of  Olech,  Igor  undertook  an  unsuccessful 
expedition  against  Constantinople,  and  after- 
wards ravaged  and  desolated  the  country  ofthe 
Drevlians,  by  whom  he  was  slain.  Swetoslav;, 
the  son  of  Igor,  was  a  great  warrior,  and  en- 
larged his  dominions  by  the  acquisition  of  much 
territory ,  but  was  basely  murdered  by  the  prince 
of  the  Petchenegans. 

Wolodimir  I.  succeeded  in  97G,  and  impru- 
dently divided  his  dominions  among  his  twelve 
sons,  who  became  enemies  to  each  other,  and, 
after  his  death,  replunged  their  country  into  all 
the  horrors  of  murder,  massacres,  and  civil 
wars. 

In  1019,  Jaroslaw.  who  had  been  appointed 
to  the  government  of  Novogorod,  assembled  his 
%forces,  and  attacking  his  brothers,  dispossessed 
them  of  their  dominions,  which  he  usurped. 
He  also  divided  his  territories  amonir  his  five 
sons,  who,  being  equally  ambitious,  and  able  to 
injure  each  other,  renewed  all  the  horrors  of 
civil  war,  in  1106  At  length,  Wolodimir  II, 
being  more  fortunate  and  more  enterprising 
than  the  rest,  possessed  himself  of  the  greatest 
part  of  these  territories,  and  was  declared  uni- 
versal monarch.  He  transferred  his  power  to 
his  son  Wsewold  II,  who  plunged  the  state  into  • 
fresh  disorder,  by  dividing  his  dominions  among 
his  sons.  These  dissensions  afforded  t!ie  Tar- 
tars an  opportunity  of  making  incursions  into 
Russia,  which  they  plundered  and  desolated, 
and  which  was  also  attacked  by  the  Poles,  in 
1237.  To  complete  the  misery  of  the  Russians,  , 
the  Tartars  returned,  and,  attacking  them  with 
irresistible  fury,  made  an  entire  conquest  of 
their  country. 

Durinir  several  reigns  which  occupy  a  space 
of  more  than'200  years,  the  miseries  of  a  foreign 
yoke  were  aggravated  by  the  calamities  of  in- 
testine discord  and  civil  war.  At  length,  in 
1450,  John  Basilowitz  I,  by  his  invincible  spirit, 
and  refined  policy,  became  the  conqueror  and 
deliverer  of  his  country,  and  laid  the  foundation 
of  that  grandeur  which  has  since  distinguished 
Russia.  Taking  advantage  of  a  war  in  which 
the  Tartars  were  engaged,  and  having  in  the 
mean  time  considerably  increased  his  forces,  he 
disclaimed  all  subjection  to  that  people,  attacked 
their  dominions,  and  made  himself  master  of 
Casan,  where  he  was  crowned. 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


RUS 


479 


RUS 


He  was  honored  with  the  surname  of  Great, 
and  assumed  the  title  of  Czar,  which  signifies 
Emperor,  but  which  was  more  used  by  his  suc- 
cessors. 

On  the  death  of  John  Basilowitz  in  1505,  the 
crown  ought  to  have  devolved  to  his  eldest  son 
Demetrius,  whom  he  had  by  a  former  wife  ;  but 
his  widow  Sophia,  by  various  artful  insinua- 
tions, obtained  it  for  her  own  son  Gabriel,  who, 
disliking  his  own  name,  assumed  that  of  Basilius 
Twansowitz.  He  engaged  in  a  war  with  the 
Poles  and  Crim-Tartars,  who,  penetrating  to 
the  gates  of  Moscow,  made  the  czar  tremble  on 
his  throne,  and  obliged  him  to  submit  to  their 
conditions.  The  Tartars  entered  Russia  a  sec- 
ond time,  ravaged  the  country,  and,  making 
themselves  masters  of  Moscow,  compelled  Basi- 
lius to  acknowledge  himself  their  vassal,  and  to 
promise  to  pay  them  an  annual  tribute.  John 
Basilowitz  II,  succeeded  in  1533,  and  was  one 
of  the  greatest  monarchs  of  Russia.  He  was 
constantly  engaged  in  war  with  the  Tartars, 
the  Poles,  the  Swedes,  the  Danes,  or  the  Turks. 
and  was  almost  always  successful.  He  left 
two  sons ;  Theodore  Iwanowitz,  who  succeeded 
him,  and  Demetrius,  an  infant,  placed  under 
the  tutelage  of  the  knez  Bogdam  Bielski.  This 
guardian  formed  the  design  of  placing  his  pupil 
on  the  throne,  in  prejudice  to  his  elder  brother 
Theodore,  whose  simplicity  and  want  of  talents 
rendered  him  incapable  of  supporting  the  weight 
of  a  diadem.  But  though  the  nobles  delivered 
Theodore  from  the  enterprises  of  Bielski,  that 
weak  monarch  suffered  all  the  authority  to 
centre  in  the  hands  of  the  knez  Boris  Gudenow. 
•whose  sister  he  had  married,  and  who,  after 
ordering  Demetrius  to  be  put  to  death,  admin- 
istered to  Theodore  a  slow  poison. 

Finding  his  dissolution  approaching,  Theo- 
dore offered  the  sceptre  to  some  of  his  nearest 
relations :  but,  as  they  all  refused  it.  he  threw  it 
on  the  floor,  saying,  '•  Let  him  be  the  emperor 
who  picks  it  up."  Boris  Gudenow  then  step- 
ped forward,  and  took  it,  to  the  great  dissatis- 
faction of  the  nation.  In  Theodore  ended  the 
family  of  Ruric,  which  had  governed  Russia 
upwards  of  700  years.  His  reign  was  disturb- 
ed, and  terminated  by  the  re-appearance  of  the 
real  or  pretended  Demetrius. 

Thinking  it  impossible  to  oppose  an  effectual 
resistance  to  Demetrius,  Boris,  in  a  moment  of 
despair,  took  poison,  of  which  he  died.  Theo- 
dore %vas  only  fifteen  years  of  age  at  the  time 
of  his  father's  death,  a'nd  ascended  the  throne 
in  1005.  After  making  his  public  entry  into 
Moscow,  Demetrius  was  crowned  sovereign  of 
41 


all  the  Russians.  Notwithstanding  these  suc- 
cesses, a  party  was  formed  ngainst  him.  The 
conspirators  declared  that  Demetrius  was  an 
impostor,  whose  design  was  to  extirpate  the 
nobility,  to  overturn  the  religion  of  Russia,  and 
render  the  people  slaves  to  Poland.  An  insur- 
gent multitude  attacked  the  palace  ;  and  Deme- 
trius, finding  himself  surrounded,  leaped  from 
a  window,  broke  his  thigh  in  the  fall,  was  taken, 
and  put  to  death.  Immediately  after  the  mur- 
der of  Demetrius,  Zuski,  the  leader  of  the  con- 
spirators, was  elected  sovereign  by  the  suffrages 
of  the  people,  though  the  nobles  and  senators 
were  divided  in  opinion  between  him  and  John 
Galitzin. 

Two  noblemen,  discontented  with  the  gov- 
ernment of  their  country,  declared  that  Deme- 
trius still  existed  ;  and,  raising  an  army,  they 
combated  and  defeated  Zuski,  but  were  in  their 
turn  defeated,  made  prisoners,  and  put  to  death. 
To  this  shade  succeeded  a  real  being,  who  has 
been  called  a  third  Demetrius,  and  who  was  a 
schoolmaster  at  Socola,  a  small  town  in  Polish 
Russia.  For  some  time  the  Poles  gave  every 
assistance  in  their  power  to  this  pretender,  and 
changing  sides,  they  aided  the  czar  in  expelling 
the  schoolmaster,  who  fled  into  Tartary,  where 
he  was  afterwards  assassinated.  Zuski  was 
afterwards  deposed,  shaven,  and  immured  in  a 
convent,  where  he  died. 

In  1610  the  crown  was  offered  to  Uladislaus, 
son  of  the  king  of  Poland,  who  sent  before  him 
an  army  of  Poles,  that  committed  every  species 
of  devastation.  At  length  the  delays  of  Ulad- 
islaus,  the  insolence  and  licentiousness  of  the 
Jioles,  and  the  impatience  of  the  Russians,  who 
saw  no  end  of  their  sufferings,  excited  the 
people  to  discontent  and  insurrection.  As  the 
election  of  Uladislaus  was  rendered  of  no  effect 
by  his  never  appearing  to  accept  the  crown, 
the  Russians  proceeded  to  the  choice  of  a  new 
sovereign,  and  elected  Michael  Theodorowitz 
Romanow,  son  of  Philaretus.  This  great  and 
pacific  prince  died  in  the  49th  year  of  his  age, 
and  the  33d  of  his  reign,  and  beqOeathed  the 
crown  to  his  son,  then  in  his  IGlh  year. 

Alexis  Theodorowitz  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  ]fi45.  and  appointed  as  his  first  minister  and 
counsellor  Boris  Morosau,  a  man  till  then  held 
in  estimation  and  respect,  and  possessed  of  great 
abilities,  but  unfortunately  tainted  with  the 
spirit  of  ambition.  Open  'traffic  was  made  of 
justice;  offices  and  employments  were  publicly 
sold.  These  exactions  and  oppressions  excited 
the  resentment  of  the  inhabitants  of  Moscow, 
who, finding  their  petitions  disregarded,  and  no 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


RUS 


480 


RUS 


grievances  redressed,  proceeded  to  the  utmost 
excesses.  This  act  of  popular  vengeance  in- 
structed the  czar  to  beware  of  reposing  unlim- 
ited confidence  in  his  ministers,  and  to  guide 
the  helm  of  the  empire  with  his  own  hand.  He 
employed  his  subsequent  life  in  rectifying  and 
repairing,  by  a  mild  and  equitable  administra- 
tion, the  faults  and  errors  into  which  he  had 
been  led  in  his  youth,  by  his  too  great  confi- 
dence in  favorites  and  ministers.  He  died  in 
the  46th  year  of  his  age.  By  his  first  wife, 
Alexis  left  two  sons,  Theodore  and  John,  and 
a  daughter  called  Sophia;  and  by  a  second,  Pe- 
ter, and  the  Princess  Natalia. 

Theodore  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1676,  at 
the  age  of  19  years,  and  possessed  all  the  good 
qualities  of  his  father,  whose  example  he  imitat- 
ed in  attempting  to  polish  Russia,  and  to  intro- 
duce into  that  country  useful  establishments. 
Theodore  having  appointed  Peter  ftis  successor 
on  the  throne,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  elder 
brother.  John,  the  intrigues  of  the  Princess  So- 
phia, their  sister,  occasioned  a  dreadful  rebellion, 
which  was  at  length  terminated  with  proclaim- 
ing the  two  princes,  John  and  Peter,  joint  sov- 
ereigns, and  associating  Sophia  in  tie  govern- 
ment as  co-regent  in  1682. 

The  imbecility  of  the  elder  brother,  and  the 
youth  of  Peter,  allowed  Sophia  to  enjoy  all  the 
honors  of  sovereignty.  She  married  John  to 
a  young  lady  of  the  house  of  Soltikoff,  and  form- 
ed a  design  against  the  life  of  Peter,  who,  being 
informed  of  her  intention,  made  his  escape, 
raised  troops,  and  caused  Sophia  to  be  impris- 
oned and  deprived  of  all  authority. 

From  161)0  Peter  is  to  be  considered  as  sole 
sovereign  of  Russia ;  since  from  the  period  of 
this  revolution  to  the  year  16%,  in  which  John 
died,  the  latter  led  a  private  and  retired  life. 
Peter  the  Great  died  1725,  at  the  age  of  fifty- 
three  years,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne 
by  his  widow,  Catharine. 

She  left  the  throne  to  Peter  II,  grandson  of 
the  late  czar,  in  1727,  whose  father  Peter  the 
Great  hid  inhumanly  condemned  to  suffer 
death.  This  prince  was  extremely  beloved  by 
his  people ;  and  Russia  has  since  termed  his 
reign  its  happiest  period  dnring  a  hundred 
years— On  the  death  of  Peter  1 1  in  1730.  the 
council,  the  senate,  the  general  officers,  and 
other  persons  of  .distinction,  assembled,  and 
elected  to  the  throne  Anne  Iwanowna.  duchess 
of  Courland,  and  second  daughter  of  John,  Pe- 
ter's eldest  brother.  Anne  successfully  execut- 
ed many  projects  conceived  by  Peter  the  Great, 
and  died  at  Petersburg,  after  a  glorious  and 
happy  reign  often  years,  A.  D.  1740. 


Previous  to  her  death,  the  late  empress  had 
declared  her  niece,  Anne  of  Mecklenburg,  gnnd- 
duchees,  and  her  niece's  son,  Iwan,  emperor  of 
Russia,  though  he  was  a  very  remote  descend- 
ant of  the  house  of  Romano w,  and  seemed 
rather  of  German  than  Russian  extraction. 
However,  there  appeared  another  aspirant  to 
the  throne,  who  was  the  Princess  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,and  aunt  to  the  grand 
duchess  Anne,  and  who  finally  succeeded  in 
the  attempt.  Iwan.  the  innocent  and  uncon- 
scious boy,  who,  with  no  ambition  to  rule,  had 
been  raised  to  the  imperial  purple,  was  dethron- 
ed, and  immured  in  a  dungeo:i ;  and  the  grand 
duchess  and  her  husband  were  imprisoned  iji  a 
fortress,  where  they  died. 

Elizabeth,  having  thus  obtained  possession 
of  the  throne  of  Russia  in  1740,  bent  all  her 
thoughts  to  the  government  of  the  empire. 
However,  her  reign  was  tarnished  by  the  insti- 
tution of  a  political  court  of  inquisition,  under 
the  name  of  a  secret  state  chancerv.  empowered 
to  examine  into  and  punish  all  expressions  of 
displeasure  with  the  measures  of  government 

On  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  Charles  Peter  Ul- 
ric.  only  son  of  the  Duke  of  Holstein.  peaceably 
ascended  the  throne  of  Russia  in  17ti'-2.  as  the 
declared  successor  of  the  late  empress,  and  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Peter  III.  He  was  grandson 
to  Peter  the  Great  and  Catharine  1.  whose  el- 
dest daughter,  the  Princess  Anne,  had  married 
his  father,  diaries  Frederic. 

Peter  had  for  a  longtime  slighted  his  consort, 
Catharine  of  the  house  of  Anhall-Zerbst,  and 
now  openly  lived  with  the  Countess  of  Wo- 
rontzoff,  niece  to  the  chancellor  of  that  name. 
Catharine  indulged  in  the  greatest  licentious- 
ness;  and,  after  the  dismissal  of  Poniatowski, 
the  Polish  ambassador,  with  whom  she  had  been 
too  intimate,  she  carried  on  a  criminal  inter- 
course with  Gregory  OrlorF,  who  became  an 
active  and  a  zealous  member  of  a  conspiracy 
against  the  czar.  To  the  conspiracy  of  Bestu- 
cheft",  supported  by  his  nephew,  the  Prince  of 
Wolskonsky,  and  by  Count  I'anin.  was  added 
another,  of  which  the  Princess  Dashkoff,  a  girl 
only  eighteen  years  of  age.  wr.s  the  most  active 
and  spirited  member.  Of  these  factions,  which 
acted  in  unison,  but  without  the  cognizance  of 
each  other,  Catharine  was  the  minnaiing  spirit. 

At  length  a  report  was  propagated,  that  the 
emperor  entertained  the  design  of  declaring 
Prince  Iwan  his  successor;  of  disowning  the 
young  grand  duke,  Paul  Petrowitz,  as  his  son; 
and  of  imputing  Catharine  for  life  in  a  prison, 
and  substituting  in  her  place  his  mistress,  the 
Countess  of  Worontzoff. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


RUS 


481 


RUS 


At  seven  in  the  morning1  of  the  9th  of  July, 
17(>2,  Catharine  entered  the  city  of  Petersburg 
in  the  absence  of  the  czur;  and  having  induced 
the  soldiers  to  believe  that  her  death,  together 
with  that  of  her  son,  had  been  decreed  by  the 
emperor  that  night,  the  troops  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  her.  She  then  repaired  to  the 
church  of  Casan,  where  the  archbishop  of  No- 
vogorod  placed  on  her  head  the  imperial  crown, 
and  in  a  loud  voice  proclaimed  her  sovereign 
of  all  the  Russias,  under  the  name  of  Catha- 
rine II. 

The  new  empress  now  marched  at  the  head 
of  the  troops  against  her  husband,  who  was 
solacing  himself  with  his  mistress  at  one  of  his 
houses  of  pleasure,  when  he  was  informed  of 
the  event  which  had  taken  place  at  Petersburg. 
Consternation  immediately  pervaded  his  whole 
company.  The  emperor,  perplexed  and  con- 
founded, ordered,  countermanded,  asked  advice, 
adopted,  and  again  rejected  it,  and  at  length  set 
out  with  his  mistress  and  aid-de-catnp  to  meet 
Catharine  at  the  castle  of  Peterhoff,  vainly 
hoping  to  move,  by  submission,  the  heart  of  a 
woman  who  was  utterly  devoid  of  pity  or  com- 
passion. The  unfortunate  Peter,  after  being 
inducted  to  write  and  sign  a  renunciation  of  the 
throne  of  Russia,  was  cast  into  prison,  w,here  a 
few  days  after  he  was  murdered. 

On  the  death  of  Augustus  III,  king  of  Poland, 
in  I7C4,  Catharine,  who  had  signed  a  treaty  of 
alliance  with  Prussia,  raised  to  the  throne  of 
that  kingdom  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  her  for- 
mer paramour,  notwithstanding  the  murmurs 
and  resistance  of  the  Polish  nation.  During 
the  absence  of  the  empress  at  Riga,  a  conspiracy, 
real  or  pretended,  was  formed  in  favor  of  Prince 
Iwan,  who  was  barbarously  put  to  death.  The 
purposes  for  which  Poniatowski  had  been  raised 
to  the  throne  of  Poland,  began  gradually  to  de- 
velop themselves  ;  and  having  traced  on  a  map 
aline  of  demarcation,  by  which  a  great  part  of 
the  Polish  territory  had  been  assigned  to  Russia, 
Catharine  insisted  on  the  recognition  of  these 
limits,  and  the  propriety  of  her  claim.  The 
Poles  having  induced  the  Ottoman  Porte  to 
take  up  arms  in  their  behalf,  hostilities  com- 
menced between  Turkey  and  Russia,  and  the 
empress  resolved  to  rend  the  Grecian  islands 
from  the  Ottoman  Porte,  and  to  be  the  patroness 
of  liberty  in  Greece,  and  the  foundress  of  a  new 
republic.  At  length  the  dismemberment  of 
Poland  was  effected  by  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Prussia;  and  Turkey  was  obliged  to  conclude 
a  peace  on  very  disadvantageous  terms.  The 
ambition  of  Catharine  again  excited  the  jealousy 


and  the  fears  of  the  Turkish  emperor  by  the 
designs  which  she  entertained  respecting  her 
grandson,  whose  name  and  education  suffi- 
ciently denoted  her  intention.  War  was,  there- 
fore, afrain  declared  by  the  Porte  against  Rus- 
sia, whose  minister  was  shut  up  in  the  castle 
of  the  Seven  Towers.  Joseph  II,  emperor  of 
Germany,  sent  80,000  Austrians  to  the  assist- 
ance of  Catharine  ;  and  every  thing  seemed  to 
announce  the  ruin  of  the  Ottoman  power.  Sur- 
rounding nations,  however,  beheld  with  jealousy 
the  designs  of  the  empress,  who  threatened  to 
destroy  the  equilibrium  of  Europe,  but  who, 
notwithstanding  her  victories  and  her  conquests, 
at  length  perceived  that  a  cessation  «f  hostilities 
was  very  desirable.  Accordingly,  after  some 
time,  peace  was  concluded  between  Russia  and 
the  Porte,  and  a  bloody  and  expensive  war 
terminated.  The  arms  of  Russia  and  Prussia 
were  now  united  in  partitioning  the  remainder 
of  Poland ;  and  Frederic  William,  at  the  head 
of  his  forces,  fought  against  Kosciusko,  whose 
talents,  courage,  and  despair  were  unavailing 
against  multiplied  and  increasing  numbers. 
After  a  few  bloody  victories,  the  courts  of  Pe- 
tersburg and  Berlin  succeeded  in  dividing  the 
remains  of  that  unhappy  country ;  and  th* 
courtiers  of  Catharine  shared  among  them  the 
possessions  of  the  proscribed. 

Catharine  died  after  a  long  and  prosperous 
reign,  and  at  a  time  when  she  hoped  to  drive 
the  Turks  out  of  Europe,  and  to  seize  on  the 
throne  of  Constantinople. 

On  the  death  of  Catharine  II,  in  1796,  Paul 
Petrowitz,  her  son,  who  was  at  that  time  43 
years  of  age,  was  proclaimed  emperor  of  Russia 
The  first  acts  of  the  new  czar  were  extremely 
popular  ;  and  his  actions  seemed  to  contradict 
the  report  of  his  stern  and  capricious  disposition. 
However,  Paul's  conduct  in  the  first  days  oi 
his  reign,  was  scon  afterwards  reversed. 

Paul  concluded  with  the  king  of  Great  Bri- 
tain a  treaty,  by  which  they  agreed  to  oppose, 
in  the  most  efficacious  manner,  the  successes 
of  the  French  arms  in  extending  the  principles 
of  anarchy,  to  promote  solid  and  lasting  peace, 
and  to  endeavor  to  re-establish  the  balance  of 
power  in  Europe.  For  some  time  the  Russians 
and  their  allies  were  fortunate  ;  but  their  suc- 
cesses being  afterwards  converted  into  defeats, 
the  emperor  broke  off  the  alliance  which  had 
been  concluded  with  the  court  of  London.  In- 
dignant that  the  British  government  would 
not  acquiesce  in  his  having  appointed  himself 
grand-master  of  Malta,  Paul  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  France,  and  excited  a  formidable 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


RUS 


482 


RUS 


confederacy  of  the  maritime  powers  of  the  north 
against  the  naval  interests  of  Great  Britain, 
which  was  broken  by  the  battle  of  Copenhagen. 
His  capricious  and  extravagant  actions,  some 
of  which  bordered  on  frenzy,  gave  great  offence 
to  many  of  the  principal  nobles ;  and  he  was 
murdered  in  the  night  of  the  23d  of  March, 
1801,  though  his  death  has  been  ascribed  to  an 
apoplectic  fit. 

The  day  after  his  decease,  his  eldest  son,  Al- 
exander Paulov/itz,  who  was  in  the  24th  year 
of  his  age,  was  proclaimed  emperor  of  all  the 
Russias,  and  issued  oevera!  popular  ukases,  in 
one  of  which  he  revived  and  confirmed  all  the 
regulations  of  the  empress  Catharine  for  the 
encouragement  of  industry  and  commerce. 

Bonaparte  not  fulfilling  the  secret  convention 
which  had  been  entered  into  between  France 
and  Russia,  with  respect  to  the  evacuation  of 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  by  the  French  troops, 
the  adjusting  of  the  affairs  of  Italy,  and  the 
indemnity  promised  to  be  granted  to  the  king 
of  Sardinia,  Alexander  ordered  an  additional 
levy  of  land  forces  throughout  his  dominions 
He  afterwards  attempted  to  negotiate  a  general 
peace  among  the  powers  of  Europe  ;  but  finding 
this  impracticable,  on  account  of  the  disposition 
and  views  of  Bonaparte,  he  joined  Austria  and 
England  in  the  coalition  against  France.  The 
Russian  troops  however,  could  riot  join  the 
Austrians  till  the  latter  had  suffered  several  se- 
vere defeats.  The  battle  of  Austerlitz  termi- 
nated unfavorably  to  the  allies ;  and  the  empe- 
ror of  Germany  concluding  a  separate  peace 
with  France  immediately  afler  that  event,  the 
Russian  troops  returned  into  their  own  country. 
When  war  broke  out  between  France  and  Prus- 
sia, the  emperor  Alexander  ordered  his  forces 
to  the  assistance  of  the  latter  power.  However, 
before  they  could  arrive  to  aid  *heir  allies,  the 
French  had  over-run  Prussia,  and  penetrated 
into  Poland,  where  they  were  defeated  by  the 
Russians  ;  but  Bonaparte,  having  compelled  his 
vassal  princes  to  furnish  their  stipulated  contin- 

Cts  of  troops,  again  advanced,  and  gained  the 
le  of  Friedland,  which  obliged  the  emperor 
Alexander  to  sign  the  treaty  of  Tilsit. 

That  treaty  was  soon  after  followed  by  a  de- 
claration of  war,  on  the  part  of  liussta,  against 
Great  Britain ;  and  one  immense  power  now 
occupied  Europe,  arranging  and  controlling 
every  tiling  in  conformity  to  its  views.  Russia3, 
which  had  become  the'willing  instrument  of 
French  policy,  not  only  withdrew  from  her  al- 
liance with  Sweden,  but  attacked  that  country. 
In  1808,  an  army  of  40,000  men  was  sont  into 


Finland,  from   which  the  Swedes  WP-J  finally 
expelled. 

By  the  treaty  of  Tilsit.  Russia  bound  herself 
to  accede  to  the  continental  system,  and  to  ex- 
clude from  her  ports  all  British  manufactures 
and  colonial  produce.  Not  aware  of  the  conse- 
quences of  his  engagements,  the  emperor  Al- 
exander had  placed  himself  in  a  situation  of 
great  difficulty.  If  he  attempted  to  fulfil  the 
treaty  by  interdicting  the  trade  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  Russian  empire,  he  deprived  his 
subjects  of  the  best  market  for  their  produce, 
and  roused  his  nobility  against  him.  On  the 
other  hand,  his  apprehensions  of  the  power  of. 
Bonaparte  were  strong  and  well  founded.  He, 
therefore,  determined  on  a  species  of  compro- 
mise, and  forbade  the  introduction  of  all  British 
produce  and  manufactures  into  his  dominions, 
except  by  special  license,  and  in  neutral  ships. 

Soon  after  the  differences  commenced  be- 
tween Napoleon  and  the  emperor  Alexander, 
the  former  took  such  measures  as  he  thought 
would  either  awe  the  latter  into  submission,  or 
secure  victory  and  success  in  case  of  hostilities  : 
he  assembled  large  bodies  in  the  north  of  Ger- 
many ;  he  kept  possession  of  a  great  part  of 
Prussia  especially  of  the  places  most  conven 
iently  situated  for  an  attack  on  Russian  Poland; 
and  he  forcibly  occupied  Swedish  Pomerania. 
Preparations  were  made  by  Russia  to  meet  the 
approaching  crisis;  and  before  the  commence- 
ment of  hostilities,  the  force  that  could  be 
brought  against  the  French  amounted  to  nearly 
300,000  men,  exclusively  of  the  militia.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  emperor  Francis  engaged 
to  furnish  30.000  men  to  France  in  her  war  with 
Russia;  the  troops  of  the  confederation  of  the 
Rhine  had  been  raised  to  their  stipulated  quota; 
and  the  kings  of  Saxony  and  Naples  had  been 
induced  to  embark  with  Napoleon  in  this  great 
enterprise.  The  armies  of  Bonaparte  on  the 
frontiers  of  Russian  Poland  amounted  to  at  least 
300,000  infantry,  and  00,000  cavalry,  in  a  state 
of  the  highest  discipline  and  equipment,  and 
comiuaaded  by  the  first  military  talents  of  the 
age. 

The  preparations  on  each  side  corresponded 
with  the  magnitude  of  the  in  IP  rests  embarked 
in  the  contest.  In  numbers  the  combatants 
were  not,  at  first,  on  an  equality  ;  and  in  disci- 
pline, in  science,  and  in  organization,  the 
French  possessed  a  great  superiority.  On  the 
9th  of  May,  1812,  Napoleon  loft  Paris;  and  ar- 
riving on  the  banks  of  the  Nil-men  on  the  22d 
of  June,  he  issued  to  his  soldiers  a  proclamation 
in  his  usual  confident  and  laconic  style.  This 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


RUS 


483 


RUT 


was  his  only  declaration  of  war.  The  French 
and  their  allies  passed  the  Niemen  without  op- 
position, and  obtained  possession  of  Wilna,  the 
capital  of  Lithuania.  The  re-establishment  of 
the  kingdom  of  Poland  was  now  proclaimed, 
and  a  diet  assembled  under  the  guarantee  of  the 
French  emperor;  and,  by  these  means,  the  na- 
tional enthusiasm  was  raised  in  his  favor,  and 
the  ranks  of  his  army  were  swelled  by  Polish 
levies. 

The  emperor  of  Austria  recalled  his  ambas- 
sador from  Petersburg,  and  furnished  his  con- 
tingent of  troops  to  the  French.  Russia,  how- 
ever, acquired  a  new  and  zealous,  though  remote, 
ally  in  1'Jngland,  who  formed  a  treaty  of  friend- 
ship and  reciprocal  defence  with  her,  and  a  sim- 
ilar one, with  Sweden.  In  proportion  as  the 
French  advanced  into  the  territories  of  Russia, 
the  more  resistance  they  experienced ;  and  sev- 
eral bloody  engagements  took  place,  without 
producing  any  decisive  effect.  The  first  great 
stand  was  made  at  the  city  of  Smolensk,  which 
is  in  the  direct  road  to  Moscow,  and  for  the  de- 
fence of  which  the  Russians  were  posted.  How- 
ever, in  the  middle  of  the  night,  after  a  severe 
engagement,  a  dreadful  conflagration  was  ob- 
served in  the  city  ;  and  the  Russians  abandoned 
Smolensk,  and  retired  across  the  Dnieper. 
Moscow  was  now  the  great  object  to  be  con- 
tended for  ;  and  the  Russian  main  army  took  a 
strong  position  to  cover  it  from  the  attack  of 
Napoleon. 

A  dreadful  engagement  ensued  ;  and  the  re- 
sult of  this  battle,  which  was  nanled  by  the  Rus- 
sians the  Battle  of  Borodino,  was  a  victory 
claimed  by  each  party.  The  French  entered 
Moscow  seven  days  after  this  engagement ;  but 
in  order  to  deprive  the  French  of  a  place  for 
their  winter  quarterns,  the  governor  had  ordered 
the  city  to  be  set  on  fire  ;  and  the  French  troops 
had  scarcely  entered  the  Kremlin,  when  Mos- 
cow appeared  in  flames  in  different  parts.  The 
conflagration  was  so  extensive,  and  raged  with 
such  fury  for  several  days,  that  not  more  than  a 
tenth  of  the  buildings  remained  unconsumed. 
The  French  began  their  retreat  from  Moscow, 
but  were  closely  pursued  by  an  exasperated  foe. 
To  add  to  their  calamities  a  Russian  winter  set 
in  with  deep  snow.  The  sufferings  of  the 
French  were  extreme,  and  their  losses  prodigious. 
I  Horses  died  in  such  numbers,  that  the  greatest 
part  of  the  artillery  was  left  behind,  and  the 
cavalry  was  nearly  dismounted  ;  whole  bodies 
of  men,  disabled  by  cold  arid  hunger,  surren- 
dered without  resistance  to  the  pursuers ;  and 
nothing  appeared  but  disaster  and  dismay.  It 
41* 


is  probable,  that  of  nearly  400,000  troops  engaged 
in  this  frantic  expedition,  not  50,000,  including 
the  Prussian  and  Austrian  contingents,  escaped 
out  of  Russia. 

Intoxicated  by  former  successes,  Napoleon 
expected  that  he  had  only  on  this,  as  on  former 
occasions,  to  strike  deeply  into  the  heart  of  the 
invaded  country,  and  that  victory  would  hover 
round  the  wings  of  his  eagles  ;  but  the  constancy 
of  the  Russian  government,  the  devoted  patriot- 
ism of  the  people,  the  valor  of  the  Russian  army, 
and  above  all,  the  rigors  of  the  season,  consum- 
mated the  ruin  of  the  legions  of  an  ambitious 
chief,  who,inone  expedition,  had  thus  sacrificed, 
of  friends  and  foes,  soldiers  and  peaceable  in- 
habitants, nearly  one  million  of  his  species  ! 

The  Russian  armies  pursued  the  remnant  of 
the  French  armies  into  Germany,  where  the 
former  were  joined  by  Prussia,  by  the  princes 
of  Germany,  and  finally  by  Austria.  Sweden 
also  joined  the  league  against  France.  The 
battle  of  Leipsic,  which  was  gained  by  the  allies 
over  Bonaparte,  determined  the  fate  of  Germa- 
ny, and  shook  to  its  foundation  the  mighty  em- 
pire raised  by  Napoleon.  By  the  treaty  of  Vi- 
enna, in  1815,  the  duchy  of  Warsaw,  with  the 
exception  of  certain  provinces  and  districts,  was 
ceded  to  the  emperor  of  Russia,  who  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  Polish  diet,  announcing  the  fate 
of  their  country,  and  that  he  had  assumed  the 
title  of  king  of  Poland. 

After  the  death  of  the  emperor  Alexander, 
Dec.  1,  1825.  his  brother  Nicholas  ascended  the 
throne.  The  principal  events  which  have  oc- 
curred since  the  commencement  of  his  reign, 
are,  the  war  with  Turkey,  and  the  revolt  of  the 
Poles.  The  latter  was  not  crushed  without  a 
violent  struggle,  which  cost  the  Russians  a  ter- 
rible effusion  of  blood. 

RUTLEDGE,  John,  a  native  of  South  Caro- 
lina, distinguished  himself  by  his  ruanly  elo- 
quence in  the  first  congress,  and  was  appointed 
president  and  commander-in-chief  of  South 
Carolina,  in  1776.  In  177!)  he  was  chosen  gov- 
ernor. He  died  Jan.  23, 1800. 

RUTLEDGE,  Edward,  a  signer  of  the  De- 
claration of  Independence,  was  born  in  South 
Carolina,  Nov.  174!).  He  chose  the  profession 
of  the  law,  and  received  a  part  of  his  legal  edu- 
cation in  England.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
continental  Congress  from  1774  till  1777.  In 
1779  Mr.  Rutledge  was  re-appointed  to  Con- 
gress, but  relinquished  his  seat  from  ill  health. 
However,  he  soon  took  the  field  at  the  head  of 
a  company,  but  was  taken  prisoner,  and  re- 
mained in  the  hands  of  the  British  nearly  a  year. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


RYE 


484 


SAC 


In  17D8,  having  Retired  from  the  practice  of 
the  law,  he  was  elected  governor  of  South  Caro- 
lina, but  died  Jan.  23,  1600. 

RUYTEfc,  iMichael  Adrian  de,  a  Dutch  Ad- 
miral, was  born  at  Flushing  in  1607.  In  the 
war  with  England,  which  broke  out  in  1(55:2,  he 
convoyed  a  rich  fiVet  through  the  channel,  and 
brought  the  whole  into  port,  after  an  engage- 
ment which  lasted  two  days.  He  was  "next 
joined  in  command  with  Van  Tromp,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  well  in  the  great  battle 
of  three  days,  fought  in  February,  1653.  as  in 
that  where  Van  Tromp  fell  in  July  following. 
In  105-?,  he  defeated  the  Swedes,  for  which  the 
king  of  Denmark  gave  him  a  patent  of  nobility. 
At  the  renewal  of  hostilities  with  England,  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II,  De  Ruyter  gained  an 
advantage  over  Prince  Rupert  and  Monk ;  but, 
two  months  afterwards,  another  battle  was 
fought,  in  which  the  Dutch  were  defeated. 
The  following  year,  however,  he  avenged  him- 
self, by  riding  triumphantly  in  the  Thames,  and 
destroying  several  English  men-of-war  at  Sheer- 
ness.  In  Iii72,  he  attacked  the  combined  En- 
glish and  French  fleets ;  and  though  the  battle 
was  undecided,  De  Ruyter  kept  the  sea,  and 
convoyed  home  a  fleet  of  merchantmen.  The 
gallant  commander  was  mortally  wounded  in  an 
engagement  with  the  French,  off  Messina,  and 
died  at  Syracuse,  April  11,  1676.  His  remains 
were  interred  at  Amsterdam,  and  a  monument 
erected  to  his  memory. 

RYE-HOUSE  PLOT,  took  its  name  from  a 
farm  called  the  Rye-house,  the  property  of 
Rutnbal.  one  of  the  conspirators  against  the  life 
of  Charles  IF.  The  partici^lars  of  this  plot  are, 
that  while  schemes  on  a  very  grand  scale  were 
concerting  in  the  higher  circles  to  check  the 
rapid  strfdes  of  tyrariay  encroaching  on  the 
rights  and  liberties  of  the  people,  others  of  a 
subordinate  class  were  hatching,  which,  though 
perhaps  not  exactly  on  equally  honorable  prin- 
ciples, were  nevertheless  somewhat  similar  ;is 
to  their  final  purpose.  Among  the  abettors  of 
this  latter  clriss  were  Colonel  Rumsey.  an  old 
republican  oilicer  ;  lieutenant-colonel  \Valcot ; 
Goodenough,  under  sheriff  of  London  ;  Fergu- 
son, an  independent  minister;  and  several  at- 
torneys, merchants,  and  tradesmen  of  London. 
Their  object  wns  t->  assassinate  Cliarles  on  his 
way  from  Newmarket;  but  the  house  in  which 
the  king  resided  there  happening  to  take  fire, 
obliged  him  to  leave  that  place  earlier  than  he 
intended;  and  thus  the  execution  of  the  design 
was  prevented. 


SABINES.  an  ancient  people  of  Italy,  reck- 
oned among  the  Aborigines,  or  those  inhabitants 
whose  origin  was  not  known.  Some  suppose 
that  thev  were  originally  a  Lacedaemonian  co- 
lony, who  settled  in  that  part  of  the  country. 
The  possessions  of  the  Sabines  were  situated  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Rome,  between  the  river 
JVar  and  the  Anio,  and  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Apennines  and  Umbria,  south  by  Latium, 
east  by  the  jfiqui,  and  by  Etruria  -on  the  west. 
The  greatest  part  of  the  contiguous  nations 
were  descended  from  them,  such  as  the  Urn- 
brians,  the  Campanians,  the  Sabelli,  the  Osci, 
Sammtes,  Hernici,  /Equi,  Marsi,  Brutii,  &c. 
The  Sabines  are  celebrated  in  ancient  history 
as  being  the  first  who  took  up  arms  against  the 
Romans,  to  avenge  the  rape  of  their  females  at 
a  spectacle  where  they  had  been  invited.  After 
some  engagements,  the  greatest  part  of  the 
Sabines  left  their  ancient  possessions,  and  mi- 
grated to  Rome,  where  they  settled  with  their 
new  allies.  They  were  at  last  totally  subdued 
about  the  year  of  Rome  373,  and  ranked  as  Ro- 
man citizens.  Their  chief  cities  were  Cures, 
Fidente,  Reate,  Crusturnerium,  Corniculum, 
Momentum,  Collatia,  «tc.  The  character  of 
the  nation  for  chastity,  for  purity  of  morals,  and 
for  the  knowledge  of  herbs  and  incantations 
was  very  oreat. 

SACHEVEREJL;  Henry. a  celebrated  divine, 
was  the  son  of  a  clergyman  at  Marlborough, 
where  he  had  his  education,  and  afterwards  be 
came  demy  of  Magdalen-college,  Oxford.  Sach 
everel  obtained  a  fellowship ;  and  in  170d  took 
his  doctor's  degree.  The  following  year  he 

E reached  two  sermons,  one  at  the  assizes  at 
)erby,  and  the  other  at  St.  Paul's,  in  both 
which  he  asserted,  that  the  church  was  in  im- 
minent danger.  For  these  discourses,  which 
were  considered  as  iullimmatory,  he  was  im- 
peached by  the  House  of  Commons,  and  tried 
before  the  Lords,  in  1710;  when  being  found 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  he  was  suspended  from 

{reaching  for  throe  yours.  This  only  increased 
lis  popularity,  and  "brought  the  ministry  into 
such  contempt,  that  they  were  obliged  to  resign 
their  places.  At  the  expiration  of  the  sentence 
the  doctor  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  St. 
Andrew,  Holborn.  He  died  in  17^4. 

SACKVILLE,  Thomas,  lord  Buck huret  and 
earl  of  Dorset,  wastht-si-n  oi'.Sir  Richard  Sack- 
ville,  and  was  born  at  Wit.ham,  in  Sussex,  in 
\~f27.  He  wasedurated  at  Oxford,  from  whence 
he  removed  to  Cambridge,  and  next  to  the  Inner 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SAI 


485 


SAL 


Temple.  On  leaving  the  Temple  he  went 
abroad;  and,  after  his  return,  was  made  lord 
Buckhurst.  1  n  15ft7  he  was  sent  on  an  embassy 
to  the  United  Provinces.  After  this  he  was  made 
knight  of  the  garter  ;  and  chosen  chancellor  of 
Oxtbrd.  On  the  death  of  Burleigh  he  was  ap- 
pointed lord  treasurer ;  and  in  the  next  reign 
created  earl  of  Dorset.  He  died  in  1608. 

SACK  VI LLE,  Charles,  sixth  earl  of  Dorset 
and  Middlesex,  was  born  in  1637.  In  1665  he 
volunteered  on  board  the  fleet:  and  the  night 
previous  to  the  engagement  with  the  Dutch, 
wrote  the  famous  song,  "  To  all  you  ladies  now 
at  land."  Soon  after  this  he  was  made  a  gen- 
tleman of  the  bed-chamber  by  Charles  II,  who 
also  sent  him  on  several  embassies.  At  the 
Revolution  he  was  appointed  lord  chamberlain 
to  king  William,  svhom  he  accompanied  to  Hol- 
land. He  died  at  Bath,  Jan.  19, 1706. 

SACKVILLE,  lord  George,  viscount,  the 
third  son  of  the  first  duke  of  Dorset,  was  born 
in  1716.  He  obtained  a  commission  in  the 
army,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  battles 
-of  Dettingen  and  Fontenoy.  In  1758  he  was 
made  a  lieutenant-general ;  but  in  the  year  fol- 
lowing fell  into  disgrace  for  his  conduct  at  the 
battle  of  Alinden,  owing  to  a  mistake  in  the 
orders  sent  to  him  by  prince  Ferdinand.  He 
was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and  dismissed  the 
service  ;  but  was  restored  in  the  next  reign.  In 
1775  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for  the 
American  colonies ;  but  in  1783  he  went  out  of 
office,  and  was  created  a  viscount.  He  died  in 
17c5. 

SADLER.  Sir  Ralph,  an  English  statesman, 
was  born  in  1507,  at  Hackney,  in  Middlesex. 
In  early  life  he  was  taken  into  the  family  of 
Cromwell,  earl  of  Essex,  who  introduced  him 
to  Henry  VIII,  in  consequence  of  which  he  had 
a  share  in  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries, 
and  partook  of  the  spoil.  He  was  also  sent  on 
an  embassy  to  Scotland,  to  negotiate  a  marriage 
between  prince  Edward  and  queen  Mary,  but 
without  effect.  In  the  war  which  followed, 
BIT  Ralph  distinguished  himself  greatly,  and 
was  made  a  knight  banneret  on  the  field  after 
the  battle  of  Pinkie.  He  was  also  appointed 
master  of  the  great  wardrobe.  At  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth  he  was  again  sent  to  Scotland  ;  and 
when  the  unfortunate  Mary  came  to  England, 
she  was  committed  to  hia  care.  He  died  in 
1587. 

SAINT  HELENA,  an  island  in  the  South 
Atlantic,  1200  miles  west  of  the  continent  of 
Africa,  and  1600  east  of  South  America.  The 
island  is  a  rock  about  21  miles  in  circumference, 


very  high  and  very  steep,  and  only  accessible 
at  the  landing-place,  in  a  small  valley  at  the 
east  side  of  it, "which  is  defended  by  batleries  of 
guns ;  and  as  the  wind  always  blows  from  the 
south-east,  if  a  ship  overshoots  the  island  ever 
so  little,  she  cannot  recover  it  again.  St.  He- 
lena is  said  to  have  been  first  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese,  on  the  festival  of  the  empress 
Helena,  mother  of  the  emperor  Constantine 
the  Great,  whose  name  it  still  bears.  The  En- 
glish East  India  Company  took  possession  of  it 
in  1600,  and  held  it  without  interruption  till  the 
year  1673,  when  the  Dutch  took  it  by  surprise. 
The  English,  under  the  command  of  Captain 
Munden,  recovered  it  again  within  the  space 
of  a  year,  and  at  the  same  time  took  three 
Dutch  East  India  ships  that  lay  in  the  road. 
This  island  is  celebrated  in  modern  history,  as 
the  place  to  which  the  emperor  Napoleon  was 
exiled  by  the  confederate  poweis  in  August. 
1&15,  and  where  he  died  in  1&20.—  Set-  J\'uj,oleon.. 
SALAD1N,  or  SALAHEDDLN  YUSEF 
BEN  AYUB,  was  at  first  general  of  the  army 
of  Noureddin,  sullan  of  Damascus,  and  in  1 164 
he  conquered  Egypt,  and  married  the  widow  of 
the  prince  of  Grand  Cairo.  After  the  death  of 
Noureddin,  he  was  called  to  the  government 
during  the  minority  of  the  prince  his  son.  Be- 
ing advanced  to  this  power,  he  resolved  to 
attack  the  Christians;  and  accordingly,  in  1177, 
having  raised  an  army,  he  endeavored  to  sur- 
prise Jerusalem,  but  was  defeated  with  great 
slaughter,  on  the  25th  of  November.  This  loss 
inspiring  him  with  levenge.  in  1180  he  passed 
the  Euphrates,  took  several  cities,  as  far  aa 
Nisibis,  and  made  himself  formidable  to  all  his 
neighbors.  He  took  Aleppo  in  1184.  But  not 
long  after,  the  Christians  put  a  stop  to  his  con- 
quests, by  a  cessation  of  arms.  The  earl  of 
Tripoli  being  jealous  of  Guy.  king  of  Jerusa- 
lem, persuaded  Saladin  to  break  the  truce; 
who,  following  his  counsel,  defeated  the  Chris- 
tians, the  1st  of  May,  1187  :  and  having  raised 
an  army  of  above  800.000  men.  he  obtained  a 
second  victory  over  them,  took  Guy  in  the 
flight,  beheaded  all  the  knights  Templars,  and 
of  St.  John,  made  himself  master  of  Acre, 
Bairut,  Giblet.  Saide,  and  divers  other  places, 
and  at  last  of  Jerusalem.  Pope  Urban  II,  upon 
hearing  of  this  news,  died  of  grief.  Saladin 
several  times  stormed  the  city  of  Tyre,  but  was 
often  repulsed  ;  and  after  some  other  losses  sus- 
tained from  the  Christians,  he  died  in  J193,  in 
the  57th  year  of  his  age,  having  reigned  over 
Egypt  22  years,  and  19  as  absolute  master  of 
Syria.  No  Asiatic  monarch  has  filled  so  large 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


SAL 


486 


SAL 


a  space  in  the  eyes  of  Europe,  as  the  antagonist 
of  Co3ur  de  Lion.  He  was  a  compound  of  the 
dignity  and  baseness,  the  greatness  and  the 
littleness  of  man.  As  the  Moslem  hero  of  the 
third  holy  war,  he  proved  himself  a  skilful 
general  and  a  valiant  soldier.  He  hated  the 
Christian  cause,  for  he  was  a  zealous  Mussul- 
man. He  gained  the  throne  by  blood,  artifice, 
and  treachery ;  but  though  ambitious,  he  was 
not  tyrannical  ;  he  was  mild  in  his  govern- 
ment ;  the  friend  and  dispenser  of  justice. 
Wars  and  rebellions  filled  all  the  thoughts  of 
Saladin,  and  he  established  no  principles  of  suc- 
cession. Three  of  his  numerous  progeny  be- 
came sovereigns  of  Aleppo,  Damascus,  and 
Egypt;  others  had  smaller  possessions;  and 
the  emirs  and  atabaks  of  Syria  again  struggled 
for  independence. — See  Crusades. 

SALAMANCA,  capital  of  a  province  of 
Spain  in  the  southern  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Leon,  contains  13,920  inhabitants.  Its  cele- 
brated university  was  founded  in  the  thirteenth 
century  by  Alphonso  IX  of  Leon.  A  memo- 
rable battle  was  fought  here  on  the  23d  of  July, 
1812,  between  the  British,  under  lord  Wel- 
lington, and  the  French,  under  Marmont.  On 
the  16th  of  June,  lord  Wellington  appeared 
before  the  city,  with  his  main  army,  when  the 
French  general,  leaving  a  force  to  defend  the 
fortifications,  retired  with  his  troops  across  the 
Tormes.  He  afterwards  attempted  to  relieve 
the  forts,  which  had  been  formed  into  a  depot 
of  stores ;  but  the  British  general  compelled 
him  to  abandon  them  to  their  fate.  Major- 
general  Clinton  was  now  ordered  to  reduce 
them  ;  and  this  being  accomplished,  lord  Wel- 
lington put  his  army  in  motion  against  Mar- 
mont, who  hastily  retired  across  the  Douro. 

A  series  of  skilful  movements  now  ensued  on 
both  sides,  until  the  21st  July,  when  the  allied 
army  was  concentrated  on  the  Tonnes ;  the 
French  crossed  the  river  on  the  same  day.  and 
appeared  to  threaten  Ciudad  Rodrigo.  During 
the  '-£2d  and  23d,  Marmont  practised  a  variety  of 
evolutions,  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  Bri- 
tish general  from  his  real  plan.  In  aiming  to 
surround  the  British,  he  extended  and  weakened 
his  own  line  ;  and  lord  Wellington,  watching 
the  progress  of  this  error,  seized  the  favorable 
opportunity  for  striking  a  decisive  blow.  His 
arrangements  were  soon  made,  and  no  time  lost 
in  executing  them.  Major-general  Pakenham, 
with  the  third  division,  began  a  furious  assault 
on  the  flanks  of  the  enemy's  left,  in  which  he 
was  supported  by  brigadier-general  Bradford's 
brigade,  by  the  fourth  and  fifth  divisions,  and 


by  the  cavalry  under  Sir  Stapleton  Cotton,  in 
front.  The  French,  though  finely  posted,  and 
supported  by  cannon,  were  overthrown.  Their 
centre  was  driven  from  the  hill  with  precipita- 
tion ;  the  right  wing,  being  joined  by  some 
fugitives,  maintained  a  show  of  resistance,  but 
they  were  driven  in  confusion  from  the  field. 

The  pursuit  was  continued  till  night,  when 
the  French  guard  was  overtaken,  attacked,  and 
put  to  flight,  the  cavalry  leaving  the  infantry 
to  their  fate.  Three  whole  battalions  surren- 
dered, and  large  quantities  of  stores,  baggage, 
and  ammunition,  fell  into  the  conquerors'  hands. 
Eleven  pieces  of  cannon,  two  eagles,  and  six 
colors,  were  also  taken  ;  five  generals,  three 
colonels,  three  lieutenant-colonels,  150  officers, 
and  7000  soldiers,  were  made  prisoners.  The 
loss  of  the  allies  was  about  700  killed,  and  4000 
wounded. 

SALAMIS,  or  SALAMINA,  now  COLOCRI, 
an  island  in  the  Saronic  gulf,  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Attica  opposite  Eleusis,  at  the  distance 
of  about  a  league,  with  a  town  and  harbor  of 
the  same  name.  It  was  originally  peopled  by  a 
colony  of  lonians,  and  afterwards  by  some  of 
the  Greeks  from  the  adjacent  islands'and  coun- 
tries. It  is  celebrated  for  a  battle  which  was 
fought  there  between  the  fleet  of  the  Greeks 
and  that  of  the  Persians,  when  Xerxes  invaded 
Attica.  The  Persian  ships  amounted  to  above 
2000,  and  those  of  the  Greeks  to  about  380  sail. 
In  this  engagement,  which  was  fought  on  the 
20th  of  October,  B.  C.  480,  the  Greeks  lost  40 
ships,  and  the  Persians  about  200,  besides  an 
immense  number  which  were  taken  with  all 
the  ammunition  they  contained. 

SALISBURY,  or  NEW  SARUM,  an  an- 
cient city  of  England  in  the  county  of  Wilts. 
A  parliament  was  summoned  here  in  the  reign 
of  Edxvard  I ;  another  was  held  in  1328,  to  in- 
quire into  the  state  of  the  kingdom,  then  under 
the  tyranny  of  queen  Isabel  and  earl  Mortimer; 
and  it  was  here  the  latter  broke  in  upon  their 
deliberations  with  an  armed  force.  In  the  first 
year  of  Richard  III,  Henry  Stafford,  duke  of 
Buckingham,  by  whose  influence  and  exertions 
Richard  was  advanced  to  the  throne,  was  exe- 
cuted here.  During  the  civil  wars  of  Charles  I, 
Salisbury  was  frequently  laid  under  contribu- 
tions by'the  contending  parties.  Pop.  9,876. 

SALLUSTIUS,  C.  Crispus,  a  Latin  histo- 
rian born  at  Amiternum,  in  the  country  of  the 
Sabines.  8(5  B.  C.  He  received  his  education 
at  Rome,  and  made  himself  known  as  a  public 
magistrate  in  the  office  of  qua?stor  and  consul. 
His  licentiousness,  and  the  depravity  of  his 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SAN 


487 


SAR 


manners,  however,  did  not  escape  the  censure 
of  the  age,  and  Saliust  was  degraded  from  the 
dignity  of  a  senator,  B.  C.  50.  A  continuation 
of  extravagance  could  not  long  be  supported  by 
the  income  of  Saliust,  but  he  extricated  him- 
self from  all  difficulties  by  embracing  the  cause 
of  Caesar.  He  was  restored  to  the  rank  of 
senator,  and  made  governor  of  Numidia.  In 
the  administration  ot  his  province,  Saliust  be- 
haved with  unusual  tyranny;  he  enriched  him- 
self by  plundering  the  Africans,  and  at  his 
return  to  Rome  he  built  himself  a  magnificent 
house,  and  bought  gardens,  which,  from  their 
delightful  and  pleasant  situation,  still  preserve 
the  name  of  the  gardens  of  Saliust.  He  died 
in  the  51st  year  of  his  age,  35  years  before  the 
Christian  era. 

SALSETTE,  an  island  on  the  western  coast 
of  Hindostan.  The  first  account  we  have  of 
this  island,  is  dated  in  1330  ;  it  was  then  gov- 
erned by  a  Mahometan  judge.  It  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  16th 
century,  and  by  the  Mahrattas  in  1750.  In 
1773,  during  a  rupture  with  the  Mahrattas,  it 
was  occupied  by  the  British  troops,  and  has  ever 
since  remained  in  their  possession. 

SAMOS.  an  island  in  the  JEgean  sea,  on  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  from  which  it  is  divided 
by  a  narrow  strait,  with  a  capital  of  the  same 
name,  built  B.  C.  986.  It  was  first  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Leleges,  and  afterwards  of  the 
lonians.  The  people  of  Samos  were  at  first 
governed  by  kings,  and  afterwards  the  form  of 
their  government  became  democratical  and  oli- 
garchical. Samos  was  in  its  most  flourishing 
situation  under  Polycrates,  who  had  made  him- 
self absolute  there.  The  Sarnians  assisted  the 
Greeks  against  the  Persians,  when  Xerxes  in- 
vaded Europe,  and  were  reduced  under  the 
power  of  Athens,  after  a  revolt,  by  Pericles,  B. 
C.  441.  They  were  afterwards  subdued  by 
Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  and  were  restored 
to  their  ancient  liberty  by  Augii-stus.  Under 
Vespasian.  Sarnos  became  a  Roman  province. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the 
North  Pacific  ocean,  covering  about  6000  square 
miles,  and  containing  150.000  inhabitants,  were 
discovered  by  Captains  Cook  and  Kinir  in  1778, 
and  were  named  bv  them  after  Lord  Sandwich. 
Owing  to  desolating  wars,  the  present  popula- 
tion does  not  exceed  150,000,  although  Captain 
King  made  it  amount  to  400,000.  The  princi- 
pal islands  are  Hawaii  (Owhyhee),  Muui 
(Mowee).  Oahu  (Woahoo),  Taui  (Atooi),  and 
Nihau  (Oneehow).  The  climate  is  warm,  but 
healthy  :  many  of  the  islands  are  volcanic.  The 


most  important  vegetable  productions  are  taro, 
yam,  breadfruit,  cocoanut, strawberry,  native. — 
and  oranges,  grapes,  <fcc.  not  indigenous.  The 
adoption  of  Christianity  has  produced  the  hap- 
piest effects  upon  the  natives,  who  were  for- 
merly sunk  in  idolatry,  sacrificing  human  vic- 
tims upon  their  altars.  The  mission  established 
at  Hawaii  by  the  American  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions,  lias  been  completely  successful.  There 
are  over  (JOO  schools  in  the  islands.  The  situa- 
tion of  the  Sandwich  islands  causes  them  to  be 
visited  by  many  vessels  for  repairs  and  provis- 
ions, while,  in  a  commercial  point  of  view,  they 
are  by  no  means  to  be  overlooked. 

SARACENS  (Orientals)  ;  the  name  adopted 
by  the  Arabs  after  their  settlement  in  Europe, 
their  original  name,  signifying  Dwellers  in  the 
West,  becoming  inappropriate  alter  their  change 
of  residence. 

SARAGOSSA,  (in  Spanish,  Zarago/a),  a 
city  of  Spain,  capital  of  Arragon,  175  miles  N. 
E.  of  Madrid.  The  name  is  a  corruption  of 
Ccesar  Augustus,  a  Roman  colony  on  the  site 
of  which  the  modern  city  is  built.  Pop.  45.000. 
It  is  famous  in  history  for  its  dreadful  sieges  in 
1808  and  1809;  contests  in  which  was  display- 
ed the  unyielding  fortitude  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  north  of  Spain.  The  French  having 
obtained  possession  of  Navarre  in  June  1808, 
advanced  to  Saragossa,  and  attempting  to  take 
the  citv  by  assault,  were  repulsed  with  loss. 
Returning  with  augmented  numbers,  they  oc- 
cupied the  best  positions,  and  invested  nearly 
half  the  town,  keeping  up  a  fire  from  mortafs 
and  battering  cannon.  On  the  4th  of  August 
they  entered  the  central  street,  but  they  were 
unable  to  make  much  progress,  and,  discouraged 
by  intelligence  from  the  south  of  Spain,  retired 
at  last,  on  the  14th.  The  second  siege  was  no 
less  obstinate  and  sanguinary.  The  French, 
witli  great  reinforcements,  marched  in  the  end 
of  November,  Ib08.  once  more  against  Sara- 
gossa.  Their  first  great  attack,  gave  them  pos- 
session of  some  important  posts,  but  with  heavy 
loss.  On  the  JOth  of  January  began  the  bom- 
bardment, which,  violent  as  it  was,  caused  less 
injury  than  a  contagious  fever  among  the  gar- 
rison. The  Spaniards,  however,  continued  to 
make,  under  the  brave  Palafox,  a  most  deter- 
mined resistance,  and  it  was  not  till  after  a 
bombardment  of  six  weeks,  and  a  very  unequal 
contest  in  mining,  that  Saragossa  surrendered. 
SARATOGA,  a  town  in  Saratoga  county. 
N.  Y.  Bemis's  heights,  'where  Burgoyne  was 
defeated  Oct.  17th,  1777,  is  within  its  limits,  as 
is  also  the  village  of  SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  whose 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


SAR 


488 


SAR 


mineral  waters  are  the  most  celebrated  in  the 
Union.  Beside  the  well  known  Congress  Spring, 
there  are  17  others.  It  has  75  boarding  houses, 
(the  four  largest  containing  985  rooms,)  4  large 
bathing  establishments,  2  libraries  and  reading- 
rooms,  35  stores,*!  daily,  and  2  weekly  papers,  4 
seminaries,  6  churches,  1500  inhabitants,  and 
about  35,000  annual  visitors.  There  is  a  rail 
road  from  Albany,  through  Schenectndy,  and 
another  from  Troy  through  Watcrford,  to  this 
village.  Saratoga  lake,  a  beautiful  sheet  of 
water  of  nine  miles  in  length,  affords  fine  fish- 
ing. 

SARDANAPALUS,  the  last  king  of  Assyria. 
His  effeminacy  caused  a  rebellion  among  his 
subjects,  and  being  defeated  by  them,  he  burned 
himself,  his  wives,  and  treasures,  in  his  palace, 
B.  0.  820,  according  to  Eusebius. 

•SARDINIA,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean, 
with  the  title  of  kingdom.  It  has  an  area  of 
9100  square  miles,  and  490,050  inhabitants. 
The  capital  is  Cagliari,  and  the  chief  town 
Sassari.  Its  productions  consist  of  grain,  oil, 
citrons,  oranges,  and  other  fruits  ;  while  wine 
and  cattle  are  abundant.  There  are  mines  of 
lead  and  silver.  The  Catholic  is  the  prevailing 
religion  of  the  island. 

The  Sardinian  monarchy  is  composed  in  part 
of  the  island  of  Sardinia,  but  in  a  much  greater 
proportion  of  Piedmont,  Savoy,  and  the  territory 
of  Genoa.  In  1720,  Victor  Amadeus  II  ex- 
changed the  island  of  Sicily  for  Sardinia,  and 
assumed  the  present  royal  title.  After  a  peace 
of  twenty  years,  this  slate  became  involved  in 
the  war  between  France  and  Austria,  which 
was  closed  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelie,  in 
1748.  The  contest  occasioned  by  the  part  which 
Sardinia  took  in  tlie  French  revolution,  begun 
in  l?i)2,  and  was  maintained  until  I7(.)(j,  when 
the  assumption  of  the  command  by  Bonaparte, 
led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  allied  forces  in  the 
course  of  a  few  weeks,  and  to  the  conclusion  of 
an  unfavorable  treaty  of  peace. 

This  treaty  was  followed  in  two  years  by  the 
removal  of  the   royal  family  to  Sardinia,  and 
the   incorporation   of  their   continental    states 
with  tin;  French  territory.     The   prospect  of 
reinstatement  opened  by  the    progress   of  tin; 
allies  in  17.19.  was  completely   overcast  by  UK; 
battle  of  Marengo.     The  conlinenlal  ter.v 
weie   not    restored  to   the  legitimate  BOV 
until  the  overthrow  of  Bonaparte  in  1^'i  1. 

The  island  of  Sardinia  is  unknown  in  history 
until  the  time  of  its  occupancy  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians, who  doubtless  conliaed  themselves  to 


a  few  maritime  stations,  from  which  they  were 
expelled  by  the  Romans  in  the  first  Punic  war. 
The  Romans,  after  establishing  themselves 
here  two  centuries  before  the  Christian  era, 
continued  in  possession  of  the  island  until  the 
decline  of  the  empire.  It  was  afterwards  invaded 


by  the  Saracens.     The  sovereignty  of  the  island 

:qui 
tained  by  the  "crown   of  Spain  uTitil'the  18th 


was  acquired  by  the  k 


century.  In  1719  it  was  given  to  the  duke  of 
Savoy.  In.  1 794  the  inhabitants  of  Cagliari,  en- 
couraged by  the  progress  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion, rose  in  insurrection,  and  caused  the  Pied- 
montese  viceroy,  with  all  the  individuals  of  his 
country,  to  be  sent  out  of  the  island.  The 
other  towns  followed  tiie  example ;  and  the  re- 
sult was,  that  after  two  years  of  contention,  the 
king  granted  a  general  pardon,  declared  that 
the  cortes  or  representative  body,  should  assem- 
ble at  least  once  in  ten  years,  and  confirmed  all 
the  ancient  laws,  customs,  and  privileges  of  the 
inhabitants. 

SARDIS  or  SARDES.  an  ancient  city  of 
Lydia,  formerly  its  capital.  Cyrus  took  this 
city  in  the  69th  Olympiad,  and  subdued  the 
whole  kingdom  of  Lydia,  taking  Croosus  the 
king,  prisoner.  In  the  G'Jth  Olympiad,  Arista- 
goras  having  got  twenty  ships  from  the  Athe- 
nians, persuaded  the  people  to  rebel  against  the 
Perdians,  and  soine  time  after  took  the  city  and 
burnt  it.  which  occasioned  the  wars  between 
the  Peisiarw  and  the  Greeks.  Antiochus  }I;i2- 
nns  took  this  city  from  Acha;us  by  treason, 
after  a  year's  siege.  Tamerlane  likewise  be- 
sieged this  city  six  years,  and  ruined  it  about 
1398.  The  city  stood  on  the  edge  of  a  spacious 
and  fruitful  plain,  and  has  still  many  murks  of 
its  antiquity  to  be  found  aaiongat  Us  ruins.  It 
was  anciently  one  of  the  strongest  inland  cities 
of  Asia,  especially  when  besieged  by  Antiochus 
Magnus.  In  this  city  Antigonus  caused  Cieo- 
p.iln.  the  sister  of  Alexander  the  Great,  to  bo 
put  to  death. 

SARMATIA,  an  extensive  country  in  the 
north  of  Europe  and  Asia,  divided  into  !. 
an  and  Asiatic.     The  European  wa~ 
the  ocean   on  the  north,  Geimany  an.i  \\\--  Vi-- 
tula  on  the  west,  the  Jazvga;  on  the  s  >uiii.  and 
the  Tan-iison  the  e  is'..     The  Asiatic  was  bound- 
ed by  Hyrcanid,  the    Tain!*,  ami   the    iliixlne 
sea.     The  former  '•  .nMim-d  the    modern    ki:i_r- 
d  im>  -:f  RU.-MI.  Poland,  Lilian  Mi:;,  and   Little 
Tartary;  and  tin-  ht'.vr.  Great  TarUry.  ' 
FIJI,  s ml  the  neighbor! qgcouttlry.     The  S.inti:-.. 
tinns   uere  a  ;,:r.'a^e   uncivilized   nation,  often 
confounded    \,  .  ^aus.  naturally  \vui- 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SAV 


489 


SAV 


like,  and  famous  for  painting  their  bodies  to  ap- 
pear more  terrible  in  the  field  of  battle.  They 
were  well  known  for  their  lewdness,  and  they 
passed  among  the  Greeks  and  Latins  by  the 
name  of  barbarians.  In  the  time  of  the  empe- 
rors they  became  very  powerful ;  they  disturbed 
the  peace  of  Rome  by  their  frequent  incursions  ; 
till  at  last,  increased  by  the  savage  hordes' of 
Scythia,  under  the  barbarous  names  of  Huns, 
Vandals,  Goths,  Alans,  &e.,  they  successfully 
invaded  and  ruined  the  empire  in  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 

SATURN,  the  Kronos  of  the  Greeks,  father 
of  the  gods.  As  destiny  had  foretold  that  he 
would  be  dethroned  by  one  of  his  sons,  he  de- 
voured all  that  were  born,  with  the  exception 
of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and  Pluto,  whom  their 
mother  Rhea  saved.  He  was  dethroned  by  Ju- 
piter and  sought  refuge  with  Janus  in  Italy, 
where  he  occupied  himself  with  agriculture. 
tfe  is  represented  as  an  old  man  with  a  scythe 
in  one  hand,  and  an  hour-glass  in  the  other,  to 
show  that  time  destroys  every  thing,  and  rolls 
onward  without  interruption. 

SAVILLE,  George,  marquis  of  Halifax,  a 
statesman,  was  born  in  Yorkshire,  in  1G30.  He 
was  created  a  peer  for  his  loyalty  at  the  Resto- 
ration ;  and  in  1682  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
a  marquis,  soon  after  which  he  was  made  lord 
privy  seal.  At  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
James  II,  he  was  appointed  president  of  the 
council,  but  on  refusing  his  consent  to  the  repeal 
of  the  test  acts,  he  was  dismissed.  In  the  con- 
vention parliament,  he  sat  as  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  concurred  in  all  the  meas- 
ures of  the  Revolution  ;  butaflerwards  he  joined 
the  opposition.  He  died  in  1695. 

SAVOY,  an  Italian  duchy  belonging  to  the 
Sardinian  monarchy,  bordering  on  France, 
Switzerland,  and  Piedmont,  contains  3,750 
square  miles,  and  501,165  inhabitants.  The  soil 
is  poor.  From  the  year  1000  till  1580,  a  long 
list  of  princes  governed  Savoy  ;  but  their  reigns 
were  uninteresting,  and  marked  by  no  political 
event  of  importance.  In  J580,  Charles  Ernan- 
uel  invaded  the  marquisate  of  Saluces,  which 
he  wrested  from  France,  and  thereby  gained  a 
frontier  for  his  capital  of  Turin.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Victor  Amadeus  I,  who  waged  war 
against  the  Spaniards  with  equal  success,  in 
lb'35.  Francis  Hyacinth,  Charles  Emanuel  II, 
and  Charles  Emanuel  III,  were  his  successors. 
To  the  last  of  these  princes,  Turin  owes  some 
of  her  most  magnificent  structures  ;  and  he  also 
caused  the  amazing  passage  through  the  rock 
Mount  Viso  to  be  cut.  Charles  Emanuel  was 


succeeded  by  his  son  Victor  Amadeua  II,  in 
1675,  who  persecuted  his  Protestant  subjects, 
the  Valdenses.  with  all  the  fury  and  malice  of  a 
bigot,  and  who  was  besieged  in  his  capital,  Tu- 
rin, by  the  French,  till  the  latter  had  lost  four- 
teen thousand  men  before  the  place,  and  the 
ammunition  of  the  besieged  was  almost  ex- 
hausted. The  duke  of  Savoy  was  soon  after 
joined  by  prince  Eugene,  whom  he  assisted  in 
defeating  the  French,  and  driving  them  out  of 
Lombardy.  'He  formally  resigned  his  crown  to 
the  prince  of  Piedmont,  in  1730,  Charles  Em- 
anuel, his  son,  reserving  for  himself  a  yearly 
income  of  one  hundred  thousand  pounds.  Ac- 
cordingly, Charles  Emanuel  III  succeeded  him 
in  the  government ;  but  being  persuaded  by  an 
interested  minister,  that  his  father  was  endeav- 
oring to  gain  over  the  troops,  and  that  he  held 
frequent  conferences  with  physicians  and  apoth- 
ecaries, he  caused  him  to  be  dragged  from  his 
bed,  and  carried  to  a  house  with  latticed  win- 
dows, which  in  every  thing  resembled  a  prison, 
in  1732.  The  old  man  died  soon  after.  Some 
years  after  the  commencement  of  the  French 
revolution,  Savoy  was  ceded  by  Charles  Eman- 
uel IV  to  France,  and  constituted  one  of  the  de- 
partments, called  the  department  of  Mont  Blanc. 
In  this  state  it  continued  till  the  general  peace, 
in  1814,  when  Savoy  was  restored  to  the  family 
of  its  former  possessors,  in  the  person  of  Victor 
Emanuel,  king  of  Sardinia. 

SUCCESSION  OF  PRINCES. 

1000  Beroald  the  Saxon. 

1027  Humbert  I  White  Hands. 

1048  Amadeus  1  Count  of  Maurienne. 

1072  Humbert  II. 

1108  Amadeus  II. 

1148  Humbert  II  ihe  Saint. 

1188  Thomas. 

1233  Amadeus  III. 

1253  Boniface,  or  Roland. 

1263  Peter,  or  Charlemagne  the  Little 

1268  Philip. 

1285  Amadeus  IV  or  V  the  Great. 

1323  Edward. 

132!)  Aimon. 

1343  Amadeus  VI  the  Green. 

1383  Amadeus  VII  the  Red. 

1391  Amadeus  VIII  the  Pacific. 
1451  Louis. 

1465  Amadeus  IX  the  Saint. 
1472  Philibert  I  the  Hunter. 
1482  Charles  I  the  Warlike. 

1489  Charles  II. 

1490  Philip  Lackland. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


SAX 


490 


SAX 


1497  Philibert  II  the  Fair. 

1504  Charles  III  the  Good. 

1553  Euianuel  Philibert,  Iron  Hand. 

1580  Charles  Emanuel  I  the  Great. 

1630  Victor  Arnadeus  I. 

1637  Francis  Hyacinthus. 

1633  Charles  p.nanuel  II. 

1675  Victor  Amadeus  II. 

In  1713,  the  house  of  Savoy  became  regal,  by 
the  accession  of  Victor  Amadeus  to  the  crown 
of  Sicily,  which,  in  1718,  he  exchanged  with 
the  emperor  for  Sardinia. 

KINGS  OF  SARDINIA  AND  DUKES  OF  SAVOY. 

1718  Victor  Amadeus  II. 

1730  Charles  Emanuel  III.  ^  ' 

1773  Victor  Amadeus  III. 

1736  Charles  Emanuel  IV. 

In  1792,  Savoy  was  seized  by  the  French  re- 
publicans, and  made  a  department,  under  the 
name  of  Mont  Blanc.  In  1802,  Piedmont  was 
also  annexed  to  that  republic. 

KINGS  OF  SARDINIA 

1802  Victor  Emanuel. 

1821  Charles  Felix. 

1831  Charles  Albert. 

SAXE,  Maurice,  count  de,  a  celebrated  gen- 
eral, was  born  in  1696,  at  Dresden,  being  the 
natural  son  of  Frederic  Augustus,  elector  of 
Saxony  and  king  of  Poland,  by  the  countess  of 
Konigsmark.  At  the  age  of  twelve  years  he 
was  at  the  siege  of  Lisle,  where  he  displayed 
signal  courage  ;  as  he  did  the  following  year  at 
that  of  Tournay.  He  bore  apart  in  the  battle 
of  Malplaquetj  and  in  1711  accompanied  the 
king  of  Poland  to  Stralsund,  where  he  swam 
over  the  river,  with  a  pistol  in  his  hand,  insight 
of  the  enemy.  On  his  return  to  Dresden,  the 
king  raised  a  regiment  of  horse  for  him,  whicli 
he  instructed  in  new  evolutions.  He  continued 
to  distinguish  himself  in  the  war  with  Sweden  ; 
and  in  1717  served  against  the  Turks.  In  1720 
he  obtained  the  rank  of  marechal  do  camp,  in 
the  French  army.  In  1726  he  was  chosen  duke 
ofCourland;  but  the  election  being  set  aside, 
he  returned  to  France,  where  he  was  made  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1734.  In  1741  he  took  Prague 
by  assault ;  in  1744  he  was  appointed  a  marshal 
of  France  ;  and  the  next  year  he  gained  the 
battle  of  Fontcnoy.  This  was  followed  by  the 
capture  of  Brussels,  and  the  battle  of  Raucoux, 
for  which  the  king  of  France  made  him  man>- 
chal-general  of  his  camps  and  armies.  In  1747 
he  achieved  the  victory  of  Lahfeldt;  and  in 
1748  took  Maestricht.  He  died  Nov.  30, 1750. 

SAXONY,  kingdom  of,  is  bounded  N.  and  E. 
by  Prussia,  S.  by  Bohemia,  W.  by  the  Saxon 


principalities  and  Bavaria.  It  contains  5,800 
square  miles,  and  1,414,528  inhabitants.  The 
Saxons  are  supposed  by  most  authors  to  be  the 
ancient  Catti  described  by  Tacitus.  The  gov- 
ernment of  the  whole  Saxon  nation  was  vested 
in  twelve  chietlains,  who  were  chosen  annually, 
and  who  elected  from  among  themselves  ii  chief 
judge.  In  time  of  war  they  chose  a  king,  whose 
power  ceased  on  the  return  of  peace.  "Charle- 
magne, on  succeeding  his  father  Pepin.  in  772, 
resolved  to  compel  the  Saxons  to  change  their 
religion,  and  embrace  Christianity.  Accord- 
ingly, he  attacked  and  defeated  them,  and 
obliged  their  king,  Wittekind,  to  Hy  into  Den- 
mark, who,  finding  himself  totally  unable  to  re- 
sist the  force  of  the  victorious  Charlemagne, 
accepted  the  conditions  offered  him,  and  was 
baptized  with  his  whole  family,  by  Lullo,  bish- 
op of  Mentz.  In  804.  after  a  calamitous  war  of 
thirty  years,  the  Saxoru  were  entirely  subdued, 
when  Charles  had  defeated  them  in  numerous 
battles,  and  ,  transported  many  thousands  to 
Flanders,  Brabant,  and  other  countries. 

The  subsequent  sovereigns  of  Saxony  have 
uniformly  asserted  themselves  to  be  descended 
from  the  illustrious  Wittekind  ;  and  the  reign- 
ing family  still  pride  themselves  on  the  same 
origin.  They  reckon  among  their  progenitors 
several  great  men  who  were  honored  with  the 
surnames  of  the  Grave,  the  Pacific,  the  Con- 
stant, the  Pious,  the  Magnanimous,  and  some 
of  whom  wore  crowns,  whilst  others  declined 
them. 

From  the  middle  of  the  i,.nth  century,  when 
the  succession  of  the  dukes  of  Saxony  com- 
menced, to  the  present  time,  are  reckoned  thir- 
ty six,  almost  without  interruption,  and  this 
proves  that  the  generality  of  those  princes  at- 
tained an  advanced  age,  though  living  chiefly 
amid  the  dangers  of  war.  Frederic  Augustus 
succeeded  his  father  as  elector,  in  1763,  at  the 
age  of  thirteen  years.  The  Saxons  remained 
neutral  in  the  war  of  17-10,  between  Russia  and 
Au.-i'.m.  In  1756  they  were  tempted  to  take  a 
p;irt  by  the  flattering  promises  of  Austria,  but 
they  soon  had  cause  to  repent.  In  the  war  of 
1793,  the  contingent  furnished  by  Saxony  against 
France  was  not  large,  and  no  decided  part  was 
taken  in  the  war  until  180C,  when  the  elector 
sent  all  his  troops  to  the  field  in  support  of 
Prussia. 

The  overthrow  of  that  power  enabled  Bona- 
parte to  attach  the  Saxons  to  his  cause  liy  the 
most  substantial  advantages.  For  although  the 
king  of  Saxony  was  under  the  necessity  of 
making  his  peace  with  the  conqueror,  upon  any 


HISTORICAL  AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SAY 


491 


SCA 


terms  which  the  latter  might  choose  to  dictate 
to  the  vanquished  party,  yet  in  order  to  separate 
him  from  the  interests  of  the  Prussian  monarch, 
the  emperor  of  the  French  treated  him  with 
great  lenity,  induced  him  to  accede  to  the  con- 
federation of  the  Rhine,  and  gave  him  the  title 
of  king,  with  considerable  accessions  of  terri- 
tory. Further  additions  were  made  to  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony  in  1809 ;  but  these  acquisitions 
were  only  temporary. 

On  the  irruption  of  the  allied  armies  into  Sax- 
ony, in  1813,  the  king  quitted  Dresden,  and 
identified  his  interests  with  the  interests  of 
France.  After  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  that  city 
was  taken  by  assault ;  and  the  king  of  Saxony 
was  made  prisoner  with  his  whole  court.  This 
country  was  afterwards  placed  under  the  provi- 
sional occupation  of  Prussia;  and  Frederic  Wil- 
liam made  known  his  intention  of  uniting  Sax- 
ony to  Prussia.  However,  the  energetic  conduct 
of  the  king  of  Saxony  preserved  him  from  total 
ruin. 

By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  that  sove- 
reign ceded  to  Prussia  certain  districts  and  ter- 
ritories belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Saxony; 
and  the  Saxon  people,  to  whom  the  paternal 
sway  of  their  king  had  endeared  him,  passed 
under  the  government  of  Prussia  with  extreme 
reluctance. 

SAY,  Thomas.  This  distinguished  naturalist, 
died  at  New  Harmony,  Indiana,  on  the  10th 
October,  1834.  It  may  be  fearlessly  asserted 
that  few  individuals,  certainly  none  in  this  coun- 
try, have  contributed  so  extensively  to  enlarge 
the  boundaries  of  Natural  Science,  as  Mr.  Say. 
To  his  native  genius  supported  by  untiring  zeal, 
and  indefatigable  research,  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia  is  indebted  for 
its  opening  reputation.  Mr.  Say  was  among 
the  earliest  members,  if  not  one  of  the  founders 
of  this  institution. 

His  original  communications  to  the  society 
alone,  in  the  most  abstruse  departments  of  zoolo- 
gy, Crustacea,  insects,  &c.,of  the  United  States 
occupy  more  than  800  printed  pages  of  their  jour- 
nal ;  his  essays  published  in  some  of  our  leading 
periodical  journals  are  equally  respectable,  per- 
haps equallv  numerous.  His  contributions  to 
the  American  Encyclopaedia,  though  highly  val- 
uable, are  not  so  generally  known.  His  separate 
work,  on  American  Entomology,  and  another 
on  Conchology  have  met  with  deserved  appro- 
bation with  the  learned.  With  the  brilliant  re- 
sults of  his  laborious  exertions  as  naturalist  to 
the  two  celebrated  expeditions  by  the  authority 
42 


of  the  United  States  government  under  com- 
mand of  Major,  now  Lieutenant  Colonel  S.  H. 
Long,  the  reading  public  is  already  familiar. 
Some  years  previously  he  accompanied  Mr.  Mac- 
lure,  and  other  kindred  spirits  on  a  scientific 
excursion  to  the  Floridas.  The  pages  of  the 
Academy's  Journal,  were  subsequently  enriched 
by  details  of  the  i'ruits  of  this  undertaking. 

In  the  year  1825  our  devoted  student  consent- 
ed in  an  evil  hour  to  forego  the  society  of  his 
early  friends,  and  the  companions  of  his  labors, 
and  to  remove  to  New  Harmony  on  the  Wabash, 
where  he  ended  his  useful  career  by  a  disease 
brought  on  by  the  peculiar  climate  of  the  coun- 
try ;  the  correspondent  of  the  National  Gazette 
to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  above  abstract, 
from  a  very  interesting  account  of  Mr.  Say's  life 
and  last  illness,  says,  "  on  the  10th,  death  came 
over  him  like  a  summer  cloud — he  met  the  em- 
brace as  the  weary  traveller  falls  into  the  arms 
of  restoring  sleep.  Intellect  triumphed  to  the 
last  hour." 

SCANDERBEG,  the  name  given  by  the 
Turks  to  George  Castriotto,  king  of  Albania; 
his  father's  name  was  John,  who  being  reduced 
to  extremity  by  Am'urath  II,  was  forced  to  put 
five  of  his  sons  into  his  hands,  of  whom  Scan 
derbeg  was  the  youngest.  He  pleased  the  ty- 
rant, who  poisoned  his  brothers,  but  spared  him. 
Finding  him  endowed  with  very  extraordinary 
qualities,  he  had  him  educated.  Having  given 
several  instances  of  his  courage  in  Arnurath's 
service,  who  was  the  usurper  of  his  estates, 
fe'canderbeg  thought  it  was  high  time  to  think  of 
making  use  of  his  valor  for  himself  against  the 
tyrant.  In  this  design  he  so  dexterously  deceived 
the  governor  ofCioya,the  chief  city  of  Albania, 
that  he  made  himself  master  of  that  and  several 
other  places  ;  and  in  1433  took  possession  of  his 
hereditary  dominion,  and  upon  his  being  admit- 
ted to  the  crown  declared  himself  a  Christian. 
He  compelled  the  Turks  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Croya,  and  cut  to  pieces  the  forces  that  were 
sent  against  him.  Amurath  himself  having  laid 
a  second  siege  to  this  place,  died  before  the 
walls,  without  being  able  to  take  it,  though  he 
was  extremely  desirous  of  being  revenged  on 
Scanderbeg.  Under  Mahomet  II  he  had  seven 
or  eight  armies  to  contest  with,  but  the  victory 
was  still  on  his  side.  It  is  said,  that  though  he 
had  killed  above  two  thousand  Turks  with  his 
own  hand,  yet  was  he  never  wounded.  Ma- 
homet, compelled  by  his  valor  and  success,  made 
peace  with  him,  while  Scanderbeg  took  a  jour- 
ney to  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  The  Turks, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


SCH 


492 


SCH 


seeing  the  truce  expired,  laid  siege  again  to 
Croya,  but  to  no  purpose  ;  for  Scanderbeg  was 
soon  with  them,  and  forced  them  to  raise  the 
siege  twice.  He  died  at  Lissa,  a  city  belonging 
to  the  Venetians,  Jan.  27,  1467,  in  the  sixty- 
third  year  of  his  ao-e. 

SCANDINAVIA,  a  name  given  by  the  an- 
cients to  Norway,  Sweden,  Finland,  and  Lap- 
land, which  they  supposed  to  be  an  island. 

SCAURUS,  M.  yEmilius,  a  Roman  consul, 
who  distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence  at 
the  bar,  and  by  his  successes  in  Spain,  in  the 
capacity  of  commander.  He  was  sent  against 
Jugurtha,  and  some  time  after  was  accused  of 
suffering  himself  to  be  bribed  by  the  Numidian 
prince.  Scaurus  conquered  the  Ligurians,  and 
during  his  censorship  built  the  Milvian  bridge  at 
Rome,  and  began  to  pave  the  road,  which  from 
him  was  called  the  ^Emilian.  He  was  origi- 
nally very  poor.  He  wrote  some  books,  and 
among  these  a  history  of  his  own  life,  all  now 
lost.  His  son,  of  the  same  name,  made  himself 
known  by  the  large  theatre  which  he  built  dur- 
ing his  edileship.  This  theatre,  which  could 
contain  30,000  spectators,  was  supported  by  360 
columns  of  marble,  ?8  feet  in  height,  and  adorned 
with  3000  brazen  statues.  This  celebrated  edi- 
fice, according  to  Pliny,  proved  more  fatal  to 
the  manners  and  the  simplicity  of  the  Romans, 
than  the  proscriptions  and  wars  of  Sylla  had 
done  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  city. 

SCHILLER,  Frederic,  a  German  poet  of 
great  reputation,  was  born  at  Manheim,  a  small 
town  of  Wurtemberg,  Nov.  10, 1759,  and  was 
the  son  of  a  gentleman,  who,  having  served  in 
the  armv  ns  a  surgeon  and  officer,  had  retired  to 
private  life,  and,  at  the  date  of  the  birth  of  the 
poet,  was  holding  an  inconsiderable  post  under 
the  king  of  Wurtemberg.  Both  the  parents  of  the 
poet,  appear  to  have  been  persons  possessed  of 
estimable  moral  qualities,  and  no  inconsiderable 
share  of  literary  taste  and  talent.  Schiller  was 
not  destitute  of  filial  gratitude,  and  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  expressed  his  own  feelings  in  the 
following  passage  from  one  of  his  historical 
dramas.  Don  Carlos  is  addressincr  his  father 
Philip : 

"  How  sweet  and  rapturous  it  is  to  feel 
Oiirself  exalted  in  a  lovely  soul, — 
To  know  our  joys  make  clow  another's  cheek, 
Our  fears  to  tremble  in  another's  heart, 
Our  suderines  bedew  another's  eye  ! 
How  beautiful  and  grand  'tis,  ha  ml  in  hand 
With  a  dear  son,  to  tread  youth's  rosy  path, 
Again  to  dream  once  more  the  dream  of  life  ! 
How  sweet  and  great,  imperishable  is 
The  virtue  of  a  child,  to  live  for  ages, 
Transmitting  good  unceasingly!     How  sweet 


To  plant  what  a  dear  son  will  one  day  reap, — 
To  gather  what  will  make  him  rich,— to  feel 
How  deepone  day  will  be  his  gratitude  I" 

Schiller  was  placed  in  the  school  of  Stuttgard, 
where  he  may  be  said  to  have  educated  him- 
self, for  literature  and  the  fine  arts  were  under 
the  ban  of  the  duke  of  Wurtemberg,  whose 
pedantic  pedagogues  vainly  endeavored  to  turn 
the  gigantic  mind  of  Schiller  from  its  natural 
inclination.  Knowing  nothing  of  the  world 
but  from  books,  forbidden  to  mingle  in  female 
society,  and  seeing  in  his  fellow  students  but 
multiplied  copies  of  a  certain  severe  and  soul- 
less model,  which  their  preceptors  continually 
held  up  for  admiration  and  imitation,  the  poet 
turned  to  his  own  fancy  for  relief,  and  to  be- 
guile the  tedium  of  his  unnatural  life,  wrote  the 
tragedy  of  the  Robbers,  an  extraordinary  per- 
formance, full  of  imagination  and  energy,  bril- 
liant with  the  light  of  genius  and  youth,  but, 
to  use  the  deliberate  criticism  of  its  author,  "  a 
monster,  for  which  by  good  fortune  the  world 
has  no  original,  and  which  I  would  not  wish  to 
be  immortal,  except  to  perpetuate  an  example 
of  the  offspring  which  Genius,  in  its  unnatural 
union  with  Thraldom,  may  give  to  the  world." 

The  anonymous  author  of  an  admirable  Life 
of  Schiller  thus  speaks  of  the  effect  produced  by 
the  Robbers. 

';  The  publication  of  such  a  work  as  this 
naturally  produced  an  extraordinary  feeling  in 
the  literary  world.  Translations  of  tiie  Robbers 
soon  appeared  in  almost  al!  the  languages  of 
Europe,  and  were  read  in  all  of  them  with  a 
deep  interest,  compounded  of  admiration  und 
aversion,  according  to  the  relative  proportions 
of  sensibility  and  judgment  in  the  various  minds 
which  contemplated  the  subject.  In  Germany, 
the  enthusiasm  which  the  Robbers  excited  was 
extreme.  The  young  author  had  burst  upon  the 
world  like  a  meteor;  and  surprise,  for  a  time, 
suspended  the  power  of  cool  and  rational  criti- 
cism. In  the  ferment  produced  by  the  univer- 
sal discussion  of  this  single  topic,  the  poet  was 
magnified  above  his  natural  dimensions,  great 
as  they  were  :  and  though  the  general  sentence 
was  loudly  in  his  favor,  yet  he  found  detractors 
as  well  as  praisers,  and  both  equally  beyond  the 
limits  of  moderation. 

'•  One  charge  brought  against  him  must  have 
damped  the  joy  of  literary  glory,  and  stung 
Schiller's  pure  and  virtuous  ruind  more  than 
any  other.  He  was  accused  of  having  injured 
the  cause  of  morality  by  his  work  :  of  having 
set  up  to  the  impetuous  and  fir-y  temperament 
of  youth  a  model  of  imitation,  which  the  young 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


SCH 


493 


SCH 


were  too  likely  to  pursue  with  eagerness,  and 
which  could  only  lead  them  from  the  safe  and 
beaten  tracks  of  duty  into  error  and  destruc- 
tion. It  has  even  been  stated,  and  often  re- 
peated since,  that  a  practical  exemplification  of 
this  doctrine  occurred,  about  this  time,  iu  Ger- 
many. A  young  nobleman, it  was  said, of  the 
fairest  gifts  and  prospects,  had  cast  away  all 
these  advantages  ;  betaken  himself  to  the  forests, 
and,  copying  Moor,  had  begun  a  course  of  active 
operations, — which,  also  copying  Moor,  but  less 
willingly  he  had  ended  by  a  shameful  death. 

"It  is  now  hardly  necessary  to  contradict 
these  theories  :  or  to  show  that  none  but  a  can- 
didate for  Bedlam  as  well  as  Tyburn  could  be 
seduced  from  the  substantial  comforts  of  exist- 
ence, to  seek  destruction  and  disgrace,  for  the 
sake  of  such  imaginary  grandeur.  The  Ger- 
man nobleman  of  the  fairest  gifts  and  prospects 
turns  out,  on  investigation,  to  have  been  a  Ger- 
man blackguard,  whom  debauchery  and  riotous 
extravagance  had  reduced  to  want ;  who  took 
to  the  highway,  when  he  could  take  to  nothing 
else, — not  allured  by  an  ebullient  enthusiasm, 
or  any  heroical  and  misdirected  appetite  for  sub- 
lime actions,  but  driven  by  the  more  palpable 
stinmlus  of  importunate  duns,  an  empty  purse, 
and  five  craving  senses.  Perhaps,  in  his  latter 
days,  this  philosopher  may  have  referred  to 
Schiller's  tragedy,  as  the  source  from  which  he 
drew  his  theory  of  life  ;  but  if  so,  we  believe 
he  was  mistaken.  For  characters  like  him,  the 
great  attraction  was  the  charm  of  revelry,  and 
the  great  restraint,  the  gallows, — before  the 
period  of  Karl  Von  Moor,  just  as  they  have 
been  since,  and  will  be  to  the  end  of  time. 
Among  motives  like  these,  the  influence  of  the 
most  malignant  book  could  scarcely  be  discer- 
nible, and  would  be  little  detrimental,  if  it  were. 

"  Nothing,  at  any  rate,  could  be  faither  from 
Schiller's  intentions  than  such  a  consummation. 
In  his  preface  he  speaks  of  the  moral  effects  of 
the  Robbers  in  terms  which  do  honor  to  his 
heart,  while  they  show  the  inexperience  of  his 
head.  Ridicule,  he  signifies,  has  long  been  tried 
against  the  wickedness  of  the  times,  whole  car- 
goes of  hellebore  have  been  expended  in  vain ; 
and  now  he  thinks  recourse  must  be  had  to 
more  pungent  medicines.  We  may  smile  at  the 
simplicity  of  this  idea  ;  and  safely  conclude  that, 
like  other  specifics,  the  present  one  would  fail 
to  produce  a  perceptible  effect:  but  Schiller's 
vindication  rests  on  higher  grounds  than  these. 
His  work  has  on  the  whole  furnished  nourish- 
ment to  the  more  exalted  powers  of  our  nature  ; 
the  sentiments  and  images  which  he  has  shaped 


and  uttered,  tend,  in  spite  of  their  alloy,  lo 
elevate  the  soul  to  a  nobler  pitch;  and  this  is  a 
sufficient  defence.  As  to  the  danger  of  misap- 
plying the  inspiration  he  communicates,  of  for- 
getting the  dictates  of  prudence  in  our  zeal  for 
the  dictates  of  poetry,  we  have  no  great  cause 
to  fear  it.  Hitherto,  at  least,  there  has  always 
been  enough  of  dull  reality,  on  every  side  of  us, 
to  abate  such  fervors  in  good  time,  and  bring  us 
back  to  the  most  sober  level  of  prose,  if  not  to 
sink  us  below  it.  We  should  thank  the  poet 
who  performs  such  a  service ;  and  forbear  to 
inquire  too  rigidly  whether  there  is  a  '  moral ' 
in  his  piece  or  not.  The  writer  of  a  work  which 
interests  and  excites  the  spiritual  feelings  of 
men,  has  as  little  need  to  justify  himself  by 
showing  how  it  exemplifies  some  wise  saw  or 
modern  instance,  as  the  doer  of  a  generous 
action  has  to  demonstrate  its  merit,  by  dedu- 
cing it  from  the  system  of  Shaftsbury,  or  Smith, 
orPaley,  or  whichever  happens  to  be  the  favor- 
ite system  for  the  age  and  place.  The  instruc- 
tiveness  of  the  one,  and  the  virtue  of  the  other, 
exist  independently  of  all  systems  or  laws,  and 
in  spite  of  all." 

The  tragedy  of  tliR  Robbers,  although  written 
before  the  completion  of  Schiller's  college 
course,  did  not  appear  until  he  had  attained  the 


age  of  twenty-one,  and  was  beginning  to  dis- 
charge the  duties  of  surgeon  in  the  army.  The 
spirit  and  popularity  of  the  poet's  performance 
were  highly  displeasing  to  the  despotic  duke 
of  Wurtemberg.  who  issued  an  order  for  Schil- 
ler to  confine  himself  to  the  studies  peculiar  to 
his  profession.  The  youthful  poet  was  com- 
pelled to  suffer  a  week's  confinement  for  the 
crime  of  having  gone  to  Manheim  to  attend  the 
representation  of  his  drama,  and  fearing  a 
severer  punishment  for  the  repetition  of  the 
offence,  he  fled  to  Manheim,  and  thence  to  the 
hospitable  dwelling  of  Madam  von  Wollzogen, 
near  Meiningen.  Protected  by  this  lady  he  sent 
forth  two  new  plays — Fiesco,and  Court  Intrigue 
and  Love.  He  was  next  appointed  poet  to  the 
theatre  at  Manheim,  a  post  of  honor  and  profit. 
At  the  expiration  of  eighteen  months,  Schiller 
growing  dissatisfied  with  his  situation,  went 
from  Manheim  to  Leipsic,  and  thence  to  Dres- 
den. At  the  latter  place  he  concluded  his 
famous  tragedy  of  Don  Carlos. 

"  Schiller's  Carlos  is  the  first  of  his  plays  that 
bears  the  stamp  of  any  thing  like  full  maturity. 
The  opportunities  he  had  enjoyed  for  extending 
his  knowledge  of  men  and  things,  the  sedulous 
practice  of  the  art  of  composition,  the  study  of 
purer  morals,  had  not  been  without  their  fuU 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


SCH 


494 


SCH 


effect.  Increase  of  years  had  done  something 
for  him  ;  diligence  had  done  much  more.  The 
ebullience  of  youth  is  now  chastened  into  the 
steadfast  energy  of  manhood  ;  the  wild  enthu- 
siast, that  suurned  at  the  errors  of  the  world, 
has  now  become  the  enlightened  moralist,  that 
laments  their  necessity,  o°  endeavors  to  find  out 
their  remedy.  A  corresponding  alteration  is 
visible  in  the  external  form  of  the  work,  in  its 
plot  and  diction.  The  plot  is  contrived  with 
great  ingenuity,  embodying  the  result  of  much 
study,  both  dramatic  and  historical.  The  lan- 
guage is  blank  verse,  not  prose,  as  in  the  former 
works ;  it  is  more  careful  and  regular,  less 
ambitious  in  its  object,  but  more  certain  of  at- 
taining it.  Schiller's  mind  had  now  reached  its 
full  stature  :  he  felt  and  thought  more  justly  ;  he 
could  better  express  what  he  felt  and  thought." 
"The  tragedy  of  Carlos  was  received  with 
immediate  and  universal  approbation.  In  the 
closet  and  on  the  stage,  it  excited  the  warmest 
applauses 'equally  among  the  learned  and  un- 
learned. Schiller's  expectations  had  not  been* 
so  high;  he  knew  both  the  excellences  and  the 
faults  of  his  work :  but  he  had  not  anticipated 
that  the  former  would  be  recognised  so  instan- 
taneously. The  pleasure  of  this  new  celebrity 
came  upon  him,  therefore,  heightened  by  sur- 
prise. Had  dramatic  eminence  been  his  sole 
object,  he  might  now  have  slackened  his  exer- 
tions ;  the  public  had  already  ranked  him  as 
the  first  of  their  writers  in  that  favorite  depart- 
ment. But  this  limited  ambition  was  not  his 
moving  principle  ;  nor  was  his  mind  of  that 
sort  for  which  rest  is  provided  in  this  world. 
The  primary  disposition  of  his  nature  urged  him 
to  perpetual  toil :  the  great  aim  of  his  life,  the 
unfolding  of  his  mental  powers,  was  one  of  those 
which  admit  but  a  relative,  not  an  absolute 
jress.  New  ideas  of  perfection  arise  as  the 
tier  have  been  reached  ;  the  student  is  al- 
ways attaining,  never  has  attained. 

"  Schiller's  worldly  circumstances,  too,  were 
of  a  kind  well  calculated  to  prevent  excess  of 
quietism.  He  was  still  drifting  at  large  on  the 
tide  of  life  :  he  was  crowned  with  laurels,  but 
without  a  home.  His  heart,  warm  and  affec- 
tionate, fitted  to  enjoy  the  domestic  blessings 
which  it  longed  for,  was  allowed  to  form  no 
permanent  attachment :  he  felt  that  he  was 
unconnected,  solitary  in  the  world ;  cut  off' 
from  the  exercise  of  his  kindlier  sympathies; 
or  if  tasting  such  pleasures,  it  was  '  snatching 
them  rather  than  partaking  of  them  calmly.' 
The  vulgar  desire  of  wealth  and  station  never 
entered  his  mind  for  an  instant ;  but  as  years 


progrei 
former 


were  added  to  his  age.  the  delights  of  peace  and 
continuous  comfort  were  fast  becoming  more 
acceptable  than  any  other ;  and  he  looked  with 
anxiety  to  have  a  resting-place  amid  his  wan- 
derings, to  be  a  man  among  his  fellowmen. 

"  For  all  these  wishes  Schiller  saw  that  the 
only  chance  of  fulfilment  depended  on  un- 
wearied perseverance  in  his  literary  occupations. 
Yet  though  his  activity  was  unabated,  and  the 
calls  on  it  -were  increasing  rather  than  diminish- 
ed, its  direction  was  gradually  changing.  The 
drama  had  long  been  stationary,  and  of  late 
been  falling  in  Ins  estimation  ;  the  difficulties  of 
the  art,  as  he  viewed  it  at  present,  had  been  over- 
come, and  new  conquests  invited  him  in  other 
quarters.  The  latter  part  of  Carlos  he  had 
written  as  a  task  rather  than  a  pleasure;  he 
contemplated  no  farther  undertaking  connected 
with  the  stage.  For  a  time,  indeed,  he  seems 
to  have  wavered  among  a  multiplicity  of  enter- 
prises; now  solicited  to  this,  and  now  to  that, 
without  being  able  to  fix  decidedly  on  any. 
The  restless  ardor  of  his  mind  is  evinced  by  the 
number  and  variety  of  his  attempts  ;  its  fluctua- 
tion by  the  circumstance  that  all  of  them  are 
short  in  extent,  or  left  in  the  state  of  fragments. 
Of  the  former  kind  are  his  lyrical  productions, 
many  of  which  were  composed  about  this  period, 
during  intervals  from  more  serious  labors.  The 
character  of  these  performances  is  such  as  his 
former  writings  give  us  reason  to  expect. 
With  a  deep  insight  into  life,  and  a  keen  and 
comprehensive  sympathy  with  its  sorrows  and 
enjoyments,  there  is  combined  that  impetuosity 
of  feeling,  that  pomp  of  thought  and  imagery 
which  belong  peculiarly  to  Schiller.  If  he  had 
now  left  the  drama,  it  was  clear  that  his  mind 
was  still  overflowing  with  the  elements  of 
poetry  ;  dwelling  amTmg  the  grandest  concep- 
tions, and  the  boldest  or  finest  emotions  ;  think- 
ing intensely  and  profoundly,  but  decorating  its 
th')Ughts  with  those  graces,  which  other  facul- 
ties "than  the  understanding  are  required  to 
aftbrd.  With  these  smaller  pieces.  Schiller  oc- 
cupied himself  at  intervals  of  leisure  through- 
out the  remainder  of  his  life.  Some  of  them 
are  to  be  classed  among  the  finest  efforts  of 
his  genius.  The  Walk,  the  Son"  of  the  Bell, 
contain  exquisite  delineations  of  the  fortunes 
and  history  of  man ;  his  Rittcr  von  Toageiiliurg, 
his  Cranes  of  Ilnjcus,  his  Ufro  and  Leander, 
are  among  the  most  poetical  and  moving  ballads 
to  be  found  in  anv  huiLri':'2<>." 

Schiller  now  turned  fab  attention  to  history, 
his  first  performance  in  this  department,  being 
The  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands,  unfortunately 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SCH 


495 


SCH 


a  fragment,  but  written  in  an  exceedingly  pure 
style,  and  displaying  throughout  a  most  pene- 
trating and  philosophical  spirit.  Of  his  habits 
the  following  is  an  interesting  account. 

"  He  wrote  and  thought  with  an  impetuosity 
'     beyond  what  nature  always  could  endure.     His 
j    intolerance  of  interruptions  first  put  him  on  the 
j    plan  of  studying  by  night;  an  alluring  but  per- 
nicious practice,  which  began  at  Dresden,  and 
was   never   afterwards  forsaken.     His   recrea- 
j    tions  breathed  a  similar  spirit :   he  loved  to  be 
j    much  alone,  and  strongly  moved.     The  banks 
of  the   Elbe   were   the   favorite   resort  of  his 
j    mornings;   here,  wandering   in  solitude   amid 
j    groves    and   lawns,   and  green   and   beautiful 
!     places,   he    abandoned   his    mind   to   delicious 
|    musings ;    watched   the   fitful    current   of  his 
1    thoughts,  as  they  came  sweeping  through  his 
soul  in  their  vague,  fantastic,  gorgeous  Ibrms; 
pleased  himself  with  the  transient  images  of 
!    memory  and  hope;   or  meditated  on  the  cares 
and  studies  which  had  lately  been  employing, 
:    and  were  again  soon  to  employ  him.     At  times, 
he  might  be  seen,  floating  on  the  river  in  a 
gondola,  feasting  himself  with  the  loveliness  cf 
earth  and  sky.     He  delighted  most  to  be  there, 
when  tempests  were  abroad  :   his  unquiet  spirit 
found  a  solace  in   the  expression  of  his  own 
unrest  on  the  face   of  Nature ;   danger  lent  a 
charm  to  his  situation  ;  he  felt  in  harmony  with 
;    the  scene,  when  the  rack  was  sweeping  storm- 
i    fully  across  tlie  heavens,  and  the  forests  were 
[    sounding  in  the  breeze,  and  the  river  was  rol- 
I    ling  its  chafed  waters  into  wild  eddying  heaps. 
"Yet   before  the    darkness  summoned   him 
exclusively  to  his  tasks,  Schiller  commonly  de- 
voted a  portion  of  the  day  to  the  pleasures  of 
society.      Could  he  have  found  enjoyment  in 
i    the  flatteries  of  admiring  hospitality,  his  present 
fame  would  have   procured  them    for  him   in 
:    abundance.      But   these   things   were    not  to 
Schiller's  taste.    Flis  opinion  of  the"  flesh-flies  " 
of  Leipzig  we  have  already  seen  ;    he  retained 
the  same  sentiments  throughout  all   his   life. 
The  idea  of  being  what  we  call  a  lion  is  offen- 
sive enough  to  any  man,  of  not  more  than  com- 
mon vanity,  and  less  than  common  understand- 
ing :    it   was  doubly   offensive    to   him.      His 
prfde  and  his  modesty  alike  forbade  it.      The 
delicacy  of  his  nature,  aggravated  into  shyness 
by  his  education  and  his  habits,  rendered  situa- 
tions of  display  more  than  usually  painful  to 
him ;  the  digho  pratercimthim  was  a  sort  of 
celebrity  he  was  far  from  coveting.     In  the  cir- 
cles of  fashion,  he  appeared  unwillingly,  and 
seldom  to  advantage :  their  glitter  and  parade 
42* 


were  foreign  to  his  disposition  :  their  strict  cere- 
monial cramped  the  play  of  his  mind.  Hem- 
med in,  as  by  invisible  fences,  among  the  intri- 
cate barriers  of  etiquette,  so  feeble,  so  inviolable, 
he  felt  constrained  and  helpless;  alternately 
chagrined  and  indignant.  It  was  the  giant 
among  pigmies  ;  Gulliver, in  Lilliput,  tied  down 
by  a  thousand  packthreads.  But  there  were 
more  congenial  minds,  with  whom  he  could 
associate ;  more  familiar  scenes,  in  which  he 
found  the  pleasures  he  was  seeking.  Here  Schil- 
ler was  himself;  frank,  unembarrassed,  pliant  to 
the  humor  of  the  hour.  His  conversation  was 
delightful,  abounding  at  once  in  rare  and  sim- 
ple charms.  Besides  the  intellectual  riches 
which  it  carried  with  it,  there  was  a  flow  of 
kindliness  and  unaffected  good  humor,  which 
can  render  dulness  itself  agreeable.  Schiller 
had  many  friends  in  Dresden,  who  loved  him 
as  a  man  while  they  admired  him  as  a  writer. 
Their  intercourse  was  of  the  kind  he  liked, 
sober,  as  well  as  free  and  mirthful.  It  was  the 
careless,  calm,  honest  effusion  of  his  feelings 
that  he  wanted ;  not  the  noisy  tumults  and 
coarse  delirium  of  dissipation.  For  this,  under 
any  of  its  forms,  he  at  no  time  showed  the  small- 
est relish." 

In  1789,  Schiller,  chiefly  through  the  interest 
of  his  friend  Goethe,  was  appointed  Professor  of 
History  at  the  University  of  Jena,  a  few  miles 
from  the  town  of  Weimar.  He  was  then  thirty 
years  old,  and  married  von  Lengefeld  of  Rudol- 
stadt,  to  whom  he  had  been  engaged  gome  time 
before.  In  1791  he  published  his  History  of  the 
Thiity  Years'  War. 

An  ardent  admirer  of  Shakspeare,  he  thus 
writes  in  1797 ; 

"  I  have  just  been  reading  the  plays  of  Shak- 
speare, which  treat  of  the  war  between  the  two 
roses;  and  now,  after  finishing  Richard  the  Third, 
am  filled  with  a  real  wonder.  This  is  one  of  the 
sublimest  of  tragedies,  and  at  this  moment  I 
cannot  name  even  another  of  Shakspeaie's  that 
is  superior  to  it.  The  great  destinies  prepared 
in  the  preceding  pieces  are  here  accomplished 
after  a  truly  great  fashion,  and  according  to  the 
most  sublime  conception.  That  the  subject 
excludes  all  that  is  feminine,  tender,  sentimen- 
tal, adds  very  much  to  the  high  effect :  all  in  it  is 
energetic  and  grand  :  nothing  common  disturbs 
the  aesthetic  emotion  :  one  enjoys,  as  it  were, 
the  pure  form  of  the  dread  tragic.  A  high 
Nemesis  presides  over  the  piece,  the  conscious- 
ness of  which  penetrates  the  mind  from  the  be- 
ginning to  the  end.  It  is  to  be  wondered  at, 
how  the  poet  always  succeeds  in  forcing  the 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


SCH 


496 


SCH 


unpoetic  matter  to  render  up  poetic  booty  ;  and 
now  skilfully  he  represents  that  which  cannot 
be  directly  represented; — 1  refer  to  his  art  in 
using  symbols,  where  the  reality  cannot  be 
exhibited.  No  play  of  Shakspeare  reminds  me 
so  strongly  ot'the  Greek  tragedy." 

Wallepstein,  a  drama  in  three  parts,  which 
cost  Schiller  the  labor  of  two  years,  was  follow- 
ed speedily  by  Mary  Stuart,  a  work  of  great 
power,  but  not  equalling  the  play  which  im- 
mediately preceded  it.  As  there  is  no  English 
version  of  Mary  Stuart,  the  following  anony- 
mous translation  of  Ciiieen  Elizabeth's  soliloquy 
previous  to  her  signing  the  death-warrant  for 
the  execution  of  the  queen  of  Scots,  may  be  ac- 
ceptable as  giving  some  idea  of  the  tragic  in- 
terest of  the  draraa  from  which  it  is  extracted. 

Subjection  to  my  subjects  !  O,  most  vile 

Of  servitudes  !  I'm  worn  and  sick  at  heart, 

With  fawning  on  the  idol  I  despise. 

When  shall  1  sit  upon  my  throne  in  freedom? 

No  longer  fluttering  men's  wishes,  whims — 

To  win  their  praise  ;  nor  sueing  for  support 

Tea  vile  rout  best  managed  by  a  juggler. 

Ah,  he  who  h  is  a  puhlic  lie  must  please, 

Call  him  not  king — he,  only  he,  deserves 

The  name,  whose  deed  asks  no  man's  commendation. 

Why  have  I  reigned  in  law  and  justice  ever, 

Quelling  my  own  desires — to  find,  when  now 

A  deed  despotic  must,  ay,  must  be  done, 

A  shackle  on  my  hands?   Before  the  model 

Myself  have  raised,  I  shrink,  and  am  condemned. 

II  id  I,  like  Spanish  Mary,  ruled  these  realms 

With  iron  hand,— the  queenly  blood,  which  now 

I  thirst  for,  might  be  shed — and  none  dare  murmur. 

Was't  then  my  own  free  choice,  this  luckless  justice? 

No  't  was  the  otFspriusj  of  necessity — 

The  stern  necessity;  which  sways  e'en  princes. 

This  making  Law  tJie  partner  of  my  rcitrn 

Has  yained  my  people's  loec.      Wtiat,  but  that  love, 

CotU.l,  or  ca-i  nom,  support  me  on  my  Utrnne  1 

— A  throne  disputed,  envied,  circled  in, 

Assaulted  by  a  Most  of  enemies  ! 

Europe  band!  all  her  powers  to  destroy  me. 

On  my  po:>r  hi-ad  Rome's  vengeful  pontiff  hurls 

The  excommunicating  Innn  :  great  France 

Salutes  me  with  a  Judas  kiss  :  fast,  fast, 

O'er  ocean  birind  a  thousand  giant  ships, 

To  pour  the  Spaniards  wrath  unquenchable 

On  this  lone  isle,  arid  its  devoted  queen. 

Here  then  I  SI-HI rl — a  woman  'gainst  a  world. 

In  UIH  extremity,  I  must  secure 

Mv  subjects'  f'lithfiilness,  at  any  hazard  ; 

The  b-irenes^  of  my  title  to  the  "crown 

I  must  deck  out  with  certain  royal  virtue* : 

The  min*,  which  my  own  father's  words  have  fixed 

Upon  my  birth— in  vain,  in  vain  I  seek 

To  hide  them  !  Uiisy-finiKrcd  hate,  nil)  by, 

I/iys  them  all  h'lre  ;  an  1  ever  li.dds  before 

My  biased  eyes,  this  Stuart—  threatening  spectre — 

Thwarting,  and  maddening— O,  I'll  not  endure  it. 

I  nvist  —  I  will  have  peace.     Her  head  shall  fall. 

— She  is  the  fury  of  uiy  life— a  spirit 


Of  torment  conjured  up  by  Fate  against  me  ! 
Where'er  some  lonely  flower  of  hope  or  joy 
Blooms  in  my  path — there  coils  this  snake  of  Hell. 
My  fate's  whole  bhickne-s  centres  in  one  name — 
The  freezer  of  my  friends,  the  thief,  who  hath  stolen 
My  lover's  heart,  the  pest,  that,  day  and  night, 
Haunts  me,  and  now  is  pulling  me  to  eartii — 
All  blister  on  rny  lips  in  that  one  name — 
'Tis  MARY  STUART.     Puree  the  earth  of  her, 
And  I  am  free — free  as  the  mountain  air. 

[Jl  Ions  pause.     In  what  succeeds  the  Queen  re- 
fers to  a  late  interview  nilh  her  prisoner.} 
With  what  a  look  of  scorn  she  eyed  me  !    Ha  ! 
Didst  think  to  blast  me?     Wretch!     Poor,  powerless 

wretch  ! 

Thy  glance  kills  not.     I  wield  a  better  weapon  : 
Its  stroke  is  death  !  it  strikes,  and  where  art  thou  ? 

[Atlcancing  to  the  table  with  a  quid;  s'~p. 
and  seizing  the  pen.] 

A  bastard,  am  I  ?    True,  while  thou  dost  live. 
But  babbling  doubts  of  my  imperial  binh 
Perish  with  thee.     (Hi it  thou  my  subjects'  sight— 
They  doubt,  compare,  prefer,  rebel,  no  more, 
And  I  am  hailed  at  once  their  true-born  queen. 

[Sire  sirrn.1  the  paper  with  rapid  and  firm  strokes;  then 
drops  the  pen  and  starts  back  with  a  look  of  terror.] 

Mary  Stuart,  was  followed  by  the  Maid  of 
Orleans,  the  Bride  of  Messina,  and  William 
Tell.  Schiller  died  in  the  spring  of  1805.  at 
the  age  of  forty-five,  in  the  full  vigor  of  his  in- 
tellectual powers. 

SCHOMI3EKG,  Charles,  esteemed  by  Louis 
XIII  for  his  many  important  services  rendered 
to  the  crown  of  "France.  He  first  signalized 
himself  at  the  siege  of  Soimnierie.  in  Laninie- 
doc  ;  showed  great  conduct  at  the  attack  of  Pas 
de  Suse,  and  taking  of  Privas.  in  II'.:*) ;  accom- 
panied the  king  in  his  voyage  to  Savov,  in  1630 ; 
was  dangerously  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Rou- 
vroi,  in  163'2;  but  afterwards  worsted  the  Span- 
iards in  Roussillon  ;  forced  them  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Leucate  :  overthrew  them  at  Canet  and 
Sigean.in  163:>;  relieved  llhes,  in  Catalonia, in 
1640 ;  and  took  Perpignan  and  tSaluz/o  in  1G42. 
He  died  in  lli">li.  in  the  5iitli  year  of  his  a<re. 

SCHOMBCRG.  Henry,  count  of  Nauteuil 
and  Duretal,  was  the  son  of  Caspar  Schomberg, 
a  German,  and  succeeded  his  father  as  <rrneral 
field-marshal  of  the  German  troops  in  the  French 
kind's  service.  He  was  sent  ambassador  ex- 
traordinary to  England,  in  1615;  at  his  return 
he  had  a  command  in  the  army  of  Piedmont, 
under  the  marshal  Lesdiguieres,  and  contribu- 
ted to  the  taking  of  several  places  in  iri'JO.  He 
assisted  at  the  reduction  of  the  cities  of  Rouen, 
Caen,  la  Fleche,  Pont  de  Ce,  and  Navarreins, 
as  well  as  at  the  sieges  of  St.  Jean  d'Angely 
and  Montauban.  He  also  shared  in  the  honor 
of  taking  of  lloianne,  Negtepdissf.  M.irsillar- 
gues,  and  other  places  in  Languedoc ;  in  Iti27 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SCI 


497 


SCI 


he  was  present  at  the  action  of  the  Isle  of  Re, 
where  the  English  were  defeated.  In  1630  he 
took  Pignerol,  and  relieved  Cazal,  and  gained 
the  battle  of  Caslelnaudary.  He  died  at  Bour- 
deaux  in  1032,  in  the  forty -ninth  year  of  his  age. 
He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  the  priory  of 
Nanteuil. 

SCHOMBERG,  Frederic,  duke  of,  an  emi- 
nent general,  was  the  son  of  count  Schomberg, 
by  the  daughter  of  lord  Dudley,  and  was  born  in 
1U19.  He  served  first  in  the  army  of  the  United 
Provinces  ;  but  in  1G50  retired  to  France,  where 
he  was  esteemed  next  to  Conde  and  Turenne. 
In  1660  he  visited  England,  from  whence  he 
»•  proceeded  to  Portugal,  where  he  was  created  a 
grandee,  and  obtained  a  pension.  On  his  return 
to  France,  he  commanded  in  Flanders,  and 
obliged  the  prince  of  Orange  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Maestricht.  for  which  he  was  made  a  mar- 
shal. On  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
he  went  again  to  Portugal ;  but  being  obliged 
to  quit  the  kingdom  by  the  inquisition,  he  re- 
moved to  Holland,  and  afterwards  entered  into 
the  service  of  the  elector  of  Brandenburg.  In 
1688  he  accompanied  the  prince  of  Orange  to 
England  ;  and  after  the  Revolution  was  created 
a  duke,  with  which  title  he  received  a  grant  of 
^  one  hundred  thousand  pounds.  In  1689  he 
"  commanded  in  Ireland,  where  he  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  the  Boyrie,  July  1,  1690. 

SCHUYLER,  Philip,  a  general  in  the  Amer- 
ican revolution,  was  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
in  1731 ,  and  being  appointed  major  general,  in 
1775,  evinced  great  courage  and  skill  through- 
out the  war.  He  was  a  member  of  the  old  con- 
gress, and,  in  1789,  was  appointed  a  senator  in 
the  national  legislature.  He  died  Nov.  18, 1804, 
in  the  73d  year  of  his  age. 

SCIO  or  Chios  (in  Turkish,  Saki-Jldassi)  a 
fertile  island  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  con- 
taining 392  square  miles.  In  April  14, 182&J 
the  revolt  of  the  Sciots  was  punished  by  the 
Turks,  by  the  massacre  of  40.000  persons  with- 
out distinction  of  age  or  sex.  Such  was  the  fero- 
cious spirit  exercised  towards  them,  that  in  1823, 
the  population  had  been  reduced  from  120,000 
to  16,000. 

SCIPIO.  Cneius,  surnamed  Asina,  was  con- 
sul A.  U.  C.  494  and  500.  He  was  conquered 
°n  his  first  consulship  in  a  naval  battle,  and  lost 


17  ships.     The  following  year  he  took  Aleria, 

in  Corsica,  and  defeated  Hanno,  the  Carlhagi-    the  whol 

nian  general,  in  Sardinia.     He  also  took  200  of 

the  enemy's  ships,  a*d  the  city  of  Panormum 

in  Sicily.    He  was  father  to  Publius  and  Cneius 

Bcipio.     Publius,  in  the  beginning  of  the  sec- 


ond Punic  war,  was  sent  with  an  army  to  Spain 
to  oppose  Hannibal ;.  but  when  he  heard  that 
his  enemy  had  passed  over  into  Italy,  he  at- 
tempted by  his  quick  marches  and  secret  evo- 
lutions to  stop  his  progress. 

He  was  conquered  by  Hannibal  near  the 
Ticinus,  where  he  nearly  lost  his  life,  had  not 
his  son,  who  was  afterwards  surnamed  Africa- 
nus,  courageously  defended  him.  He  again 
passed  into  Spain,  where  he  obtained  some 
memorable  victories  over  the  Carthaginians, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  country. 

His  brother  Cneius  shared  the  supreme  com- 
mand with  him,  but  their  great  confidence 
proved  their  ruin.  They  separated  their  ar- 
mies, and  soon  after  Publius  was  furiously  at- 
tacked by  the  two  Asdrubals  and  Mago,  who 
commanded  the  Carthaginian  armies.  The 
forces  of  Publius  were  too  few  to  resist  with 
success  the  three  Carthaginian  generals.  The 
Romans  were  cut  to  pieces,  and  their  com- 
mander was  left  on  the  field  of  battle.  No  soon- 
er had  the  enemy  obtained  this  victory,  than  they 
immediately  marched  to  meet  Cneius  b'cipio, 
whom  the  revolt  of  30,000  Celtiberians  had 
weakened  and  alarmed.  The  general  .who  was 
already  apprized  of  his  brother's  death,  secured 
an  eminence,  where  he  was  soon  surrounded  on 
all  sides.  After  desperate  acts  of  valor  he  was 
left  among  the  slain,  or,  according  to  some,  he 
fled  into  a  tower,  where  he  was  burnt  with 
some  of  his  friends  by  the  victorious  enemy. 

SCIPIO,  Publius  Cornelius,  surnamed  Africa, 
nus,  was  son  of  Publius  Scipio,  who  was  killed 
in  Spain.  He  first  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Ticinus,  where  he  saved  his  father's 
life  by  deeds  of  unexampled  valor  and  boldness. 
The  battle  of  Canna?,  which  proved  so  fatal  to 
the  Roman  arms,  instead  of  disheartening  Scipio, 
raised  his  expectations,  and  he  no  sooner  heard 
^hat  some  of  his  desperate  countrymen  wished 
to  abandon  Italy,  and  to  fly  from  the  insolence 
of  the  conqueror,  than  with  his  sword  in  his 
hand,  and  by  his  firmness  and  example,  he 
obliged  them  to  swear  eternal  fidelity  to  Rome, 
and  to  put  to  immediate  death  the  first  man  who 
attempted  to  retire  from  his  country.  It  was 
soon  known  how  able  he  was  to  be  at  the  head 
of  an  army;  the  various  nations  of  Spain  were 
:onquered,  and  in  four  years  the  Carthaginians 


mished 
lie  prov 
'arthacre 


were  banished  from  that  part  of  the  continent ; 
ince  became  tributary  to  Rome ; 
New  Carthage  submitted  in  one  day,  and  in  a 
battle  54,000  of  the  enemy  were  left  dead  on 
the  field.  After  these  signal  victories.  Scipio 
was  recalled  to  Rome,  which  still  trembled  at 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


SCI 


498 


SCI 


the  continual  alarms  of  Hannibal,  who  was  at  He  retired  from  Rome,  no  longer  to  beaspec- 
her  gales.  The  conqueror  of  the  Carthaginians  tator  of  the  ingratitude  of  his  countrymen,  and 
in  Spain  was  looked  upon  as  a  proper  general  in  the  capacity  of  lieutenant  accompanied  his 
to  encounter  Hannibal  in  Italy;  but  Scipio  op-  brother  against  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria.  In 
posed  the  measures  which  his  countrymen  wish-  this  expedition  his  arms  were  attended  with 
ed  to  pursue,  and  he  declared  in  the  senate  that  usual  success,  and  the  Asiatic  monarch  submit- 
if  Hannibol  was  to  be  conquered  he  must  be  ted  to  the  conditions  which  the  conquerors  die- 
conquered  in  Africa.  These  bold  measures  tated.  At  his  return  to  Rome,  Africanus  found 
were  immediately  adopted,  though  opposed  by  the  malevolence  of  his  enemies  still  unabated, 
the  eloquence,  age,  and  experience  of  the  great  Cato,  his  inveterate  rival,  raised  seditions  against 
Fabius,  and  Scipio  was  empowered  to  conduct  him,  and  the  Petilli,  two  tribunes  of  the  people, 
the  war  on  the  coasts  of  Africa.  With  the  dig-  accused  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal  of  extortion 
nity  of  consul  he  embarked  for  Carthage.  Han-  in  the  provinces  of  Asia,  and  of  living  in  an  in- 
•  nibal,  who  was  victorious  at  the  gates  of  Rome,  dolent  and  luxurious  manner, 
was  instantly  recalled  to  defend  the  walls  of  his  Scipio  condescended  to  answer  to  the  accu-  J 
country,  and  the  two  greatest  generals  of  the  sation  of  his  calumniators;  the  first  day  was 
age  met  each  other  in  the  field.  Terms  of  ac-  spent  in  hearing  the  different  charges,  but  when 
commodation  were  proposed  ;  but  in  the  parley  he  again  appeared  on  the  second  day  of  his  tri- 
which  the  two  commanders  had  together,  noth-  al,  the  accused  interrupted  his  judges,  and  ex- 
ing  satisfactory  was  offered,  and  while  the  one  claimed,  "  Tribunes  and  fellow-citizens,  on  this 
enlarged  on  the  vicissitudes  of  human  affairs,  day,  this  very  day,  did  I  conquer  Hannibal  and 
the  other  wished  to  dictate  like  a  conqueror,  and  the  Carthaginians:  come,  therefore,  with  me, 
recommended  the  decision  of  the  controversy  to  Romans ;  let  us  go  to  the  capitol,  and  there  re- 
the  sword.  turn  our  thanks  to  the  immortal  gods  for  the 

The  celebrated  battle  was  fought  near  Zama,  victories    which    have    attended    our    arms." 

and  both  generals  displayed  their  military  know-  These  words  had  the  desired  effect;  the  tribes, 

ledge  in  drawing  up  their  armies  and  in  choos-  and  all  the  assembly  followed  Scipio,  the  court 

ing  their  ground.     Their  courage  and  intrepidi-  was  deserted,  and  the  tribunes  were  left  alone      J 

ty  were  not  less  conspicuous  in  charging  the  in  the  seat  of  judgment. 

enemy  ;  a  thousand  acts  of  valor  were  perform-  Yet  when  this  memorable  day  was  past  and 
ed  on  both  sides,  and  though  the  Carthaginians  forgotten,  Africanus  was  a  third  time  summon 
fought  in  their  ttjun  defence,  and  the  Romans  ed  to  appear ;  but  he  had  fled  before  the  im- 
for  fame  and  glory,  yet  the  conqueror  of  Italy  pending  storm,  and  retired  to  his  country-house 
was  vanquished.  About  20,000  Carthaginians  at  Liternum.  The  accusation  was  therefore 
were  slain,  and  the  same  number  made  prison-  stopped,  and  the  accusers  silenced,  when  one  of 
era  of  war,  B.  C.  202.  Only  2000  of  the  Ro-  the  tribunes,  formerly  distinguished  for  his  ma- 
mans  were  killed.  This  battle  was  decisive  ;  levolence  against  Scipio,  rose  to  defend  him, 
the  Carthaginians  sued  for  peace,  which  Scipi^  and  declared  in  the  assembly,  that  it  reflected 
at  last  granted  on  the  mostsevereand  humili»t-'  tie  highest  disgrace  on  the  Roman  people,  that 
ing  terms.  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal  should  become  the 

The  conqueror  after  this  returned  to  Romej^>'port  of  the  populace,  and  be  exposed  to  the 
where  he  was  received  with  the  most  unbound-  malice  and  envy  of  disappointed  ambition, 
ed  applause,  honored  with  a  triumph,  and  dig-  Sometime  after  Scipio  died  in  the  place  of  his 
nified  with  the  appellation  of  Africanus.  Here  retreat,  about  ItM  years  before  Christ,  in  the 
he  enjoyed  for  some  time  the  tranquillity  and  43th  year  of  his  age ;  and  so  great  an  aversion 
the  honors  which  his  exploits  merited,  but  in  did  he  express,  as  he  expired,  for  the  depravity 
him  also  as  in  other  great  men,  fortune  showed  of  the  Romans,  and  the  ingratitude  of  their  sen- 
herself  inconstant.  Scipio  offended  the  popu-  ators,  that  he  ordered  his  bones  not  to  be  con- 
lace  in  wishing  to  distinguish  the  senators  from  veyed  to  Rome.  They  were  accordingly  in- 
the  rest  of  the  people  at  the  public  exhibitions  ;  humated  at  Liternum,  where  his  wife  ./Emilia, 
and  when  he  canvassed  for  the  Ahtsulship  for  the  daughter  of  Paulus  jEmilins.  who  fell  at  the 
two  of  his  friends,  he  had  the  moRification  to  battle  of  Canntr.  raised  a  mausoleum  on  his 
see  his  application  alighted,  and  the  honors  tomb,  and  placed  upon  it  hfo  statue,  with  that 
which  he  claimed,  bestowed  on  a  man  of  no  of  the  poet  Ennius,  who  jff  been  the  coinpan- 
character,  and  recommended  by  neither  abilities  ion  of  his  peace  and  of  his  retirement, 
nor  meritorious  actions.  SCIPIO,  Lucius  Cornelius,  surnamed  Asiati 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SCI 


499 


SCI 


cus.  accompanied  his  brother  Africanus  in  his 
expeditions  in  Spain  and  Africa.  He  was  re- 
warded with  the  consulship,  A.  U.  C.  504,  for 
his  services  to  the  state,  and  he  was  empowered 
to  attack  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  who  had  de- 
clared war  against  the  Romans.  Lucius  was 
accompanied  in  this  campaign  by  his  brother 
Africanus;  and  by  his  own  valor,  and  by  the 
advice  of  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal,  he  soon 
routed  the  enemy,  and  in  a  battle  near  the  city 
of  Sardes  he  killed  50,000  foot  and  4,000  horse. 

Peace  was  soon  after  settled  by  the  submis- 
sion of  Antiochus,  and  the  conqueror,  at  his  re- 
turn home,  obtained  a  triumph,  and  the  sur- 
name of  Asiaticus.  He  did  not,  however,  long 
enjoy  his  prosperity  ;  Cato,  after  the  death  of 
Africanus,  turned  his  fury  against  Asiaticus, 
and  the  two  Petilli,  his  devoted  favorites,  pre- 
sented a  petition  to  the  people,  in  which  Ihey 
prayed  that  an  inquiry  might  be  made  to  know 
what  money  had  been  received  from  Antiochus 
and  his  allies  The  petition  was  instantly  re- 
ceived, and  Asiaticus,  charged  to  have  suffered 
himself  to  be  corrupted  by  Antiochus,  was  sum- 
moned to  appear  before  the  tribunal  of  Teren- 
tius  Culeo,  who  was  on  this  occasion  created 
prastor. 

The  judge,  who  was  an  inveterate  enemy  to 
the  family  of  the  Scipios,  soon  found  Asiaticus, 
with  his  two  lieutenants  and  his  quaestor,  guilty 
of  having  received,  the  first  6,000  pounds  weight 
of  gold,  and  480  pounds  weight  of  silver,  and 
the  others  nearly  an  equal  sum,  from  the  mon- 
arch against  whom,  in  the  name  of  the  Roman 
people,  they  were  enjoined  to  make  war.  Im- 
mediately they  were  condemned  to  pay  large 
fines ;  but  while  the  others  gave  security,  Scipio 
declared  that  he  had  accounted  to  the  public  for 
all  the  money  which  he,  had  brought  from  Asia, 
and  therefore  that  he  was  innocent. 

For  this  obstinacy  Scipio  was  dragged  to  pri- 
son, but  his  cousin  Nasica  pleaded  his  cause  be- 
fore the  people,  and  the  prsetor  instantly  ordered 
the  goods  i if  the  prisoner  to  be  seized  and  con- 
fiscated. The  sentence  was  executed,  but  the 
effects  of  Scipio  were  insufficient  to  pay  the  fine, 
and  it  was  the  greatest  justification  of  his  inno- 
cence, that  whatever  was  found  in  his  house  had 
never  been  in  the  possession  of  Antiochus  or  his 
subjects.  This,  however,  did  not  totally  liber- 
ate him ;  he  was  reduced  to  poverty,  and  re- 
fused to  accept  the  (rfju:  of  his  friends  and  of  his 
clients.  Some  titr^^fcr  he  was  appointed  to 
settle  the  disputes  b^^^en  Eumenes  and  Seleu- 
cus.and  at  his  return  the  Romans,  ashamed  of 
their  severity  towards  him.  rewarded  his  merit 


with  such  uncommon  liberality,  that  Asiaticus 
was  enabled  to  celebrate  games  in  honor  of  his 
victory  over  Antiochus,  for  ten  successive  days, 
at  liis  own  expense. 

SCIPIO  Nasica  was  son  of  Cneius  Scipio,  and 
cousin  to  Scipio  AfricanUs.  He  was  refused 
the  consulship,  though  supported  by  the  inter- 
est and  the  fame  of  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal ; 
but  he  afterwards  obtained  it,  and  in  that  hon- 
orable office  conquered  the  Boii,  and  gained  a 
triumph.  He  was  also  successful  in  an  expe- 
dition which  he  undertook  in  Spain.  When 
the  statue  of  Cybele  was  brought  to  Rome  from 
Phrygia,  the  Roman  senate  delegated  one  of 
their  body,  who  was  the  most  remarkL-jle  for 
the  purity  of  his  manners  and  the  innocence  of 
his  life,  to  go  and  meet  the  goddess  in  the  har- 
bor of  Ostia. 

Nasica  was  the  object  of  their  choice,  and  as 
such  he  was  enjoined  to  bring  the  statue  of  the 
goddess  to  Rome  with  the  greatest  pomp  and 
solemnity.  Nasica  also  distinguished  himself 
by  the  active  part  which  he  took  in  confuting 
the  accusations  laid  against  the  two  Scipios, 
Africanus  and  Asiaticus.  There  was  also  ano- 
ther of  the  same  name,  who  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  enmity  against  the  Gracchi,  to  whom 
he  was  nearly  related 

SCIPIO,  Publius  jEmilianus,  son  of  Paulus, 
the  conqueror  of  Perseus,  was  adopted  by  the 
son  of  Scipio  Africanus.  ^Emilianus  first  ap- 
peared in  the  Roman  armies  under  his  father, 
and  afterwards  distinguished  himself  as  a  legion 
ary  tribune  in  the  Spanish  provinces,  where  he 
killed  a  Spaniard  of  gigantic  stature,  and  ob 
tained  a  mural  crown  at  the  siege  of  Intercatia. 
He  passed  into  Africa  to  demand  a  reinforce- 
ment from  king  Masinissa,  the  ally  of  Rome, 
and  he  was  the  spectator  of  a  long  and  bloody 
battle  which  was  fought  between  that  monarch 
and  the  Carthaginians,  and  which  soon  produced 
the  third  Punic  war.  Some  time  after,  ^Emili- 
anus  was  made  edile,  and  next  appointed  con- 
sul, though  under  the  age  required  for  that  im- 
portant office. 

He  was  empowered  to  finish  the  war  with 
Carthage,  and  as  he  was  permitted  by  the  sen- 
ate to  choose  his  colleague,  he  took  with  him 
his  friend  Lselius,  whose  father,  of  the  same 
name,  had  formerly  enjoyed  the  confidence  and 
shared  the  victories  of  the  first  Africanus.  The 
siege  of  Cartilage  was  already  begun,  but  the 
operations  or  the  Romans  were  not  continued 
with  vigor.  Scipio  had  no  sooner  appeared  be- 
fore the  walls  of  the  enemy,  than  every  com- 
munication with  the  land  was  cut  ofi',  and  that 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


SCI 


500 


SCO 


they  might  not  have  the  command  of  the  sea,  a 
stupendous  mole  was  thrown  across  the  harbor, 
with  immense  labor  and  expense.  This,  which 
might  have  disheartened  the  most  active  ene- 
my, rendered  the  Carthaginians  more  eager  in 
the  cause  of  freedom  and  independence.  All 
the  inhabitants,  without  distinction  of  rank,  age, 
or  sex,  employed  themselves  without  cessation 
to  dig  another  harbor,  and  to  build  and  equip 
another  fleet.  In  a  short  time,  in  spite  of  the 
vigilance  and  activity  of  ^Emilianus,  the  Ro- 
mans were  astonished  to  see  another  harbor 
formed,  and  50  gallies  suddenly  issuing  under 
sail,  ready  for  the  engagement. 

This  unexpected  fleet,  by  immediately  attack- 
ing the  Roman  ships,  might  have  gained  the 
victory;  but  the  delay  of  the  Carthaginians 
proved  fatal  to  their  cause,  and  the  enemy  had 
sufficient  time  to  prepare  themselves.  Scipio 
soon  got  possession  of  a  small  eminence  in 
the  harbor ;  and,  by  the  success  of  his  subse- 
quent operations,  he  broke  open  one  of  the  gates 
of  the  city,  and  entered  the  streets,  where  he 
made  his  way  by  fire  and  sword.  The  surren- 
der of  above  50,000  men  was  followed  by  the  re- 
duction of  the  citadel,  and  the  total  submission 
of  Carthage,  B.  C.  147. 

The  captive  city  was  set  on  fire ;  and  though 
Scipio  was  obliged  to  demolish  its  very  walls,  to 
obey  the  orders  of  the  Romans,  yet  he  wept  bit- 
terly over  the  melancholy  and  tragical  scene ; 
and  in  bewailing  the  miseries  of  Carthage,  he 
expressed  his  fears  lest  Rome,  in  her  turn,  in 
some  future  age,  should  exhibit  such  a  dreadful 
conflagration..  The  return  of  jEmilianus  to 
Rome  was  that  of  another  conqueror  of  Hanni- 
bal, and  like  him  he  was  honored  with  a  mag- 
nificent triumph,  and  received  the  surname  of 
Africanus.  He  was  chosen  consul  a  second 
time,  and  appointed  to  finish  the  war  which  the 
Romans  had  hitherto  carried  on  without  success 
or  vigorous  exertions,  against  Numantia.  The 
fall  of  Numantia  was  more  noble  than  that  of 
the  capital  of  Africa,  and  the  conqueror  of  Car- 
thage obtained  the  victory  only  when  the  ene- 
mies had  been  consumed  by  famine  or  by  self- 
destruction,  B.  C.  133. 

For  his  conquests  in  Spain,  ^Emilianus  was 
honored  with  a  second  triumph,  and  with  the 
surname  of  Jfumantinus.  Yet  his  popularity 
was  short;  and  by  telling  the  people  that  the 
murder  of  their  favorite,  his  brother-in-law, 
Gracchua,  was  lawful,  since  he  was  turtmlent, 
and  inimical  to  the  peace  of  the  republic,  Scipio 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  tribunes,  and  was 
received  with  hisses.  His  authority  for  a  mo- 
meat  quelled  their  sedition,  when  he  reproach- 


ed them  for  their  cowardice,  and  exclaimed, 
"  Factious  wretches,  do  you  think  th.it  your 
clamors  can  intimidate  me  ;  me,  whom  the  fury 
of  your  enemies  never  daunted?  Is  this  the 
gratitude  that  you  owe  to  my  fattier  Paulus, 
who  conquered  Macedonia,  and  to  me  ?  With- 
out my  family,  you  were  slaves.  Is  this  the 
respect  you  owe  to  your  deliverers  ?  Is  this 
your  affection?"  This  firmness  silenced  the 
murmurs  of  the  assembly,  and  some  time  after, 
Scipio  retired  from  the  .clamors  of  Rome  to 
Caieta,  where,  with  his  friend  Lasiuis,  he  passed 
the  rest  of  his  time  in  innocent  pleasure  and 
amusement,  in  diversions  which  had  pleased 
them  when  children.  He  afterward  returned  to 
Rome,  and  again  engaged  in  public  affairs.  This 
active  part  of  Scipio  was  seen  with  pleasure  by 
the  friends  of  the  republic,  and  not  onlv  the 
senate,  but  also  the  citizens,  the  Latinsj  and 
neighboring  states,  conducted  their  illustrious 
friend  and  patron  to  his  house.  It  seemed  also 
the  universal  wish  that  the  troubles  might  be 
quieted  by  the  election  of  Scipio  to  the  dictator- 
ship ;  and  many  presume  that  that  honor  would 
be  conferred  upon  him.  In  this,  however,  the 
expectations  of  Rome  were  frustrated  :  Scipio 
was  found  dead  in  his  bed,  to  the  astonishment 
of  the  world ;  and  those  who  inquired  for  the 
causes  of  this  sudden  death,  perceived  violent 
marks  on  his  neck,  and  concluded  that  he  had 
been  strangled,  B.  C.  128. 

SCLA  VONIA,  a  province  in  the  south  of  the 
Austrian  empire.  It  formed,  under  the  Ro- 
mans, a  part  of  the  ancient  Illyria,  and  derived 
its  present  name  from  a  tribe  of  Sclavi.  or  Slavi, 
who  settled  here  in  the  Glh  century.  It  was 
overrun  by  the  Turks,  and  continued  in  their 
possession  about  170  years.  The  Franks,  in 
their  military  successes  before  and  during  the 
age  of  Charlemagne,  often  encountered  Sclavo- 
nic tribes,  and,  carrying  them  into  captivity, 
the  name  of  Slave,  or  Esclave,  became  synony- 
mous with  captive. 

SCOTLAND ;  a  country  of  Europe  forming 
the  northern  division  of  Great  Britain,  contain- 
ing 2-J,600  square  miles,  and  2,365,700  inhabi- 
tants. It  is  divided  by  the  Grampian  mountains 
into  two  parts,  the  Highlands  and  Lowlands. 

HIGHLAND    COUNTIES. 

Inverness. 


Orkney  (Isles) 

Caithness 

Sutherland 

Nairn 

Murray 

Banf 

Ross 

Cromarty 


Argyle 

deen 
:ardine 
ngus 

Perth 

Fife 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SCO 


501 


SCO 


LOWLAND    COUNTIES. 

Kinross  Ayr 

Clackmannan  Wigton 

Stirling  Lanark 

Dumbarton  Peebles 

West  Lothian  Selkirk 

Mid  Lothian  Roxbprgh 

East  Lothian  Dumfries 

Berwick  Kircudbright. 

Renfrew 

Scotland  contains  many  beautiful  lakes,  or 
lochs.  The  southern  part  of  Scotland  is  agree- 
ably diversified,  but  the  northern  contains  many 
mountains,  with  few  fertile  valleys.  Bennevis, 
one  of  the  summits  of  the  Grampian  mountains, 
rises  to  the  height  of  4,387  feet.  The  chief 
towns  are  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Paisley,  Aber- 
deen, Dundee,  Greenock,  Perth,  Dumfermline, 
Inverness.  Falkirk,  Kilmarnock,  and  Montrose. 
Scotland  is  noted  for  its  manufactures,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  are  cotton,  linen,  woollen,  and 
iron.  The  Scotch  are  Presbyterians.  The 
universities  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  St.  An- 
drew's, and  Aberdeen,  enjoy  great  celebrity; 
and  by  the  number  and  excellence  of  common 
schools,  the  Scotch  are  well-informed. 

This  part  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain  was 
ancie'ritly  called  Caledonia,  and  the  inhabitants 
Caledones,  who  were  of  Celtic  original,  and 
probably  those  tribes  of  the  Britons,  who  had 
wandered  the  farthest  northward.  In  the  fourth 
century  we  find  them  distinguished  into  Scots 
and  Picts.  In  85,  Agricola,  the  Roman  gene- 
ral, attempted  to  conquer  this  part  of  the  island, 
but  did  not  effect  the  conquest  of  more  than 
that  part  which  is  south  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde. 
In  121  Adrian  relinquished  more,  building  a 
wall  from  the  Solway  Frith  to  the  river  Tyne. 
In  144  the  Romans  extended  their  boundaries 
again  as  far  as  the  wall  of  Agricola:  but  Seve- 
rus,  though  he  invaded  the  whole  country  in 
208.  thought  proper  to  adhere  to  the  boundary 
of  Adrian. 

Upon  the  Romans  quitting  this  island  in  410, 
the  Scots  regained  the  possession  of  all  that  is 
now  called  Scotland,  and  made  excursions  very 
far  southward,  though  without  retaining  their 
conquests. 

About  839  the  Picts  are  said  to  have  been 
entirely  reduced  by  Kennet  II,  the  first  sole 
king  of  all  Scotland.  Donald,  brother  to  Ken- 
net,  reigned  four  years,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Constantine.  his  nepltw.  son  of  Kennet,  who 
being  made  prisoner  by  a  party  of  Danes, 
was  beheaded  by  the  enemy  in  a  cave,  after- 
wards called  the  Devil's  Cave.  He  was  suc- 


ceeded by  his  brother  Eth,  who,  after  a  reign 
of  one  year,  was  followed  by  Gregory,  surnamed 
the  Great.  The  king  of  Ireland  being  a  minor, 
his  authority  was  usurped  by  two  factious  no- 
blemen. Gregory  therefore"  passed  over  into 
that  country  as  guardian  of  the  young  king, 
and  after  appointing  a  regency,  he  returned 
into  Scotland,  where  he  finished  a  life  of  action 
and  of  glory  at  Dun-o-deer,  in  the  Garioch,  in 
892.  and  was  buried  with  his  ancestors  at  Icolm- 
kill. 

Donald  VI,  the  worthy  successor  of  Gregory, 
rendered  considerable  service  to  Alfred,  king 
of  England,  in  his  wars  with  the  Danes.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Constantine  III,  who,  depart- 
ing from  the  policy  of  his  predecessors,  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  the  Danes,  in  the  hope  of 
being  able  to  extend  his  dominions  by  their 
help.  But  he  was  disappointed.  After  failing 
in  an  expedition  against  England,  he  resigned 
his  crown  to  Malcolm,  and  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  the  solitude  of  the  cloister.  The 
connection  of  the  English  and  Scots  against 
the  Danes,  was  continued  under  Indulf,  who 
defeated  these  freebooters  in  many  bloody  en- 
gagements. His  successor  Duff"  resigned  his 
principality  of  Cumberland  to  Colin,  the  son  of 
Indulf;  but  the  latter,  not  contented  with  his 
domain,  excited  various  insurrections  in  the 
kingdom,  and  at  last  DufF  was  either  slain  or 
driven  into  exile. 

Colin  indulged  in  the  greatest  licentiousness, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Kennet  III,  the  son  of 
Malcolm,  who  vigorously  prosecuted  the  war 
against  the  Britons  of  Strathcluyd,  till  at  last 
their  principality  was  finally  subjected  to  the 
dominion  of  the  Scots.  However,  Kennet  was 
assassinated,  and  the  throne  was  usurped  by 
Constantine  the  Bold,  who  fell  in  an  engage- 
ment with  Grime,  the  son  of  Duff,  in  !><J3. 
Grime,  regardless  of  the  claims  of  Malcolm, 
son  of  Kennet.  and  prince  of  Cumberland,  caus- 
ed himself  to  be  crowned  at  Scone,  but  was 
defeated  and  slain  after  a  reign  of  eight  years. 

In  1004,  Malcolm  having  convened  the  nobil- 
ity, was  acknowledged  sovereign,  and  invested 
with  the  royal  dignity.  He  defeated  in  three 
different  engagements  the  Danes,  who  had  ef- 
fected a  settlement  in  Cambria ;  and  these  suc- 
cesses gained  him  the  title  of  the  most  victorious 
king.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  thirty  years, 
and  left  no  issue  to  succeed  him  except  Dun- 
can, a  grandson  by  his  daughter  Beatrix. 

Duncan  was  cut  off  by  the  hand  of  domestic 
treachery  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign,  and 
the  throne  was  usurped  by  his  murderer  Mac- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


SCO 


502 


SCO 


beth.  Consciousness  of  guilt  kept  alive  in  his 
breast  a  jealousy  which  prompted  him  to  re- 
peated acts  of"  cruelty  ;  and  he  put  to  death  Mac 
Gill,  then  Banquo,  the  most  powerful  man  in 
his  dominions,  with  the  wife  and  infant  children 
of  Macduft",  who  saved  his  own  life  by  flying 
into  England. 

Macdufl'  applied  himself  to  Malcolm,  son  of 
the  late  king  Duncan,  who  on  the  death  of  his 
father  had  escaped  to  his  principality  in  Cum- 
berland ;  and  having  obtained  assistance  from 
England,  they  made  war  on  the  usurper,  whom 
they  soon  drove  to  the  most  inaccessible  parts 
of  the  Highlands,  where,  after  defending  him- 
self for  the  space  of  two  years,  he  was  at  last 
killed  in  a  sally  by  Macduff.  Malcolm  mount- 
ed the  throne  of  his  fathers ;  he  married  Mar- 
garet of  England,  who  had  fled  to  Scotland  for 
safety  of  her  life.  Malcolm  engaged  in  war 
with  the  king  of  England,  and  after  laying 
waste  the  open  country,  besieged  A  In  wick,  in 
Northumberland. 

According  to  Scottish  historians,  the  place 
was  so  closely  pressed,  that  a  knight  came  out 
of  the  castle  with  its  keys  on  the  point  of  a 
spear,  and  pretending  that  he  wished  to  lay 
them  at  Malcolm's  feet,  that  prince  advanced 
to  receive  them,  and  was  by  the  traitor  run 
through  the  eye,  and  killed  on  the  spot.  They 
also  add,  that  the  prince  Edward  was  mortally 
wounded  in  endeavoring  to  avenge  his  father's 
death.  According  to  English  historians,  Mal- 
colm and  his  son  fell  in  battle,  and  their  army 
suffered  a  total  route. 

Margaret,  who  was  at  this  time  sick  at  Edin- 
burgh, being  informed  of  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band and  son,  made  confession,  received  the 
sacrament,  gave  her  dying  blessing  and  advice 
to  her  children,  and  expired.  Malcolm  and 
Margaret  left  six  children ;  Edmund,  Edgar, 
Alexander,  David,  Matilda,  and  Mary.  Ano- 
ther of  Malcolm's  sons  was  of  illegitimate  birth, 
and  was  called  Duncan. 

Donald,  the  brother  of  Malcolm,  presented 
himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  crown ;  but  the 
illegitimate  Duncan  advanced  his  pretensions 
with  great  firmness,  and  obliged  his  father's 
brother  to  relinquish.  In  order  to  support  him- 
self on  the  throne,  Duncan  called  in  the  Nor- 
wegians, renouncing  in  their  favor  all  claims 
on  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  isles.  But  those 
barbarians  rendering  themselves  more  odious 
than  ever  the  English  had  been,  the  nobles  re- 
nounced their  allegiance  to  Duncan,  and  placed 
on  the  throne  Malcolm's  eldest  son  Edgar,  who 
had  returned  to  Scotland  with  his  two  brothers, 


and  who,  after  a  reign  of  eight  years,  which  was 
disturbed  neither  by  domestic  conspiracy  nor 
foreign  wars,  died  in  the  year  J 107. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Alexander, 
who  being  also  destitute  of  progeny,  left  the 
crown  to  David,  the  last  of  Malcolm's  sons. 
Immediately  on  his  accession  a  contest  which 
had  for  some  time  prevailed,  concerning  the 
independence  of  the  Scottish  church,  was  re- 
newed. In  an  advanced  age  David  lost  his 
only  son  Henry,  but,  before  his  death,  which 
happened  in  the  year  1153,  he  caused  his  grand- 
son Malcolm  to  be  proclaimed  and  acknow- 
ledged heir  to  his  crown. 

Malcolm  IV,  who  was  only  twelve  or  fifteen 
years  of  age  at  the  time  of  his  accession,  ceded 
the  counties  of  Northumberland  and  Cumber- 
land to  Henry  II  of  England,  did  homage  for 
the  earldom  of  Huntingdon,  and  meeting  that 
monarch  at  Carlisle,  followed  him  in  his  expe- 
dition against  Toulouse  in  France.  On  his 
return  he  was  continually  disturbed  with  insur- 
rections, and  was  saved  only  by  the  intervention 
of  the  clergy.  He  died  unmarried  at  the  age 
of  twenty-five  years. 

William  was  crowned  immediately  after  his 
brother's  death,  in  1105,  and  entering  into  a 
confederacy  against  Henry  king  of  England, 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner.  William  ac- 
cepted his  liberation  on  the  most  humiliating 
terms ;  five  castles  being  delivered  up  to  the 
English  as  sureties,  and  the  king's  brother 
and  twenty  nobles  as  hostages.  The  accession 
of  Richard  to  the  English  throne  was,  however, 
fortunate  for  Scotland.  He  released  William 
and  his  kingdom  from  that  feudal  dependency 
on  England,  which  had  been  unjustly  extorted 
from  him  during  his  captivity,  and  engaged  to 
restore  his  fortresses.  William  reigned  forty - 
nine  years,  and  died  in  the  seventy-second  year 
of  his  age. 

His  son  and  successor,  Alexander  II,  settled 
by  treaty  the  claims  which  had  been  ihe  sub- 
jects of  contest  between  the  two  crowns,  and 
procured  for  himself  a  reign  as  peaceable  as 
could  be  expected  in  a  nation  full  of  turbulent 
nobles.  Alexander  III  was  only  nine  years  of 
age  when  he  was  crowned.  Ambassadors  were 
sent  to  London  to  demand  Henry's  daughter 
in  marriage  ;  and  this  being  easily  granted, both 
courts  met  at  York,  and  the  ceremony  was  per- 
formed with  great  pomp.  Alexander  did  hom- 
age to  Henrv  for  his  English  possessions,  which 
the  latter  confirmed  by  I  charter. 

The  king  saw  himself  bereft  of  all  his  chil- 
dren, except  Margaret,  who  was  married  to 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SCO 


503 


SCO 


Eric  of  Norway ;  and  in  the  third  year  after  her 
marriage  she  also  died,  leaving  only  an  infant 
daughter,  on  whom  the  crown  of  Scotland  was 
settled.  Alexander  was  thrown  from  his  horse 
over  a  precipice,  and  perished  in  the  fall.-  Ed- 
ward, who  was  one  of  the  most  valiant  and 
politic  monarchs  that  ever  sat  on  the  English 
throne,  being  ambitious  of  adding  Scotland  to 
the  dominions  of  his  crown,  applied  to  the  court 
of  Rome  to  authorise  a  marriage  between  his 
son  and  his  grand-niece,  and  having  gained  the 
consent  of  Eric,  he  intrigued  with  the  Scottish 
nobles  to  obtain  their  concurrence.  Every 
thing  seemed  to  favor  his  views,  when  the  child 
was  taken  ill  on  the  passage  from  Norway,  and 
died  at  Orkney. 

The  Scots  now  saw  full  before  them  the  un- 
happy prospect  of  a  disputed  succession,  war 
with  England,  and  intestine  discord.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  avoid  the  miseries  of  a  civil  war, 
both  parties  made  choice  of  Edward  as  umpire, 
and  agreed  to  aquiesce  in  his  decree.  The  chief 
competitors  for  the  crown  were  Bruce  and  Ba- 
liol. both  descendants  of  David,  earl  of  Hun- 
tingdon, who  was  brother  to  the  two  kings, 
Malcolm  and  William. 

Edward  advanced  with  a  great  army  to  the 
frontiers  of  Scotland,  whither  he  invited  the 
nobility  and  all  the  competitors  to  attend  him. 
However,  in  the  character  of  umpire,  the  king 
of  England  arrogated  to  himself  the  feudal  sov- 
ereignly* of  tUe  kingdom,  compelled  all  the  ba- 
rons to  swear  allegiance  to  him,  and  took  pos- 
session of  all  the  fortresses  with  his  troops. 

One  hundred  and  four  commissioners  being 
appointed  to  examine  the  several  claims,  gave 
their  verdict  in  favor  of  Baliol,  who  was  crown- 
ed accordingly  in  1292. 

But  Baliol  renouncing  his  allegiance  soon 
after,  the  indignant  Edward  invaded  Scotland 
with  an  immense  army,  and  compelled  this 
weak  prince  to  submit  and  make  a  solemn  and 
irrevocable  resignation  of  his  crown  into  t!ie 
hands  of  the  king  of  England.  National  ani- 
mosities, and  the  insolence  of  victory,  conspired 
to  render  the  English  government  intolerable 
to  the  Scots,  who  bore  with  the  utmost  impa- 
tience a  yoke,  to  which,  from  the  earliest  period 
of  their  monarchy,  they  had  always  been  unac- 
customed. 

In  129(5,  Sir  William  Wallace,  whose  mag- 
nanimous soul  could  no  longer  brook  to  see  his 
country  torn  by  factions,  deserted  by  its  chiefs, 
and  oppressed  by  foreigners,  bravely  stepped 
forth  to  re-unite  the  friends  of  liberty  under  his 
banner,  and  undertook  several  enterprises,  all 
43 


of  which  added  to  the  glory  of  his  name,  and 
to  the  number  of  his  followers,  till  at  length  he 
obtained  a  numerous  army. 

The  Scots  were  now  forced  to  the  cruel  ex- 
pedient of  putting  to  the  sword  every  English- 
man they  found  in  arms.  King  Edward,  who 
was  then  in  France,  ordered  the  earl  of  Surrey 
to  suppress  this  daring  insurrection ;  and  lord 
Henry  Percy  marched  at  the  head  of  an  army 
of  forty  thousand  men  against  Wallace.  The 
latter  retreated  northward,  where  he  was  joined 
by  new  adherents ;  and  when  Warrene  advanc- 
ed to  Stirling,  he  found  Wallace  encamped  in 
excellent  order  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
Forth. 

A  desperate  engagement  ensued,  in  which 
the  English  were  utterly  defeated,  and  obliged 
to  evacuate  the  kingdom.  This  success  pro- 
cured Wallace  the  title  of  Guardian ;  but  he 
still  acknowledged  the  captive  king,  Balioi 
However,  the  cause  \f  as  ruined  by  the  jealousy 
of  the  nobles.  The  English  monarch  returned 
from  France,  and  marched  into  Scotland  at  the 
head  of  seventy  thousand  men.  Wallace  now 
voluntarily  resigned  his  authority,  and  retained 
only  one  corps  that  refused  to  fight  under  any 
other  leader.  The  English  army  came  up  with 
the  enemy  near  Falkirk,  and  defeated  and  dis- 
persed the  Scots  with  great  slaughter. 

At  length,  with  much  difficulty,  Edward 
completed  the  conquest  of  Scotland,  without 
being  able  to  seize  or  subdue  the  patriotic  Wal- 
lace. Disappointed  in  all  his  schemes  for  that 
purpose,  he  did  not  disdain  to  stoop  to  treach- 
ery ;  and  Sir  William  was  basely  betrayed  by 
a  traitor,  and  sent  to  London,  where  he  was 
tried  and  barbarously  put  to  death  as  a  rebel. 
Robert  Bruce,  the  restorer  of  the  Scottish 
throne,  and  father  of  a  new  race  of  kings,  was 
the  grandson  of  the  competitor  of  Baliol  for  the 
crown. 

Having  resolved  to  quit  the  court  of  Edward, 
to  whom  his  father  and  grandfather  had  meanly 
sworn  allegiance,  he  contrived  to  escape,  and 
to  join  the  Scotch  patriots  of  Lochmaben.  Af- 
ter collecting  what  forces  he  could,  in  1306,  he 
attacked  the  English,  who  were  unprepared, 
and  having  gained  possession  of  several  castles, 
he  was  solemnly  crowned  at  Scone.  King  Ed- 
ward immediately  dispatched  Aymer  de  Val- 
ence into  Scotland,  who,  falling  in  with  Bruce 
at  Methven,  attacked  him,  and  notwithstanding 
a  most  vigorous  resistance,  totally  defeated  the 
Scottish  army. 

Bruce  fled  almost  unattended,  to  the  Western 
Isles,  where  he  wandered  about  for  some  time 


•-.* 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


SCO 


504 


SCO 


in  distress ;  but  Edward  dying  on  his  way  to 
Scotland,  Bruce  was  delivered  from  a  powerful 
enemy,  and  his  party  daily  increased.  In  1313 
Edward  II  assembled  his  whole  forces,  amount- 
ing, according  to  the  Scottish  historians,  to  one 
hundred  thousand  men.  Robert's  army  did 
not  exceed  thirty  thousand  men,  but  they  were 
men  of  tried  valor.  He  encamped  beside  a 
rivulet  called  Bannockburn,  near  Stirling,  the 
castle  of  which  had  been  long  besieged  by  the 
Scots.  Edward  being  determined  to  relieve  it, 
the  two  armies  commenced  an  engagement, 
which  lasted  for  a  long  time,  and  in  which  both 
sides  displayed  great  bravery. 

However,  the  English  at  length  betook  them- 
selves to  flight,  and=were  pursued  by  the  Scots, 
who  made  a  great  slaughter.  King  Edward 
with  difficulty  escaped  toDunbar:  the  flower 
of  his  nobility  fell  in  this  battle,  and  the  liberty 
of  Scotland  triumphed.  However,  it  was  not 
till  the  deposition  of  Edw&d  that  Robert  Bruce 
wrested  from  England  a  solemn  renunciation 
of  all  claims  on  Scotland,  and  secured  a  peace 
by  marrying  his  son  David  to  Joan,  sister  to 
Edward'HI. 

Thus  ended  the  glorious  conflict  of  Robert 
for  the  independence  of  his  crown,  after  a  reign 
of  24  years.  During  the  minority  of  David, 
Edward,  son  of  John  Baliol,  being  supported 
by  the  Enorlish,  invaded  Scotland  in  1332,  was 
proclaimed  king,  and,  like  his  father,  did  hom- 
age as  vassal  of  England.  David,  with  his 
queen,  found  refuge  in  France;  but  Edward 
Baliol  dismembering  his  kingdom  in  favor  of 
the  English,  lost  the  affections  of  his  subjects. 
David  returning  from  France,  repulsed  Ba- 
liol, and  was  himself  taken  prisoner  near  Dur- 
ham. Baliol  resigned  his  claims  to  Edward, 
who,  soon  after,  acknowledged  David  as  king, 
and  restored  him  to  liberty  on  condition  of  his 
paying  a  great  ransom. 

David,  leaving  no  progeny,  was  succeeded 
by  Robert  II,  grandson  of  Bruce,  and  the  first 
king  of  the  Stuart  family.  In  1371,  the  war 
with  England  was  renewed,  and  continued 
with  little  interruption  to  the  end  of  this  reign. 
Robert  III  refused  to  do  homage  for  his  crown 
to  Henry  IV.  In  1390,  understanding  that  his 
eldest  son  was  starved  to  death  by  his  uncle, 
the  duke  of  Albany,  and  wishing  to  secure  his 
surviving  child  James,  he  made  him  embark 
for  France;  but  his  ill-fated  stars  threw  the 
prince  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  the 
father  fell  a  prey  to  his  grief,  on  being  told  of 
his  son's  captivity  in  the  tower  of  London. 
James  was  still  detained  in  the  hands  of  king 


Henry ;  and  the  regency  of  the  duke  of  Albany, 
his  uncle,  the  murderer  of  his  brother,  was  rec- 
ognised in  Scotland  in  1405. 

After  a  Ion?  captivity  he  was  restored  to  his 
kingdom,  which  he  •  governed  thirteen  years, 
when  he  was  barbarously  assassinated.  New 
broils  attended  the  minority  of  James  II,  who 
was  only  seven  years  old  at  the  time  of  his  ac- 
cession in  1437.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  the 
young  king  assumed  the  reins  of  government, 
but  he  was  soon  after  killed  by  the  bursting  of 
a  cannon  at  the  siege  of  Roxburgh. 

James  III  succeeded  him  in  1460.  After 
marrying  Margaret  of  Denmark,  he  gave  him- 
self up  to  astrology,  and  through  jealousy  made 
away  with  his  own  brother,  the  earl  oV  Mar. 
while  the  duke  of  Albany,  the  other  brother, 
escaped  to  France.  Being  invited  to  England, 
now  again  at  war  with  her  northern  neigh- 
bor, the  duke  of  Albany  took  the  title  of  Alex- 
ander, kincr  of  Scotland,  by  the  gift  of  Edward, 
and  niarched  to  the  borders  But  a  treaty  being 
concluded,  Albany  returned  to  his  allegiance. 
and  to  his  brother's  favor.  Albany,  however, 
again  withdrew  to  England  ;  and  n  fresh  con- 
spiracy being  formed  against  James,  the  rebels 
prevailed  on  the  kincr's  son,  the  young  duke 
of  Rothsay,  to  head  their  army.  An  engage- 
ment took  place  near  Bannockburn.  in  which 
the  rebels  were  successful,  and  the  king,  in 
his  flight,  was  thrown  from  his  horse,  and~car- 
ried  to  the  first  hovel,  where  he  was  stabbed  to 
the  heart  bv  one  of  the  insurgents. 

JAMES  IV  succeeded  his  father  in  1483.  At 
the  instigation  of  the  French  court,  he  rashly 
entered  into  a  war  against  Henry  VIII,  brother 
of  his  queen,  and,  notwithstanding  the  advice 
of  his  best  counsellors,  led  an  army  into  Eng- 
land, where,  at  the  memorable  battle  of  Flodden 
field,  he  lost  the  flower  of  his  nobility  and  his 
own  life. 

JAMES  V  being  only  two  years  old  at  the 
death  of  his  father,  his" mother  Margaret,  sister 
to  the  king  of  England,  was  appointed  regent 
and  guardian  by  the  will  of  her  husband.  The 
young  king  assumed  the  government  at  the 
age  of  thirteen,  in  1513,  with  a  council  of  eight ; 
but  he  soon  shook  off  the  yoke  of  his  council. 
Henry  VIII  having  proclaimed  war  against 
Scotland,  an  inroad  was  planned  on  the  west- 
ern borders ;  but  James  despising  and  distrust- 
ing his  nobles,  gave  the  command  of  the  army 
to  a  man  of  less  note.  This  instill  prnvoked  the 
troops,  who  refused  to  fight  at  the  Raid  of  Sol- 
way  Moss,  and  ten  thousand  men  laid  down  their 
arms  before  five  hundred  English,  without 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


SCO 


505 


SCO 


striking  a  blow.  These  sad  tidings  broke  the 
proud  heart  of  James,  who  refused  from  that 
moment  to  take  any  sustenance,  and,  after  lan- 
guishing some  days,  expired  in  the  thirty-first 
year  of  his  age. 

Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  was  born  a  few  days 
before 'the  death  of  her  father.  The  disasters 
of  her  reign  began  and  ended  only  with  her 
life.  At  an  early  age  Mary  was  sent  to  France, 
where  she  was  brought  up  at  the  court  of  Henry 
II,  whose  eldest  son  Francis  was  destined  to 
be  her  husband.  The  minority  of  Mary  Stuart 
was  agitated  by  great  disturbances  ;  and  the  re- 
gency was  cla'inied  by  different  competitors  as 
a  privilege  of  blood  or  family  appanage.  At 
length,  the  queen  abandoned  the  helm  of  gov- 
ernment to  any  adventurer  who  might  wish  to 
seize  it.  The  tempests  excited  by  ambition  and 
jealousy,  were  increased  by  the  gusts  of  religi- . 
ous  fanaticism. 

Popery  struggled  against  the  Reformation 
with  an  already  evident  disadvantage  ;  and  the 
vessel  of  state,  buffetted  by  those  storms,  was 
every  moment  in  imminent  danger  of  eink- 
ing. 

At  this  critical  situation  of  affairs,  Mary  re- 
turned to  assume  the  sovereignty  of  her  king- 
dom after  the  death  of  Francis  II.  who  had  left 
her  a  widow  at  the  age  of  eighteen  years.  By 
assuming  the  title  of  queen  of  England  on  the 
death  of  Henry  VIII,  she  excited  the  jealousy 
of  Elizabeth,  who  succeeded  to  the  English 
throne,  and  who  never  pardoned  her  cousin  this 
assertion  of  her  rights.  The  religious  dissen- 
sions by  which  Scotland  was  divided,  were  ef- 
fectually subservient  to  the  views  of  Elizabeth, 
who  gained  the  affections  of  the  reformed  party, 
and  excited  their  suspicions  against  their  sove- 
reign, Mary  being  sprung  from  the  blood  of  the 
Guises,  and  niece  to  the  cardinal  de  Lorraine, 
who  was  the  scourge  of  the  Protestants. 

To  their  religious  and  political  opinions  the 
young  queen  could  not  reconcile  herself,  and 
hence  arose  a  decided  aversion  between  the 
sovereign  and  her  subjects.  Her  council  in- 
duced her  to  re-marry,  and  she  gave  her  hand 
to  her  cousin  Henry  lord  Darnley.  This  mar- 
riage displeased  Elizabeth.  Soon  after  Mary's 
marriage  with  Darnley,  she  became  disgusted 
with  his  deceit  and  plausibility.  Darnley,  think- 
ing this  change  of  disposition  was  occasioned 
by  her  having  conceived  a  passion  for  some 
other  man,  unjustly  suspected  David  Rizzio,  an 
Italian  musician.  However,  he  soon  found 
a  set  of  willing  accomplices  in  the  execution  of 
vengeance  against  his  wife  ;  and,  accordingly, 


one  evening,  while  the  queen  was  at  nupper 
with  the  countess  of  Argyle,  Henry  conducted 
the  confederates  by  a  private  staircase  into  the 
queen's  apartment,  whore  they  seized  Rizzio, 
and  after  dragging  him  into  an  adjoining  room, 
despatched  linn  with  fifty-six  wounds. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  grief  and  indigna- 
tion of  Mary  on  this  occasion  ;  but,  finding  her- 
self entirely  in  the  power  of  the  conspirators, 
she  was  obliged  to  dissemble.  On  the  19th  of 
June,  15C6,  at  Edinburgh  Castle,  she  bore  her 
only  son,  afterwards  James  VI  of  Scotland,  and 
I  of  England.  At  length,  after  a  series  of  tra- 
gicnl  disasters.  Mary  placed  herself  in  the  hands 
of  Elizabeth,  by  whose  order  she  was  executed 
at  Fotheringay  castle  in  1587.  (See  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.) 

All  the  rights  and  pretensions  of  Mary  now 
devolved  upon  her  son,  who  was  considered,  as 
well  by  Catholics  as  Protestants,  as  the  pre- 
sumptive heir  to  the  throne  of  England,  and  the 
rightful  sovereign  of  Scotland.  The  pacific 
disposition  and  the  clemency  of  James  towards 
offenders,  multiplied  crimes  of  all  kinds,  and 
encouraged  such  acts  of  violence  as  brought  his 
government  under  contempt.  All  was  foment- 
ed by  the  intrigues  of  Elizabeth,  who  still  strove 
to  retain  James  weak,  by  keeping  his  afrairs 
continually  embroiled.  On  the  death  of  Eliza- 
beth, in  1003,  the  lords  of  the  privy  council 
proclaimed  James  king  of  England. 

Before  this  monarch  left  Scotland  to  take  pos- 
session of  his  new  kingdom,  he  had  with  great 
zeal  labored  to  civilize  the  northern  and  west- 
ern Highlands.  He  was  himself  a  scholar ;  and 
to  his  love  of  learning  the  Scots  are  indebted 
for  the  parochial  schools,  which  afford  the  com- 
mon people  so  much  advantage  in  point  of  edu- 
cation, over  other  countries.  He  encouraged 
trade  and  the  fisheries,  and  greatly  promoted 
the  industry  of  his  subjects.  In  1C03,  he  took 
his  farewell.  By  means  of  the  king's  accession 
to  the  English  throne,  the  regal  power  in  Scot- 
land acquired  additional  strength;  and  Jamea 
attempted  to  avnil  himself  of  this  circumstance 
for  the  union  of  both  the  national  churches  and 
the  kingdom  into  one.  After  a  reign  and  life 
of  nearly  50  years,  James  was  seized  with  his 
last  illness,  which  some  affirm  to  have  been 
caused  by  poison.  Charles  I  entered  Edinburgh 
with  great  magnificence,  and  was  crowned  at 
Holyroodhouse.  In  the  Parliament  which  was 
now  summoned,  the  lords  of  the  articles  brought 
in  a  bill  for  confirming  the  royal  prerogative,  to- 
gether with  the  power  granted  to  the  late  king 
to  prescribe  apparel  to  churchmen  with  their 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


SCO 


506 


SCO 


own  consent.  This  unpopular,  and  indeed  fri- 
volous and  vexatious  bill,  passed  through  Parlia- 
ment, and  received  the  royal  sanction  ;  and  un- 
der Laud,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  Spots- 
wood  the  historian,  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews, 
the  king  proceeded  to  introduce  a  book  of  liturgy 
into  the  public  worship  of  the  Scottish  churches. 
These  measures  excited  the  most  general  dis- 
content, and  produced  the  most  violent  com- 
motions. 

A  civil  war  at  length  became  unavoidable;  and 
the  covenanters  prepared  for  it  with  vigor  and 
resolution.  They  received  arms,  ammunition, 
and  money,  from  France,  and  other  countries ; 
and  no  regularly  established  commonwealth 
could  take  wiser  measures.  Lesley,  a  soldier 
of  experience  and  ability,  the  earl  o*f  Montrose, 
a  youth  of  heroic  genius,  with  other  leaders  of 
the  party,  all  of  them  men  of  sense  and  resolu- 
tion, conducted  the  military  affairs.  After 
seizing  and  fortifying  the  most  important  places 
of  strength  in  the  kingdom  they  invaded  Eng- 
land, and  compelled  the  royal  forces  to  retreat 
to  York. 

At  this  period,  the  English  rebels  courted  a 
closer  union  with  their  Scottish  friends,  and 
agreed  to  receive  the  solemn  league  and  cove- 
nant, to  preserve  the  reformed  religion  establish- 
ed in  the  church  of  Scotland,  and  to  reform  Eng- 
land and  Iieland,  according  to  the  word  of  God, 
and  the  example  of  the  purest  churches.  Accord- 
ingly asubsidiary  army  of  20,000  Scots  hastened 
to  join  Lord  Fairfax,  and  effectually  assisted  him 
in  reducing  the  city  of  York.  While  the  king's 
affairs  declined  in  England,  the  brave  Montrose 
had  left  tl»e  Scottish  army,  and  raised  the  royal 
standard  in  the  north.  This  active  nobleman, 
having  raised  a  supply  of  1200  troops  from  Ire- 
land, Hastened  to  take  the  command  of  this 
auxiliary  force,  and  several  more  flocked  to  his 
standard.  He  attacked  and  defeated  a  party  of 
the  covenanters,  6000  in  number,  under  Tulli- 
bardine  ;  and  Perth  opened  its  gates  to  thp  vic- 
tor, and  was  laid  under  contribution.  At  Aber- 
deen, Montrose  gained  a  second  victory  over 
the  troops  under  Lord  Burleigh,  and  laid  waste 
the  country  of  Argyle.  Montrose  gained  in 
succession  the  victories  of  Auldearn,  Alford, 
and  Kilsyth,  but  his  whole  army  was  destroyed 
at  Philiphaugh  by  the  troops  under  Sir  David 
Lesley,  and  he  was  never  able  afterwards  t  > 
bring  a  formidable  force  into  the  field,  notwith- 
standing all  the  efforts  he  could  make. 

The  fortunes  of  Charles  being  now  ruined  in 
England,  he  was  reduced  to  the  desperate  ex- 
pedient of  seeking  refuge  in  the  heart  of  an 


army  which  was  in  open  rebellion  ag.xinst  him. 
The  immediate  .consequences  of  this  fatal  step 
were  orders  expedited  to  his  adherents  to  lay 
down  their  arms.  Montrose  obeyed,  and  retir- 
ed to  France.  The  English  parliament  demand- 
ing of  the  Scottish  army  the  person  of  the  king, 
they  preferred  delivering  him  up  rather  than 
go  to  war  in  his  defence.  The  kingdom  was, 
however,  divided  into  two  parties,  and  the  duke 
of  Hamilton  and  the  majority  in  parliament,  in 
opposition  to  the  church,  succeeded  in  raising  a 
numerous  army  to  support  the  king  against 
Cromwell  and  his  adherents,  who  appeared  to 
entertain  designs  totally  hostile  both  to  the 
king's  person  and  government:  with  this  army 
they  set  forward  to  invade  England,  and  to  reJ- 
tore  the  king  to  his  ancient  rights.  But  the 
violent  party  considered  it  the  height  of  impiety 
to  fight  for  an  uncovenanted  king. 

The  Scotch  troops,  not  daring  to  unite  them- 
selves with  the  English  royalists  who  had  re- 
fused the  covenant,  both  armies  were  easily 
destroyed  by  Cromwell,  who,  after  exercising 
the  severest  vengeance  against  the  friends  of 
Charles  in  Scotland,  returned  in  triumph  to 
England,  and  brought  Charles  to  public  trial 
and  execution.  The  covenanters  now  declar- 
ed for  the  young  king,  Charles  II,  then  in 
Holland,  on  condition  of  his  becoming  the  pu- 
pil of  Presbyterianism,  and  taking  the  covenant. 
Montrose  was  despatched  to  the  Orkneys,  to 
make  an  attempt  lor  the  king's  restoration  on 
better  terms;  but  being  attacked  by  a  much 
superior  force,  he  was  defeated,  and  put  to  death 
in  1650.  With  him  were  executed  Spotswood, 
Hay,  Sibbald.  and  Ury  of  Urry,  all  friends  to 
the  royal  cause. 

Charles  II  now  sailed  from  Holland  for  the 
Scottish  coast,  and  threw  himself  entirely  into 
the  hands  of  the  covenanters,  who  required  him 
to  sign  the  covenant,  and  exhorted  him  to  be 
faithful  to  that  holy  confederacy.  Cromwell 
inarched  into  Scotland  against  tfie  now  royal 
covenanters,  whom  he  attacked,  and  defeated  at 
Dunbar.  Notwithstanding  this  defeat,  the  roy- 
alists in  Scotland  increased. 

Charles  was  crowned  at  Scone  on  the  1st  of 
January,  1651  ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  take  the 
covenant,  and  to  undergo  other  mortifications. 
Cromwell,  however,  succeeded  in  an  attempt  to 
cut  off  the  royalists  from  all  their  communica- 
tions with  the  north  and  the  Highlands ;  and 
when  they  invaded  England,  defeated  them  at 
Worcester.  Charles  escaped,  and  at  last  took 
shipping  from  the  coast  of  Sussex,  and  arrived 
safe  at  Feschamp  in  Normandy. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SCO 


507 


SCO 


After  the  restoration  of  Charles  II,  in  1GGO, 
the  Parliament  was  opened  with  unusual  splen- 
dor at  Edinburgh ;  and  in  the  proceedings  of 
this  assembly,  the  royal  prerogative  was  exalted 
to  a  pitch  of  despotism.  Deprived  at  last  of 
public  worship,  the  persecuted  Presbyterians 
rose  in  open  rebellion.  On  the  Pentland  hills 
they  were  met  by  the  king's  forces,  under  Dal- 
ziel,  and  were  routed  with  considerable  slaugh- 
ter, at  the  first  onset.  Commotions  and  insur- 
rections multiplied  during  the  whole  reign  of 
Charles  II,  who  attempted,  sometimes  by  gentle 
means,  and  sometimes  by  acts  of  severity,  to 
crush  Presbyterianism,  and  to  induce  the  people 
to  substitute  another  form  of  church  govern- 
ment. 

Though  the  people  of  England,  as  well  as  the 
Parliament  of  Scotland,  had  made  a  surrender 
to  the  crown  of  all  their  constitutional  rights, 
in  1685,  the  history  of  the  reign  of  James  VII 
proves  how  little  dependence  is  to  be  placed  on 
those  professions.  James  was  not  ignorant  of 
the  intrigues  and  ambition  of  his  son-in-law, 
the  prince  of  Orange,  with  whom  Monmouth, 
Argyle,  Dalrymple,  afterwards  earl  of  Stair, 
Burnet,  soon  to  be  bishop  of  Sarum,  and  the 
English  and  Scotch  exiles,  found  refuge.  The 
insurrections  occasioned  by  Argyle  and  Mon- 
mouth widened  the  breach  between  the  unfor- 
tunate monarch  and  his  disaffected  subjects. 

James  proposed  to  his  Scottish  Parliament  a 
relaxation  of  the  penal  laws  against  the  Roman 
Catholics ;  but  the  proposal  was  received  with 
such  coldness,  that  the  chancellor  thought  it 
prudent  to  drop  the  bill  entirely.  However,  the 
court  issued  declarations  in  favor  of  Presbyte- 
rians, of  Quakers,  of  Roman  Catholics,  and  at 
last  "  suspended  all  penal  and  sanguinary  laws 
for  nonconformity  to  the  religion  established  by 
law."  The  Presbyterians  of  Edinburgh,  and  the 
ministers  all  over  Scotland,  gladly  accepted  of 
this  toleration,  and  thanked  the  king  for  his 
protection. 

In  1638,  James,  finding  himself  abandoned 
by  his  friends,  fled  ;  and  his  constrained  flight 
was  pronounced  an  abdication  of  the  throne  of 
Scotland.  Indifferent  as  to  modes  of  religion, 
William  treated  with  Presbyterians  as  well 
as  Episcopalians.  The  throne  was  declar- 
ed vacant  by  the  convention  ;  and  William  ac- 
cepted of  the  crown  tendered  to  him  by  a  deputa- 
tion from  the  states,  and,  with  his  spouse,  took 
a  coronation  oath.  By  a  majority  of  the  votes 
in  Parliament,  William  was  "reluctantly  prevail- 
ed on  to  repeal  the  constitution  of  the  lords 
of  articles,  to  abandon  the  patronage  and  the 
43* 


supremacy  over  the  church,  and  to  re-establish 
Presbytery. 

William,  after  a  fruitless  attempt  to  gain  the 
chieftains  by  pecuniary  offers,  issued  a  procla 
mation  denouncing  military  execution  against 
all  who  should  not  before  the  expiration  of  the 
year  take  an  oath  of  fealty  to  him.  William 
dying  in  1702.  the  accession  of  queen  Anne 
gave  new  hopes  to  the  pretender,  son  of  the 
late  king  James,  and  his  adherents. 

William  had  never  dissolved  the  Convention 
Parliament.  The  members  of  this  Parliament 
assembled,  and  empowered  the  queen  to  nomi- 
nate commissioners  for  treating  of  an  union. 
The  commissioners  repaired  to  London,  to  treat 
with  those  appointed  in  England.  At  length, 
the  whole  of  the  articles  of  the  union  were 
completed  and  signed  by  all  the  Scottish  com- 
missioners excepting  one,  who  was  Lockhart  of 
Carnwarth.  Notwithstanding  the  strong  op- 
position which  this  measure  experienced,  on 
Thursday  the  IGth  of  January,  1707,  the  whole 
articles  of  the  union  were,  without  any  material 
alteration,  approved  by  a  legal  majority  in  Par- 
liament ;  and  the  lord  high  commissioner,  touch- 
ing the  act  with  the  sceptre,  sanctioned  it  with 
that  consent  of  the  crown,  which  was  requisite 
to  give  it  in  Scotland  the  force  of  a  law.  The 
treaty  of  union,  thus  finally  ratified  by  the  Sco- 
tish  Parliament,  was  immediately  transmitted 
to  London,  where  it  was  equally  honored  by 
the  sanction  of  the  Parliament  and  the  royal 
consent.  On  the  28th  of  April,  the  Scottish 
Parliament  was  dissolved,  never  more  to  be  as- 
sembled; and  the  Scots  and  English  were  hence 
forth  to  be  one  people. 

KINGS  OF  SCOTLAND. 

Fergus  I.  B.  C.  330 

Feritharis  —  305 

Mainus  —  290 

Dornadilla  —  261 

Nolhatus  —  233 

Reutherus  —  213 

Reuthra  —  187 

Thereus  —  173 

Josina  —  161 

Finnanus  —  137 

Durstus  —  107 

Evenus  I.  —  98 

Gillus  —  79 

Evenus  II.  —  77 

Ederus  —  60 

Evenus  III.  —  12 

Metallanus  —  5 

Caractacus  A.  D.  32 

Corbred  I.  —54 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


SCO 


Dardanus 
Corbred  II. 
Luctacus 
Mogaldus 
Conarus 
Ethodius  I. 
Satrael 
Donald  I. 
Ethodius  II. 
Achiro 
Nathalocus 
Findocus 
Donald  II. 
Donald  III. 
Crathilinthus 
Finchormarchus 
Romaclms 
Angusianus  or 
Fethelmachus 
F.ugenius  I. 
Fergus  II. 
Eugenius  II. 
Dongard 
Cons  tan  tine  I. 
Congale  1. 
Goran  I. 
Eugenius  III. 
Congale  II. 
Kinnatellus 
Aidan 
Kennet  I. 
Eugenius  IV. 
Ferchard  II. 
Donald  IV. 
Ferchard  I. 
Maldwin 

Eugenius  V. 
Eugenius  VI. 

Amberchelet 

Eugenius  VII. 

Mordac 

Etfinius 

Eugenius  VIII. 

Fergus  III. 

Solvatius 

Achaius 

Congale  III. 

Dongal 

Alpin 

Kennet  II. 

Donald  V. 

Constantine  II. 

Ethus 

Gregory 

Donald  VI. 

Constantine  III 


503 

70 
72 

104 

107 

142 

161 

193 

197 

216 

230 

242 

252 

262 

263 

277 

320 

368 

371 

373 

376 

413 

419 

451 

457 

479 

501 

545 

548 

568 

569 
604 
606 
622 
632 
646 
664 
684 
GH7 
697 
698 
715 
730 
761 
763 
766 
767 
819 
824 
831 
834 
854 
858 
874 
876 
892 
903 


SCO 


Malcolm  I.  —  938 

Indulphus  —  958 

Duphus  —  9fW 

Cullenus  —  972 

Kennet  III.  —  973 

Constantine  IV.  —  994 

Grimus  —  996 

Malcolm  II.  —  10U4 

Duncan  —  1034 

Macbeth  —  1040 

Malcolm  III.  —  1057 

Donald  VII.  —  1093 

Duncan  II.  —  1095 

Donald  VII.  again  —  1095 

Interregnum  —  1096 

Edgar  —  101)7 

Alexander  I.  —  1107 

David  I.  —  1124 

Malcolm  IV.  —  1153 

William  —  1165 

Alexander  II.  —  1214 

Alexander  III.  —  1240 

Interregnum  —  1245 

John  Baliol  —  121)2 

Robert  I.  —  1306 

David  II.  —  1329 

Edward  Baliol  —  1332 

David  II.  again  —  1341 

Robert  II.  —  1371 

John  Robert  —  1390 

James  I.  —  1405 

James  II.  -  1437 

James  III.  —  1460 

James  IV.  —  1488 

James  V.  —  1513 

Mary  Stuart  —  1542 

James  VI.  —  1567 

SCOTT,  sir  Walter,  baronet,  the  eldest  son 
of  Walter  Scott,  was  born  in  the  city  of  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland,  Aug.  15,  1771 .  It  is  proper  to 
remark  that  his  mother  was  a  lady  of  talent,  the 
friend  of  Burns  and  Ramsay,  and  the  author  of 
some  meritorious  verses.  Sir  Walter  was  edu- 
cated at  the  high  school  of  Edinburgh,  and  at 
the  university.  At  an  early  age,  he  was  cele- 
brated as  a  story-teller,  "  when  the  applause  of 
his  companions  was  his  recompense  for  the  dis- 
grace and  punishments  which  the  future  ro- 
mance-writer incurred  by  being  idle  himself, 
and  keeping  others  idle,  during  hours  that  should 
have  be^n  employed  on  their  tasks." 

Sir  Walter  Scott's  account  of  his  birth  and 
circumstances  is  characterized  by  his  usual  mod- 
esty. 

"  My  birth,  without  giving  the  least  preten- 
sion to  distinction,  was  that  of  a  gentleman,  and 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SCO 


509 


SCO 


connected  me  with  several  respectable  families 
and  accomplished  persons.  My  education  had 
been  a  good  one.  although  I  was  deprived  of  its 
full  benefit  by  indifferent  health,  just  at  the  pe- 
riod when  I  ought  to  have  been  most  sedulous 
in  improving  it.  The  young  men  with  whom 
I  was  brought  up,  and  lived  most  familiarly, 
were  those  who,  from  opportunities,  birth  and 
talents,  might  be  expected  to  make  the  greatest 
advances  in  the  prol'ession  to  which  we  were  all 
destined ;  and  I  have  the  pleasure  still  to  pre- 
serve rny  youthful  intimacy  with  no  inconside- 
rable number  of  them,  whom  their  merit  has 
carried  forward  to  the  highest  honors  of  their 
profession.  Neither  was  I  in  a  situation  to  be 
embarrassed  by  the  res  angusta  domi,  which 
might  have  otherwise  interrupted  my  progress 
in  a  profession  in  which  progress  is  proverbially 
slow.  I  enjoyed  a  moderate  degree  of  business 
for  my  standing,  and  the  friendship  of  more  than 
one  person  of  consideration  efficiently  disposed 
to  aid  my  views  in  life.  The  private  fortune, 
also,  which  I  might  expect,  and  finally  inherit- 
ed, from  my  family,  did  not,  indeed,  amount  to 
affluence,  but  placed  me  considerably  beyond  all 
apprehension  of  want.  I  mention  these  partic- 
ulars merely  because  they  are  true.  Many  better 
men  than  myself  have  owed  their  rise  from  in- 
digence and  obscurity  to  their  own  talents,which 
were,  doubtless,  much  more  adequate  to  the  task 
of  raising  them  than  any  which  I  possess.  Al- 
though it  would  be  absurd  and  ungracious  in  me 
to  deny  that  I  owe  to  literature  many  marks  of 
distinction  to  which  I  could  not  otherwise  have 
aspired,  and  particularly  that  of  securing  the 
acquaintance,  and  even  the  friendship, of  many 
remarkable  persons  of  the  age,  to  whom  I  might 
not  otherwise  have  made  my  way ;  it  would  on 
the  other  hand,  be  ridiculous  to  affect  gratitude 
to  the  public  favor,  either  for  my  position  in  so- 
ciety, or  the  means  of  supporting  it  with  decen- 
cy— matters  which  had  been  otherwise  secured 
under  the  usual  chances  of  human  affairs.  Thus 
much  I  have  thought  it  necessary  to  say,  upon 
a  subject  which  is,  after  all,  of  very  little  conse- 
quence to  any  one  but  myself." 

In  1792  he  was  called  to  the  bar.  Of  his 
success  in  his  profession,  and  the  nature  of  his 
studies  and  pursuits,  we  will  give  his  own  ac- 
count, taken  from  one  of  his  interesting  prefaces. 

"  It  may  be  readily  supposed  that  the  attempts 
which  I  made  in  literature  had  been  unfavorable 
to  my  success  at  the  bar.  The  goddess  Themis 
is,  at  Edinburgh,  and  I  suppose  every  where 
else,  of  a  peculiarly  jealous  disposition.  She 
will  not  readily  consent  to  share  her  authority, 


and  sternly  demands  from  her  votaries  not  only 
that  real  duty  be  carefully  attended  to  and  dis- 
charged, but  that. a  certain  air  of  business  shall 
be  observed  even  in  the  midst  of  total  idleness. 
It  is  prudent,  if  not  absolutely  necessary,  in  a 
young  barrister,  to  appear  completely  engrossed 
by  his  profession;  however  destitute  of  employ- 
ment, he  may  be,  he  ought  to  preserve,  if  pos- 
sible, the  appearance  of  full  occupation.  He 
should  at  least  seem  perpetually  engaged  among 
his  law  papers,  dusting  them,  as  it  were;  and, 
as  Ovid  advises  the  fair, 

Si  nullus  erit  pulvis,  tamen  excute  nnlliim. 
Perhaps  such  extremity  of  attention  is  more  es- 
pecially required, considering  the  great  number 
of  counsellors  who  are  called  to  the  bar,  and  how 
very  small  a  proportion  of  them  are  finally  dis- 
posed, or  find  encouragement,  to  follow  the  law 
as  a  profession.  Hence  the  number  of  deserters 
is  so  great,  that  the  least  lingering  look  behind 
occasions  a  young  novice  to  be  set  down  as  one 
of  the  intending  fugitives.  Certain  it  is,  that 
the  Scottish  Themis  was  at  this  time  peculiarly 
jealous  of  any  flirtation  with  the  Muses,  on  the 
part  of  those  who  had  ranged  themselves  under 
her  banners.  This  was  probably  owing  to  her 
consciousness  of  the  superior  attractions  of  her 
rivals.  Of  late,  however,  she  has  relaxed  in 
some  instances  in  this  particular ;  an  eminent 
example  of  which  has  been  shown  in  the  case 
of  my  friend,  Mr.  Jeffrey,  who,  after  long  con- 
ducting one  of  the  most  influential  literary  pe- 
riodicals of  the  age,  with  unquestionable  ability, 
has  been, by  the  general  consent  of  his  brethren, 
recently  elected  to  be  their  Dean  of  Faculty,  or 
President,  being  the  highest  acknowledgment 
of  his  professional  talents  which  they  had  it  in 
their  power  to  offer.  But  this  is  an  incident 
much  beyond  the  ideas  of  a  period  of  thirty 
years'  distance,  when  a  barrister  who  really  pos- 
sessed any  turn  for  lighter  literature,  was  at  as 
much  pains  to  conceal  it,  as  if  it  had  in  reality 
been  something  to  be  ashamed  of;  and  I  could 
mention  one  instance  in  which  literature  and 
society  have  suffered  loss,  that  jurisprudence 
might  be  enriched.  Such,  however,  was  not  my 
case  ;  for  the  reader  will  not  wonder  that  my  open 
interference  with  matters  of  light  literature  di- 
minished my  employment  in  the  weightier  mat- 
ters of  the  law.  Nor  did  the  solicitors,  upon 
whose  choice  the  council  takes  rank  in  his  pro- 
fession, do  me  less  than  justice  by  regarding 
others  among  my  contemporaries  as  fitter  to 
discharge  the  duty  due  to  their  clients,  than  a 
young  man  who  was  taken  up  with  running  after 
ballads,  whether  Teutonic  or  national.  My  pro- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


SCO 


510 


SCO 


fession  and  I,  therefore,  came  to  stand  nearly 
upon  the  footincr  on  which  honest  Slender  con- 
soled himself  with  having  established  with  Mis- 
tress Anne  Page  :  "  There  was  no  great  love  in 
the  beginning,  and  it  pleased  Heaven  to  decrease 
it  on  farther  acquaintance/'  I  became  sensible 
that  the  time  was  come  when  I  must  either 
buckle  myself  resolutely  to  the  "  toil  by  day,  the 
lamp  by  night,"  renouncing  all  the  Delilans  of 
my  imagination,  or  bid  adieu  to  the  profession 
of  the  law,  and  hold  another  course.  I  confess 
my  own  inclination  revolted  from  the  more  se- 
vere choice  which  might  have  been  deemed  by 
many  the  wiser  alternative.  As  my  transgres- 
sions had  been  numerous,  my  repentance  must 
have  been  signalized  by  unusual  sacrifices.  I 
ought  to  have  mentioned,  that,  since  my  four- 
teenth or  fifteenth  year,  my  health,  originally 
delicate,  had  become  extremely  robust.  From 
infancy  I  had  labored  under  the  infirmity  of  a 
severe  lameness,  but,  as  1  believe  is  usually  the 
case  with  men  of  spirit  who  suffer  under  personal 
inconveniences  of  this  nature,  I  had,  since  the 
improvement  of  my  health,  in  defiance  of  this 
incapacitating  circumstance,  distinguished  my- 
self by  the  endurance  of  toil  on  foot  or  horseback, 
having  often  walked  thirty  miles  a  day,  and  rode 
upwards  of  a  hundred,  without  stopping.  In  this 
manner  I  made  many  pleasant  journeys  through 
parts  of  the  country  then  not  very  accessible, 

faining  more  amusement  and  instruction  than 
have  been  able  to  acquire  since  I  have  travel- 
led in  a  more  commodious  manner.  I  practised 
most  sylvan  sports,  also,  with  some  success,  and 
with  great  delight.  But  these  pleasures  must 
have  been  all  resigned,  or  used  with  great  mod- 
eration, had  I  determined  to  regain  my  station 
at  the  bar.  It  was  even  doubtful  whether  I  could, 
with  perfect  character  as  a  jurisconsult,  retain  a 
situation  in  a  volunteer  corps  of  cavalry,  which 
I  then  held.  The  threats  of  invasion  were  at 
this  time  instant  and  menacing  ;  the  call  by  Brit- 
ain on  her  children  was  universal,  and  was  an- 
swered by  many,  who,  like  myself,  consulted 
rather  their  will  than  their  ability  to  bear  arms. 
My  services,  however,  were  found  useful  in  as- 
sisting to  maintain  the  discipline  of  the  corps, 
being  the  point  on  which  their  constitution  ren- 
dered them  most  amenable  to  military  criticism. 
In  other  respects  the  squadron  was  a  fine  one, 
consisting  of  handsome  men,  well  mounted  and 
armed  at  their  own  expense.  My  attention  to 
the  corps  took  up  a  great  deal  of  time  ;  and  while 
it  occupied  many  of  the  happiest  hours  of  my 
life,  it  furnished  an  additional  reason  for  my  re- 
lucUoce  again  to  encounter  the  severe  course 


of  study  indispensable  to  success  in  the  juridical 
profession. 

On  the  other  liand,  my  father,  whose  feelings 
might  have  been  hurt  by  my  quitting  the  bar, 
had  been  for  two  or  three  years  dead ;  so  that  I 
had  no  control  to  thwart  my  own  inclination  ; 
and  my  income  being  equal  to  all  the  comforts, 
and  some  of  the  elegancies,  of  life,  I  was  not 
pressed  to  an  irksome  labor  by  necessity,  that 
most  powerful  of  motives;  consequently,!  was 
the  more  easily  seduced  to  choose  the  employ- 
ment which  was  most  agreeable.  This  was  yet 
the  easier,  as  in  1800  I  had  obtained  the  prefer- 
ment of  Sheriff  of  Selkirkshire,  about  £300  a 
year  in  value,  and  which  was  the  more  agreeable 
to  me,  as  in  that  county  I  had  several  friends 
and  relations.  But  I  did  not  abandon  the  pro- 
fession to  which  I  had  been  educated,  without 
certain  prudential  resolutions,  which  at  the  risk 
of  some  egotism,  I  will  here  mention  ;  not  with- 
out the  hope  that  they  may  be  useful  to  voung 
persons  who  may  stand  in  circumstances  similar 
to  those  in  which  I  then  stood.  In  the  first  place, 
upon  considering  the  lives  and  fortunes  of  per- 
sons who  had  given  themselves  up  to  literature, 
or  to  the  task  of  pleasing  the  public,  it  seemed 
to  me  that  the  circumstances  which  chiefly  af- 
fected their  happiness  and  character  were  thoso 
from  which  Horace  has  bestowed  upon  authors 
the  epithet  of  the  irritable  race.  'It  requires  no 
depth  of  philosophic  reflection  to  perceive,  that 
the  petty  warfare  of  Pope  with  the  dunces  of  his 
period,  could  not  have  been  carried  on  without  his 
suffering  the  most  acute  torture,  such  as  a  man 
must  endure  from  musquitoes,.by  whose  stings 
he  suffers  agony,  although  he  can  crush  them 
in  his  grasp  by  myriads.  Nor  is  it  necessary  to 
call  to  memory  the  many  humiliating  instances 
in  which  men  of  the  greatest  genius  have,  to 
avenge  some  pitiful  quarrel,  made  themselves 
ridiculous  during  their  lives,  to  become  the  still 
more  degraded  objects  of  pity  to  future  times. 
Upon  the  whole,  as  I  had  no  pretension  to  the 
genius  of  the  distinguished  persons  who  had 
fallen  into  such  errors,  I  concluded  there  could 
be  no  occasion  for  imitating  them  in  these  mis- 
takes, or  what  I  considered  as  such;  and,  in 
adopting  literary  pursuits  as  the  principal  occu- 
pation of  my  future  life,  I  resolved,  if  possible, 
to  avoid  those  weaknesses  of  temper  which  seem- 
ed to  have  most  easily  beset  my  more  celebrated 
predecessors.  With  this  view,  it  was  my  first 
resolution  to  keep,  as  far  as  was  in  my  power, 
abreast  of  society  ;  continuing  to  maintain  my 
place  in  general  company,  without  yielding  to 
the  very  natural  temptation  of  narrowing  myselt 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SCO 


511 


SCO 


to  what  is  called  literary  society.  By  doing  so, 
1  imagined  I  should  escape  the  besetting  sin  of 
listening  to  language  which,  from  one  motive  or 
other,  ascribes  a  very  undue  degree  of  conse- 
quence to  literary  pursuits;  as  if  they  were,  in- 
deed, the  business,  rather  than  the  amusement 
of  life.  The  opposite  course  can  only  be  com- 
pared to  the  injudicious  conduct  of  one  who 
pampers  himself  with  cordial  and  luscious 
draughts,  until  he  is  unable  to  endure  whole- 
some bitters.  Like  Gil  Bias,  therefore,  I  resolv- 
ed to  stick  by  the  society  of  my  commis,  instead 
of  seeking  that  of  a  more  literary  cast;  and  to 
maintain  my  general  interest  in  what  was  going 
on  around  me,  reserving  the  man  of  letters  for 
the  desk  and  the  library.  My  second  resolution 
was  a  corollary  from  the  first.  I  determined  that, 
without  shutting  my  ears  to  the  voice  of  true 
criticism,  I  would  pay  no  regard  to  that  which 
assumes  the  form  of  satire.  I  therefore  resolved 
to  arm  myself  with  the  triple  brass  of  Horace, 
against  all  the  roving  warfare  of  satire,  parody, 
and  sarcasm;  to  laugh  if  the  jest  was  a  good 
one;  or,  if  otherwise,  to  let  it  hum  and  buzz  it- 
self to  sleep.  It  is  to  the  observance  of  these 
rules  (according  to  my  best  belief),  that,  after  a 
life  of  thirty  years  engaged  in  literary  labors  of 
various  kinds,  I  attribute  my  never  having  been 
entangled  in  any  literary  quarrel  or  controversy  ; 
and,  which  is  a  more  pleasing  result,  that  I  have 
been  distinguished  by  the  personal  friendship  of 
rny  most  approved  "contemporaries  of  all  par- 
ties. I  adopted,  at  the  same  time,  another  reso- 
lution, on  which  it  may  doubtless  be  remarked, 
that  it  was  well  for  me  that  I  had  it  in  my  pow- 
er to  do  so,  and  that,  therefore,  it  is  a  line  of 
conduct  which  can  be  less  generally  applicable 
in  other  cases.  Yet  I  fail  not  to  record  this  part 
of  my  plan,  convinced  that,  though  it  may  not 
be  in  every  one's  power  to  adopt  exactly  the  same 
resolution,  he  may  nevertheless,  by  his  own  ex- 
ertions, in  some  shape  or  other,  attain  the  object 
on  which  it  was  founded  ;  namely,  to  secure  the 
means  of  subsistence,  without  relying  exclusive- 
ly on  literary  talents.  In  this  respect.  I  deter- 
mined that  literature  should  be  my  staff,  but  not 
my  crutch  ;  and  that  the  profits  of  my  labor,  how- 
ever convenient  otherwise,  should  not  become 
necessary  to  my  ordinary  expenses.  With  this 
purpose  I  resolved,  if  the  interest  of  my  friends 
could  so  far  favor  me,  to  retire  upon  any  of  the 
respectable  offices  of  the  law,  in  which  persons 
of  that  profession  are  glud  to  take  refuge  when 
they  feel  themselves,  or  are  judged  by  others, 
incompetent  to  aspire  to  its  higher  offices  and 
honors.  Upon  such  an  office  an  author  might 


hope  to  retreat,  without  any  perceptible  altera- 
tion of  circumstances,  whenever  the  time  should 
arrive  that  the  public  grew  weary  of  his  en- 
deavors to  please,  or  he  himself  should  tire  of 
the  occupation  of  authorship.  At  this  period 
of  my  life  I  possessed  so  many  friends  capable 
of  assisting  me  in  this  object  of  ambition,  that  I 
could  hardly  overrate  my  own  prospects  of  ob- 
taining the  moderate  preferment  to  which  I  lim- 
ited my  wishes:  and,  in  fact,  I  obtained,  in  no 
long  period,  the  reversion  of  a  situation  which 
completely  met  them." 

The  preferment  of  which  he  here  speaks  was 
to  the  office  of  Sheriff  of  Selkirkshire,  of  about 
£  300  a  year  in  value.  In  1806  he  was  appoint- 
ed a  clerk  of  the  session  in  Scotland.  His  first 
original  productions  were  several  ballads  of  great 
merit.  Sir  Walter  thus  notices  the  circum- 
stances which  engaged  him  in  literary  pursuits. 

"  During  the  last  ten  years  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  art  of  poetry  was  at  a  remarkably 
low  ebb  in  Britain.  Hayley  to  whom  fashion 
had  some  years  before  ascribed  a  higher  degree 
of  reputation  than  posterity  has  confirmed,  had 
now  lost  his  reputation  for  talent,  though  he  still 
lived  admired  and  respected  as  an  amiable  and 
accomplished  man.  The  Bard  of  Memory  slum- 
bered on  his  laurels,  and  he  of  Hope  had  scarce 
begun  to  attract  his  share  of  public  attention. 
Cowper,  a  poet  of  deep  feeling  and  bright  ge- 
nius, was  dead  ;  and  even  while  alive,  the  hy- 
pochondria, which  was  his  mental  malady,  im- 
peded his  popularity.  Burns,  whose  genius  our 
southern  neighbors  could  hardly  yet  compre- 
hend, had  long  confined  himself  to  song- writing. 
Names  which  are  now  known  and  distinguished 
wherever  the  English  language  is  spoken,  were 
then  only  beginning  to  be  mentioned;  and,  un- 
less among  the  small  number  of  persons  who 
habitually  devote  a  part  of  their  leisure  to  litera- 
ture, those  of  Southey,  Wordsworth,  and  Cole- 
ridge, were  but  little  known.  The  realms  of 
Parnassus,  like  many  a  kingdom  at  the  period, 
seemed  to  lie  open  to  the  first  bold  invader, 
whether  he  should  be  a  daring  usurper,  or  could 
show  a  legitimate  title  of  sovereignly." 

"  I  had,  indeed,  tried  the  metrical  translations 
which  were  occasionally  recommended  to  us  at 
the  High  School.  I  got  credit  for  attempting 
to  do  what  was  enjoined,  but  very  little  for  the 
mode  in  which  the  task  was  performed;  and  I 
used  to  feel  not  a  little  mortified  when  my  ver- 
sions were  placed  in  contrast  with  others  of  ad- 
mitted merit.  At  one  period  of  my  schoolboy 
days  1  was  so  far  left  to  my  own  desires  as  to 
become  guilty  of  verses  on  a  thunder-storm, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


SCO 


512 


SCO 


which  were  much  approved  of,  until  a  malevo- 
lent critic  sprung  up,  in  the  shape  of  an  apoth- 
ecary's blue-buskiued  wife,  who  affirmed  that 
ray  most  sweet  poetry  was  stolen  from  an  old 
magazine.  I  never  forgave  the  imputation, 
and  even  now  I  acknowledge  some  resentment 
against  the  poor  woman's  memory.  She  indeed 
accused  me  unjustly,  when  she  said  I  had  stolen 
my  brooms  ready  made  ;  but  as  I  had,  like  most 
premature  poets,  copied  all  the  words  and  ideas 
of  which  my  verses  consisted,  she  was  so  far 
right,  that  there  was  not  an  original  word  or 
thought  in  the  whole  six  lines  1  made  one  or 
two  Taint  attempts  at  verse,  after  I  had  under- 
gone this  sort  of  daw-plucking  at  the  hands  of 
the  apothecary's  wife ;  but  some  friend  or  other 
always  advised  me  to  put  my  Verses  in  the  fire, 
and  like  Dorax  in  the  play,  I  submitted,  though 
'  with  a  swelling  heart.'  In  short,  excepting 
the  usual  tribute  to  a  mistress's  eyebrow,  which 
is  the  language  of  passion  raiher  than  poetry.  I 
had  not  for  ten  years  indulged  the  wish  lo  couple 
so  much  as  love  and  dove,  when,  finding  Lewis 
in  possession  of  so  much  reputation,  and  conceiv- 
ing that,  if  I  fell  behind  him  in  poetical  powers, 
I  considerably  exceeded  him  in  general  infor- 
mation, I  suddenly  took  it  into  my  head  to  at- 
tempt the  style  by  which  he  had  raised  himself 
to  fame." 

Having  now  married,  he  resided  at  Ashie- 
steel,  a  delightful  retirement,  in  an  uncommon- 
ly beautiful  situation,  by  the  side  of  a  fine  river, 
whose  streams  were  favorable  for  angling,  and 
surrounded  by  hills  abounding  in  game.  His 
Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  and  Marmion,  poems 
of  great  originality  and  beauty,  were  produced 
in  1805  and  160S,and  received  at  once  into  favor. 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake  was  published  in  1810. 
Speaking  of  this  poem,  the  author  remarks  :  "  I 
remember  that  about  the  same  time  a  friend 
started  in  to  '  hee/e  up  my  hope,'  like  the  min- 
strel in  the  old  song.  He  was  bred  a  farmer, 
but  a  man  of  powerful  understanding,  natural 
good  taste,  and  warm  poetical  feeling,  perfectly 
competent  to  supply  the  wants  of  an  imperfect 
or  irregular  education.  He  was  a  passionate 
admirer  of  field  sports,  which  we  often  pursued 
together.  As  this  friend  happened  to  dine  with 
me  at  Ashiesteel  one  day,  I  took  the  opportunity 
of  reading  to  him  the  first  canto  of  the  Lady  of 
the  Lake,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  effect  the  poein 
was  likely  to  produce  upon  a  person  who  was 
but  too  favorable  a  representative  of  readers  at 
large.  It  is,  of  course,  to  be  supposed,  that  I 
determined  rather  to  guide  my  opinion  by  what 
my  friend  might  appear  to  feel,  than  by  what  he 


might  think  fit  to  say.  His  reception  of  my  re- 
citation, or  prelection,  was  rather  singular.  He 
placed  his  hand  across  his  brow,  and  listened 
with  great  attention  through  the  whole  account 
of  the  stag  hunt,  till  the  dogs  threw  themselves 
into  the  lake  to  follow  their.master,  who  embarks 
with  Ellen  Douglas.  He  then  started  up  with 
a  sudden  exclamation,  struck  his  hand  on  the 
table,  and  declared,  in  a  voice  of  censure  calcu- 
lated for  the  occasion,  that  the  dogs  must  have 
been  totally  ruined  by  being  permitted  to  take 
the  water  after  such  a  severe  chase.  I  own  I 
was  much  encouraged  by  the  species  of  reverie 
which  had  possessed  so  zealous  a  follower  of  the 
sports  as  this  ancient  .Niinrod,  who  had  been 
completely  surprised  out  of  all  doubts  of  the 
reality  of  the  tale." 

The  Lady  of  the  Lake  was  followed  by  the 
Vision  of  Don  Roderick,  Rokeby,  Lord  of  the 
Isles,  Harold  the  Dauntless,  and  the  Bridal  of 
Triermain. 

"  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,"says  Scott. "  brought 
out  on  the  usual  terms  of  division  of  profits  be- 
tween the  author  and  publishers,  was  not  long 
after  purchased  by  them  for  £500,  to  which 
Messrs.  Longman  and  Co.  afterwards  added 
£1013  in  their  own  unsolicited  kindness,  in  con-  - 
sequence  of  the  uncommon  success  of  the  work. 
It  was  handsomely  given  to  supply  the  loss  of  a 
fine  horse,  which  broke  down  suddenly  while 
the  author  was  riding  with  one  of  the  worthy 
publishers."  *  * 

"The  publishers  of  the  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel, 
emboldened  by  the  success  of  that  poem,  wil- 
lingly offered  a  thousand  pounds  for  Alarmion. 
The  transaction  being  no  secret,  afforded  Lord 
Byron,  who  was  then  at  general  war  with  all 
who  blacked  paper,  an  opportunity  to  include 
me  in  his  satire  entitled  English  Bards  and  Scotch. 
Reriewers.  I  never  could  conceive  how  an  ar- 
rangement between  an  author  and  his  publish- 
ers," if  satisfactory  to  the  persons  concerned, 
could  afford  matter  of  censure  to  any  third  par- 
ty. I  had  taken  no  unusual  or  ungenerous 
means  of  enhancing  the  value  of  my  merchan- 
dise.— I  had  never  higgled  a  moment  about  the 
bargain,  but  accepted  at  once  what  1  considered 
the  handsome  offer  of  my  publishers.  These 
gentlemen,  at  least,  were  not  of  opinion  that  they 
had  been  taken  advantage  of  in  the  transaction, 
which  indeed  was  one  of  their  own  framing; 
on  the  contrary,  the  sale  of  the  poem  was  solar 
beyond  their  expectation,  as  to  induce  them  to  > 
supply  the  author's  cellar  with  what  is  always 
an  acceptable  present  to  a  young  Scottish  house- 
keeper, namely,  a  hogshead  of  excellent  claret." 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SCO 


513 


SCO 


We  must  extract  the  account  of  his  own 
change  from  poetry  to  prose. — He  is  speaking 
of  Rokeby. 

"  The  cause  of  my  failure,  had,  however,  a  far 
deeper  root.  Tlie  manner,  or  style,  which,  by 
its  novelty,  attracted  the  public  in  an  unusual 
degree,  had  now,  after  having  been  three  times 
before  them,  exhausted  the  patience  of  the  read- 
er, and  began  in  the  fourth  to  lose  its  charms. 
The  reviewers  may  be  said  to  have  apostrophiz- 
ed the  author  in  the  language  of  Parneli's  Ed- 
win : — 

"  And  here  reverse  the  charm,  he  cried, 

And  let  it  fairly  now  suffice, 

The  gambol  lias  been  shown." 

The  licentious  combination  of  rhymes,  in  a  man- 
ner not  perhaps  very  congenial  to  our  language, 
had  not  been  confined  to  the  author.  Indeed, 
in  most  similar  cases,  the  inventors  of  such  nov- 
elties have  their  reputation  destroyed  by  their 
own  imitators,  as  Actseon  fell  under  his  own 
dogs.  The  present  author,  like  Bobadil,  had 
taught  his  trick  of  fence  to  a  hundred  gentlemen 
(and  ladies),  who  could  fence  very  nearly,  or 
quite,  as  well  as  himself.  For  this  there  was  no 
remedy;  the  harmony  became  tiresome  and  or- 
dinary, and  both  the  original  inventor  and  his 
invention  must  have  fallen  into  contempt,  if  he 
had  not  found  out  another  road  to  public  favor. 
What  has  been  said  of  the  metre  only,  must  be 
considered  to  apply  equally  to  the  structure  of 
the  poem  and  of  the  style.  The  very  best  pas- 
sages of  any  popular  style  are  not.  perhaps,  sus- 
ceptible of  any  imitation,  but  they  may  be  ap- 
proached by  men  of  talent:  and  those  who  are 
less  able  to  copv  them,  at  least  lay  hold  of  their 
peculiar  features,  so  as  to  produce  a  burlesque 
instead  of  a  serious  copy.  In  either  way,  the 
effect  of  it  is  rendered  cheap  and  common ;  and, 
in  the  latter  case  ridiculous  to  boot.  The  evil 
consequences  to  an  author's  reputation  are  at 
least  as  fatal  as  those  which  befall  a  composer, 
when  his  melody  falls  into  the  hands  of  the  street 
ballad-singer.  Of  the  unfavorable  specimens  of 
imitation,  the  author's  style  gave  room  to  a  very 
large  number,  owing  to  an  appearance  of  facility 
on  which  some  of  those  who  used  the  measure 
unquestionably  leaned  too  far." 

"  The  effect  of  the  more  favorable  imitations, 
composed  by  persons  of  talent,  was  almost  equal- 
ly unfoitunate  to  the  original  minstrel,  by  show- 
ing that  they  could  overshoot  him  with  his  own 
bow.  In  short  the  popularity  which  once  at- 
tended the  school,  as  it  was  called,  was  now  fast 
decaying.  Besides  all  this,  to  have  kept  his 
ground  at  the  crisis  when  Rokeby  appeared, 


its  author  ought  to  have  put  forth  his  utmost 
strength,  and  to  have  possessed  at  least  all  his 
original  advantages,  for  a  mighty  and  unexpect- 
ed rival  was  advancing  on  the  stage — a  rival 
not  in  poetical  powers  only,  but  in  that  of  at- 
tracting popularity,  in  which  the  present  writer 
had  preceded  better  men  than  himself.  The 
reader  will  easily  see  that  Byron  is  here  meant, 
who  after  a  little  velitation  of  no  great  promise, 
now  appeared  as  a  serious  candidate  in  the 
First  Canto  of  Childc  Harold.  I  was  astonish- 
ed at  the  power  evinced  by  that  work,  which 
neither  the  Hovrs  of  Idleness,  nor  the  English 
Bards  and  Scotch  Revieicers,  had  prepared  me 
to  expect  from  its  author.  There  was  a  depth 
in  his  thought,  an  eafer  abundance  in  his  dic- 
tion, whicrfargued  full  confidence  in  the  inex- 
haustible resources  of  which  he  felt  himself 
possessed  ;  and  there  was  some  appearance  of 
that  labor  of  the  file,  which  indicates  that  the 
author  is  conscious  of  the  necessity  of  doing 
every  justice  to  his  work,  that  it  may  pass  war- 
rant. Lord  Byron  was  also  a  traveller,  a  man 
whose  ideas  were  fired  by  having  seen,  in  dis- 
tant scenes  of  difficulty  and  danger,  the  places 
whose  very  names  are  recorded  in  our  bosoms 
as  the  shrines  of  ancient  poetry.  For  his  own 
misfortune,  perhaps,  but  certainly  to  the  high 
increase  of  his  poetical  character,  nature  had 
mixed  in  Lord  Byron's  system  those  passions 
which  agitate  the  human  heart  with  most  vio- 
lence, and  which  may  be  said  to  have  hurried 
his  bright  career  to  an  early  close.  There  would 
have  been  but  little  wisdom  in  measuring  my 
force  with  so  formidable  an  antagonist ;  and  I 
was  as  likely  T.O  tire  of  playing  the  second  fiddle 
in  the  concert,  as  my  audience  of  hearing  me. 
Age  also  was  advancing.  I  was  growing  in- 
sensible to  those  subjects  of  excitation  of  which 
youth  is  agitated.  1  had  around  me  the  most 
pleasant  but  least  exciting  of  all  society,  that 
of  kind  friends  and  an  affectionate  family.  My 
circle  of  employments  was  a  narrow  one  ;  it  oc- 
cupied me  constantly,  and  it  became  daily  more 
difficult  for  me  to  interest  myself  in  poetical 
composition : — 

"  How  happily  the  days  of  Thalaba  went  by  !  " 
Yet,  though  conscious  that  I  must  be,  in  (the 
opinion  of  good  judges,  inferior  to  the  place  I 
had  for  four  or  five  years  held  in  letters,  and 
feeling  alike  that  the  latter  was  one  to  which  I 
had  only  a  temporary  right,  I  could  not  brook 
the  idea  of  relinquishing  literary  occupation, 
which  had  been  so  long  my  chief  employment. 
Neither  was  I  disposed"to  choose  the  alternative 
of  sinking  into  a  mere  editor  and  commentator, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


SCO 


514 


SCO 


though  that  was  a  species  of  labor  which  I  had 
practised,  and  to  which  I  was  attached.  But  I 
could  uot  endure  to  think  that  I  might  not, 
whether  known  or  concealed,  do  something  of 
more  importance.  My  inmost  thoughts  were 
those  of  the  Trojan  captain  in  the  galley  race : 
Non  jam  prima  peto  Mnestheus,  neque  vincere  certo : 
Uuanq:iam  O, — tied  superent,  quibus  hoc,  Neptune,  de- 

disti: 

Eitremos  pudeat  rediisse  :  hoc  vincite,  cives, 
Et  prohibete  nefas." 

"  Waverly,  or  '  Tis  Sixty  Years  Since,"  a 
novel  published  in  1814,  established  the  reputa- 
tion 01  the  author,  and  was  followed  in  rapid 
succession  by  many  others.  The  authorship 
was  acknowledged  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  at  a 
public  dinner  in  1827.  These  Waverly  novels 
exhibit  a  profound  knowledge  of  human  nature, 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with  history,  national 
traditions,  and  manners,  and  a  most  surprising 
versatility.  Ivanhoe,  which  appeared  in  1820, 
without  being  the  most  finished  of  his  works, 
presents  the  learning  and  powers  of  its  author 
in  a  striking  light. 

Never  were  the  long  gathered  stores  of  most 
extensive  erudition  applied  to  the  purposes  of 
imaginative  genius  with  so  much  easy,  lavish, 
and  luxurious  power — never  was  the  illusion 
of  fancy  so  complete — made  up  of  so  many  min- 
ute elements, — and  yet  producing  such  entire- 
ness  of  effect.  It  is  as  if  the  veil  of  ages  had 
been,  in  truth,  swept  back,  and  we  ourselves 
had  been,  for  a  time,  living,  breathing,  and  mov- 
ing in  the  days  of  Coeur  de  Lion — days  how  dif- 
ferent from  our  own !  the  hot,  tempestuous, 
chivalrous,  passionate,  fierce  youth  of  Christen- 
dom. Every  line  in  the  picture'is  true  to  the 
life — every  thing  in  the  words,  in  the  gesture — 
every  thing  in  the  very  faces  of  the  personages 
called  up  before  us,  speaks  of  times  of  energetic 
volition  —  uncontrolled  action—  disturbance — 
tumult — the  storms  and  whirlwinds  of  restless 
souh  and  ungoverned  passions.  It  seems  as  if 
the  atmosphere  around  them  were  all  alive  with 
the  breath  of  trumpets,  and  the  neighing  of 
chargers,  and  the  echo  of  war-cries.  And  yet, 
with  a  true  and  beautiful  skilfulness,  the  author, 
has  rested  the  main  interest  of  his  story,  not  upon 
these  fiery  externals,  in  themselves  so  full  of 
attraction,  and  every  way  so  characteristic  of 
the  age  to  which  the  story  refers,  but  on  the 
workings  of  that  most  poetical  of  passions  which 
is  ever  deepest  where  it  is  most  calm,  quiet,  and 
delicate,  and  which,  less  than  any  other  is  chang- 
ed, even  in  its  modes  of  manifestation,  in  con- 
formity with  the  changes  of  time,  manners,  and 
circumstances.  For  the  true  interest  of  this 


romance  of  the  days  of  Richard  is  placed  nei- 
ther in  Richard  himself,  nor  in  the  Knight  of 
Ivanhoe,  the  nominal  hero, — nor  in  any  of  the 
haughty  Templars  or  barons  who  occupy  along 
with  them,  the  front  of  the  scene,  but  in  the  still, 
devoted,  sad,  and  unrequited  tenderness  of  a 
Jewish  damsel — by  far  the  most  fine,  and  at  the 
same  time  most  romantic  creation  of  female 
character  the  author  has  ever  formed — and  se- 
cond, we  suspect,  to  none  that  is  to  be  found  in 
the  whole  annals  of  poetry  and  romance. 

Besides  writing  his  novels,  Sir  Walter  Scott 
edited  various  works,  and  produced  some  vol- 
umes of  history,  and  a  life  of  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, to  which,  however,  his  party  prejudices 
and  hurried  composition  prevented  him  from 
doing  justice.  The  failure  of  his  bookseller,  an 
unforeseen  misfortune,  darkened  the  close  of  Sir 
Walter's  life  by  pecuniary  embarrassment.  His 
health  suffered  by  the  assiduity  with  which  lie 
labored  to  relieve  his  fortunes.  Shocks  of  paraly- 
sis warned  him  of  his  approaching  fate,  and,  after 
having  travelled  without  benefit  to  his  health, 
this  truly  great  and  good  man  died  at  his  seat  at 
Abbotsford,  in  the  year  1832. 

Sir  Walter  Scott  was  beloved  by  all  who 
knew  him,  for,  in  private  life,  he  had  none  of 
that  affectation  of  eccentricity  and  haughtiness, 
which  disfigures  so  many  men  of  superior  ge- 
nius. He  was  ever  a  welcome  visiter  in  the 
dwellings  of  the  poor  and  old.  and  in  many  of  his 
lonely  wanderings  acquired  that  traditional  in- 
formation which  he  reproduced  in  his  immortal 
works.  An  old  woman,  it  is  said,  with  whom 
Sir  Walter  was  intimate,  having  recognised 
some  of  her  own  lore  in  one  of  his  earlier  ro- 
mances, charged  him  with  being  the  author. 
When  Sir  Walter  denied  the  fact,  the  old  lady 
exclaimed  :  "  I'm  no  daft !  Do  ye  think  1  dinna 
ken  by  ain  kail,  amang  ither  folks  broth  ?  " 

Hog-g,  the  poet,  the  friend  of  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
relates  the  following  anecdote,  illustrative  of 
his  benevolence.  Although  so  shy  of  his  name 
and  literary  assistance,  which,  indeed,  he  would 
not  grant  to  any  one,  on  any  account,  save  to 
Lockhart,  yet  to  poor  men  of  literary  merit  his 
purse  strings  were  always  open,  and  as  far  as  it 
was  in  his  power  to  assist  them.  I  actually 
knew  several  unsuccessful  authors  who  depend- 
ed on  his  bounty  for  their  daily  bread.  And 
then  there  was  a  delicacy  in  his  way  of  doing  it 
which  was  quite  admirable.  He  gave  them  some 
old  papers  or  old  ballads  to  copy  for  him,  pre- 
tending to  be  greatly  interested  in  them,  for 
which  he  sent  them  a  supply  every  week,  mak- 
ing them  believe  that  they  were  reaping  the 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SCY 


515 


SCY 


genuine  fruit  of  their  own  labors.  There  was  one 
day,  when  I  was  chatting  with  Ballantyne  in 
his  office,  where  I  was  generally  a  daily  visiter, 
as  well  as  my  illustrious  friend,  I  chanced  to 
say,  that  I  never  in  my  life,  knew  a  man  like 
Scott,  for  I  knew  to  a  certainty  he  was  at  that 
time  feeling  himself  a  successful  author,  lend- 
ing pecuniary  assistance  to  unsuccessful  ones, 
and  the  best  thing  of  all,  he  never  let  his  left 
hand  know  what  his  right  hand  was  doing.  Bal- 
lantyne's  face  glowed  with  delight,  and  the  tear 
stood  in  his  eye.  "  You  were  never  more  right 
in  your  life,"  said  he,  "you  never  were  more 
right  in  your  life  !  and  I  am  glad  that  you  know 
and  so  duly  appreciate  the  merits  of  our  noble, 
our  invaluable  friend.  Look  here/'  and  with  that 
he  turned  up  his  day-book,  and  added,  "some 
word,  it  seems,  had  reached  Scott,  that  Maturin, 
the  Irish  poet,  was  lying  in  prison  for  a  small 
debt,  and  here  have  I.  by  Mr.  Scott's  orders, 
been  obliged  to  transmit  him  a  bill  of  exchange 
for  sixty  pounds,  and  Maturin  is  never  to  know 
from  whom  or  whence  it  came."  I  have  said 
it  oft,  and  now  say  it  again  for  the  last  time, 
that  those  who  knew  Scott  only  from  the  few 
hundreds  or,  I  might  say,  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  volumes  to  which  he  has  given  birth  and  cir- 
culation through  the  world,  knew  only  one  half 
of  the  man,  and  that  not  the  best  half  either. 
As  a  friend,  he  was  sometimes  stern,  but  always 
candid  and  sincere,  and  I  always  found  his  coun- 
sels of  the  highest  value,  if  I  could  have  follow- 
ed them. 

SCYTHIANS,  inhabitants  of  the  southern 
parts  of  Siberia,  north-east  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
whose  tribes  have  in  different  ages  overrun  Asia 
and  Europe.  According  to  the  chronicles  of 
Eri,  there  existed  a  race  of  Scythian  monarchs 
tlurinjr  101 1  years ;  after  which  they  moved 
southward,  and  occupied  Mesopotamia,  till  then 
inhabited  by  an  Arab  race  293  years,  and  then 
extended  their  conquests  over  all  nations,  main- 
taining their  dominion  1809  years,  when  their 
empire  was  divided  by  Assyrians  from  the  east, 
who  overran  Media,  Parthia,  and  Bactria  like  a 
mighty  flood,  about  the  epoch  of  the  Hebrew 
deluge,  led  by  Bel,  who  founded  Babylon  and  the 
Assyrian  empire  on  the  ruins  of  the  Scythian. 

The  same  chronicles, — describe  Noah  as  a 
Scythian  chief,  who  fled  to  Armenia  after  his 
defeat ;  and  Bel,  as  the  Nimrod  of  the  Hebrews. 
The  empire  of  the  Scythians,  by  these  chroni- 
cles, extended  from  the  Indus,  where  they  were 
called  Indo-Scythians,  to  the  confines  of  Europe, 
where  they  were  called  Celto-Scythians :  the 
Scythians  Arabs,  and  Egyptians,  being  the  most 
44 


powerful  known  nations,  till  the  former  were  lost 
in  the  Assyrians;  or,  according  to  the  Hebrew 
historians,  the  people  of  Ashur.  By  the  same 
authority  we  learn,  that  about  2000,  B.  C.,  the 
Scythians  overran  Thrace  and  Greece,  founding 
the  kingdoms  of  Sicyon,  Argos,  Athens,  Co- 
rinth, and  Thebes ;  their  original  irruption  into 
Thessaly.giving  rise  to  the  fable  of  the  flood  of 
Deucalien. 

According  to  Mr.  O'Connor,  the  chief  of  the 
Scythians  who  conducted  the  first  colony  into 
Thrace,  was  Japan,  or  Oavan,  the  son  of  Jaforth, 
the  son  of  Ardfier,  the  same  as  the  Hebrew  No- 
ah, who,  according  to  him,  was  the  last  supreme 
chief  of  the  Scythian  empire  ;  this  Japan  left 
Armenia  in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  his 
brother  Og,  with  a  colony  called  the  Og-eag-eis; 
while  another  colony  landed  in  the  south  from 
Egypt,  built  Athens,  &c.,  and  were  called  Pelas- 
goi.  Cadmus,  a  Phoenician,  afterwards  brought 
a  colony  of  Sidoniaii  Scythians,  and  settled  in 
Boeotia,  about  1000  B.  C.  The  Pelasgoi  settled 
in  Italy,  and  Saturn  conducted  another  colony 
from  Crete,  to  which  country  Evander  emi- 
grated in  940,  and  ^Eneas,  from  Troy,  in  883. 
Hence  Greece  was  of  Scythian  origin,  and  Italy 
was  peopled  with  their  descendants. 

Scythes,  who  is  the  first  king  of  this  nation 
mentioned  in  history,  is  fabled  by  the  Greeks 
to  have  been  the  offspring  of  Hercules  and  a 
monster.  Sagillus  is  said  to  have  sent  his  son 
Panasagorus,  to  assist  the  Amazons  against 
Theseus,  king  of  Athens  ;  but  the  heroines  in- 
spiring the  prince  with  disgust,  he  left  them  to 
the  mercy  of  their  enemies,  by  whom  they  were 
defeated.  Maydes  was  a  warlike  prince,  under 
whose  conduct  the  Scythians  invaded  Media, 
and  held  the  greater  part  of  Upper  Asia  in  sub- 
jection for  the  space  of  twenty-eight  years. 
They  also  made  an  incursion  into  the  land  of 
the  Philistines,  and  thence  marched  into  Egypt ; 
but  Psammeticus,  king  of  that  country,  prevail- 
ed on  them  to  return,  and  thus  saved  his  domin- 
ions from  plunder  and  desolation. 

Tomyris  was  a  Scythian  heroine,  whom  Cy- 
rus the  Great  demanded  in  marriage ;  but  she 
refusing  him,  that  prince  led  his  army  against 
the  Massagetes,  who  were  under  her  dominion, 
and  lost  his  life.  Jancyrus  was  a  haughty  and 
magnanimous  prince,  who,  when  the  Persian 
heralds  demanded  of  him  earth  and  water,  sent 
to  Darius  a  bird,  a  mouse,  a  frog,  and  five  ar- 
rows, without  any  farther  reply. 

The  Persian  monarch  immediately  supposed 
that  this  present  was  sent  in  token  of  submis- 
sion :  but  Gobrias,  who  knew  the  Scythians  bet- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


SEE 


516 


SEJ 


ter  than  his  master,  interpreted  it  to  denote,  that  ed  himself  to  be  king  Sebastian  ;  he  told  them 

the  Persians  must  not  expect  to  elude  the  effects  that  the  Moors  who  took  him  prisoner  did  not 

of  Scythian  valor,  unless  they  could  fly  like  know  him  to  be  the  king  ;  that  the  sorrow  and 

birds,  plunge  under  water  like  frogs,  or  bury  repentance  which  seized  him  for  having  so  rash- 

themselves  in  the  earth  like  mice.  ry  undertaken  that  expedition,  had  nearly  caus- 

This  explanation  was  soon  justified,  and  the  ed  his  death;  and  that  now  after  having  suffered 

Scythians   obtained  a  signal  victory  over  the  in  a  strange  country,  he  came  to  re-demand  the 

Persian  arnfy.     Saulius  is  said  to  have  killed  crown.     He  showed  upon  his  body  the  same 

Anacharsis,  a  prince  of  the  blood,  for  presuming  marks  which  several  had  seen  formerly  on  the 

to  introduce  the  nocturnal  rites  of  the  mother  of  body  of  the  king  of  Portugal,  and  discovered  to 

the  gods  into  Scythia.     Aripithes  had  a  numer-  the  "Venetians  some  secrets  they  had  formerly 

ous  progeny ,  and  in  particular  a  son  named  Scy-  proposed  to  him  by  their  ambassadors,  to  prove 

thes,  wliose    mother  had  caused  him  to  be  in-  he  was  king  Sebastian.     The  Spaniards,  who 

structed  in  all  the  Grecian  customs.  had  upon  the  report  of  his  death  invaded  the 

When  Scy  thes,  therefore,  ascended  the  throne,  crown  of  Portugal,  treated  him  as  a  madman  and 
he  appeared  to  possess  so  great  a  predilection  imposter,  and  obliged  the  Venetians  to  expel 
for  the  effeminate  luxuries  of  the  Greek?,  that  him  from  their  dominions  ;  he  was  seized  again 
his  subjects,  irritated  at  this  preference,  dethron-  in  Tuscany,  and  brought  to  Naples,  where  they 
ed  him,  and  elected  his  brother  Octamasades  set  him  upon  an  ass,  and  led  him  through  all 
king  in  his  stead.  Ariantes  is  said  to  have  or-  the  streetsof  the  city,  exposing  him  to  the  abuses 
dered  all  his  soldiers  to  appear  before  him,  and  of  the  rabble.  Some  time  after  they  shaved  his 
every  one  to  throw  the  tip  of  an  arrow  into  a  head,  and  placed  him  to  row  like  a  slave  in  a 
common  heap,  which  amounted  to  so  great  a  galley  ;  and  afterwards  being  brought  to  Spain, 
bulk,  that  he  caused  it  to  be  melted  down  and  he  died  in  a  prison,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
cast  into  a  large  vessel,  as  a  monument  of  the  Portuguese,  abhorring  and  detesting  these  bar- 
transaction.  Atheas  obtained  from  Philip,  king  barous  dealings  of  the  Spaniards,  wished  to  have 
of  Macedon,  considerable  succor  against  an  in-  him  whom  they  knew  to  be  their  king,  restored 
vasion  with  which  he  was  threatened  ;  and  when  to  them. 

SEBASTIAN,  ST.,  a  considerable  town  of  the 


rth-east  of  Spain,  containing   12,000  inhabi- 


the  enemy,  terrified  by  the  preparations  of  Phil- 

ip,  desisted  from  their  design,  he  pretended  that 

he  owed  him  no  recompense,  because  a  war  had  tants.     It   has   been    repeatedly  taken    by  the 

not  taken  place.     In  consequence  of  this,  an  ob-  French  ;  it  fell  into  their  hands  in  the  short  war 

stinate  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  Scythians  of  1719;  in  the  revolutionary  contest  of  1794; 

were  vanquished,  and  twenty  thousand  women  and  in  Bonaparte's  invasion  in   180H.     On  the 


and  children  were  made  prisoners. 


last  occasion  it  remained  five  years  in  their  pos- 


SEBASTIAN,  Don, kingof  Portugal,  theson  session,  and  when  the  victory  of  Vittoria,  by 

of  John  II, was  bornin  1554.  He  succeeded  John  the  British,  (21st  June,  1813)  opened  a  prospect 

III,  and  was  a  man  of  great  zeal  for  religion,  and  of  its  recapture,  the  French  had  time  to  throw 

of  extraordinary  courage,  which  inspired  him  into  it  a  garrison  capable  of  making  a  very  ob- 

with  the  design  of  making  an  expedition  into  stinate  defence.     An  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 

Africa  against  the  Moors  in  1574.     Taking  with  British,  to  take  it  by  assault,  on  the  25th  of 

him  the  principal  nobility  and  gentry  of  Porlu-  July ,  was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.     It  became 

gal,  he  landed  at  Tangier  on  the  9th  of  July,  necessary  to  make  approaches  with  great  cau 

1578,  and  gave  battle  to  Abdemelech  at  Alcacer,  tion,  and  even  to  incur  a  severe  sacrifice  of  live.* 

the  4th  of  Autrust  the  same  year,  where  his  army  in  the  final  attack,  on  the  31st of  August,  when 

'     -    '  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 

SKJANUS,  the  favorite  of  Tiberius  a  native 


of  Vulsinum   in   Tuscany,  who  distinguished 
himself  in  the  court  of  Tiberius.     His  father's 


was  defeated.  Abdemelech,  who  was  sick,  died 
in  a  litter,  .Mahomet  perished  in  a  bog,  and  the 
report  was,  that  Sebastian  himself  was  killed 
there  in  the  25th  year  of  his  age.  Notwithstand- 
ing this,  in  1598,  a  man  at  Venice  declared  him-  name  was  Sorvius  Strabo,  a  Roman  knight,  corn- 
self  to  be  king  Sebastian  ;  he  resembled  him  so  mander  of  the  praetorian  guards.  His  mother 
exactly  in  face,  stature,  and  voice,  that  the  Por-  was  descended  from  the  Ionian  family.  Seia- 
tuguese  that  were  in  that  city,  and  amongst  them  nus  first  gained  the  favor  of  Caius  Coesar,  the 
one  of  his  servants,  owned  him  for  their  king,  grandson  of  Augustus,  but  afterwards  he  attach- 
Some  days  after  he  was  seized,  and  conveyed  ed  himself  to  the  interest  and  the  views  of  Ti- 
before  judges,  before  whom  he  always  maintain-  berius,  who  then  sat  on  the  imperial  throne. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


SEJ 


517 


SEL 


The  emperor,  who  was  naturally  of  a  suspicious 
temper,  was  free  and  open  with  Sejanus,  and 
while  he  distrusted  others,  he  communicated 
his  greatest  secrets  to  this  fawning  favorite. 

As  commander  of  the  prastorian  guards,  he 
was  the  second  man  in  Rome,  and  in  that  im- 
portant office  he  made  use  of  insinuation,  and 
every  mean  artifice  to  make  himself  beloved 
and  revered.  His  affability  and  condescension 
gained  him  the  hearts  of  the  common  soldiers, 
and  by  appointing  his  own  favorites  and  adhe- 
rents to  places  of  trust  and  honor,  all  the  officers 
and  centurions  of  the  army  became  devoted  to 
his  interest.  The  views  of  Sejanus  in  this  were 
well  known ;  yet  to  advance  them  with  more 
success,  he  attempted  to  gain  the  affections  of 
the  senators.  In  this  he  met  with  no  opposi- 
tion. 

A  man  who  has  the  disposal  of  places  of  hon- 
or and  dignity,  and  who  has  the  command  of 
the  public  money,  cannot  but  be  the  favorite  of 
those  who  are  in  need  of  his  assistance.  It  is 
even  said,  that  Sejanus  gained  to  his  views  all 
the  wives  of  the  senators,  by  a  private  and  most 
secret  promise  of  marriage  to  each  of  them, 
whenever  he  had  made  himself  independent  and 
sovereign  of  Rome.  Yet,  however  successful 
with  the  best  and  noblest  families  in  the  empire, 
Sejanus  had  to  combat  numbers  in  the  house  of 
the  emperor  ;  but  these  seeming  obstacles  were 
soon  removed. 

All  the  children  and  grandchildren  of  Tiberius 
were  sacrificed  to  the  ambition  of  the  favorite 
under  various  pretences ;  and  Drusus  the  son  of 
the  emperor,  by  striking  Sejanus,  made  his  de- 
struction sure  and  inevitable.  Livia,  the  wife 
of  Drusus,  was  gained  by  Sejanus,  and  though 
mother  of  many  children,  she  was  prevailed 
upon  to  assist  her  adulterer  in  the  murder  of  her 
husband,  and  she  consented  to  marry  him  when 
Drusus  was  dead.  No  sooner  was  Drusus  poi- 
soned, than  Sejanus  openly  declared  his  wish  to 
marry  Livia.  This  was  strongly  opposed  by 
Tiberius  ;  and  the  emperor,  by  recommending 
Gennanicus  to  the  senators  for  his  successor, 
rendered  Sejanus  bold  and  determined. 

He  was  more  urgent  in  his  demands  ;  and 
when  he  could  not  gain  the  consent  of  the  em- 
peror, he  persuaded  him  to  retire  to  solitude  from 
the  noise  of  Rome  and  the  troubles  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Tiberius,  naturally  fond  of  ease  and 
luxury,  yielded  to  his  representations,  and  retir- 
ed to  Campania,  leaving  Sejanus  at  the  head  of 
the  empire.  This  was  highly  gratifying  to  the 
favorite,  and  he  was  now  without  a  master.  Pru- 
dence and  moderation  might  have  made  him 


what  he  wished  to  be ;  but  Sejanus  offended  the 
whole  empire  when  he  declared  that  he  was  em- 
peror  of  Rome,  and  Tiberius  only  the  dependent 
prince  of  the  island  of  Caprese,  where  he  had 
retired. 

Tiberius  was,  upon  this,  fully  convinced  of 
the  designs  of  Sejanus  ;  and  when  he  had  been 
informed  that  his  favorite  had  had  the  meanness 
and  audacity  to  ridicule  him,  by  introducing 
him  on  the  stage,  the  emperor  ordered  him  to  be 
accused  before  the  senate.  Sejanus  was  deserted 
by  all  his  pretended  friends,  as  soon  as  by  for- 
tune ;  and  the  man  who  aspired  to  the  empire, 
and  who  called  himself  the  favorite  of  the  peo- 
ple, the  darling  of  the  praetorian  guards,  and  the 
companion  of  Tiberius,  was  seized  without  re- 
sistance, and  the  same  day  strangled  in  prison, 
A.  D.  31. 

SELEUCUS  I,  one  of  the  captains  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  surnamed  Nicator,  or  Victori- 
ous, was  son  of  Antiochus.  After  the  king's 
death  he  received  Babylon  as  his  province  ;  but 
his  ambitious  views,  and  his  attempt  to  destroy 
Eumenes  as  he  passed  through  his  territories, 
rendered  him  so  unpopular,  that  he  fled  for 
safety  to  the  court  of  his  friend  Ptolemy,  king 
of  Egypt.  He  was  soon  after  enabled  to  recov- 
er Babylon,  which  Antigonus  had  seized  in  his 
absence,  and  he  increased  his  dominions  by  the 
immediate  conquest  of  Media,  and  some  of  the 
neighboring  provinces.  When  he  had  strength- 
ened himself  in  his  empire,  Seleucus  imitated 
the  example  of  the  rest  of  the  generals  of  Alex- 
ander, and  assumed  the  title  of  independent 
monarch.  He  afterwards  made  war  against 
Antigonus,  with  the  united  forces  of  Ptolemy, 
Cassander.  and  Lysimachus ;  and  after  this 
monarch  had  been  conquered  and  slain,  his  ter- 
ritories were  divided  among  his  victorious  ene- 
mies. 

When  Seleucus  became  master  of  Syria,  he 
built  a  city  there,  which  he  called  Antioch,  in 
honor  of  his  father,  and  made  it  the  capital  of 
his  dominions.  He  also  made  war  against  De- 
metrius and  Lysimachus,  though  he  had  origi- 
nally married  Stratonice,  the  daughter  of  the 
former,  and  had  lived  in  the  closest  friendship 
with  the  latter.  Seleucus  was  at  last  murdered 
by  one  of  his  servants  called  Ptolemy  Ceraunus, 
a  man  on  whom  he  had  bestowed  the  greatest 
favors,  and  whom  he  had  distinguished  by  acts 
of  the  most  unbounded  confidence. 

According  to  Arrian,  Seleucus  was  the  great- 
est and  most  powerful  of  the  princes  who  in- 
herited the  Macedonian  empire  after  the  death 
of  Alexander.  His  benevolence  has  been  com- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


SEL 


518 


SEM 


mended ;  and  it  has  been  observed,  that  he  con- 
quered not  to  enslave  nations,  but  to  make  them 
more  happy.  He  founded  no  less  than  thirty- 
four  cities  in  different  parts  of  his  empire,  which 
he  peopled  with  Greek  colonies,  whose  national 
industry,  learning,  religion,  and  spirit,  were 
communicated  to  the  indolent  and  luxurious 
inhabitants  of  Asia. 

Seleucus  was  a  great  benefactor  to  the  Greeks ; 
he  restored  to  the  Athenians  the  library  and 
statues  which  Xerxes  had  carried  away  from  their 
city  when  he  invaded  Greece,  and  among  the 
latter  were  those  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton. 
Seleucus  was  murdered  280  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  in  the  32d  year  of  his  reign,  and 
the  78th,  or  according  to  others,  the  73d  year 
of  his  age,  as  he  was  going  to  conquer  Macedo- 
nia, where  he  intended  to  finish  his  days  in 
peace  and  tranquillity  in  that  province  where 
he  was  born. 

SELEUCUS  II,  surnamed  Callinicus,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Antiochus  Theus  on  the  throne 
of  Syria.  He  attempted  to  make  war  against 
Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  but  his  fleet  was  ship- 
wrecked in  a  violent  storm,  and  his  armies  soon 
after  conquered  by  his  enemy.  He  was  at  last 
taken  prisoner  by  Arsaces,  an  officer  who  made 
himself  powerful  by  the  dissensions  which 
reigned  in  the  house  of  the  Seleucidse,  between 
the  two  brothers,  Seleucus  and  Antiochus  ;  and 
after  he  had  been  a  prisoner  for  some  time  in 
Parthia,  he  died  of  a  fall  from  his  horse,  B.  C. 
226,  after  a  reign  of  20  years.  Seleucus  re- 
ceived the  surname  of  Pogon,  from  his  long 
beard,  and  that  of  Callinicus,  ironically  to  ex- 
press his  very  unfortunate  reign.  He  mar- 
ried Laodice,  the  sister  of  one  of  his  generals, 
by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  Seleucus  and  Anti- 
ochus, and  a  daughter  whom  he  gave  in  mar- 
riage to  Mithridates,  kincr  of  Pontus. 

SELEUCUS  III,  succeeded  his  father  Seleu- 
cus II,  on  the  throne  of  Syria,  and  received  the 
surname  of  Ceraunus,  by  antiphrasis,  as  he  was 
a  very  weak,  timid,  and  irresolute  monarch.  He 
was  murdered  by  two  of  his  oincers  after  a 
reign  of  three  years,  B.  C.  223,  and  his  brother 
Antiochus,  though  only  15  years  old,  ascended 
the  throne,  and  rendered  himself  so  celebrated 
that  he  acquired  the  name  of  the  Great. 

SELEUCUS  IV, succeeded  his  father  Antio- 
chus the  Great,  on  the  throne  of  Syria.  He 
was  surnamed  Philopater,  or,  according  to  Jo- 
sephus,  Soter.  His  empire  had  been  weakened 
by  the  Romans  when  he  became  monarch,  and 
the  yearly  tribute  of  a  thousand  talents  to  those 
victorious  enemies,  concurred  in  lessening  his 


power  and  consequence  among  nations.  Seleu- 
cus was  poisoned  after  a  reign  of  12  years,  B.  C. 
175.  His  son  Demetrius  had  been  sent  to  Rom?, 
there  to  receive  his  education,  and  he  became  a 
prince  of  great  abilities. 

SELEUCUS  V,  succeeded  his  father  Deme- 
trius Nicator,  on  the  throne  of  Syria,  in  the  20th 
year  of  his  age.  He  was  put  to  death  in  the 
first  year  of  his  reign  by  Cleopatra  his  mother, 
who  had  also  sacrificed  her  husband  to  her  am- 
bition. He  is  not  reckoned  by  many  historians 
in  the  number  of  the  Syrian  monarchs. 

SELEUCUS  VF,  one  of  the  Seleucidae,  son 
of  Antiochus  Gryphus,  killed  his  uncle  Antio- 
chus Cyzicenus,  who  wished  to  obtain  the  crown 
of  Syria.  He  was  some  time  after  banished 
from  his  kingdom  by  Antiochus  Pius,  son  of 
Cyzicenus,  and  fled  to  Cilicia,  where  he  was 
burnt  in  a  palace  by  the  inhabitants,  B.  C.  93. 

SELEUCUS,  a  prince  of  Syria,  to  whom  the 
Egyptians  offered  the  crown  of  which  they  bad 
robbed  Auletes.  Seleucus  accepted  it,  but  he 
soon  disgusted  his  subjects,  and  received  the 
surname  of  Cybiosactes,  or  Scullion,  for  his 
meanness  and  avarice.  He  was  at  last  murdered 
by  Berenice,  whom  he  had  married. 

SELEUCIA,  a  city  in  Mesopotamia,  upon 
the  river  Tigris,  built  by  king  Seleucus  Nica- 
nor,  supposed  to  be  Bagdad.  There  is  also 
another  Seleucia  surnamed  Pieria,  and  called 
by  the  Turks  Kepse.  near  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Orontes.  Besides  these,  there  is  yet 
another  Seleucia,  a  city  of  Pisidia,  upon  the 
borders  of  Pamphylia,  situated  between  Antioch 
on  the  north,  and  the  city  of  Pamphylia  on  the 
south.  Also  another  city  called  Seleucia,  or 
rather  Seleucos,  situated  in  Syria,  upon  the  riv- 
er Belus.  near  Apamea,  built  also  by  the  king 
Seleucus. 

SEMIRAMIS,  a  celebrated  queen  of  Assyria. 
Semiramis,  when  grown  up,  married  Menones, 
the  governor  of  Nineveh,  and  accompanied  him 
to  the  siege  of  Bactria,  where  by  her  advice  and 
prudent  directions,  she  hastened  the  king's 
operations  and  took  the  city.  These  eminent 
services,  but  chiefly  her  uncommon  beauty,  en- 
deared her  to  Ninus.  The  monarch  asked  her 
of  her  husband,  and  offered  him  instead  his 
daughter  Sosana;  but  Menones,  who  tenderly 
loved  Semiramis,  refused,  and  when  IVinushad 
a.dded  threats  to  intreaties,  he  hung  himself. 
No  sooner  was  Menones  dead,  than  Semiramis, 
who  was  of  an  aspiring  soul,  married  Ninus,  by 
whom  she  had  a  son  called  Ninyas. 

Ninus  was  so  fond  of  Semiramis,  that  at  her 
request  he  resigned  the  crowr^to  her,  and  com- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SEN 


519 


SEN 


manded  her  to  be  proclaimed  queen  and  sole 
empress  of  Assyria.  Of  this,  however,  be  had 
cause  to  repent  ;  Semiratnis  put  him  to  death, 
the  better  to  establish  herself  on  the  throne,  and 
when  she  had  no  enemies  to  tear  at  home,  she 
began  to  repair  the  capital  of  her  empire,  and  by 
her  means  Babylon  became  the  most  superb  and 
magnificent  city  in  the  world.  She  visited 
every  part  of  her  dominions,  and  left  every 
where  immortal  monuments  of  her  greatness 
and  benevolence. 

To  render  the  roads  passable  and  communi- 
cation easy,  she  hollowed  mountains  and  filled 
up  valleys  ;  and  water  was  conveyed  at  a  great 
expense,  by  large  and  convenient  aqueducts,  to 
barren  deserts  and  unfruitful  plains.  She  was 
not  less  distinguished  as  a  warrior  ;  many  of 
the  neighboring  nations  were  conquered  ;  and 
when  ESemiramis  was  once  told,  as  she  was 
dressing  her  hair,  that  Babylon  had  revolt- 
ed, she  left  her  toilet  with  precipitation,  and 
though  only  half  dressed,  she  refused  to  have 
the  rest  of  her  head  adorned  before  the  sedition 
was  quelled,  and  tranquillity  re-established. 

Serniramis  has  been  accused  of  licentiousness, 
and  modern  authors  have  drawn  a  parallel  be- 
tween her  and  Catharine  of  Russia,  there  being 
a  great  resemblance  between  them  in  the  princi- 
pal events  of  their  lives,  their  masculine  talents, 
and  private  immorality  of  conduct.  The  reign 
of  Semiramis  was  at  last  terminated  by  a  con- 
spiracy of  her  own  son  Ninyas,  who  is  said  to 
have  put  her  to  death  with  his  own  hand.  Her 
fame  was  very  great  throughout  the  East.  Af- 
ter her  death  she  received  immortal  honors  in 
Assyria.  It  is  supposed  that  she  lived  nbout 
J'JG5  years  befoie  the  Christian  era,  and  that 
she  died  in  the  sixty-second  year  of  her  age, 
and  the  twenty-fifth  of  her  reign. 

SENATE,  (see  Rome.) 

SENECA,  M.  Annceiis,  a  native  of  Corduba 
in  Spain,  who  married  Helvia,  a  woman  of 
Spain,  by  whom  lie  had  three  sons,  Seneca  the 
losopher,  Ajinrous  Novatus,  and  Annaeus 

ela,  the  father  of  the  poet  Lucaa.  Seneca 
made  himself  known  by  some  declamations,  of 
which  he  made  a  collection  from  the  most  cele- 
brated orators  cf  the  age  ;  and  from  that  cir- 
cumstance, and  for  distinction,  he  obtained  the 
appellation  of  dcdamator.  lie  Jeft  Corduba, 
and  went  to  Rome,  where  he  became  a  Roman 
knight. 

His  son  L.  Annnsus   Seneca,  who  was  born 

about  six  years  after  Christ,  was  early  distin- 

guished by  his  extraordinary  talents.     He  was 

taught  eloquence  by  his   father,  and  received 

44* 


ph 
M 


lessons  in  philosophy  from  the  best  Dnd  most 
celebrated  stoics  of  the  age.  As  one  of  the 
followers  of  the  Pythagorean  doctrines,  Seneca 
observed  the  utmost  abstinence,  and  in  his  meals 
never  ate  the  flesh  of  animals;  but  this  he  aban- 
doned at  the  representation  of  his  father,  when 
Tiberius  threatened  to  punish  some  Jews  and 
Egyptians  who  abstained  from  certain  meats. 

in  the  character  of  a  pleader,  Seneca  appear- 
ed with  great  advantage  ;  but  the  fear  of  Cali- 
gula, who  aspired  to  the  name  of  an  eloquent 
speaker,  and  who  consequently  was  jealous  of 
his  fame,  deterred  him  from  pursuing  his  fa- 
vorite study,  and  he  sought  a  safer  employment 
in  canvassing  for  the  honors  and  offices  of  the 
state.  He  was  made  quaestor,  but  the  asper- 
sions which  were  thrown  upon  him  on  account 
of  a  shameful  amour  with  Julia  Livilla,  removed 
him  from  Rome,  and  the  emperor  banished  him 
for  some  time  into  Corsica.  During  his  banish- 
ment, the  philosopher  wrote  some  spirited  epis- 
tles to  his  mother,  remarkable  for  elegance  of 
language  and  for  sublimity ;  but  he  soon  forgot 
his  philosophy,  and  disgraced  himself  by  his 
flatteries  to  the  emperor,  and  in  wishing  to  be 
recalled,  even  at  the  expense  of  his  innocence 
and  character. 

The  disgrace  of  Messalina  at  Rome,  and  the 
marriage  of  Agrippina  with  Claudius  proved 
favorable  to  Seneca  ;  and  after  lie  had  remained 
five  years  in  Corsica,  he  was  recalled  by  the 
empress  to  take  care  of  the  education  of  her  son 
Nero,  who  was  destined  to  succeed  to  the  em- 
pire. In  the  honorable  duty  of  preceptor,  Sen- 
eca gained  applause  ;  and  as  long  as  Nero  fol- 
lowed his  advice,  Rome  enjoyed  tranquillity, 
and  believed  herself  safe  and  happy  under  the 
administration  of  the  son  of  Agrippina. 

In  the  corrupt  age  of  Nero,  the  preceptor  had 
to  withstand  the  clamors  of  many  wicked  and 
profligate  ministers  ;  and  if  he  had  been  the  fa- 
vorite of  the  emperor,  and  shared  his  pleasures, 
Ins  debauchery,  and  extravagance,  Nero  would 
not  perhaps  have  been  so  anxious  to  destroy  a 
man  whose  example,  from  vicious  inclinations, 
he  could  not  follow,  and  whose  salutary  pre- 
cepts his  licentious  associates  forbade  him  to 
obey.  Seneca  was  too  well  acquainted  with 
the  natural  disposition  of  Nero  to  think  himself 
secure  ;  he  had  been  accused  of  having  amassed 
the  most  ample  riches,  and  of  having  built 
sumptuous  houses,  and  adorned  beautiful  gar- 
dens, during  the  four  years  in  which  he  had 
attended  Nero  as  a  preceptor ;  and  therefore  he 
desired  his  imperial  pupil  to  accept  of  the  rich- 
es, and  the  possessions  which  his  attendance  on 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


SEN 


520 


SER 


his  person  had  procured,  and  to  permit  him  to 
re  are  to  solitude  and  study. 

Nero  refused,  with  aut'ul  duplicity,  and  Sen- 
oca,  to  avoid  further  suspicions,  kept  himself  at 
home  for  «ime  time,  as  if  laboring  under  a 
disease.  In  the  conspiracy  of  Piso,  which  hap- 
pened some  time  after,  and  in  which  some  of 
the  most  noble  of  the  Roman  senators  were  con- 
cerned, Seneca's  name  was  mentioned  by  Nata- 
lis  ;  and  Nero,  who  was  glad  of  an  opportunity 
of  sacrificing  him  to  his  secret  jealousy,  ordered 
him  to  destroy  himself.  Seneca,  very  probably, 
was  not  accessory  to  the  conspiracy ;  and  the 
onlv  thing  which  could  be  produced  against  him 
as  a  crimination,  was  trivial  and  unsatisfactory. 

Piso, as  Natalis  declared,  had  complained  that 
lie  never  saw  Seneca,  and  the  philosopher  had 
observed  in  answer,  that  it  was  not  proper  or 
conducive  to  their  common  interest,  to  see  one 
another  often.  He  further  pleaded  indisposi- 
tion, and  said  that  his  own  life  depended  upon 
the  safety  of  Piso's  person.  Seneca  was  at  ta- 
ble with  his  wife  Pauiina  and  two  of  his  friends, 
when  the  messenger  from  Nero  arrived.  He 
heard  the  words  which  commanded  him  to  de- 
stroy himself,  with  philosophical  firmness,  and 
even  with  joy  ;  and  observed,  that  such  a  man- 
date might  Jrive  long  been  expected  fiom  a  man 
who  had  murdered  his  own  mother,  and  assas- 
sinated all  his  friends.  He  wished  to  dispose  of 
his  possessions  as  he  plf.ased,  but  this  was  re- 
fused ;  and  when  he  heard  this,  he  turned  to  his 
friends,  who  were  weeping  at  his  melancholy 
fate,  and  told  them,  that  since  he  could  not  leave 
them  what  he  believed  his  own,  he  would  leave 
them  at  least  his  own  life  for  an  example, — an 
innocent  conduct  which  they  might  imitate,  and 
by  which  they  might  acquire  immortal  fame. 
Against  their  tears  and  waitings  he  exclaimed 
with  firmness,  and  asked  them  whether  they  had 
not  learnt  better  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  for- 
tune, and  tbe  violence  of  tyranny  ? 

As  for  his  wife,  he  attempted  to  calm  her 
emotions;  and  when  she  seemed  resolved  to  die 
with  him,  he  said  he  was  glad  to  find  his  exam- 
ple followed  with  so  much  constancy.  Their 
veins  were  opened  at  the  same  moment ;  but 
the  life  of  Paulina  was  preserved,  and  Nero, 
who  was  partial  to  her,  ordered  the  blood  to  be 
stopped,  and  from  that  moment,  according  to 
some  authors,  the  philosopher's  wife  seemed  to 
rejoice  that  she  could  still  enjoy  the  comforts 
of  life. 

Seneca's  veins  bled  but  slowly  ;  and  it  has 
been  observed,  that  the  sensible  and  animated 
conversation  of  his  dying  moments  was  collect- 


ed by  his  friends,  and  that  it  has  been  preserved 
among  his  works.  To  hasten  his  death,  he 
drank  a  dose  of  poison,  but  it  had  no  effect ;  and 
therefore  he  ordered  himself  to  be  carried  into  a 
hot  bath,  to  accelerate  the  operation  of  the 
draught,  and  to  make  the  blood  flow  more  free- 
ly. This  was  attended  with  no  better  success  ; 
and  as  the  soldiers  were  clamorous,  he  was 
carried  into  a  stove,  and  suffocated  by  the 
steam,  in  the  (ioth  year  of  the  Christian  era. 

SURINGAPATAM,  a  celebrated  city  of  the 
south  of  India.  In  the  month  of  February,  17!)2, 
it  was  invested  by  the  British  and  allied  armies 
under  Lord  Cornwallis,  amounting  to  400,000 
men.  Terrified  by  such  a  host,  Tippoo  Sultan 
relinquished  half  his  dominions,  and  paid  three 
and  a  half  millions  sterling  to  the  conquerors. 
Serinjnpatam  was  again  invested  in  1799,  by 
the  British  and  Nizam's  forces,  and  was  stormed 
on  the  4th  of  May.  By  the  conquest  which 
was  thus  made,  it  became  the  property  of  the 
British,  and  is  the  residence  of  a  judge,  col- 
lector. &.C. 

SERTORIUS,  Quintus,aRoman  general, son 
of  Quint  us  and  Rhea,  born  at  Nursia.  His  first 
campaign  was  under  the  great  Mnrius.  against 
the  Teutones  and  Cimbri.  He  visited  the  ene- 
my's camp  as  a  spv,  and  had  the  misfortune  to 
lose  one  eye  in  the  first  battle  he  fought.  When 
Marius  and  Cinna  entered  Home  and  slaugh- 
tered all  their  enemies,  Sertorius  accompanied 
them,  but  he  expressed  his  sorrow  and  concern 
at  the  melancholy  death  of  so  many  of  his  coun- 
trymen. He  afterwards  fled  for  safety  into 
Spain,  when  Sylla  had  proscribed  him.  and  in 
this  distant  province  he  behaved  himself  with 
so  much  address  and  valor  that  he  was  looked 
upon  as  the  prince  of  the  country. 

The  L'isitanians  universally  revered  and  loved 
him.  and  the  Roman  gener.il  did  not  show  him- 
self less  attentive  to  their  interest,  bv  establish- 
ing public  schools,  and  educating  the  children 
of  the  country  in  the  polite  arts,  and  the  litera- 
ture of  Greece  and  Rome.  He  had  established 
a.  senate,  over  which  he  presided  with  consular 
authority  and  the  Romans  who  followed  his 
standard,  paid  equal  reverence  to  his  |>erson. 
They  were  experimentally  convinced  of  his  va- 
lor and  magnanimity  as  a  general,  and  the  art- 
fu!  manner  in  which  he  imposed  upon  the  cre- 
dulity of  his  adherents  in  the  garb  of  religion, 
did  not  diminish  his  reputation.  The  success 
ofSertorius  in  Spain,  and  his  popularity  among 
the  natives,  alarmed  the  Romans. 

They  sent  some  troops  to  oppose  him,  but 
with  little  success.  Four  armies  were  found 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SER 


521 


SEV 


insufficient  to  crush  or  even  hurt  Sertorius ; 
and  Poinpey  and  Metellus,  who  never  engaged 
an  enemy  without  obtaining  the  victory,  were 
driven  with  dishonor  from  the  field.  But  the 
favorite  of  the  Lusitanians  was  exposed  to  the 
dangers  which  usually  attend  greatness. 

Perpenna,  one  of  his  officers,  who  was  jealous 
of  his  fame  and  tired  of  a  superior,  conspired 
against  him.  At  a  banquet  the  conspirators 
began  to  open  their  intentions  by  speaking  with 
freedom  and  licentiousness  in  the  presence  of 
Sertorius,  whose  age  and  character  had  hith- 
erto claimed  deference  from  others.  Perpenna 
overturned  a  glass  of  wine,  as  a  signal  for  the 
rest  of  the  conspirators,  and  immediately  Anto- 
nius,  one  of  his  officers,  stabbed  Sertorius,  and 
the  example  was  followed  by  all  the  rest,  73 
years  before  Christ. 

Sertorius  has  been  commended  for  his  love 
of  justice  and  moderation.  The  flattering  de- 
scription which  he  heard  of  the  Fortunate  Is- 
lands when  he  passed  into  the  west  of  Africa, 
almost  tempted  him  to  bid  adieu  to  the  world, 
and  perhaps  he  would  have  retired  from  the 
noise  of  war,  and  the  clamors  of  envy,  to  end 
his  days  in  the  bosom  of  a  peaceful  and  solitary 
island,  had  not  the  stronger  calls  of  ambition 
and  the  love  of  fame  prevailed  over  the  intruding 
reflections  of  a  moment.  It  has  been  observed, 
that  in  his  latter  days  Sertorius  became  indo- 
lent, and  fond  of  luxury  and  wanton  cruelty  ; 
yet  in  affability,  clemency,  complaisance,  gen- 
erosity, and  military  valor,  he  not  only  surpass- 
ed his  contemporaries,  but  the  rest  of  the  Ro- 
mans. 

SERVIA,  a  province  of  European  Turkey, 
containing  19.000  square  miles,  and  9(>0.000  in- 
habitants. It  was  subjugated  by  the  Turks  in 
1365.  The  implacable  hatred  which  the  Ser- 
vians entertained  towards  their  rulers  led  to 
an  insurrection  in  the  year  1801.  In  December, 
1806,  Czerni  Georges,  the  Servian  chieftain, 
besieged  Belgrade,  took  it  after  an  obstinate  re- 
sistance, and  in  a  great  measure  expelled  the 
Turks  from  the  country,  which  he  ruled  with 
the  authority  of  a  sovereign.  The  forces  which 
were  brought  against  him,  he  resisted  with  va- 
rious success  until  1614,  when  he  withdrew 
into  Russia,  and  by  a  convention  concluded  be- 
tween his  country  and  the  Porte  in  1815,  the 
Servians  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Sultan. 

SERVIUS  TULLIUS,  the  sixth  king  of 
Rome,  was  son  of  Ocrisia,  a  slave  of  Corniculum, 
by  Tullius,  a  man  slain  in  the  defence  of  his 
country  against  the  Romans.  Ocrisia  was 


given  by  TarquLn  to  Tanaquil  his  wife,  and  she 
brought  up  her  son  in  the  king's  family,  and 
added  the  name  of  Servius  to  that  which  he  had 
inherited  from  his  father,  to  denote  his  slavery. 
Young  Servius  was  educated  in  the  palace  of 
the  monarch  with  great  care,  and  though  orig- 
inally a  slave,  he  raised  himself  to  so  much 
consequence,  that  Tarquin  gave  him  his  daugh- 
ter in  marriage.  His  own  private  merit  and 
virtues  recommended  him  to  notice  not  less 
than  the  royal  favors,  and  Servius  became  the 
favorite  of  the  people  and  the  darling  of  the  sol- 
diers, by  his  liberality  and  complaisance,  and 
was  easily  raised  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of 
his  father-in-law.  Rome  had  no  reason  to  re- 
pent of  her  choice. 

Servius  endeared  himself  still  more  as  a  war- 
rior and  as  a  legislator.  He  defeated  the  Veien- 
tes  and  the  Tuscans,  and  by  a  proper  act  of  pol- 
icy he  established  the  census,  which  told  him 
that  Rome  contained  about  eighty-four  thousand 
inhabitants.  He  increased  the  number  of  the 
tribes,  he  beautified  and  adorned  the  city,  and 
enlarged  its  boundaries  by  taking  within  its 
walls  the  hills  Quirinalis,  Viminalis,  and  Esqui- 
linus. 

He  also  divided  the  Roman  people  into  tribes, 
and  that  he  might  not  seem  to  neglect  the  wor- 
ship of  the  gods,  he  built  several  temples  to  the 
goddess  of  "Fortune,  to  whom  he  deemed  him- 
self particularly  indebted  for  obtaining  the 
kingdom.  He  also  built  a  temple  to  Diana  on 
mount  Aventine,  and  raised  himself  a  palace 
on  the  hill  Esquilinus.  Servius  married  his 
two  daughters  to  the  grand -sons  of  his  father- 
in-law  ;  the  elder  to  Tarquin.  and  the  younger 
to  Aruns.  This  union,  it  might  be  supposed, 
tended  to  insure  the  peace  of  his  family  ;  but  if 
such  were  his  expectations,  he  was  unhappily 
deceived. 

The  wife  of  Aruns,  naturally  fierce  and  im- 
petuous, murdered  her  own  husband  to  unite 
herself  to  Tarquin,  who  had  likewise  assassina- 
ted his  wife.  These  bloody  measures  were  no 
sooner  pursued,  than  Servius  was  murdered  by 
his  own  son-in-law,  and  his  daughter  Tullia 
showed  herself  so  destitute  of  filial  gratitude 
and  piety,  that  she  ordered  her  chariot  to  be 
driven  over  the  mangled  body  of  her  father,  B. 
C.534. 

SEVERUS,  Lucius  Sepzimius,  a  Roman 
emperor,  born  at  Leptis  in  Africa,  of  a  noble 
family.  He  gradually  exercised  all  the  offices 
of  the  state  and  recommended  himself  to  the 
notice  of  the  world  by  an  ambitious  mind  and 
a  restless  activity,  that  could,  for  the  gratification 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


SEV 


522 


SEV 


of  avarice,  endure  the  most  complicated  hard- 
ships. After  the  murder  of  Pertinax,  Severus 
resolved  to  remove  Didius  Julian  us,  who  had 
bought  the  imperial  purple  when  exposed  to 
sale  by  the  licentiousness  of  the  praetorians,  and 
therefore  he  proclaimed  himself  emperor  on  the 
borders  of  Illyricum,  where  he  was  stationed 
against  the  barbarians.  To  support  himself  in 
this  bold  measure,  he  took,  as  his  partner  in 
the  empire,  Albinus,  who  was  at  the  head  of 
the  Roman  forces  in  Britain,  and  immediately 
marched  towards  Rome  to  crush  Didius  and 
all  his  partisans. 

He  was  received,  as  he  advanced  through 
the  country,  with  universal  acclamations,  and 
Julianus  himself  was  soon  deserted  by  his  favo- 
rites, and  assassinated  by  his  own  soldiers.  The 
reception  of  Severus  at  Rome,  was  sufficient 
to  gratify  his  pride ;  the  streets  were  strewed 
with  flowers,  and  the  submissive  senate  were 
ever  ready  to  grant  whatever  honors  or  titles 
tiie  conqueror  claimed.  In  professing  that  he 
had  assumed  the  purple  only  to  revenge  the 
death  of  the  virtuous  Pertinax,  Severus  gained 
many  adherents,  and  was  enabled  not  only  to 
disarm,  but  to  banish  the  praetorians,  whose 
insolence  and  avarice  were  become  alarming, 
not  only  to  the  citizens  but  to  the  emperor. 

But  while  he  was  victorious  at  Rome,  Seve- 
rus did  not  forget  that  there  was  another  compe- 
titor for  the  imperial  purple.  Pescennius  Niger 
was  in  the  east  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army, 
and  with  the  name  and  ensigns  of  Augustus. 
Many  obstinate  battles  were  fought  between 
the  troops  and  officers  of  the  imperial  rivals,  till 
on  the  plains  of  Issus,  which  had  been  above 
five  centuries  before1  covered  with  the  blood  of 
the  Persian  soldiers  of  Darius,  Niger  was  totally 
ruined  by  the  loss  of  20,000  men.  The  head 
of  Niger  was  cut  off  and  sent  to  the  conqueror, 
who  punished  in  a  most  cruel  manner,  all  the 
partisans  of  his  unfortunate  rival.  Severus 
afterwards  pillaged  Byzantium,  which  had  shut 
her  gates  against  him ;  and  after  he  had  con- 
quered several  nations  in  the  east,  lie  returned 
to  Rome,  resolved  to  destroy  Albinus,  with 
whom  he  had  hitherto  reluctantly  shared  the 
imperial  power.  He  attempted  to  assassinate 
him  by  his  emissaries;  but  when  this  had  failed 
of  success,  Severus  had  recourse  to  arms,  and 
the  fate  of  the  empire  was  again  decided  on  the 
plains  of  Gaul. 

Albinus  was  defeated,  and  the  conqueror  was 
so  elated  with  the  recollection  that  he  had  now 
no  longer  a  competitor  for  the  purple,  that  he 
insulted  the  dead  body  of  his  rival,  and  ordered 


it  to  be  thrown  into  the  Rhone,  after  he  had 
suffered  it  to  putrefy  before  the  door  of  his  tent, 
and  to  be  torn  to  pieces  by  his  dogs.  The 
family  and  the  adherents  of  Albinus  shared  his 
fate ;  and  the  return  of  Severus  to  the  capital 
exhibited  the  bloody  triumphs  of  Marius  and 
Sylla.  The  richest  of  the  citizens  were  sacri- 
ficed, and  their  money  became  the  property  of 
the  emperor.  The  wicked  Commodus  received 
divine  honors,  and  his  murderers  were  punished 
in  the  most  wanton  manner. 

Tired  of  the  inactive  life  which  he  led  in 
Rome,  Severus  marched  into  the  east,  with  his 
two  sons  Caracalla  and  Geta,  and  with  uncom- 
mon success  made  himself  master  of  Seleucia, 
Babylon, and  Ctesiphon  ;  and  advanced  without 
opposition,  far  into  the  Parthian  territories. 
From  Parthia,  the  emperor  marched  towards 
the  more  southern  provinces  of  Asia ;  he  entered 
Alexandria,  and  after  he  had  granted  a  senate 
to  that  celebrated  city,  viewed  with  the  most 
criticising  and  inquisitive  curiosity,  the  monu- 
ments and  ruins  of  Egypt.  The  revolt  of  Bri- 
tain recalled  him  from'the  east.  After  he  had 
reduced  it  under  his  power,  lie  built  a  wall 
across  the  northern  part  of  the  island,  to  defend 
it  against  the  frequent  invasions  of  the  Caledo- 
nians. Hitherto  successful  against  his  enemies, 
Severus  now  found  the  peace  of  his  family  dis- 
turbed. Caracalla  attempted  to  murder  his 
father  as  he  was  concluding  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  the  Britons :  and  the  emperor  was  sr>  shock- 
ed at  the  undutifulness  of  his  son,  that  on  his 
return  home  he  called  him  into  his  presence, 
and  after  he  Ind  upbraided  him  for  his  ingrati- 
tude and  perfidy,  lie  offered  him  a  drawn  sword, 
adding,  "  If  you  are  so  ambitious  of  reigning 
alone,  now  imbrue  your  hands  in  the  blood  of 
your  father,  and  let  not  the  eves  of  the  world 
be  witnesses  of  your  Wcint  of  filial  tenderness." 
If  these  words  checked  Caracalla,  yet  he  did 
not  show  himself  concerned,  and  Sever  us.  worn 
out  with  infirmities,  which  the  gout  and  the 
uneasiness  of  his  mind  increased,  soon  after 
died,  exclaiming  he  had  been  every  tiling  man 
could  wish,  but  that  he  was  then  nothing. 

Some  say  that  he  wished  to  poison  himself, 
but  that  when  this  was  denied,  he  eat  to  great 
excess,  and  soon  after  expired  nt  York,  in  the 
211th  year  of  the  Christian  era,  in  the  Clitli  year 
of  his"  age,  after  a  reign  of  seventeen  years, 
eight  months,  and  three  days.  Severus  has 
been  so  much  admired  for  his  military  talents, 
that  some  have  called  him  the  most  warlike  of 
the  Roman  emperors. 

As  a  monarch,  he  was  cruel,  and  it  has  been 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SEV 


523 


SFO 


observed  that  he  never  did  an  act  of  humanity, 
or  forgave  a  fault.  In  his  diet  he  was  tempe- 
rate, and  he  always  showed  himself  an  open 
enemy  to  pomp  and  splendor.  He  loved  the 
appellation  of  a  man  of  letters,  and  he  even 
composed  a  history  of  his  own  reign,  which 
some  have  praised  for  its  correctness  and  verac- 
ity. However  cruel  Severus  may  appear  in 
his  punishments  and  in  his  revenge,  many  have 
endeavored  to  exculpate  him,  and  observed  that 
there  was  need  of  severity  in  an  empire  whose 
morals  were  so  corrupt.  Of  him,  as  of  Augus- 
tus, some  were  found  to  say,  that  it  would  have 
been  better  for  the  world  if  he  had  never  been 
born,  or  had  never  died. 

SEVERUS,  Alexander  Marcus  Aurelius,  a 
native  of  Phoenicia,  adopted  by  Heliogabalus. 
His  father's  name  was  Genesius  Marcianus, 
and  his  mother's  Julia  Mammaea,  and  he  receiv- 
ed the  surname  of  Alexander,  because  he  was 
born  in  a  temple  sacred  to  Alexander  the  Great. 
He  was  carefully  educated,  and  his  mother,  by 
paying  particular  attention  to  his  morals  and 
the  character  of  his  preceptors,  preserved  him 
from  the  vices  and  licentiousness  of  youth.  At 
the  death  of  Heliogabalus,  who  had  been  jealous 
of  his  virtues,  Alexander,  though  only  in  the 
14th  year  of  his  age,  was  proclaimed  emperor, 
and  his  nomination  was  approved  by  the  uni- 
versal shouts  of  the  army,  and  the  congratula- 
tions of  the  senate.  He  had  not  long  been  on 
the  throne  before  the  peace  of  the  empire  was 
disturbed  by  the  incursions  of  the  Persians. 
Alexander  marched  into  the  east  without  delay, 
and  soon  obtained  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
barbarians. 

At  his  return  to  Rome,  he  was  honored  with 
a  triumph,  but  the  revolt  of  the  Germans  soon 
after  called  him  away  from  the  indolence  of  the 
capital.  His  expedition  in  Germany  was  at- 
tended with  some  success,  but  the  virtues  and 
the  amiable  qualities  of  Alexander,  were  forgot- 
ten in  the  stern  strictness  of  the  disciplinarian. 
His  soldiers,  fond  of  repose,  murmured  against 
his  severity ;  their  clamors  were  fomented  by 
the  artifice  of  Maximinus.  and  Alexander  was 
murdered  in  his  tent,  in  the  midst  of  his  camp, 
after  a  reign  of  thirteen  years  and  nine  days,- 
on  the  16th  of  March,  A.  D.  235.  His  mother 
Mammrea,  shared  his  fate  with  all  his  friends; 
but  this  was  no  sooner  known  than  the  soldiers 
punished  with  immediate  death,  all  such  as  had 
been  concerned  in  the  murder,  except  Maxi- 

SEVILLE,  SEVILLA,  anciently  Hispalis, 
a  city  of  Spain,  in  Andalusia,  on  the  Guadal- 


quivir, capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
containing  94,000  inhabitants.  It  is  built  in 
the  Moorisli  style.  It  opened  its  gates  to  the 
Moors,  in  711,  and  continued  in  their  possession 
more  than  five  centuries.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Christians  in  1247,  after  one  of  the  most  obsti- 
nate sieges  mentioned  in  Spanish  hifetory.  In 
1729,  a  treaty  was  concluded  here  between 
Spain,  England,  France,  and  Holland.  On  the 
invasion  of  Spain  by  Bonaparte,  in  1808,  Sev- 
ille asserted  the  national  independence,  and  re- 
ceived the  junta  when  driven  from  Madrid.  It 
surrendered,  however,  to  the  French,  on  the 
1st  February,  1810,  and  remained  in  their  hands 
till  27th  of  August,  1812,  when  they  were  com- 
pelled to  leave  it  in  consequence,  not  of  insur- 
rection on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants,  but  of  the 
general  evacuation  of  the  south  of  Spain,  con- 
sequent on  their  defeat  at  Salamanca. 

SEYMOUR  Edward,  duke  of  Somerset,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Sir  John  Seymour,  by  Eliza- 
beth, daughter  of  Sir  Henry  Wentworth.  In 
1533,  he  accompanied  the  duke  of  Suffolk  to 
France,  and  was  knighted  the  same  year.  In 
1544.  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  of  the 
north,  and  commanded  an  expedition  against 
the  Scots.  The  same  year  he  was  at  the  siege 
of  Boulogne,  where  he  defeated  the  French, 
who  lay  encamped  before  the  place.  By  the 
king's  will,  he  was  nominated  one  of  his  exec- 
utors and  governor  of  his  son ;  but  Seymour 
soon  after  was  declared  protector  of  the  king- 
dom. In  1548  he  was  appointed  lord  treasurer, 
created  duke  of  Somerset,  and  made  earl  mar- 
shal of  England.  The  same  year  he  marched 
into  Scotland,  and  gained  the  victory  of  Mus- 
selburgh;  but  though  this  raised  his  reputation, 
his  fate  was  now  fast  approaching,  to  which 
the  execution  of  his  brother,  the  admiral,  greatly 
contributed.  His  greatest  enemy  was  the  earl 
of  Warwick,  and  though  a  marriage  had  been 
effected  between  their  children,  yet  when  that 
nobleman  became  duke  of  Northumberland,  he 
accused  Seymour  of  treason,  and  the  latter  was 
executed  on  Tower-hill,  Jan.  22,  1552. 

SFORZA.  James,  called  the  Great,  was  born 
of  mean  parents,  at  Cotignola,  in  1369.  He 
entered  the  army  as  a  common  soldier,  and  by 
his  good  conduct  rose  to  the  rank  of  general, 
and  afterwards  was  made  constable  of  the  king- 
dom of  Naples.  Pope  John  XXIII  also  ap- 
pointed him  gonfalineer  of  the  church,  and 
created  him  a  count.  He  compelled  Alphonso 
of  Arragon  to  raise  the  siege  of  Naples ;  but  in 
pursuing  the  flying  enemy,  he  fell  into  the 
river  near  Pescara,  and  was  drowned,  in  1424 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


SHE 


524 


SHE 


His  natural  son,  Francis  Sforza,  commanded 
with  distinction  in  the  service  of  Naples;  after 
which  he  married  the  daughter  of  the  duke  of 
Milan,  on  whose  death  he  was  chosen  general 
of  the  duchy  ;  but  abused  that  trust,  and  usurped 
the  sovereignty.  He  also  made  himself  master 
of  Genoa,  and  died  in  1466. 

SHAKSPEARE,  William,  the  greatest  dra- 
matic poet  that  ever  lived,  was  born  at  Stratford- 
upon-Avon,  a  market-town  of  Warwickshire, 
England,  in  1564.  His  father  was  a  dealer  in 
wool.  He  was  the  youngest  of  eight  children, 
and  received  but  a  common  school  education. 
He  knew  little  Latin  and  less  Greek,  but  pos- 
sessed some  acquaintance  with  French  and 
Italian.  In  his  eighteenth  year  he  married 
Anne  Hathaway,  who  bore  him  several  children. 
He  came  to  London  and  became  an  actor  and 
author,  and  was  patronised  by  the  earl  of  South- 
ampton and  queen  Elizabeth,  who  properly  ap- 
preciated his  merits.  He  finally  became  pro- 
prietor and  manager  of  the  Globe  Theatre  in 
Southwark,  and  retired  on  a  small  fortune.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  unknown.  Aubrey  calls 
him  "  a  handsome,  well-shaped  man,  verie  good 
company,  and  of  a  verie  pleasant,  reddie,  and 
smooth  will." 

SHEFFIELD,  John,  duke  of  Buckingham- 
shire, was  the  son  of  Edward,  earl  of  Mulgrave, 
and  born  in  1641).  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
served  in  the  fleet,  and  afterwards  had  the  com- 
mand of  a  troop  of  horse.  In  1630,  being  then 
lord  Mulgrave,  he  was  sent  to  the  relief  of  Tan- 
gier, which  service  he  accomplished.  He  com- 
plied very  much  with  the  measures  of  James 
II,  and  yet  concurred  in  the  Revolution,  for 
which  he  was  created  marquis  of  Normanby, 
and  duke  of  Buckinghamshire.  He  died  in 
1720,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

SHELBY,  Isaac,  was  born  Dec.  11,  1750, 
near  Hagerstown,  Maryland.  In  1776  he  com- 
manded a  company  raised  by  the  committee  of 
safety  of  Virginia,  and  marched  against  the 
hostile  Indians.  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
revolutionary  war,  throughout  which  he  be- 
haved with  courage,  he  settled  in  Kentucky, 
of  which  he  was  chosen  governer  in  1792.  In 
1813  he  emerged  from  private  life  and  joined 
Gen.  Harrison,  on  the  frontier  of  Ohio  with 
4030  men.  He  died  of  apoplexy,  July  18,  1826. 

SHERIDAN,  Richard  Brinsley,  a  celebrated 
wit,  author,  and  statesman,  was  the  son  of 
Thomas  Sheridan,  and  was  born  in  Dublin.  Oct 
30, 1751.  Having  quitted  the  Dublin  school,  he 
was  placed  at  Harrow,  which  he  left  in  his 
eighteenth  year.  While  yet  at  school  his  wit 


and  humor  began  to  appear.  At  an  early  age 
he  married  Miss  Linley,  a  beautiful  young  lady, 
who,  at  the  concerts  and  theatre  of  Bath,  at- 
tracted universal  admiration.  He  did  not  obtain 
her  without  difficulty,  for  he  was  forced  to  fight 
two  duels  with  a  Captain  Matthews,  which 
stand  unequalled  in  the  history  of  single  com- 
bats for  ferocity  and  determination.  In  1775 
his  comedy  of  the  Rivals  was  produced  with 
success  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre.  Although 
this  comedy  has  not  the  wit  of  the  School  tor 
Scandal,  it  always  elicits  rapturous  applause. 
In  1780  Mr.  Sheridan  was  returned  to  parlia- 
ment for  Stafford,  and  soon  became  distinguish- 
ed as  a  powerful  speaker  on  the  side  of  the 
opposition.  When  the  Rockingham  party  came 
into  power,  he  was  made  one  of  the  under  sec- 
retaries ;  and,  in  the  coalition  administration, 
was  appointed  to  the  Treasury.  That  post, 
however,  he  did  not  hold  long,  and  during  the 
whole  of  Mr.  Pitt's  ascendency,  the  talents  of 
Sheridan  were  displayed  in  combatting  that 
statesman.  On  the  trial  of  Mr.  Hastings  he 
acted  a  prominent  part,  and  his  eloquence  had 
an  electrifying  effect  upon  his  auditors. 

On  the  conclusion  of  Mr.  Sheridan's  speech 
on  the  Begum  charge,  on  the  impeachment  of 
Mr.  Hastings,  the  whole  assembly,  members, 
peers,  and  strangers,  involuntarily  joined  in  a 
tumult  of  applause,  and  adopted  a  mode  of  ex- 
pressing their  approbation  new  and  irregular  in 
Westminster  hall,  by  loudly  and  repeatedly 
clapping  their  hands.  A  motion  was  immedi- 
ately made  and  carried  for  an  adjournment,  that 
the  members,  who  were  in  a  state  of  delirious 
insensibility,  from  the  talismanic  influence  of 
such  powerful  eloquence,  might  have  time  to 
collect  their  scattered  senses  for  the  exercise 
of  a  sober  judgment.  The  motion  was  made  by 
Mr.  Pitt,  who  declared  that  this  speech  "  sur- 
passed all  the  eloquence  of  ancient  and  modern 
times,  and  possessed  every  thing  that  genius  or 
art  could  furnish,  to  agitate  and  control  the 
human  mind." 

"He  has  this  day,"  said  Mr.  Burke,  "  sur- 
prised the  thousands  who  hung  with  rapture  on 
his  accents,  by  such  an  array  of  talents,  such 
an  exhibition  of  capacity,  such  a  display  of 
powers,  as  are  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of 
oratory  !  a  display  that  reflects  the  highest,  honor 
upon  'himself— a  lustre  upon  letters — renown 
upon  parliament — glory  upon  the  country.  Of 
all  spocios  of  rhetoric,  of  every  kind  of  elo- 
quence that  has  been  witnessed  or  recorded, 
either  in  ancient  or  modern  times  :  whatever 
the  acuteness  of  the  bar,  the  dignity  of  the 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SHE 


525 


SHE 


senate,  the  solidity  of  the  judgment  seat,  and 
the  sacred  morality  of  the  pulpit,  have  hitherto 
furnished,  nothing  has  surpassed,  nothing  has 
equalled  what  we  have  this  day  heard  in  West- 
minster-hall. No  holy  seer  of  religion,  no 
statesman,  no  orator,  no  man  of  any  literary 
description  whatever,  has  come  up,  iti  one  in- 
stance, to  the  pure  sentiments  of  morality  ;  or, 
in  the  other,  to  the  variety  of  knowledge,  force 
of  imagination,  propriety  and  vivacity  of  allu- 
sion, beauty  and  elegance  of  diction,  strength 
and  copiousness  of  style,  pathos  and  sublimity 
of  conception,  to  which  we  have  this  day  list- 
ened with  ardor  and  admiration.  From  poetry 
up  to  eloquence,  there  is  not  a  species  of  com- 
position of  which  a  complete  and  perfect  speci- 
men might  not  from  that  single  speech  be  culled 
and  collected."  , 

A  faint  idea  of  the  power  of  this  speech  may 
be  formed  from  the  following  brief  extract : 

"  The  Majesty  of  Justice,  in  the  eyes  of  Mr. 
Hastings,  is  a  beintr  of  terrific  horror — a  dread- 
ful idol,  placed  in  the  gloom  of  graves,  accessible 
only  to  cringing  supplication,  and  which  must 
be  approached  with  offerings,  and  worshipped 
by  sacrifice.  The  Majesty  of  Mr.  Hastings  is  a 
being,  whose  decrees  are  written  with  blood, 
and  whose  oracles  are  at  once  secure  and  terri- 
ble. From  such  an  idol  I  turn  mine  eyes  with 
horror — I  turn  them  here  to  this  dignified  and 
high  tribunal,  where  the  Majesty  of  Justice 
really  sits  enthroned.  Here  I  perceive  the 
Majesty  of  Justice  in  her  proper  robes  of  truth 
and  mercy— chaste  and  simple — accessible  and 
patient — awful  without  severity, —  inquisitive 
without  meanness.  1  see  here  enthroned  and 
sitting  in  judgment  on  a  great  and  momentous 
cause,  in  which  the  happiness  of  millions  is  in- 
volved.— Pardon  me,  my  lords,  if  I  presume  to 
say,  that  in  the  decision  of  this  great  cause,  you 
are  to  be  envied  as  well  as  venerated.  You 
possess  the  highest  distinction  of  the  human 
character  ;  for  when  you  render  your  ultimate 
voice  on  this  cause,  illustrating  the  dignity  of 
the  ancestors  from  whom  you  spring — justifying 
the  solemn  asseveration  which  you  make — vin- 
dicating the  people  of  whom  you  are  a  part — 
and  manifesting  the  intelligence  of  the  times  in 
which  you  live — you  will  do  an  act  of  mercy, 
and  blessing  to  man,  as  no  men  but  yourselves 
are  able  to  grant." 

In  1792  Mr.  Sheridan  had  the  misfortune  to 
lose  his  wife,  who  left  one  son,  Thomas  Sheri- 
dan. Three  years  afterwards  he  married  Miss 
Ogle,  daughter  of  the  dean  of  Winchester.  But 
neither  the  large  fortune  which  this  lady  brought 


him,  nor  the  receiver  generalship  of  Cornwall, 
nor  his  interest  in  Drury  Lane  theatre,were  abie 
to  supply  Sheridan's  extravagances,  and  put 
him  beyond  the  reach  of  pecuniary  embarrass- 
ment. After  the  death  of  Mr.  Fox,  Sbe-idan 
was  deprived  of  office.  His  intemperate  Habits 
and  indolence  completed  the  ruin  which  the 
burning  of  Drury  Lane  theatre  began.  Yet  this 
calamity  was  borne  with  equanimity.  Some 
of  his  companions  found  Sheridan  at  a  neigh- 
boring ale-house  quietly  surveying  the  raging 
flames  which  were  rapidly  consuming  his  pro- 
perty. On  observing  their  astonishment.  She- 
ridan coolly  observed,  "  Why  shouldn't  a  man 
enjoy  his  pot  and  pipe  by  his  own  fire-side." 

Intemperance  had  undermined  his  constitu- 
tion, and  he  died  in  miserable  circumstances, 
July  7,  1816.  His  plays  are  the  Rivals,  Du- 
enna, School  for  Scandal,  St.  Patrick's  Day,  or 
the  Scheming  Lieutenant,  a  Trip  to  Scarbo- 
rough, the  Camp,  the  Critic,  or  Tragedy  Re- 
hearsed, Robinson  Crusoe,  or  Harlequin  Friday, 
and  Pizarro,  a  tragedy  translated  from  the  Ger- 
man. Byron's  monody  on  Sheridan  concludes 
thus: 

Ye  orators!  whom  yet  our  councils  lead, 
Mourn  for  the  veteran  hero  of  your  field  ! 
The  worthy  rival  of  the  wond'rous  three  ! 
Whose  words  were  sparks  of  immortality  ! 
Ye  bards  !  to  whom  the  drama's  muse  is  dear, 
He  was  your  master — emulate  him  here  .' 
Ye  men  of  wit  and  social  eloquence  ! 
He  was  your  brother — bear  his  ashes  hence  ! 
While  powers   of  mind  almost  of   boundless 

range, 

Complete  in  kind — as  various  in  their  change  ; 
While  eloquence — wit — poesy — and  mirth, 
(That  humbler  harmonist  of  care  on  earth), 
Survive  within  our  souls — while  lives  our  sense 
Of  pride  in  merit's  pfoud  preeminence, 
Long  shall  we  seek  his  likeness — long  in  vain, 
And  turn  to  all  of  him  which  may  remain, 
Sighing  that  nature  formed  but  one  such  man, 
And  broke  the  die — in  moulding  SHERIDAN  ! 

Some  of  Sheridan's  Lon  mots  will  be  long  re- 
membered for  their  uncommon  brilliancy.  He 
once  remarked  that  the  tax  upon  mile-stones  was 
unconstitutional ;  li  because."  said  he,  "  they 
are  a  race  that  cannot  meet  to  remonstrate." 

Young  Tom  Sheridan  once  said  to  his  father; 
"  If  ever  I  get  into  parliament,  I  mean  to  set  up 
a  sign  on  my  head — inscribed  To  let."  "  Ay," 
said  Sheridan,  "  and  add— unfurnished." 

Sheridan  was  fond  of  practical  jokes — one  of 
which  he  played  off  upon  the  duke  of  Devon- 
shire. Sheridan  was  in  the  habit  of  frequenting 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


SHO 


526 


SI  A 


Dolly's  Chop-house,  where  he  generally  called 
for  a  devilled  shin-bone  of  beef.  One  day, 
coming  in  rather  later  than  usual,  he  was  told 
that  the  only  shin-bone  in  the  larder  was  being 
cooked  for  his  grace  the  duke  of  Devonshire. 
Sheridan,  who  was  unacquainted  with  the  duke, 
took  a  seat  within  ear-shot  of  him,  and  began 
a  conversation  with  a  friend  in  a  loud  tone  of 
voice.  "  I  always  imagined,"  said  he,  "  that 
Dolly's  chop-house,  was  one  of  the  neatest  es- 
tablishments in  London,  but  I  made  a  discove- 
ry this  morning  which  has  convinced  me  that 
I  was  mistaken."  Here  the  duke  listened  very 
attentively.  "  As  I  was  passing  the  kitchen 
window,"  continued  Sheridan,  "  I  observed  a 
turnspit-boy  greedily  gnawing  a  shin-bone  of 
beef.  Presently  one  of  the  cooks  ran  up  to  him, 
and  giving  him  a  blow  on  the  neck,  compelled 
him  to  drop  his  prize.  '  You  dirty  little  rascal,' 
said  the  cook, '  could'nt  you  find  nothing  else 
to  eat — here  I '  ve  got  to  cook  this  bone  for  the 
duke  of  Devonshire  !  '  "  Soon  after  the  conclu- 
sion of  this  tale,  a  waiter  entered  the  room,  and 
advanced  to  his  grace,  with  a  covered  dish. 
"Your  bone,  sir !  "  "  Take  it  away !  "  roared  the 
duke,  with  a  face  of  great  disgust, "  I  can't  touch 
a  morsel  of  it."  "  Stay,  waited !  "  said  Sheridan ; 
<;  bring  it  to  me.  If  his  grace  can  '  t  eat  it,  I 
can.  Fetch  me  a  bottle  of  claret— I  don't  wish 
a  better  luncheon." 

Two  young  sprigs  of  nobility  once  accosted 
Sheridan  in  Bond-street.  "  Sherry."  said  one 
of  them  familiarly,  '•  my  friend  and'l  have  been 
discussing  the  question  whether  you  are  knave 
or  fool."  "  Why."  said  the  wit,  taking  an  arm 
of  each  and  smiling  "  [  believe  1  am  between 
both." 

SHERMAN,  Roger,  a  signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  born  at  Newton, 
Massachusetts,  April  10,  1721,  and  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  shoemaker.  In  1743  the  family  re- 
moved to  N.  Milford  in  Connecticut,  where  he 
entered  upon  trade  as  a  country  merchant. 
Having,  however,  always  displayed  a  desire  for 
knowledge,  he  studied'  with  diligence,  and  in 
1754  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1759  he  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas 
in  Litchfield.  Two  years  afterwards  he  remov- 
rd  to  New  Haven,  and  in  17(>5.  was  appointed 
judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  and  treasurer 
of  Yale  college.  After  holding  a  seat  in  the 
general  assembly  of  Connecticut,  he  was  sent  to 
congress  in  1774.  After  discharging  several  im- 
portant duties,  and  being  made  senator,  he  died 
July  23, 17i»3,inthe  seventy-third  yearofhisaire. 

SHORE,  (Jane),  mistress  of  Edward  IV,  a 


woman  of  exquisite  beauty  and  good  sense,  but 
who  had  not  virtue  enough  to  resist  the  tempta- 
tions of  a  beautiful  man  and  a  monarch.  She 
was  fated  to  incur  the  indignation  of  the  duke 
of  Gloucester,  who  had  been  made  protector  of 
the  realm  on  the  death  of  Edward.  This  un- 
fortunate woman  was  an  enemy  too  humble  to 
excite  the  protector's  jealousy  ;  yet  as  he  had 
accused  hrr  of  witchcraft,  of  which  she  was 
innocent,  he  thought  proper  to  make  her  an  ex- 
ample for  those  faults  of  which  she  was  really 
guilty.  Jane  Shore  had  been  formerly  deluded 
from  her  husband,  who  was  a  goldsmith  in 
Lombard-street,  and  continued  to  live  with  Ed- 
ward, the  most  guiltless  mistress  in  his  aban- 
doned court.  The  charge  against  her  was  too 
notorious  to  be  denied ;  she  pleaded  guilty,  and 
was  accordingly  condemned  to  walk  bare-fool 
through  the  city,  and  do  penance  in  St.  PaulV 
church,  in  a  white  sheet,  with  a  wax  taper  in 
her  hand,  before  thousands  of  spectators.  She 
lived  above  forty  years  after  this  sentence,  and 
was  reduced  to  the  most  extreme  indigence. 

SHOVEL,  Sir  Cloudesley,  an  admiral,  was 
born  near  Clay,  in  Norfolk,  about  l(!5t).  In 
1674  he  was  a  lieutenant  under  Sir  John  Nar- 
borough,  who  sent  Mr.  Shovel  to  the  dey  of 
Tripoli  with  a  requisition,  which  the  Moor 
treated  with  contempt  Sir  John  then  despatch- 
ed the  lieutenant  on  shore  again,  when  the  dey 
behaved  much  worse  than  before.  On  his  re- 
turn, Shovel  stated  to  the  admiral  the  practica- 
bility of  destroying  the  enemy's  shipping .  which 
service  he  performed  the  same  night  "without 
the  loss  of  a  man.  For  this  exploit  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  a  ship. 

After  the  Revolution  he  was  knighted,  and 
made  a  rear-admiral,  in  which  capacity  he  had 
a  share  in  the  victory  of  La  Hogue.  In  1703 
he  commanded  a  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  year  following  partook  in  the  victory 
off  Malaga.  In  1705  he  sailed  for  England, 
and  in  the  night  of  October  22,  fell  by  mistake 
upon  the  rocks  of  Scilly,  where  his  ship  was 
totally  lost,  with  some  others,  and  all  on  board 
perished.  His  body  beincr  found  by  the  fisher- 
men, was  stripped  and  buried;  but  the  fact 
becoming  known,  the  remains  were  brought  to 
London,  and  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

SI  AM.  a  country  in  the  peninsula  of  Chin- 
India  containing  190,000  square  miles,  and 
3,70.0,000  inhabitants.  The  country  is  moun- 
tainous hut  the  soil  fertile.  The  inhabitants 
are  slothful,  indolent,  vain,  and  deceitful.  Their 
religion  is  Buddhism. 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SIC 


527 


SIC 


SIBERIA,  a  vast  territory  of  Asia,  including 
the  whole  northern  part  of  that  continent. 
The  exploration  of  Siberia  may  be  dated  from 
the  period  when  Russia  emancipated  herself 
from  the  yoke  of  the  Tartar  conquerors.  At 
length  the  czars  of  Muscovy  having  acquired 
a  knowledge  of  the  country,  began  the  system 
of  colonizing  it,  by  making  it  a  place  of  banish- 
ment for  public  criminals,  till  the  settlement 
being  formed,  the  aversion  to  migrate  thither 
was  greatly  abated.  A  body  of  wandering 
Russian  troops  having  sought  refuge  from  the 
Cossacks,  whom  they  were  sent  to  extirpate,  in 
the  eastern  regions  of  this  country,  they  there 
found  established,  a  Tartar  kingdom,  of  which 
Sibir  was  the  capital. 

The  khan  or  ruler  having  been  totally  defeat- 
ed, Germack,  the  conqueror,  took  possession  of 
the  kingdom  but  was  afterwards  surprised  and 
cut  off  by  an  ambuscade  of  Tartars.  In  the 
course  of  fifty  years,  a  few  Cossacks  and  hun- 
ters had.  by  their  intrepid  exertions,  added  to 
Russia  a  territory  larger  in  extent  than  all  Eu- 
rope. However,  in  extending  their  conquest, 
they  came  in  contact  with  the  Chinese  empire, 
the  military  force  of  which  defeated  the  Rus- 
sians on  the  banks  of  the  Amour,  where  they 
were  obliged  to  terminate  their  progress,  and 
which  river  forms  the  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween the  two  empires. 

SICILY.  This  island,  which  is  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  is  separated  from  Italy  by 
the  straits  of  Messina.  It  is  60  leagues  long, 
and  36  broad,  and  contains  1,787,771  inhabi- 
tants. The  principal  cities  are  Palermo,  Mazara, 
Syracuse,  Messina,  and  Catania.  The  country 
is  rich  and  fertile,  and  was  formerly  the  granary 
of  Italy;  but  is  no  longer  so  well  cultivated. 
It  produces  grain,  silk,  wines,  excellent  fruits, 
wax,  and  honey.  The  Sicilians  are  polished, 
and  fond  of  the  fine  arts,  but  fickle  and  revenge- 
ful. They  profess  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 

This  island  was  anciently  known  by  the 
names  of  Sicania,  Sicilia,  and  Trinacria,  from 
its  triangular  form  It  is  situated  between  Italy 
and  Africa,  lying  between  36°  30f  and  38°  20' 
of  north  latitude,  and  extending  from  the  13th 
to  the  IGth  degree  of  east  longitude.  JEtna., 
now  mount  Gibello,  emits  flames,  throws  up 
stones  and  ashes,  and  alarms  the  inhabitants  by 
its  roaring  ,  and  its  convulsions  have  frequently 
overturned  cities,  and  covered  the  island  with 
ruins.  In  the  Tuscan  Sea,  near  Sicily,  lie  the 
JEollan  and  Vulcanian  isles,  in  which  Vulcan 
is  fabled  to  have  had  his  forges,  and  ^Eolus  to 
have  confined  the  winds  subject  to  his  com- 
45 


mand.  Sicily  was  peopled  by  Greeks  from 
Chalcia,  Achaia,  Doris,  and  from  Crete,  Rhodes, 
and  other  islands,  and  by  some  colonies  from 
Italy.  At  length,  Syracuse,  which  was  found- 
ed by  a  Corinthian,  usurped  the  chief  power, 
and  continued  for  a  long  time  the  metropolis 
of  Sicily.  It  was  at  first  governed  by  kings ; 
and  afterwards  a  democracy  was  established. 
It  exhibits  a  perpetual  alternation  of  slavery 
under  tyrants,  and  of  liberty  under  a  popular 
government.  Gelon  is  said  to  have  introduced 
himself  into  Syracuse  by  his  address,  and  to 
have  gained  the  favor  of  the  people,  who  in- 
vested him  with  absolute  power,  B.  C.  483. 
He  laid  the  foundation  of  that  immense  com- 
merce, which  rendered  Syracuse  strong  and 
opulent.  He  proposed  to  assist  the  Greeks 
against  Xerxes,  when  the  Carthaginians  land- 
ed in  Sicily  an  army  of  300,000  men  under  the 
command  of  Hamilcar. 

However,  Gelon,  by  means  of  an  intercepted 
letter  was  enabled  to  send  a  body  of  cavalry, 
that  put  Hamilcar  to  death,  dispersed  the  troops, 
and  burnt  the  ships,  while  he  attacked  the  other 
camp.  An  assembly  of  the  Syracusans  being 
convened,  Gelon  was  invited  to  assume  the 
title  of  king,  and  invested  with  supreme  au- 
thority. The  people  also  passed  a  decree,  set- 
tling the  crown,  after  his  death,  on  his  two 
brothers,  Hiero  and  Thrasybulus.  Gelon  was 
succeeded  by  his  elder  brother,  Hiero,  B.  C. 
471,  whom  some  represent  as  an  excellent 
prince,  and  others  as  a  covetous,  obstinate,  and 
cruel  tyrant. 

Hiero  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Thrasy- 
bulus, B.  C.  459,  a  cruel  and  sanguinary  tyrant, 
who  massacred  all  those  subjects  who  gave  him 
the  least  cause  of  offence.  Incensed  at  this 
oppressive  conduct,  the  people  took  up  arms, 
and  expelled  the  tyrant,  who  retired  to  Italy. 
The  Syracusans.  attempting  to  subdue  the 
neighboring  cities,  the  latter  requested  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Athenians,  who  had  long  wished 
to  form  an  establishment  in  Sicily.  Nicias,  a 
prudent  general,  endeavored  to  dissuade  the 
Athenians  from  such  an  undertaking ;  but  the 
senate  and  the  people  were  hurried  on  by  en- 
thusiasm, and  determined  to  sell  the  Syracu- 
sans and  their  allies  as  slaves,  and  oblige  the 
other  cities  of  Sicily  to  pay  an  annual  tribute 
to  Athens.  Accordingly,  the  Athenians  set  sail 
and  arrived  before  Syracuse,  which  they  be- 
sieged both  by  sea  and  land,  B.  C.  416.  The 
Syracusans  were  about  to  surrender,  when  Gy- 
lippus,  a  Spartan  general,  arrived  with  assistance 
from  Lacedaemon. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


SIC 


528 


SIC 


Nicias  found  himself  under  the  necessity  of 
demanding  a  reinforcement  from  Athens,  which 
despatched  another  fleet,  commanded  by  De- 
mosthenes ;  that  eterprising  general,  induced 
Nicias  to  make  an  assault,  which  was  not  suc- 
cessful. At  length  the  Athenian  and  Syracusan 
armaments  met,  and  an  engagement  ensued, 
when  the  Athenians  were  completely  defeated. 
Finding  no  other  resource  left  than  to  endeavor 
to  reach  some  towns  in  alliance  with  them,  they 
began  their  march.  However,  the  dead  and  the 
dyinp1  retarded  their  progress  ;  and  the  enemy 
briskly  pursued,  and  allowed  them  scarcely  a 
moment  of  rest.  Nicias  and  Demosthenes  were 
made  prisoners,  and  after  being  publicly  scourg- 
ed, were  thrown  from  a  precipice.  The  soldiers 
were  shut  up  in  the  quarries,  where  they  received 
a  scanty  allowance  of  food,  and  were  infected 
with  the  putrid  bodies  of  their  dead  companions. 
Such  was  the  issue  of  this  war,  after  it  had  con- 
tinued nearly  three  years. 

Sicily  was  soon  engaged  in  a  new  contest. 
The  Egestines,  who  had  invited  the  Athenians 
into  Sicily,  dreading  the  resentment  of  the  Sy- 
racusans,  offered  to  put  their  city  into  the  hands 
of  the  Carthaginians,  from  whom  they  request- 
ed assistance  against  the  inhabitants  of  Seli- 
nuntum.  The  Carthaginians  committed  the 
management  of  the  war  to  Hannibal,  the  grand- 
sort  of  Hamilcar,  who  landed  in  Sicily  with  an 
army  of  300,000  men.  The  Selinuntines  de- 
fended their  walls,  their  streets,  their  public 
squares,  and  even  their  houses,  but  were  every 
where  overpowered  by  numbers.  Two  thou- 
sand six  hundred  of  them  escaped  to  Agrigen- 
tum,  and  the  rest  were  cut  to  pieces  by  the 
Carthaginians,  who  committed  dreadful  cruel- 
ties and  atrocities  The  conquerors  then  marcn- 
ed  to  Himera,  before  which  Hamilcar  had  been 
killed  by  Gelon,  and  which  shared  the  same 
fate  as  Selinuntum.  Hannibal  ordered  3000 
Himerians  to  be  barbarously  massacred  on  the 
spot  where  his  grandfather  had  been  defeated 
and  killed  ;  and  after  thus  terminating  the  cam- 
paign, he  embarked  his  troops,  and  set.  sail  for 
Africa.  The  Carthaginians  now  returned  to 
Sicily  with  300,000  men,  and  attacked  Agri- 
gentum.  In  the  first  sally,  the  besieged  burnt 
the  machines,  and  made  a  prodigious  slaughter 
of  the  enemy. 

At  length,  Agrigentum  being  greatly  distress- 
ed for  want  of  provisions,  the  inhabitants  resolv- 
ed to  leave  the  city,  which  was  taken  possession 
of  by  the  Carthaginians.  The  Agrigentines, 
who  took  refuge  in  Syracuse,  filled  that  city 
with  complaints  against  the  Syracusan  com- 


manders, as  if  they  had  betrayed  Agrigentum 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  This  raised  such  dis- 
turbances in  Syracuse,  as  afforded  to  Dionysius, 
a  bold,  eloquent,  and  aspiring  man,  an  opportu- 
nity of  seizing  on  the  sovereign  power.  After 
procuring  a  guard  of  1000  men,  and  being  join- 
ed by  part  of  the  garrison  in  Gela,  he  possessed 
himself  of  the  citadel,  and  publicly  declared 
himself  king  of  Syracuse,  B.  C.  404.  But  on 
the  first  defeat  he  experienced  from  the  Cartha- 
ginians, the  people  revolted,  and  united  with 
his  enemies.  Dionysius,  however,  found  means 
not  only  to  appease  the  revolt,  but  to  conclude 
a  peace  with  the  Carthaginians. 

Dionysius  again  declared  war  with  the  Car- 
thaginians, from  whom  he  took  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  towns  which  they  possessed  in 
Sicily  ;  but  who,  nevertheless,  appeared  before 
Syracuse,  to  which  they  laid  siege.  The  Car- 
thaginians being  exhausted  by  a  plague-,  were 
obliged  to  raise  the  siege,  and  Dionysius  suffer- 
ed them  to  retire  unmolested,  on  condition  that 
they  paid  him  a  large  sum  of  money.  He  then 
turned  his  arms  against  Italy, andtook  Rhegium, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  ho  treated  with  his 
usual  inhumanity.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Dionysius,  who  was  surnamed  the  younger, 
B.  C.  3Gl5,  and  who  was  a  weak  and  irresolute 
prince.  Dion,  the  brother  of  Aristonmche,  the 
wife  of  Dionysius  the  elder,  a  friend  and  disciple 
of  Plato,  induced  the  young  prince  to  banish  the 
accomplices  of  his  debaucheries  and  to  recall 
Plato.  Through  a  cabal  of  courtiers,  Dion  and 
Plato  were  disgraced,  and  obliged  to  retire  to 
Athens.  Dionysius  notonly  refused  to  Dion  the 
revenue  arising  from  his  property,  but  compelled 
his  wife  Arete,  who  was  much  beloved  by  her 
husband,  to  espouse  Timocrates  one  of  his  cour- 
tiers. These  provocations  incensed  Dion,  who 
collected  a  small  band,  and  arriving  at  Syracuse 
whilst  Dionysius  was  engaged  with  the  war  in 
Italy,  declared  that  he  came  not  to  avenge  his 
own  private  wrongs,  but  to  emancipate  Syra- 
cuse and  Sicily  from  the  yoke  of  the  tyrant. 
Under  this  standard  of  liberty,  Dion  obtained 

Eossession  of  the  greater  part  of  the  city  ;  and 
avirig  defeated  Dionysius  in  an  engagement, 
compelled  the  tyrant  to  flee  into  Italy.  Dion, 
having  murdered  one  of  his  generals,  was  as- 
sassinated in  his  own  house  by  his  guest  and 
friend  Calippus. 

The  death  of  Dion,  and  the  flight  of  Calip- 
pus, recalled  Dionysius,  B.  C.  350,  who  again 
reinstated  himself  in  the  possession  of  his  do- 
minions, which  he  retained  until  he  was  again 
expelled  by  an  army  under  Timoleon.  This 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


SIC 


529 


SIC 


general  overran  Sicily  as  a  conqueror,  subdued 
the  tyrants  of  several  cities,  whom  he  sent  to 
Corinth  to  be  companions  of  Dionysius,  and  de- 
feated the  Carthaginians,  who  again  appeared 
in  the  island. 

For  the  space  of  twenty  years,  the  Syracu- 
sans  enjoyed  the  fruits  of  Timoleon's  services. 
About  that  time,  Syracuse  groaned  under  the 
tyranny  of  Agathocles,  who  exceeded  all  his 
predecessors  in  cruelty  and  other  vices.  .He 
was  soon  expelled  from  that  city  by  Sosistratus, 
who  had  usurped  the  supreme  power.  He  then 
retired  into  Italy  ;  and  during  his  abode  in  that 
country,  Sosistratus  was  obliged  to  abdicate  the 
sovereignty,  and  quit  Syracuse.  Sosistratus 
and  the  other  exiles  had  recourse  to  the  Car- 
thaginians, who  readily  espoused  their  cause. 

Upon  this,  the  Syracusans  recalled  Agatho- 
cles, whom  they  appointed  commander-in^chief, 
and  he  defeated  the  combined  armies  of  Sosis- 
tratus and  the  Carthaginians.  Agathocles, 
therefore,  began  to  exercise  a  sovereign  power 
over  his  fellow-citizens,  and  took  such  measures 
as  plainly  showed  that  he  aimed  at  monarchy. 
On  discovering  his  design,  the  people  transfer- 
red the  command  of  their  forces  to  a  Corinthi- 
an ;  and  Agathocles  saved  his  life  only  by 
stratagem. 

Agathocles  re-appeared  under  the  walls  of 
Syracuse,  at  the  head  of  a  strong  army,  and, 
under  pretence  of  a  war  with  Erbita,  a  neigh- 
boring city,  he  collected  a  great  number  of  sol- 
diers, whom  he  induced  to  pillage  Syracuse, 
and  to  massacre  the  whole  body  of  the  nobility. 
In  a  few  hours  more  than  four  thousand  per- 
sons fell  a  sacrifice ;  and  the  streets  were  cov- 
ered with  slain.  He  ordered  the  pillage  and 
massacre  to  be  continued  two  days  longer,  after 
which  he  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  few  sur- 
vivors. 

The  success  of  Agathocles  gave  uneasiness  to 
the  Carthaginians,  who  sent  against  him  an  ar- 
my under  the  command  of  Hamilcar.  This 
general  gained  over  him  a  complete  victory, 
which  obliged  Agathocles  to  confine  himself 
within  Syracuse.  Whilst  the  Carthaginians 
besieged  that  city,  Agathocles  embarked  some 
of  his  best  troops,  B.  C.  307,  and,  landing  in 
Africa,  burned  the  vessels  which  had  conveyed 
his  army.  An  engagement  took  place  between 
the  Syracusans  and  the  Carthaginians,  the  lat- 
ter of  whom  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of 
Hanno,  their  general. 

Syracuse  was  now  reduced  to  great  extremi- 
ty ,  'but  Agathocles  having  sent  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  that  city  the  head  of  Hanrio,  the  sight 


of  it  encouraged  them  to  support  with  success  a 
last  assault.  They  afterwards  attacked  and  en- 
tirely routed  the  Carthaginian  army,  took  Ha- 
milcar prisoner,  and  sent  his  head  to  Acratho- 
cles.  As  the  war  was  prolonged,  Agathocles 
resolved  to  return  to  Sicily  ;  and  having  given 
the  necessary  orders  during  his  absence,  em- 
barked with  him  two  thousand  chosen  men.  and 
arrived  at  Syracuse.  After  restoring  order  to 
the  government,  and  destroying  a  league  which 
had  been  formed  against  him,  he  set  out  once 
more  for  Africa.  But  finding  his  affairs  despe- 
rate in  that  country,  he  determined  to  abandon 
his  troops,  and  making  his  escape  put  to  sea. 
In  the  first  transports  of  their  fury,  the  soldiers 
massacred  two  of  his  sons  whom  he  had  left  be- 
hind, and,  having  elected  chiefs  for  themselves, 
concluded  with  the  Carthaginians  a  peace,  by 
which  they  were  to  be  transported  to  Sicily, 
and  put  in  possession  of  the  city  of  Selinuntuin. 
At  length,  after  a  series  of  cruelties,  Agatho 
cles  was  burnt  on  the  funeral  pile,  B.  C.  289. 

The  government  was  next  assumed  by  Moe- 
non,  who  was  expelled  by  Hycetas.  The  latter 
took  the  modest  title  of  prsetor,but  was  deprived 
of  the  sovereign  power  by  Toenion,  who  was  op- 
posed by  Sosistratus.  But  being  attacked  by 
the  Carthaginians,  these  chiefs  united  and  call- 
ed into  their  assistance  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirua, 
who  was  then  carrying  on  war  against  the  Ro- 
mans. Pyrrhus  re-conquered  those  cities  which 
had  thrown  off  the  yoke.  Hiero  was  appointed 
to  command  the  Syracusan  forces  against  the 
Carthaginians,  B.  C.  275,  who  had  regained 
most  of  the  places  which  they  possessed  before 
the  arrival  of  the  Epirots.  He  concluded  a 
treaty  with  the  Romans,  the  conditions  of  which 
were  faithfully  pei formed  on  both  sides.  The 
defeats  whicli  the  Romans  sustained  at  the  lake 
Thrasymene  and  at  Cannss,  could  not  shake  his 
constancy.  He  died  at  the  atre  of  ninety. 

Hieio  appointed  his  grandson  Hieronymus 
king,  B.  C.,  211,  with  a  council  of  fifteen  per- 
sons, called  tutors.  His  vices  and  cruelty  were 
such,  that  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him. 
He  was  assassinated  while  passing  through  a 
narrow  street,  in  208  B.  C.,  and  the  people 
showed  so  little  concern  for  his  person,  that 
they  suffered  the  body  to  rot  in  the  place  where 
it  had  fallen.  Hieronymus  was  no  sooner  dead, 
than  two  of  the  conspirators  hastened  to  pre 
vent  the  attempts  of  Andranodorus,  and  of 
others  of  the  king's  faction.  However,  he  soon 
after,  in  conceit  with  Themistus,  the  husband 
of  Harmonia,  sister  of  the  deceased  king,  formed 
a  plot  to  exterminate  the  chief  citizens  of  Syra- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


SIC 


530 


SID 


C.USP.  This  being  disclosed  to  the  senate,  An- 
dranodorus  and  Themistus  were  condemned, 
though  absent,  and  put  to  death  as  they  were 
entering  the  senate-house.  Soon  after  this  the 
guardians  and  tutors  of  the  late  king,  and  all 
the  royal  family,  were  put  to  death. 

The  Carthaginians  now  obtained  an  ascen- 
dency in  Syracuse.  Two  of  the  generals,  Hip- 
pocrates and  Epysides,  caused  the  number  of 
the  prastors  to  be  reduced  to  two,  and  made  the 
choice  fall  on  themselves.  Marcellus,  the  Ro- 
man consul,  appeared  at  the  gates  of  Syracuse, 
B.  C.  202,  and  demanded  that  the  authors  of  the 
late  massacre  should  be  delivered  into  his  hands ; 
but  finding  his  demand  treated  with  ridicule,  he 
commenced  hostilities,  and  attempted  a  general 
assault  on  the  city.  However,  by  the  genius  of 
Archimedes,  an  able  mathematician,  without 
employing  the  s%vord,  two  Roman  armies  were 
repulsed  on  this  occasion.  Marcellus  was, 
therefore,  obliged  to  convert  the  sieo-e  into  a 
blockade  :  and,  at  length,  he  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  city  by  an  escalade.  The  soldiers 
entered  the  houses  of  the  Syracusans,  seized  all 
the  valuables,  but  offered  no  violence  to  the 
persons  of  the  inhabitants.  Acradina,  the 
strongest  quarter  of  the  city,  held  out  sometime 
longer,  but  was  at  length  taken  by  means  of  an 
officer,  who  gave  up  to  Marcellus  one  of  the 
gates,  B.  C.  200. 

After  the  capture  of  Syracuse,  Agrigenlum 
was  besieged  and  taken.  By  order  of  the  con- 
sul Lcevinus,  the  chiefs  of  the  latter  city  were 
scourged  and  beheaded,  and  the  people  reduced 
to  slavery  and  sold  by  auction.  After  this  ter- 
rible example,  no  more  cities  resisted,  and  Sici- 
ly was  converted  into  a  province  of  Rome,  B.  C. 
198.  Sicily  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Ro- 
mans during  many  centuries.  At  length,  in  the 
8th  and  9th  centuries,  the  Saracens  conquered 
Sicily,  and  the  island  remained  in  their  posses- 
sion 200  years.  In  the  llth  century  the  Nor- 
mans made  the  conquest  of  this  country,  and  in 
12GG,  it  submitted  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  a  French 
prince. 

In  1282,  the  massacre  of  the  French,  called  • 
the  Sicilian  Vespers,  took  place  here,  and  after 
this  catastrophe,  the  inhabitants  transferred  the 
sovereignty  of  their  island  to  Spain,  with  whom 
it  long  remained,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Neapo- 
litan territory,  to  which  Sicily  became  united  in 
1430.  Both  were  subject  to  the  crown  of  Spain 
in  1700.  In  1707  the  Austrian*  obtained  pos- 
session of  Naples  and  Sicily  ;  and  by  the  peace 
of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  while  Naples  was  confirmed 
to  them,  Sicily  was  given  to  the  duke  of  Savoy, 


with  the  title  of  king.  In  1720,  the  Austrians 
prevailed  on  the  new  possessor  of  Sicily  to  ex- 
change it  for  Sardinia,  and  added  the  former  to 
the  kingdom  of  Naples.  The  war  of  1734,  how- 
ever transferred  the  crown  of  the  two  Sicilies  to 
a  branch  of  the  royal  family  of  Spain,  and  it  re- 
mained in  their  hands  till  1799,  when  the  royal 
family  were  expelled  from  Naples.  The  latter 
took  refuge  in  Sicily,  were  afterwards  restored 
to  Naples,  but  again  compelled  to  take  refuge 
in  Sicily. 

The  acquisition  of  Sicily  is  said  to  have  been 
a  primary  object  with  Napoleon,  but  an  attempt 
at  invasion  in  1810  was  baffled  by  the  British 
troops.  In  1815,  the  overthrow  of  Murat  led  to 
the  restoration  of  the  legitimate  family  to  the 
throne  of  Naples,  which  they  now  possess. — See 
Naples. 

SIDNEY,  Algernon,  a  republican,  was  the 
second  son  of  Robert  earl  of  Leicester,  by  Dor- 
othy, daughter  of  the  earl  of  Northumberland, 
and  was  born  about  1620.  In  the  rebellion,  he 
became  a  colonel  in  the  army  of  the  parliament, 
a  member  of  the  house  of  commons,  and  was 
nominated  one  of  the  king's  judges,  but  did  not 
sign  the  warrant  for  his  execution.  The  same 
principles,  however,  which  led  him  to  oppose 
Charles,  made  him  hostile  to  Cromwell  and  his 
son  Richard.  In  1659  he  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners sent  to  mediate  between  Denmark 
and  Sweden.  On  the  Restoration,  Sidney  re- 
mained abroad  till  1077.  when  he  received  3 
conditional  pardon  ;  but  in  1083,  being  implica- 
ted in  what  was  called  the  Rye-House  plot,  he 
was  arraigned  before  the  chiet  justice,  Jefferies, 
and  found  guilty,  though  the  evidence  was  de- 
fective, and  in  every  sense  illegal.  He  suffered 
death  with  great  firmness  upon  Tower  Hill,  on 
the  seventh  of  December  the  same  year. 

SIDNEY,  Sir  Philip,  the  author  of  the  Arca- 
dia, Defence  of  Poesy,  Astrophel  and  Stella, 
&c.,  was  born  Nov.  29,  1554.  at  Penshurst,  in 
Kent,  the  seat  of  his  father,  Sir  Henry  Sidney, 
who  was  the  friend  of  Edward  VI,  and,  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  became  lord  deputy  of  Ire- 
land. The  mother  of  Sir  Philip  was  Mary, 
daughter  of  the  duke  of  Northumberland.  While 
at  Paris,  the  French  king  made  him  gentleman 
of  his  bed-chamber ;  but  the  distinction  was 
rendered  offensive  by  the  massacre  of  the  Pro- 
lestants,  which  took  place  while  Sidney  resided 
there,  in  the  house  of  the  English  ambassador. 
When  the  danger  was  over,  he  went  to  Frank- 
fort, and  next  to  Vienna,  where  he  distinguish 
ed  himself  by  his  skill  in  martial  exercises.  Ii: 
1570'  he  was  sent  ambassador  to  Vienna,  osten 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SIL 


531 


SIX 


sibly  to  condole  with  the  emperor,  on  the  death 
of  his  father ;  but  secretly  to  promote  a  league 
among  the  protestant  states  against  Spain,  which 
object  he  achieved. 

In  1580  a  tournament  was  held  at  court,  where, 
though  Sidney  displayed  his  prowess  to  great 
advantage,  the  victory  was  adjudged  to  the  earl 
of  Oxford,  which  produced  a  challenge  ;  but  the 
duel  being  prevented  by  the  queen's  commands, 
our  hero  retired  to  Wilton,  the  seat  of  his  bro- 
ther-ia-law,  the  earl  of  Pembroke.  In  1585 
Sidney  was  named  as  a  candidate  for  the  king- 
dom of  Poland,  but  the  queen  interposed  her  au- 
thority against  it,  "  refusing,"  says  an  historian, 
"  to  iurther  his  advancement,  out  of  fear  that 
she  should  lose  the  jewel  of  her  times." 

The  Protestants  of  the  Netherlands,  having 
solicited  the  assistance  of  England  to  relieve 
them  from  the  Spanish  yoke,  a  military  force 
was  sent  over  under  the  command  of  sir  Philip, 
who  on  his  arrival  at  Flushing,  was  appointed 
colonel  of  all  the  Dutch  regiments.  Not  long 
after,  the  earl  of  Leicester  joined  him  with  ad- 
ditional troops,  and  Sidney  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  general  of  the  horse. 

On  the  22d  of  September,  1586,  he  fell  in 
with  a  convoy  sent  by  the  enemy  to  Zutphen, 
and  though  the  English  troops  were  inferior  to 
the  enemy ,  they  gained  the  victory  ;  but  it  was 
dearly  purchased  by  the  loss  of  their  commander, 
who,  after  one  horse  was  shot  under  him, 
mounted  another,  and  continued  the  fight,  till 
he  received  a  ball  in  the  left  thigh,  which  proved^ 
fatal.  As  he  was  borne  from  the  field,  languid 
with  the  loss  of  blood,  he  asked  for  water,  but 
just  as  the  bottle  was  put  to  his  lips,  seeing  a 
dying  soldier  looking  wistfully  at  it,  he  resign- 
ed it,  saying  "  this  man's  necessity  is  greater 
than  mine."  He  died  on  the  15th  October,  and 
his  body  was  brought  over  and  interred  in  St. 
Paul's  cathedral. 

SILESIA,  formerly  a  duchy  of  Bohemia,  but 
now  divided  into  two  parts,  belonging  to  Prus- 
sia and  Austria.  The  geographical  division  is 
into  Upper  and  Lower  Silesia.  Prussian  Sile- 
sia contains  12,264  square  miles,  and  2,396,551 
inhabitants.  Austrian  Silesia  contains  350,000 
inhabitants,  and  2500  square  miles.  The  abori- 
gines of  Silesia  appear  to  have  been  the  Quadi 
and  Lygii.  It  was  ceded  to  the  sons  of  Boles- 
laus  II  in  the  eleventh  century  ;  and  was  sub- 
dued by  the  kings  of  Bohemia  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  Silesia  passed  with  Bohemia  to  the 
house  of  Austria  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
continued  in  its  undisturbed  possession  until  the 
death  of  Charles  VI  in  1740,  led  to  a  general 


attack  on  dominions  considered  comparatively 
defenceless  when  transmitted  -to  a  female.  Fre 
derick  II  endeavored  to  obtain  the  western  part 
of  Silesia.  Austria,  with  the  aid  of  England, 
took  up  arms.  The  contest  terminated  in  the 
cession  of  part  of  Silesia  to  Prussia.  The  peace 
of  Hubertsburg,  in  1763,  left  Silesia  conclusive- 
ly in  the  hands  of  Frederick.  In  1807,  it  was 
overrun  by  the  French  ;  but  it  was  not  separa- 
ted at  the  peace  of  Tilsit  from  the  Prussian  ter- 

|  SLXTUS  V,  Pope,  was  born  in  1521,  in  the 

signory  of  Montalto,  where  his  father,  Francis 
Peretti,  was  a  gardener.     At  the  age  of  four- 
teen, he  was  allowed  to  make  his  profession, 
and  in  1545  he  received  priest's  orders,  and  took 
the  name  of  Father  Montalto.     His  popularity 
as  a  preacher  procured  him   many  friends,  and 
in  1555  he  was  appointed  inquisitor-general  at 
Venice  j  where,  ho%vever,  he  gave  so  much  of- 
fence by  his  severity,  as  to  be  obliged  to  return 
to  Rome.     Pius  V  made  him  general  of  his  or- 
der, next  bishop  to  St.  Agatha,  and  in  1570 
raised   him  to  the  purple.     Hitherto  Montalto 
had  been  remarked  for  his  haughty  demeanor, 
but  now  he  assumed  quite  an  opposite  charac- 
ter, and  appeared  all  humility,  meekness,  and 
condescension.     He  carried  this  hypocrisy  so 
far,  as  to  treat  his  family  with  neglect,  telling 
them,  "  that  he  was  dead  to  his  relations  and  the 
world."     He  took  no  part  in  political  conten- 
tions, and  the  other  cardinals  were  so  complete- 
ly imposed  upon  by  him,  that  they  called  him 
"  The  ass  of  La  Marca."     In  this  way  he  went 
on  several  years,  adding  to  his  deceit,  the  pre- 
tence of  bodily  infirmities.     At  length  Gregory 
XIII  died,  in  1585,  and  the  election  of  a  new 
pope   was  contested  between   three  cardinals, 
whose  respective  interests  were  so  equal,  that 
they  agreed  to  choose  Montalto  ;  but  when  they 
informed  him  of  their  intention,  he  fell  into  such 
a  fit  of  coughing,  that  they  thought  he  would 
have  expired.     The  election,  however,  took 
place,  and  no  sooner  was  it  announced,  than 
the  pope  threw  his  staff  into  the  middle  of  the 
chapel,  and  began  the  "  Te  Deum  "  with  a  loud 
voice,  to  the  astonishment  of  all  who  heard  him. 
He  took  the  name  of  Sixtus  V,  and  though  he 
administered  justice  with  rigorous  severity,  the 
relaxed  state  of  manners  called  for  it,  and  no 
one   could   tax  him  with   partiality.      Among 
other  things,  he  caused  the  Vulgate  edition  of 
the  Bible  to  be  revised,  and  he  even  went  so  far 
as  to  have  an  Italian  version  of  it  printed,  which 
excited  great  alarm  among  the  bigoted  catho- 
lics.    Towards  foreign  powers  he  behaved  with 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


SMI 


532 


SMI 


spirit,  and  took  away  from  their  ambassadors 
the  liberty  of  granting  protections,  saying, 
"  That  he  was  determined  no  one  should  reign 
at  Rome  but  himself."  His  private  character 
was  free  from  reproach,  and  the  only  faults 
charged  upon  him  were,  the  hypocritical  course 
lie  took  to  gain  the  papacy,  and  the  inexorable 
rigor  with  which  he  acted  while  he  enjoyed  it. 
He  died  August  27, 15!)0. 

SMITH,  John,  was  born  at  Willoughby,  in 
Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1579.  He  early  dis- 
played a  roving  disposition,  and  was  fond  of 
leats  of  daring.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  he 
was  apprenticed  to  a  merchant  of  Lynn,  whom 
he  soon  quitted  to  enter  the  service  of  a  noble- 
man who  was  going  to  the  continent.  At  Or- 
leans he  was  discharged  with  money  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  his  voyage  home,  but  meeting 
with  a  Scotchman  in  the  Low  Countries  where 
he  had  enlisted  as  a  soldier,  he  was  persuaded 
to  go  to  Scotland,  and  promised  the  counte- 
nance of  king  James.  Disappointed  in  his  ex- 
pectations he  returned  to  his  native  town,  but 
rinding  no  agreeable  companions,  he  built  him- 
self a  hut  in  the  woods,  and  studied  works  on 
tile  military  art,  occasionally  amusing  himself 
with  his  horse  and  lance. 

In  1596,  he  again  set  out  on  his  travels,  going 
first  to  Flanders  and  thence  to  France,  where 
he  fell  in  with  some  pilgrims  at  Marseilles,  and 
set  sail  in  their  company  for  Italy.  The  pil- 
grims, however,  attributing  the  storm  which 
overtook  them  to  the  presence  of  a  heretic,  threw 
overboard  Smith,  who  saved  his  life  by  swim- 
ming to  the  island  of  St.  Mary,  offNice.  He  was 
now  befriended  by  a  master  of  a  vessel  who  took 
him  to  Alexandria  whence  he  coasted  the  Le- 
vant, and  assisted  in  the  capture  of  a  Venetian 
ship.  With  his  share  of  the  prize-money,  he 
made  the  tour  of  Italy,  and  then  entered  the 
Austrian  service,  having  command  of  a  compa- 
ny, with  which  he  accompanied  the  Transylva- 
nian  army  against  the  Turks. 

At  the  siege  of  Regal,  the  lord  Turbisha, 
challenged  any  Christian  commander  to  fight 
with  him  in  presence  of  the  ladies  for  their  par- 
ticular amusement.  The  duty  of  encountering 
this  champion  devolved  by  lot  upon  Smith,  who 
killed  him,  struck  off"  his  head  and  bore  it  in  tri- 
umph to  the  general  of  the  Transylvanian  army. 
A  friend  of  Turbisha  now  sent  Smith  a  chal- 
lenge which  he  accepted.  They  fought,  as  be- 
fore, in  the  presence  of  the  ladies  who  witness- 
ed the  defeat  of  the  Turk,  and  his  decapitation 
by  Smith.  The  latter  now  sent  word  to  the 
Ottomans,  that,  for  the  further  gratification  of 


their  ladies,  he  would  encounter  any  champion 
whom  they  might  select.  One  Bonomalgro  ac- 
cepted the  challenge,  and,  in  the  combat  which 
took  place.  Smith,  although  stricken  to  the 
ground,  regained  his  saddle  at  a  fortunate  mo- 
ment, and  severed  the  infidel's  head  from  his 
body.  These  brilliant  exploits  procured  him  a 
sort  of  military  triumph,  after  the  manner  of  the 
Romans,  a  splendid  horse  and  sabre,  and  a  ma- 
jor's commission.  On  the  capture  of  Regal  the 
prince  of  Transylvania  gave  Smith  his  minia- 
ture set  in  gold,  a  pension,  and  a  coat  of  arms 
with  three  Turks'  heads  in  a  shield. 

After  this  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  made 
the  slave  of  the  mistress  of  a  pacha  who  resided 
at  Constantinople.  This  lady,  who  fell  in  love 
with  the  Christian  hero,  sent  him  to  her  bro- 
Iher,  a  pacha  on  the  borders  of  the  sea  of  Azoph. 
This  dignitary,  suspecting  the  passion  of  the 
lady,  treated  Smith  with  great  severity,  but  the 
latter  found  an  opportunity  to  kill  his  tyrant, 
and,  mounting  the  fine  charger  of  his  fallen 
foe,  he  made  his  way  into  Russia,  whence  he 
travelled  through  Germany,  France,  Spain,  and 
Morocco,  from  which  latter  place  he  returned  to 
England.  On  the  1'Jth  of  December.  IWKJ,  he 
sailed  for  America,  with  Gosnold's  expedition, 
letters  patent  having  been  obtained  and  a  coun- 
cil nominated  for  the  colonv  of  Virginia.  After 
some  time  the  weight  of  the  administration 
of  the  Jamestown  settlement  devolved  upon 
Smith,  who  was  ever  active  and  energetic.  But 
while  exploring  James  river,  he  was  taken  pri- 
soner by  the  Indian  chief  Powhatan,  and  doomed 
to  death ;  from  which  he  was  only  saved  by  the 
courageous  interposition  of  Pocahontas,  Pow- 
hatan's  daughter,  who  procured  his  liberation. 

Smith,  having  been  elected  president  of  the 
colony,  ably  discharged  the  arduous  duties  im- 
posed upon  him,  although  its  inevitable  difficul- 
ties were  increased  by  mutiny,  and  the  hostility 
of  the  Indians.  In  1009  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land ;  but  in  1614  he  commanded  an  expedition 
of  discovery  to  North  Virginia,  now  New  Eng- 
land. The  next  two  vessels  belonging  to  the 
council  of  Plymouth,  of  which  he  had  obtained 
the  command,  were  driven  to  England  by  stress 
of  weather.  He  next  took  command  of  a  small 
vessel  which  was  seized  by  some  French  men- 
of-war  under  pretence  of  piracy  ;  but  was  re 
leased  after  being  detained  some  time.  He  now 
travelled  about  endeavoring  to  enlist  men  of 
note  in  his  schemes  for  colonizing  America,  but 
without  success.  He  urged  upon  Queen  Anne 
the  propriety  of  rewarding  Pocahontas,  who  had 
been  brought  to  England  ;  and  he  published  a 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SOB 


533 


SOB 


History  of  Virginia  and  an  account  of  his  va- 
rious voyages  and  hardships.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, in  1031.  in  the  52d  year  of  his  age. 

SMITH,  James,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  born  in  Ireland  between  1715 
and  1720.  He  was  educated  at  the  college  of 
Philadelphia,  studied  law,  and  eventually  settled 
at  York.  In  1774  he  was  a  member  of  an  as- 
sembly of  delegates  from  all  the  counties  of 
Pennsylvania,  and,  in  Jan.  1775,  of  the  Penn- 
sylvanian  convention.  Being  elected  a  member 
of  congress,  he  retained  his  seat  in  that  body 
until  Nov.  1776.  He  died  in  1606. 

SMOLEXSKO,  a  considerable  town  of  Eu- 
ropean Russia,  and  capital  of  the  government 
of  the  same  name.  The  Russians  made,  here, 
their  first  serious  opposition  to  the  advance  of 
the  French,  in  the  campaign  of  1812.  An  ob- 
stinate conflict  took  place  on  the  IGtli  and  17th 
of  August,  in  which  the  town  was  bombarded, 
and  set  on  fire.  The  Russians  were  compelled 
to  fall  back,  and  the  French  extinguished  the 
flames ;  on  quitting  it  in  their  disastrous  retreat 
in  November  following,  they  blew  up  part  of 
the  works. 

SMYRNA,  in  Turkish,  Izmir,  a  city  on  the 
western  coast  of  Natolia,  situated  at  the  foot 
of  a  gulf,  about  50  miles  from  the  sea,  contain- 
intr  130.000  inhabitants.  It  was  originally  a 
colony  from  Ephesus,  and  soon  attained  such 
celebrity,  that  it  was  received  as  the  thirteenth 
city  of  Ionia.  This  original  city  was  destroy- 
ed by  the  Lydians ;  and  Antigonus  and  Lysim- 
achus  rebuilt  the  city,  though  not  on  the  same 
spot.  It  has  since  been  considered  as  the  em- 
porium of  the  Levant,  but  has  been  much  in- 
jured by  earthquakes,  plagues,  and  fires.  In 
April.1730.it  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake, and'  by  a  fire,  June  20,  1742;  had  the 
plague,  1743,  1752;  the  Armenian  quarter  was 
burnt.  May  14.  1753;  had  the  plague,  1758, 
1760;  dreadful  fires,  in  1763  and  1772;  and 
earthquakes  and  fire,  in  1778 ;  in  March,  1796, 
4000  shops,  two  large  mosques,  two  public 
'  baths,  and  all  the  magazines  and  provisions 
were  destroyed  by  fire ;  and  in  1814,  the  plague 
swept  off  from  50,000  to  60,000  inhabitants. 

SOBIESKI,  John,  was  elected  king  of  Po- 
land in  1674.  To  him  Europe  owes  a  series  of 
splendid  victories  which  checked  the  progress 
and  broke  the  iron  power  of  the  Moslem.  To  him 
at  the  battle  of  Vienna  Austria  was  indebted  for 
her  deliverance  at  the  hour  of  her  extremity. 
With  what  abominable  ingratitude  has  she  re- 
paid her  debt  to  Poland  !  We  cannot  withhold 
from  the  reader  a  sketch  of  this  momentousbattle. 


The  Turks  offered  not  the  least  opposition  to 
the  Poles  as  they  crossed  the  bridge,  and  all 
the  imperial  troops  were  safely  assembled  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Danube  by  the  7th  of 
September,  and  amounted  to  about  70.000  men. 

They  could  hear  from  Tuln  the  roar  of  the 
Turkish  cannon.  Vienna  was,  in  fact,  reduced 
almost  to  its  last  gasp.  Most  of  the  garrison 
were  either  killed  or  wounded,  and  disease  was 
making  even  greater  ravages  than  the  enemy's 
balls.  "  The  grave  continued  open  without  ever 
closing  its  mouth."  As  early  as  the  22d  of  Au- 
gust the  officers  had  estimated  that  they  could 
not  withstand  a  general  attack  three  days.  If 
the  vizier  had  pursued  his  advantage,  Vienna 
must  have  fallen  into  his  hands.  But  it  was 
his  object  to  avoid  taking  it  by  storm,  in  which 
case  the  plunder  would  be  carried  off  by  the 
soldiers,  whereas,  if  he  could  oblige  it  to  sur- 
render, he  might  appropriate  its  spoil  to  his  own 
use.  So  careless  was  he,  too,  in  his  confidence, 
that  he  had  not  yet  ascertained  that  the  Poles 
were  arrived,  till  they  were  in  his  immediate 
vicinity ;  and  when  the  news  was  afterward 
brought  to  him  that  the  King  of  Poland  was 
advancing,  "  The  King  of  Poland  !"  said  he, 
laughing,  "I  know,  indeed,  that  he  has  sent 
Lubomirski  with  a  few  squadrons." 

The  governor,  Staremhourg,  who  had  assured 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine  that  "Tie  would  not  sur- 
render the  place  but  with  the  last  drop  of  his 
blood."  began  himself  to  despair  of  being  longer 
able  to  hold  out.  A  letter  which  he  wrote  at 
this  period  contained  only  these  words :  "  No 
more  time  to  lose,  my  lord,  no  more  time  to 
lose." 

The  imperial  army  set  out  on  the  9th  of  Sep- 
tember for  Vienna,  but  they  had  a  march  of 
fourteen  miles  to  make  across  a  ridge  of  moun- 
tains over  which  the  Germans  could  not  drag 
their  cannon,  and  were  therefore  obliged  to 
leave  them  behind.  The  Poles  were  more  per- 
severing, for  they  succeeded  in  getting  over 
twenty-eight  pieces,  which  were  all  they  had 
to  oppose  to  the  300  of  the  enemy. 

On  the  llth  of  September  they  reached  Mount 
Calemberg,  the  last  which  separated  them  from 
the  Turks.  From  this  hill,  the  Christians  were 
presented  with  one  of  the  finest  and  most  dread- 
ful prospects  of  the  greatness  of  human  power; 
an  immense  plain  and  all  the  islands  of  the  Dan- 
ube covered  with  pavilions,  whose  magnificence 
seemed  rather  calculated  for  an  encampment 
of  pleasure  than  the  hardships  of  war;  an  innu- 
merable multitude  of  horses,  camels,  and  buffa- 
loes; 200,000  men  all  in  motion;  swarma  of 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


SOB 


534 


SOB 


Tartars  dispersed  along  the  foot  of  the  mountain 
in  their  usual  confusion  ;  the  fire  of  the  besiegers 
incessant  and  terrible,  and  that  of  the  besieged 
such  as  they  could  contrive  to  make ;  in  fine, 
a  great  city,  distinguishable  only  by  the  tops  of 
the  steeples  and  the  fire  and  smoke  that  covered 
it.  But  Sobieski  was  not  imposed  on  by  this 
formidable  sight.  "  This  man,"  said  he,  "  is 
badly  encamped  ;  he  knows  nothing  of  war;  we 
shall  certainly  beat  him." — The  eagle  eye  of 
the  experienced  warrior  was  not  mistaken. 

On  the  eve  of  the  battle,  he  wrote  to  the  queen 
in  these  words :  "  We  can  easily  see  that  the 
general  of  an  army  who  has  "neither  thought 
of  intrenching  himself  nor  concentrating  his 
forces,  but  lies  encamped  there  as  if  we  were  a 
hundred  miles  from  him,  is  predestined  to  be 
beaten." 

Sunday,  the  12th  of  September,  1683,  was 
the  important  day,  "  big  with  the  fate,"  of  Leo- 
pold, that  was  to  decide  whether  the  Turkish 
crescent  was  to  wave  on  the  turrets  of  Vienna. 
The  cannonade  on  the  city  began  at  the  break 
of  day,  for  which  purpose  the  vizier  on  his  part 
had  withdrawn  from  his  army  the  janizaries, 
all  his  infantry,  and  nearly  all  his  artillery. 
The  light  cavalry,  the  Spahis,  the  Tartars,  and 
other  irregular  troops,  were  the  forces  destined 
to  encounter  the  enemy ;  so  egregiously  did 
Kara  Mustapha  miscalculate  the  strength  of  his 
opponents.  They  were  commanded  by  Ibrahim 
Pacha,  who  was  regarded  by  the  Turks  as  one 
of  the  greatest  generals  of  the  age ;  but,  unfor- 
tunately for  them,  he  was  one  of  those  who  dis- 
approved the  war,  and  particularly  the  present 
plan  of  it.  At  eight  in  the  morning  there  was 
some  skirmishing;  at  eleven  the  Christian  army 
was  drawn  up  in  array  in  the  plain  ;  and  Kara 
Mustapha,  beginning  to  apprehend  that  the  al- 
lies were  more  formidable  than  he  anticipated, 
had  changed  his  design,  and  came  to  command 
his  troops  in  person.  He  was  stationed  in  the 
centre,  and  Sobieski  occupied  the  same  situa- 
tion in  his  army. 

It  was  nearly  five  in  the  evening,  and  the 
engagement  had  only  been  partial ;  for  Sobies- 
ki's  infantry  had  not  come  up,  and  the  vizier 
was  to  be  seen  under  a  superb  crimson  tent, 
quietly  sipping  coffee,  while  the  King  of  Poland 
was  before  him.  At  length  the  infantry  arriv- 
ed, and  Sobieski  ordered  them  to  seize  an  emi- 
nence which  commanded  the  vizier's  position. 
The  promptitude  and  gallantry  with  which  this 
mancBuvre  was  executed  decided  the  fate  of  the 
day.  Kara  Mustapha,  taken  by  surprise  at  this 
unexpected  attack,  ordered  all  his  infantry  to 


his  right  wing,  and  the  movement  put  all  the 
line  in  confusion.  The  king  cried  out  that  they 
were  lost  men ;  he  ordered  the  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine to  attack  the  centre,  which  was  now  ex- 
posed and  weakened,  while  he  himself  made 
his  way  through  the  confused  Turks  straight 
for  the  vizier's  tent.  He  was  instantly  recog- 
*  nised  by  the  streamers  which  adorned  the  lances 
of  his  guard,  "  By  Allah!"  exclaimed  the  cham 
of  the  Tartars,  "  the  king  is  with  them!"  An 
eclipse  of  the  moon  added  to  the  consternation 
of  the«uperstitious  Moslems.  At  this  moment 
the  Polish  cavalry  made  a  grand  charge,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  Duke  ot  Lorraine  with  his 
troops  added  to  the  confusion  ,  and  the  rout  of 
the  Turks  became  general.  The  vizier  in  vain 
tried  to  rally  them.  "  And  you,"  said  he  to 
the  cham  of  the  Tartars,  who  passed  him  among 
the  fugitives,  "cannot  you  help  me?"  "I 
know  the  King  of  Poland  !"  was  the  answer. 
"  I  told  you  that  if  we  had  to  deal  with  him, 
all  we  could  do  would  be  to  run  away.  Look 
at  the  sky ;  see  if  God  is  not  against  us."  The 
immense  Turkish  army  was  wholly  broken  up, 
and  Vienna  was  saved. 

So  sudden  and  general  was  the  panic  among 
the  Turks,  that  by  six  o'clock  Sobieski  had 
taken  possession  of  their  camp.  One  of  the 
vizier's  stirrups,  finely  enamelled,  was  brought 
to  him.  "  Take  this  stirrup,"  said  he,  "  to  the 
queen,  and  tell  her,  that  the  person  to  whom  it 
belonged  is  defeated."  Havino-  strictly  forbid- 
den his  soldiers  from  plundering,  they  rested 
under  the  Turkish  tents. 

Such  were  the  events  of  the  famous  deliver- 
ance of  Vienna  as  they  were  seen  by  a  looker- 
on  ;  and  the  outline  of  the  narrative  is  filled  up 
by  one  who  was  the  best  informed,  and  not  the 
least  impartial,  no  less  than  the  great  hero  him- 
self. "  The  victory  has  been  so  sudden  and 
extraordinary,"  he  writes  to  the  queen,  "  that 
the  city,  as  well  as  the  camp,  was  in  continual 
alarm,  expecting  to  see  the  enemy  return  every 
moment. — Night  put  an  end  to  the  pursuit,  and 
besides,  the  Turks  defended  themselves  with 
fury  in  their  flight. — All  the  troops  have  done 
their  duty  well ;  they  attribute  the  victory  to 
God  and  us.  At  the  moment  when  the  enemy 
began  to  give  ground  (and  the  greatest  shock 
was  where  I  was  stationed,  opposite  the  vizier), 
all  the  cavalry  of  the  rest  of  the  army  advanced 
towards  me  on  the  right  wing,  the  centre  and 
the  left  wing  having  as  yet  but  little  to  do. — 
The  emperor  is  about  a  mile  and  a  half  distant. 
He  is  coming  down  the  Danube  in  a  chaloupe ; 
but  I  perceive  he  has  no  great  wish  to  see  me, 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SOL 


535 


SOM 


perhaps  on  account  of  the  etiquette.  I  am  very 
glad  to  avoid  these  ceremonies  ;  we  have  been 
treated  with  nothing  else  up  to  this  time.  Our 
darling  is  brave  in  the  highest  degree." 

On  the  following  day  John  made  his  entrance 
into  Vienna.  The  breach  made  by  the  Turks, 
and  through  which  they  expected  to  march  to 
the  destruction  of  the  city,  was  the  road  which 
admitted  its  deliverer.  The  citizens  received 
him  with  undisguised  expressions  of  gratitude  ; 
and  even  the  stern  warrior  Sobieski  shed  a  tear 
of  joy  at  receiving  the  thanks  and  acclama- 
tions of  the  victims  whom  he  had  rescued 
from  destruction.  "  Never,"  said  he,  "did  the 
crown  yield  me  pleasure  like  this  !''  The  peo- 
ple could  not  help  comparing  him  with  their 
own  disgraceful  sovereign,  and  exclaiming, 
"  Ah  !  why  is  not  this  our  master?"  With  dif- 
ficulty could  the  stern  looks  of  the  emperor's 
officers  check  these  natural  expressions  of  feel- 
ing. But  Sobieski  did  not  arrogate  to  himself 
only  the  glory  of  the  victory ;  he  went  to  the 
cathedral  to  return  thanks,  and  began  to  sing 
the  Te  Dcum  himself.  A  sermon  was  after- 
wards delivered,  and  the  preacher,  in  the  taste 
of  that  age  of  conceits  and  far-fetched  puerili- 
ties, chose  the  following  text  for  the  occasion : 
— "  There  was  a  man  sent  from  God,  whose 
name  was  John.1' 

He  died  of  apoplexy  after  a  reign  of  twenty- 
two  years;  and  was  justly  considered  the  most 
accomplished  sovereign  that  ever  sat  on  the 
throne  of  Poland. 

SOCRATES,  the  most  celebrated  philosopher 
of  all  antiquity,  was  a  native  of  Athens.  Phi- 
losophy soon  became  the  study  of  Socrates ;  and 
under  Archelaus  and  Anaxagoras  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  that  exemplary  virtue  which  suc- 
ceeding ages  have  ever  loved  and  venerated. 
He  appeared  like  the  rest  of  his  countrymen  in 
the  field  of  battle  ;  he  fought  with  boldness  and 
intrepidity ;  and  to  his  courage  two  of  his  friends 
and  disciples,  Xenophon  and  Alcibiades,  owed 
the  preservation  of  their  lives.  But  the  char- 
acter of  Socrates  appears  more  conspicuous  and 
dignified  as  a  philosopher  and  moralist,  than  as 
a  warrior.  His  principles  were  enforced  by 
the  unparalleled  example  of  an  affectionate  hus- 
band, a  tender  parent,  a  warlike  soldier,  and  a 
patriotic  citizen  in  his  own  person.  He  was 
born  470  B.  C.  and  died  B.  C.  400,  being  un- 
justly condemned  to  death. 

SOLOMON,  one  of  the  most  illustqflus  kings 
of  Israel,  was  born  A.  M.  2971,  and  a^pceeded 
his  father  David.  In  the  fourth  year,  of  his 
reign,  he  commenced  building  his  celebrated 


temple,  which  he  completed  in  seven  years. 
He  also  built  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  fortified 
several  other  cities,  and  contributed  much  to 
the  prosperity  of  his  dominions.  He  died  in 
3029,  after  forty  years'  reign. 

SOLON,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece, 
was  born  at  Salamis,  and  educated  at  Athens 
After  he  had  devoted  part  of  his  time  to  philo- 
sophical and  political  studies,  Solon  travelled 
over  the  greatest  part  of  Greece,  but  at  his  re- 
turn home  he  was  distressed  with  the  dissen- 
sions which  were  kindled  among  his  country 
men.  All  fixed  their  eyes  upon  Solon  as  a  de- 
liverer, and  he  was  unanimously  elected  archon 
and  sovereign  legislator.  He  flourished  about 
600  B.C. 

SOLYMAN  II  succeeded  his  father  Selim  I 
in  1520.  Gazelles,  governor  of  Syria,  rebelling 
after  the  death  of  Selim,  and  having  made  him- 
self master  of  a  part  of  Egypt,  was  defeated  by 
Solyman's  generals,  who  himself  resolved  to 
turn  his  arms  against  the  Christians.  Accord- 
ingly, in  1521  he  took  Belgrade,  and  the  next 
year  Rhodes.  This  victory  was  followed  by 
the  revolt  of  the  Egyptians  and  some  other  na- 
tions, which  were  defeated  by  Ibraim  Bassa; 
and  Solyman,in  the  meantime,  being  advanced 
with  his  army  into  Hungary,  won  the  battle  of 
Mohacs,  in  1526,  where  Lewis  II  king  of  Hun- 
gary ,  lost  his  life  in  a  morass.  He  made  several 
other  expeditions  into  this  kingdom,  where  he 
took  Buda,  Pest,  Gran,  and  some  other  places, 
and  died  there  himself  at  the  siege  of  Zigeth  or 
Sigeth,  the  4th  of  September,  1566,  being  sev- 
enty-two years  of  age.  In  1529  Solyman  be- 
sieged Vienna,  but  without  success;  and  in 
1535,  he  took  and  plundered  Tauris ;  and  his 
generals  subdued  several  cities  and  provinces  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

SOMERS,  John,  Lord,  a  lawyer  and  states- 
man, was  born  at  Worcester,  March  4,  1650 
In  1C88,  he  was  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  seven 
bishops;  and  being  chosen  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention parliament,  he  distinguished  himself  at 
the  conference  of  the  two  houses,  on  the  question 
about  the  abdication  of  the  throne.  When  the 
new  government  was  established,  he  became, 
successively,  solicitor  and  attorney-general,  and 
in  1693,  lord-keeper.  He  was  next  raised  to 
the  peerage,  appointed  chancellor,  and  rewarded 
with  lands  in  the  county  of  Surrey.  In  1700 
he  was  deprived  of  the  seals,  and  soon  after  im- 
peached by  the  commons ;  but  a  misunderstand- 
ing arising  between  the  two  houses,  the  lords 
pronounced  a  verdict  of  acquittal.  Lord  Somers 
projected  the  union  between  England  and  Scot- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


SPA 


536 


SPA 


land,  and  was  one  of  the  managers  appointed 
to  carry  that  measure  into  effect.  In  1708,  he 
was  made  president  of  the  council;  but  went 
out  of  office  again  in  1710 :  after  which  he  led 
a  retired  life,  and  died  April  26,  1710. 

SONORA,  one  of  the  states  of  the  Mexican 
confederacy,  lying  on  the  Pacific  ocean,  rich  in 
the  precious  metals.  It  contains  188,000  inhab- 
itants. 

SPAIN,  an  extensive  country  of  Europe,  se- 
parated by  the  Pyrenees  from  France,  and  sur- 
rounded by  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic 
seas,  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  contains  185,000 
square  miles  and  about  13,900,000  inhabitants. 
Spain  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  countries  in  the 
world.  Its  wines,  silks,  oil,  wool,  metals,  and 
minerals ;  various  fruits,  as  citrons,  lemons, 
oranges,  pomegranates,  almonds  and  figs,  and  its 
famous  horses,  are  as  valuable  as  they  are  cele- 
brated. The  principal  mountains  are  the  Pyre- 
nees between  France  and  Spain ;  Montserrat  in 
Catalonia;  the  mountains  of  the  Asturias,  those 
of  the  kingdom  of  Leon  and  New  Castile ;  and 
the  Sierra  Morena  in  Andalusia.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Duero,  which  rises  in  Old  Castile, 
theTagus,  the  Guadiana,  and  the  Guadalquivir, 
all  flowing  into  the  ocean.  The  Ebro,  whose 
sources  are  in  the  frontiers  of  Arragon,  dis- 
charges itself  into  the  Mediterranean.  The 
general  divisions  of  the  kingdom  are  as  follows : 
1.  the  kingdom  of  Navarre ;  2.  the  Vascongados, 
or  Biscay  ;  3.  the  principality  of  the  Asturias  ; 
4.  the  kingdom  of  Galicia ;  5.  the  kingdom  of 
Arragon;  6.  the  principality  of  Catalonia;  7. 
the  kingdom  of  Leon ;  8.  Old  Castile ;  9.  Es- 
tremadura;  10.  New  Castile;  11.  the  kingdom 
of  Valencia ;  12.  Andalusia  (including  the  king- 
doms of  Cordova,  Seville,  and  Granada);  13. 
the  kingdom  of  Murcia;  14.  the  Balearic  isles. 

The  clouds  which  cover  the  primitive  history 
of  Spain,  do  not  begin  to  be  dissipated,  till  the 
period  when  the  Phoenicians  arrived,  and  form- 
ed establishments  in  the  country,  before  unciv- 
ilized and  unknown.  It  is  supposed  that  they 
landed  inihe  island  of  St.  Peter,  where  they 
constructed  the  temple  of  Hercules,  the  remains 
of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  when  the  sea  ebbs 
more  than  usual.  Soon  afterwards,  the  town 
of  Gades,  or  Uadir,  was  erected;  Calpe  and 
Abyla  became  renowned  for  the  two  columns 
denominated  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  on  which 
the  Phoenicians  engraved  the  inscription,  Non 
plus  ultra. 

The  Greeks,  the  pupils  of  the  Phoenicians  in 
the  art  of  navigation,  did  not  fail  to  share  with 
them  the  advantages  of  this  discovery.  They 


established  an  extensive  commerce  in  Spain, 
and  founded  several  cities,  among  the  rest 
Ampurias  and  the  unfortunate  Saguntum ;  but 
the  Carthaginians,  possessing  still  greater  skill 
and  power,  soon  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  whole  peninsula ;  and  such  they  would  have 
remained,  had  not  the  Romans,  who  alone  were 
able  to  dispute  with  them  this  brilliant  conquest, 
at  length  succeeded  in  their  efforts  to  wrest  it 
from  them.  In  the  hope  of  escaping  from  serv- 
itude, the  Spaniards  sometimes  endeavored  to 
defend  themselves ;  but  more  frequently  deceiv- 
ed by  the  phantom  of  a  generous  alliance,  they 
faithfully  promoted  the  views  of  their  different 
oppressors. 

Thus,  three  cities  chose  rather  to  perish  than 
to  surrender;  Saguntum,  from  attachment  to 
the  Romans ;  Astapa  in  Boetica,  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians, and  Nurnantia  for  the  sake  of  liberty. 
Exhausted  by  all  these  calamities,  Spain  at 
length  began  to  breathe,  and  by  degrees  to  re- 
cruit her  stiength  under  the  peaceable  domin- 
ion of  the  Romans.  Induced  by  the  fertility  of 
her  soil,  and  the  richness  and  variety  of  her 
productions,  that  people  founded  numerous  col- 
onies in  Spain  ;  military  roads  were  opened  in 
every  quarter  ;  aqueducts  conveyed  to  the  cities 
the  tribute  of  the  waters;  triumphal  arches  re- 
minded the  conquerors  of  their  glory  ;  theatres 
and  circuses  effaced  from  the  minds  of  the  van- 
quished, the  memory  of  their  misfortunes.  Sa- 
guntum saw  its  walls  reared  once  more  ;  Meri- 
da,  Tarragona,  Cordova,  Salamanca,  Segovia, 
and  other  towns,  admired  the  splendor  of  their 
new  edifices,  the  glorious  testimonies  of  the 
predilection  of  Rome  for  this  country,  the  rival 
of  Italy. 

This  happy  administration  did  not  last  long. 
Rome,  when  mistress  of  the  world,  soon  became 
as  odious  as  Carthage.  Spain  had  its  Clodius 
and  its  Verrcs  ;  and  the  most  beautiful  province 
of  the  empire  of  the  Caesars  was  'also  the  most 
wretched.  The  Asturians  and  Cantabrians 
alone  preserved  their  independence,  amid  their 
mountains.  Augustus  undertook  their  subjuga- 
tion ;  they  defended  themselves,  nnd  most  of 
them  perished  sword  in  hand.  The  poets  rf 
Rome  celebrated  this  cruel  victory,  but  posterity 
admires  only  its  victims. 

Spain  was  subject  to  the  Romans  till  toward 
the  conclusion  of  the  fourth  century.  The 
northern  nations,  after  having  ravaged  the  other 
countries  of  Europe,  penetrated  into  Spain  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Honorius :  the  Sucvi  made 
themselves  masters  of  Galicia,  and  part  of  Por- 
tugal;  the  Alani  and  Vandals  of  Bcetica.  Thft 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SPA 


537 


SPA 


Goths,  following  at  the  heels  of  these  ferocious 
conquerors,  compelled  the  Alani  and  Vandals 
to  retire  to  Africa;  the  Suevi  made  a  longer  re- 
sistance, but,  being  at  length  conquered  by 
Leovigildus,  they  ceased  to  be  a  distinct  people, 
and  all  Spain  received  law  from  the  Goths. 

This  invasion  of  barbarous  nations  gave  a 
mortal  blow  to  the  fine  arts  in  a  country  cover- 
ed with  their  master-pieces:  yet  what  numis- 
matic riches,  how  many  monuments  have  es- 
caped the  devastation !  The  Goths,  tranquil 
possessors  of  Spain,  and  enlightened  by  the 
gospel,  began  to  be  civilized;  but  the  climate 
which  softened  their  character,  repose  which 
enervated  their  courage,  prepared  an  easy  vic- 
tory for  new  conquerors. 

The  cruelty  of  king  Vitiza,  who  died  in  711, 
and  the  weakness  of  Roderic,  his  successor, 
accelerated  the  fatal  moment,  and  Spain  fell  a 
prey  to  enemies  till  then  unknown.  The 
Arabs,  an  ancient,  wandering  people,  inhabiting 
the  deserts,  joining  the  Moors,  so  called  from 
their  native  country.  Mauritania,  made  an  irrup- 
tion into  the  south  of  Spain,  as  the  Goths  had 
previously  done  in  the  north. 

The  fate  of  Spain  was  decided  in  the  unfor- 
tunate battle  of  Xerxes  de  la  Frontera,  where 
Roderic  lost  his  throne  and  his  life.  The  con- 
querors, finding  no  other  obstacles,  took  posses- 
sion of  all  Spain,  except  those  same  Pyrenees 
which  had  so  long  preserved  their  ancient  in- 
habitants from  the  Roman  yoke.  These  moun- 
tains, and  their  caverns,  afforded  a  refuge  to 
such  of  the  Spanish  Goths  as,  collected  by  Pe- 
lagius,a  prince  of  the  blood-royal  of  that  nation, 
were  able  to  avoid  the  yoke  of  the  Mussulmen. 
This  second  invasion,  which  might  naturally 
be  supposed  to  have  left  the  native  Spaniards 
no  trace  of  their  laws,  their  customs,  and  na- 
tional qualities,  produced  a  contrary  effect :  so 
amply  have  the  blessings  bestowed  on  this  hap- 
py country  seemed  always  to  compensate  the 
inhabitants  for  the  severity  of  fortune. 

The  Moors  were  not  long  before  they  felt 
that  influence  which  had  softened  the  manners 
of  the  Goths,  and  taught  them  to  relish  the 
charms  of  a  tranquil  life.  No  sooner  were  the 
new  conquerors  happy,  than  they  ceased  to  be 
barbarous.  The  principle  of  civilization  was 
developed  among  them  with  extraordinary  ra- 
pidity ;  the  love  of  letters  ennobled  their  ideas, 
and  purified  their  taste,  without  diminishing 
their  courage.  At  Seville,  at  Grenada,  at  Cor- 
dova, schools  and  public  libraries  were  opened  ; 
and  while  Christian  Europe  was  covered  with 
the  clouds  of  ignorance,  the  genius  of  Averroes, 


and  a  multitude  of  learned  men,  enlightened 
the  civilized  Mussulmans.  Not  content  with 
patronizing  the  sciences,  the  Moorish  kings, 
themselves,  cultivated  them.  How  brilliant 
were  the  reigns  of  the  Abdarhamans  and  the 
Mahomets! 

Those  princes  united  the  private  virtues  with 
military  qualities ;  they  were  poets,  historians, 
mathematicians,  philosophers,  and  great  cap- 
tains ;  and  many  of  them  deserved  a  still  more 
honorable  appellation,  that  of  the  best  of  kings. 
At  this  new  epoch  of  the  history  of  Spain,  a 
new  taste  was  introduced  into  the  arts  and  gave 
a  direction  to  architecture  in  particular.  The 
ancient  structures  of  the  Goths  did  not  harmo- 
nize with  the  customs  and  the  religion  of  the 
Moors. 

The  latter,  indifferent  to  external  decorations, 
reserved  all  their  ingenuity  for  the  interior  of 
their  edifices.  There  they  lavished  whatever 
was  calculated  to  delight  the  senses  and  to 
accord  with  a  sedentary  and  voluptuous  life. 
Hence  the  singular  magnificence  of  their  pala- 
ces and  their  mosques,  that  richness  in  their 
ornaments,  that  finish  in  the  smallest  details, 
which  far  surpass  the  beauty  of  the  whole.  The 
arts  were  thus  developing  themselves  among 
the  Moors,  when  a  spark  concealed  in  the  As- 
turias,  produced  a  new  conflagration,  which 
extended  to  all  Spain,  about  718. 

Pelagius  having  fled  to  the  mountains,  not 
only  defended  himself  there  with  courage,  but 
under  the  banners  of  the  cross,  ventured  to 
conduct  his  troops  into  the  countries  contiguous 
to  his  retreat.  This  illustrious  man,  concerning 
whom  we  have,  unfortunately,  but  few  particu- 
lars, had  collected  all  the  nobles  of  the  Asturias 
and  the  rest  of  Spain.  This  force,  which  long 
proved  invincible,  was  the  instrument  of  the 
conquests  of  different  chiefs,  the  ablest  of  whom 
made  themselves  sovereigns.  By  them  were 
founded  the  kingdoms  of  Castile,  Leon,  Arra- 
gon,  and  Navarre,  successively  conquered  from 
the  Moors. 

This  war,  which  continued  several  centuries, 
has,  alternately,  the  air  of  history  and  of  ro- 
mance. It  consists  of  battles,  sieges,  assaults, 
and  still  more  frequently  of  tournaments,  ban- 
quets, and  challenges,  given  and  accepted  with 
equal  audacity.  In  these  celebrated  lists,  tri- 
umphed the  heroes  whose  exploits  are  recorded 
in  the  Spanish  romances,  and  of  these,  Rodrigo 
de  Bivar,  surnamed  the  Cid,  particularly  dis- 
tinguished himself.  Equal  in  virtue,  and  supe- 
rior in  power,  to  Bayard,  he  was,  like  him,  the 
object  of  the  veneration  not  only  of  his  brethren 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


SPA 


538 


SPA 


in  arms,  but  also  of  the  enemies  of  his  country. 

Reduced  to  the  single  kingdom  of  Grenada, 
the  Moors  there  maintained  themselves  for  sev- 
eral centurie? ;  but,  at  length,  expelled  from 
their  last  asylum,  they  were  obliged  to  with- 
draw to  Africa  in  1492.  This  important  event 
was  reserved  to  crown  the  felicity  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  and  the  arms  of  Gonsalvo  de  Cor- 
dova, seconded  by  other  chiefs  of  equal  celeb- 
rity. Sovereigns  of  Spain  and  of  the  New 
World,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  after  having 
attained  the  pinnacle  of  prosperity,  had  the  mis- 
fortune to  leave  their  immense  possessions  to  a 
foreign  dynasty.  They  formed  the  dowry  of 
their  daughter  Joan,  wife  of  Philip  the  fair, 
archduke  of  Austria,  and  mother  of  Charles  V. 

Fortune,  by  her  extraordinary  favors,  and 
Cardinal  Ximenes,  by  a  wise  administration, 
hrew  a  lustre  upon  the  reign  of  Charles  V,  at 
t  ne  and  the  same  time  emperor  of  Germany 
a  nd  king  of  Spain.  The  talents  and  genius  of 
this  prince,  seemed  to  have  destined  him  for 
universal  monarchy  ;  and,  to  his  own  misfortune 
and  that  of  the  world,  he  aspired  to  it.  Palled, 
however,  with  the  pornp  and  pageantries  of 
grandeur,  he  chose  to  end  his  days  in  retire- 
ment, and  resigned  the  crown  to  his  son  Philip, 
in  155G. 

Don  Philip  concluded  a  truce  with  the  crown 
of  France,  for  five  years,  but  was  compelled  to 
take  up  arms  at  the  moment  when  most  of  the 
European  states  were  rejoicing  in  the  prospect 
of  a  durable  repose.  Soon  after  a  most  sanguin- 
ary war  ensued,  which  lasted  between  two  and 
three  years,  and  depopulated  some  of  the  finest 
provinces  of  Spain. 

At  length,  the  Christians  obtained  a  decisive 
victory ;  and,  upon  the  death  of  the  Moorish 
prince,  the  public  tranquillity  was  restored.  In 
1588,  in  consequence  of  some  depredations 
committed  in  Europe  and  America, by  the  Eng- 
lish, Philip  resolved  to  take  ample  revenge  on 
queen  Elizabeth,  and  ordered  the  whole  mari- 
time force  of  Spain  to  be  assembled  for  a  de- 
scent upon  her  dominions.  (See  Armada.) 

Philip  III  ascended  the  throne  in  1597.  After 
the  death  of  Elizabeth,  peace  was  concluded 
between  England  and  Spain.  During  this 
reign,  the  Moors  were,  o.t  several  times,  trans- 
ported into  Africa;  and  Spain  sustained  a  loss 
of  about  600,000  useful  subjects.  Philip  IV 
possessed  good  natural  abilities;  and  though 
the  greatest  part  of  his  reign  was  clouded  by 
misfortunes  or  disappointments,  he  certainly 
was  desirous  of  increasing  the  grandeur  of  the 
Spanish  monarchy.  The  young  king,  Charles 


II,  was  inaugurated  in  1666,  and  displayed  pro- 
mising abilities.  Charles  II  was  twice  married ; 
but  he  had  the  mortification  of  seeing  himself 
without  offspring.  At  length,  he  resolved  to 
make  a  will  in  favor  of  the  electoral  house  of 
Bavaria;  but  the  young  prince  whom  he  had 
destined  for  his  successor  died  soon  after  the 
.arrangement.  Upon  hearing  that  the  different 
powers  of  Europe  had  actually  made  a  partition 
of  his  territories,  in  order,  as  they  said,  to  avoid 
a  general  war,  the  king  was  so  incensed,  that 
he  left  his  crown,  by  a  new  will,  to  Philip,  duke 
of  Anjou,  grandson  of  his  eldest  sister  and  of 
Louis  XIV.  He  expired  in  the  thirty-ninth 
year  of  his  age,  and  the  thirty-fifth  of  his  reign  ; 
and  in  him  ended  a  branch  of  Austria  which 
had  given  five  sovereigns  to  the  Spanish  nation. 

Philip  of  Anjou  was  solemnly  proclaimed  on 
the  24th  of  November,  1700.  During  the  ab- 
sence of  the  king  in  Italy  with  the  French 
troops,  a  league  was  formed  against  the  house 
af  Bourbon,  the  object  of  which  was  to  wrest 
the  crown  of  Spain  from  Philip  V,  and  to  place 
it  on  the  head  of  Charles,  archduke  of  Austria, 
who  was  also  descended  from  a  princess  of 
Spain.  This  competitor  arrived  in  Portugal, 
which  had  also  joined  the  league,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Charles  III  in  1704,  and,  being 
supported  by  the  English,  he  immediately  com- 
menced the  campaign.  The  fate  of  these  two 
princes,  during  the  course  of  the  war,  was  as 
various  as  singular;  they  expelled  each  other 
alternately  from  the  capital. 

Philip  V  died  after  a  turbulent  reigri  of  forty- 
three  years.  Ferdinand  VI  succeeded  him,  in 
1744.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  fifteen  years. 
As  Ferdinand  died  without  issue,  the  Spanish 
crown  devolved  on  his  brother  Charles  III  in 
1759,  then  king  of  Naples  and  the  Two  Sicilies, 
who  transferred  his  Italian  possessions  to  his 
third  son,  and  hastened  to  Madrid,  to  receive 
the  homage  of  his  new  subjects.  Charles  seem- 
ed to  devote  his  whole  attention  to  the  internal 
economy  of  his  dominions ;  but  his  zeal  for  the 
family  compact  soon  roused  him  into  action, 
and  induced  him  to  proclaim  war  against  Great 
Britain  and  Portugal  in  1761.  However,  this 
war  was  unsuccessful,  and  on  the  tenth  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1763,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
between  the  courts  of  Madrid,  Lisbon,  and  Lon- 
don. When  the  war  between  Great  Britain 
and  her  American  colonies  had  subsisted  for 
some  time,  and  France  had  taken  part  with  the 
latter,  Spain  was  also  induced  to  commence 
hostilities  with  England. 
.  Accordingly,  they  laid  siege  to  Gibraltar, 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SPA 


539 


SPA 


and  made  some  great  naval  preparations  in 
1782 ;  but  all  their  exertions  proved  vain  and 
ineffectual.  (See  Gibraltar.)  The  sad  catas- 
trophe of  their  armada  before  Gibraltar,  the  re- 
peated frustration  of  all  their  designs  upon  Ja- 
maica, and  the  very  embarrassed  state  of  their 
finances,  induced  the  Spaniards  to  terminate  so 
long,  expensive,  and  sanguinary  a  war,  and  to 
conclude  a  peace  with  Great  Britain  in  1783. 

Charles  IV  ascended  the  throne  of  Spain  in 
J78i),  and  declared  war  against  France  in  ]793. 
After  making  every  effort,  his  catholic  majesty 
concluded  a  treaty.  Spain  was  afterwards 
drawn  into  an  alliance  with  the  French  republic, 
and  persuaded  to  commence  hostilities  against 
Great  Britain.  In  the  summer  of  17117,  a  Spa- 
nish fleet,  of  twenty-seven  sail  of  the  line,  was 
appointed  to  form  a  junction  with  the  French 
fleet  at  Brest ;  and.  after  being  reinforced  by  a 
numerous  squadron  of  Dutch  vessels,  an  at- 
tempt was  to  be  made  on  some  part  of  the  Bri- 
tish dominions.  However,  before  the  intended 
junction  could  be  effected,  the  Spanish  fleet 
was  met  by  admiral  Jarvis,  near  cape  St.  Vin- 
cent, and  an  engagement  ensued,  in  which, 
notwithstanding  the  great  inequality,  the  En- 
glish captured  four  of  the  enemy's  vessels. 
In  1801  the  Spaniards  declared  war  against 
Portugal,  and  entered  Alentejo  from  different 
points,  with  an  army  of  nearly  40,000  men. 

However,  his  catholic  majesty  embraced  the 
earliest  opportunity  of  terminating  this  affair. 
In  1804,  the  court  of  Madrid  issued  a  declara- 
tion of  war  against  England,  and  made  great  pre- 
parations for  prosecuting  hostilities  with  vigor 
and  effect.  After  the  junction  of  the  French 
Brest  fleet  with  that  of  Spain,  at  Ferrol,  the 
united  armament  experienced  several  signal 
defeats  from  the  victorious  British  navy,  which 
terminated  with  the  ever  memorable  battle  of 
Trafalgar,  Oct.  21,  1805. 

In  1807,  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the 
sovereigns  of  France  and  Spain,  the  object  of 
which  was  a  partition  of  the  kingdom  of  Por- 
tugal. After  obtaining  possesion  of  the  capital 
of  Portugal,  and  securing  free  access  for  his 
troops  to  every  part  of  the  peninsula,  the  em- 
peror of  France  waited  for  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity of  rendering'hiinself  master  of  the  whole. 
In  1808,  Charles  IV  formed  the  design  of  re- 
moving the  seat  of  government  to  Mexico,  in 
America.  No  sooner  had  this  transpired,  than 
an  attack  was  made  on  the  palace  of  Godoy  at 
Aranjuez ;  and  though  the  prince  of  peace  ef- 
fected his  escape,  the  king  found  it  necessary 
to  dismiss  him  from  all  his  employments.  The 
46 


populace,  however,  still  remaining:  in  &  state  of 
insurrection  at  Aranjuez  and  Madrid,  and  the 
king  being  deprived  of  his  prime  minister, 


announced  that  lie  had  abdicated  the  throne  in 
favor  of  his  son,  the  prince  of  Asturias. 

The  first  act  of  Ferdinand  VII  was  to  issue  an 
edict,in  which  he  declared  his  intention  of  con- 
fiscating the  property  of  the  prince  of  peace. 
Murat,  to  whom  the  command  of  the  French 
forces  in  Spain  had  been  confided,  no  sooner 
heard  of  the  occurrences  at  Aranjuez,  than  he 
hastened  the  march  of  his  army  towards  the 
capital.  Anxious  to  conciliate  the  favor  of  Bo- 
naparte, and  allured  ~by  the  promises  of  his  ge- 
nerals, Murat  and  Savary,  Ferdinand  was  in- 
duced to  quit  Madrid,  and  to  repair  to  Bayonne, 
the  place  chosen  by  the  emperor  of  France  for 
the  accomplishment  of  his  designs. 

Murat  employed  every  artifice  to  persuade 
Charles  and  his  queen  to  depart  for  Bayonne  ; 
and,  after  liberating  the  prince  of  peace,  the 
royal  party  left  the  Spanish  capital,  and  repair 
ed  to  the  frontier  of  France.  Although  Ferdi- 
nand was  induced,  by  the  threat  of  death,  to 
sign  a  resignation  of  the  throne  in  favor  of  his 
father,  by  whom  all  its  rights  were  transferred 
to  the  emperor  Napoleon,  in  1808. 

At  Madrid  the  whole  armed  populace  of  the 
capital  of  Spain  now  rose  against  10.000  French 
troops,  with  Murat  at  their  head.  A  dreadful 
carnage  took  place,  and  terminated  in  the  de- 
feat of  the  insurgents,  and  the  disarming  of  the 
whole  city.  A  junta  was  summoned  to  meet 
at  Bayonne,  where  a  new  constitution  for  Spain 
was  laid  before  them  for  their  .acceptance  ;  Jo- 
seph Bonaparte,  the  new  king,  transferred  from 
the  throne  of  Maples  to  that  of  Spain,  appeared 
in  royal  state. 

Thus  was  effected  one  of  the  most  singular 
and  unprincipled  revolutions  in  a  powerful 
kingdom,  of  which  history  affords  a  record.  No 
sooner,  however,  was  the  French  usurpation 
known,  than  an  explosion  of  indignant  patriot- 
ism burst  forth  from  one  extremity  of  Spain  to 
the  other.  Provincial  juntas  were  established, 
which  gave  a  regular  organization  to  the  popu- 
lar efforts  ;  and  the  junta  at  Seville  was  the  first 
to  proclaim  Ferdinand  VII  and  war  against 
France.  The  friendship  and  assistance  of  Great 
Britain  were  solicited,  and  immediately  granted. 
A  most  desperate  warfare  now  commenced. 

The  success  of  the  Spaniards  was  various, 
but  the  French,  with  king  Joseph  at  their  head, 
in  a  short  time  found  themselves  obliged  to 
evacuate  Madrid.  A  supreme  junta  was  form- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


SPA 


540 


SPA 


ed  from  the  juntas  of  the  different  provinces  ; 
and  the  solemn  installation  of  this  body  took 
place  at  the  palace  of  Aranjuez.  The  first  act 
of  the  supreme  junta  was  to  appoint  a  new- 
council  of  war,  consisting  of  five  members  ;  and 
the  national  force  was  divided  into  three  great 
bodies,  for  the  purpose  of  acting  in  the  east,  in 
the  west,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom. 

Napoleon  now  determined  in  person  to  change 
the  fortune  of  the  war ;  and  having  put  his 
veteran  troops  in  motion  for  Spain,  he  proceed- 
ed to  Bayonne,  and  thence  to  the  head-quarters 
of  the  French  army  at  Vittoria. 

The  military  force  of  Spain  was  wholly  una- 
ble to  meet,  upon  equal  terms,  French  armies 
commanded  by  the  most  consummate  generals  ; 
and  the  campaign  which  followed  the  arrival  of 
Napoleon,  was  a  series  of  victories  to  the  one, 
and  of  defeats  to  the  other.  The  French  ap- 
peared intent  on  subjugating  the  whole  coun- 
try ;  but  Napoleon  was  obliged  to  leave  Spain, 
in  consequence  of  a  breach  between  France  and 
Austria.  His  generals,  however,  conducted  the 
war  in  Spain  with  so  much  ability,  that  the  cause 
of  Spanish  independence  was  rendered  almost 
desperate ;  and  in  1810,  king  Joseph  issued  a 
manifesto,  in  which  he  affected  to  consider  the 
contest  as  decided. 

The  cortes  of  Spain  assembled  at  Cadiz. 
This  body  of  national  representatives  was  elect- 
ed by  the  provinces,  cities,  and  provincial  jun- 
tas ;  and  they  were  termed  the  General  or  Ex- 
traordinary Cortes,  and  to  them  was  intrusted 
the  sovereign  power.  They  swore  fealty  to 
king  Ferdinand  VII,  and  declared  the  renuncia- 
tions at  Bayonne  null  and  void.  They  took  the 
title  of  majesty,  till  the  arrival  of  Ferdinand, 
and  assumed  the  legislative  power  of  the  state. 
The  war  was  still  prosecuted  by  the  Span- 
iards, but  not  with  sufficient  vigor;  and  the 
French  actively  employed  their  superiority  of 
force  in  extending  their  conquests  through  a 
considerable  part  of  Spain.  In  the  course  of 
two  months,  the  Spaniards  lost  the  fortresses 
of  Tortosa,  Olivenca,  and  Badajos,  without  any 
sufficient  reason.  The  reduction  of  these  place's 
was  followed  by  that  of  Tarragona,  in  which 
every  outrage  and  cruelty  suffered  in  a  town 
taken  by  storm,  was  inflicted  upon  the  in- 
habitants ;  and,  -by  this  conquest,  the  French 
became  possessed  of  the  whole  coast  of  Cata- 
lonia. 

However,  Lord  Wellington,  with  the  British 
and  Portuguese  forces,  recovered  possession  of 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajos,  in  1812 ;  and  he 
soon  after  gave  marshal  Marmont  a  signal 


defeat  at  Salamanca.  The  effects  of  this  great 
victory  were  felt  in  different  parts  of  Spain  : 
king  Joseph,  with  the  central  French  arnffy, 
found  himself  obliged  again  to  leave  Madrid  ; 
and  the  French  deserted  the  long  continued 
blockade  of  Cadiz.  The  Spanish  cortes  pre- 
sented the  august  spectacle  of  a  public  signa- 
ture of  the  articles  of  that  constitution  which 
had  so  long  been  the  object  of  their  labors. 

Deputies  from  all  parts  of  the  monarchy  were 
present  in  this  solemnity.  A  commission  was 
appointed  to  carry  the  constitution  to  the  regen- 
cy. The  deputies  swore  to  obey  the  constitu- 
tion ;  the  regency  took  the  oath  of  office ;  and 
the  constitution  was  solemnly  proclaimed. 

The  next  important  event  was  the  battle  of 
Vittoria,  in  1813.  The  French  retired  by  Pam- 
peluna ;  and  being  driven  from  all  their  strong 
posts,  they  at  length  crossed  the  Bidassoa,  and 
re-entered  France.  The  allied  forces  took  the 
strong  castle  of  St.  Sebastian,  in  the  operations 
against  which  the  British  navy  jjave  effectual 
assistance.  The  progress  of  the  allies  in  France 
afterwards,  produced  the  capitulation  of  most 
of  the  French  garrisons  remaining  in  Spain  ; 
and  at  length  the  state  of  affairs  would  no  longer 
permit  the  detention  of  Ferdinand. 

The  king  proceeded  to  Valencia  in  1814, 
where  he  was  joined  by  most  of  the  grandees, 
and  many  prelates.  At  this  place,  Ferdinand 
issued  a  royal  proclamation,  in  which  he  declar- 
ed his  intention  not  only  not  to  swear  or  accede 
to  the  constitution,  or  to  any  decree  of  the  cortes 
derogating  from  his  prerogatives  as  sovereign, 
but  to  pronounce  that  constitution  and  those 
decrees  null  and  of  no  effect.  The  decree  for 
dissolving  that  body  was  received  with  enthu- 
siasm by  the  people  of  Madrid.  A*  great  num- 
ber of  persons  were  arrested,  whose  names 
comprised  almost  all  those  who  had  rendered 
themselves  conspicuous  during  the  reign  of  the 
cortes  in  favor  of  public  liberty.  Ferdinand 
was  received  in  Madrid  with  every  demonstra- 
tion of  loyaltj7. 

The  court  of  inquisition  was  re-established, 
though,  it  is  said,  in  a  milder  and  more  equita- 
ble form  ;  arrests  and  prosecutions  wore  multi- 
plied ;  and  Spain  was  effectually  thrown  back 
to  that  degraded  state  among  nations  from 
which  she  seemed  about  to  emerge.  During  the 
captivity  of  Ferdinand  in  France,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Mexico  and  South  America  were  divid- 
ed into  two  parties  ;  the  loyalists,  who  submit- 
ed  to  the  regency,  and  the  independents,  who 
aimed  to  govern  themselves.  Ferdinand  had 
no  sooner  been  reseated  on  his  throne  than  ho 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


SPI 

played  his  hatred  of  liberal  principles,  and 
declared  the  proceedings  of  the  cortes,  uncon- 
stitutional. The  struggles  of  the  Spaniards  for 
freedom  were  long  quieted.  But  since  the 
death  of  Ferdinand  in  1833,  the  queen  regent 
has  thrown  herself  into  the  army  of  the  con- 
stitutionalists. 

SUCCESSION  OF   KINGS  FROM  FERDINAND  THE 

GREAT. 

Ferdinand  Ihe  Great,  under  whom  Castile  and  Leon  were  united, 
from  1027  to  1035  ;  Sancho   the  Slrons  1065  :  Alphoiwo  the  Valiant 
:  AlpbonsoVII.  11U9;  Aljjionso  V111.   112J;  Sancho  111.  1)57  : 
)  IX.  1158;  HenrvT.  1214;  Fen!.n..;,d 
Sanehn  IV.  1284  :' Ferdinand  IV.  1294; 


I.  1504  :  Charles  I.  1516  :  Philip  11.  156/:  Philip  III.  1591  :  Philip 
IV.  1621:  Charles  II.  1665:  I'hilipV.  resigned  1700:  Lewis  1724  : 
Philip  V.  re-assumed,  died  1725:  Ferdinand  VI.  1745:  Charles  III. 
1759  :  Charles  IV.  1788  :  who  resigned  the  crown  to  hU  «ou  Ferdi- 
nand  VII.  1808  :  Maria  Isabella  1833. 

SPARTA  or  LACED^MON  was  one  of 
the  seven  original  principalities  or  kingdoms  of 
Greece.  Laconia,  the  country  of  which  Sparta 
was  the  capital,  was  bounded  N.  by  Arcadia,  E. 
by  the  Argolic  Gulf,  S.  by  the  Ionian  Sea,  and 
W.  by  Messenia.  The  city  of 'Sparta  was  found- 
ed by  Lelex,  an  Egyptian,  B.  C.  1520.  The 
Heraclidae,  when  possessed  of  Greece,  founded 
four  kingdoms, of  which  Sparta  (or  Lacedsemon, 
as  it  was  called  from  its  fourth  king)  and  Co- 
rinth were  the  most  distinguished.  For  900 
years  the  Heraclida;  furnished  kings  to  Sparta. 
Lycurgus  gave  the  Spartans  their  celebrated 
laws  (See  Lycurgus.)  The  helots  were  enslaved 
Messenians  whose  country  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Spartans.  The  bravery  of  the  Spartans 
was  displayed  against  the  Persians,  and, -unfor- 
tunately, against  their  own  countrymen,  in  their 
civil  wars.  They  were,  however,  unable  to 
contend  successfully  against  the  Thebans  under 
Epaminondas,  and  were  defeated  by  him  in  the 
battles  of  Leuctra  and  Mantinea,  the  last  of 
which  was  fatal  to  the  victor.  Like  the  rest  of 
their  countrymen,  they  fell  beneath  the  power 
of  Macedon.  They  were  distinguished  by 
fierceness,  fortitude,  austerity,  and  contempt 
of  luxury. 

SPINOLA,  Ambrose,  a  famous  general,  was 
born  in  Spain,  of  a  noble  Genoese  family,  in 
1569.  He  commanded  an  army  in  Flanders, 
and  in  1604  took  Ostend ;  for  which  he  was 
made  general  of  all  the  Spanish  troops  in  the 
Low  Countries,  where  he  was  opposed  by 
Maurice  of  Nassau.  In  the  war  occasioned  by 
the  disputed  succession  to  the  duchy  of  Cleves 
and  Juliers,  Spinola  took  Aix-la-Chapelle,  We- 
sel,  and  Breda.  He  died  in  1630. 


541  STA 

STAEL-HOLSTEIN,  Anne  Louisa  Ger- 
maine  Necker,  baroness  de,  the  most  distm- 

Sjished  female  of  her  age,  was  the  daughter  of 
ecker,  the  minister  of  finance,  and  was  born  in 
Paris,  in  1766.  ner  earliest  productions  were 
Sophia,  a  comedy,  written  in  1786,  and  the 
tragedies  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  Montmorency. 
In  1786 she  married  the  Baron  de  Stael-Holstein, 
the  Swedish  ambassador.  During  the  reign  of 
terror,  she  left  Paris,  but  on  the  recognition  of 
the  French  republic  by  Sweden,  her  husband 
returned  to  France  in  his  official  capacity,  bring- 
ing his  wife  with  him.  He  died  in  1798.  At 
Paris,  Madam  de  Stael  first  beheld  Napoleon 
on  hisreturn  after  the  treaty  of  Campo-Formio. 
But  her  early  feelings  of  admiration  for  him 
were  soon  changed  into  those  of  aversion  and 
hatred.  She  was  banished  from  France  by 
Bonaparte.  In  her  exile  she  published  various 
works,  among  them  two  novels,  Delphine  and 
Corinne  mi,  Italic,  the  last  the  fruits  of  her  tour 
in  Italy.  She  visited  Germany  and  Russia, 
and  produced  a  work  upon  the  former.  At 
Geneva  she  married  a  young  French  officer  by 
the  name  of  de  Rocca,  but  did  not  acknowledge 
the  union  until  her  death.  In  1814  she  returned 
to  Paris,  but  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba  drove 
her  to  Coppet.  She  died  July  14,  1817. 

STANHOPE,  Charles,  the  third  Earl,  was 
born  August  3, 1753.  In  1774  he  stood  candi- 
date for  Westminster,  but  without  success.  By 
the  interest  of  the  earl  of  Shelburne,  however,  he 
was  brought  into  parliament  for  the  borough  of 
Wycombe,  which  he  represented,  till  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  1786,  called  him  to  the  Upper 
House.  He  distinguished  himself  at  an  early 
period  of  the  French  Revolution,  by  an  open 
avowal  of  republican  sentiments,  and  went  so 
far  as  to  lay  aside  the  external  ornaments  of  the 
peerage.  He  was  also  a  frequent  speaker,  and 
on  some  occasions  was  left  single  in  a  minority. 
He  died  December  10, 1816. 

STARK, 'John,  a  brigadier-general  in  the 
revolutionary  war,  was  born  at  Londonderry, 
New  Hampshire,  Aug.  17, 1728.  In  the  French 
war  of  1755  he  served  with  distinction,  and 
at  the  battle  of  Breed's  hill,  fought  at  the  head 
of  the  New  Hampshire  troops.  At  Trenton  and 
Princeton  his  voice  was  heard,  but  at  Benning- 
ton  he  covered  himself  with  glory.  Previous  to 
the  battle,  he  addressed  his  troops  in  a  style 
calculated  to  win  their  attention.  "  We  must 
beat  them,  my  boys,"  concluded  he,  "or  this 
nicrht  Mollv  Stafk  is  a  widow  !"  He  died  May  8, 
1822. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


STE 


542 


STO 


STATEN  ISLAND,  situated  S.  of  the 
city  of  New  York,  is  14  miles  long,  and  con- 
tained, in  1830.  7,084  inhabitants.  It  constitutes 
the  county  of  Richmond,  N.  Y. 

STEPHEN,  king  of  England,  usurped  the 
throne  on  tfte  d^ath  of  Henry  I  in  the  year 
1135.  In  order  to  secure  himself,  he  passed  a 
charter,  granting  several  privileges  to  the  diffe- 
rent orders  of  the  state.  To  the  nobility,  a 
permission  to  hunt  in  their  own  forests  ;  to  the 
clergy,  a  speedy  filling  of  all  vacant  benefices  ; 
and  to  the  people,  restoration  of  the  laws  of 
Edward  the  Confessor.  Matilda,  however,  as- 
serting her  claim  to  the  crown,  landed  upon  the 
coast  of  Sussex,  assisted  by  Robert,  earl  of 
Gloucester.  The  whole  of  Matilda's  retinue, 
amounted  to  no  more  than  one  hundred  and 
forty  knights,  who  immediately  took  possession 
of  Arundel  castle  ;  but  her  forces  every  day 
seemed  to  gain  ground.  Meantime  Stephen 
flew  to  besiege  Arundel,  where  she  had  taken 
refuge,  and  where  she  was  protected  by  the 
queen  dowacrer,  who  secretly  favored  her  pre- 
tensions. This  fortress  was  too  feeble  to  pro- 
mise a  long  defence,  and  would  have  been  soon 
taken,  had  it  not  been  represented  to  the  king, 
that  as  it  was  a  castle  belonging  to  the  queen 
dowager,  it  would  be  an  infringement  on  the 
respect  due  to  her  to  attempt  taking  it  by  force. 
Stephen,  therefore,  permitted  Matilda  to  come 
forth  in  safety,  and  had  her  conveyed  with  se- 
curity to  Bristol,  another  fortress  equally  strong 
with  that  from  whence  he  permitted  her  to 
retire.  Matilda's  forces  increased  every  day ; 
and  a  victory  gained  by  the  queen,  threw  Ste- 
phen from  the  throne  and  exalted  Matilda  in 
his  room.  Matilda,  however,  affected  to  treat 
the  nobility  with  a  degree  of  disdain,  to  which 
they  had  long  been  unaccustomed  :  so  that  the 
fickle  nation  once  more  began  to  pity  their  de- 
posed king.  The  bishop  of  Winchester  fome'nt- 
ed  these  discontents ;  and  when  he  found  the 
people  ripe  for  a  tumult,  detached  a  party  of 
his  friends  and  vassals  to  block  up  the  city  of 
London,  where  the  qiw?en  then  resided,  and 
measures  were  taken  to  instigate  the  Londoners 
to  a  revolt,  and  to  seize  her  person.  Matilda 
having  timely  notice  of  this  conspiracy,  fled  to 
Winchester,  whither  the  bishop  followed  her. 
His  party  was  soon  sufficient  to  bid  the  queen 
open  defiance  ;  and  to  besiege  her  in  the  very 
place  where  she  first  received  his  benediction. 
There  she  continued  for  some  time,  but  the 
town  being  pressed  by  famine,  she  was  obliged 
to  escape,  while  her  brother,  the  earl  of  Glou- 
cester, endeavoring  to  follow,  was  taken  prison- 


er, and  exchanged  for  Stephen,  who  still  con- 
tinued a  captive.  Thus  a  sudden  revolution 
once  more  took  place ;  Matilda  was  deposed, 
while  Stephen  was  again-  recognised  as  king. 
His  reign,  however,  was  soon  terminated  by 
hid  death,  which  happened  about  a  year  after 
the  treaty  at  Canterbury,  when  Henry,  Matil- 
da's son, succeeded. 

STEUBEN,  Frederic  William  Augustus, 
baron  von  ;  a  Prussian  officer  who  entered  the 
American  service  during  our  revolution,  and  in 
1778  was  appointed  by  Congress  inspector-gen- 
eral of  the  forces,  with  the  rank  of  major-gene- 
ral. He  was  in  the  trenches  at  Yorktown  where 
he  received  the  first  offer  of  CornwaJlis  to  cap- 
itulate. Baron  von  Steuben  was  generous  and 
hospitable,  and  introduced  the  strictest  disci- 
pline into  our  army.  He  settled  in  Oneida 
county,  New  York,  where  he  had  received  a 
grant  of  land,  and,  by  the  exertions  of  Wash- 
ington and  Hamilton  obtained  an  annuity  of 
$'2500  from  the  general  government.  He  died 
in  17: '5  of  apoplexy. 

STEVENS,  Edward,  a  native  of  Virginia, 
commanded  a  battalion  of  riflemen,  in  the  battle 
of  great  bridge,  near  Norfolk,  and  behaved  with 
gallantry  at  Brandy  wine,  Germantown,Camden, 
GuilforS  Court-house,  and  Yorktown.  After 
the  war  he  was  elected  a  senator  of  Virginia. 
He  died  in  1820. 

STEWART,  Gilbert,  a  celebrated  American 
portrait-paintervborn  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  1757, 
died  in  Boston,  July,  1828.  He  studied  in  Lon- 
don where  he  pursued  his.  profession  with  great 
success. 

STOCK  HOLM,  a  handsome  city,  the  capital 
of  Sweden,  situated  at  the  junction  of  lake  Ma- 
lar with  an  inlet  of  the  Baltic,  containing  73,526 
inhabitants.  It  is  built  chiefly  on  three  islands, 
and  has  numerous  fine  buildings.  Stockholm 
was  the  scene  of  a  dreadful  crime  perpetrated 
by  Christian  II.  lie  determined  to  destroy  at 
once  all  the  Swedish  nobility,  in  order  to  re- 
venge the  troubles  they  had  occasioned,  and  to 
prevent  the  people  from  revolting  in  future,  by 
depriving  them  of  proper  persons  to  conduct 
their  operations.  He  cut  off  the  chief  men  of 
the  nation  with  the  axe  of  the  executioner.  The 
entire  senate  were  conducted  to  death  before  the 
eyes  of  the  citizens  of  Stockholm,  who  beheld 
the  bloody  scene  with  apathy  and  unconcern. 
The  peasantry  viewed  this  massacre  in  no  other 
light  than  as  a  just  retribution  for  the  oppres- 
sive conduct  of  the  nobles,  who  had  converted 
the  monarchy  into  a  kind  of  aristocracy.  The 
cruelty  of  Christian  is  almost  inconceivable  ;  he 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


STO 


543 


STO 


indiscriminately  pillaged  all  ranks  of  people, 
erected  every  where  scaffolds  and  gibbets,  and 
brandished  the  scythe  of  death  over  every  head. 
He  did  not  consider  it  as  a  sufficient  gratifica- 
tion to  deprive  his  victims  of  life ;  he  took  a 
pleasure  in  prolonging  the  duration  of  their  suf- 
ferings by  the  sight  of  the  preparations  which 
preceded  the  execution,  and  he  wished  to  give 
them  as  it  were  a  full  relish  of  D!!  the  bitterness 
of  death.  Among  other  instances  of  cruelty 
and  barbarity,  he  obliged  women  to  sew  with 
their  own  hands  the  sacks  in  which  they  were 
to  be  tied  up  and  drowned. 

STOCKTON,  Richard,  a  signer  of  the  Amer- 
ican Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born 
near  Princeton,  Oct.  1,  17SU.  Having  gradua- 
ted at  New  Jersey  college,  he  made  the  tour  of 
Great  Britain,  and  returned  to  New  Jersey  in 
1768.  June  21,  1776,  he  was  chosen  by  the 
provincial  congress  a  delegate  to  the  general 
congress  assembled  at  Philadelphia.  On  Nov. 
30  of  the  same  year,  he  was  seized  in  the  night  by 
the  British  and  conveyed  to  New  York,  where 
he  was  treated  with  such  severity  that  his  con- 
stitution was  broken,  and  afler  languishing  a 
long  time,  he  died  at  Princeton,  Feb.  28,  1781, 
in  the  51st  year  of  his  age. 

STONE,  Thomas,  a  signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  studied  law  at  Frederick- 
town,  Maryland,  and  took  his  seat  in  the  gene- 
ral congress  in  May,  1775.  He  died  on  the 5th 
of  October,  1787. 

STONY  POINT.  The  following  account  of 
this  interesting  place  is  from  the  pen  of  \he  Rev. 
J.  N.  Maffitt. 

"  The  scenery  of  the  Hudson  river  bears  na- 
ture's grandest  "imprint.  The  hand  that  framed 
an  universe  of  worlds  has  thrown  together  along 
the  banks  of  this  noble  stream  a  wild  assem- 
blage of  rocks  and  mountains.  The  Palisades, 
as  they  are  called,  commence  on  the  western 
side  of  the  Hudson,  just  above  Weehawk  or 
Weehawken,  and  extend  about  twelve  miles  up 
the  river.  They  are  bold,  abrupt  demonstra- 
tions of  omnipotence,  moulded  by  Him  whose 
power  is  not  bounded  by  time  or  circumstance. 
The  cannon  of  a  thousand  armies  might  roar 
out  their  ineffectual  vengeance  against  this  na- 
tural battery,  which  frowns  over  the  broad  bright 
stream  at  an  elevation  of  from  sixty  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet ;  and  the  parapet  would  laugh 
in  scorn  at  the  power  of  battle. 

After  the  Palisades  terminate,  a  country  of 

hills  and  vales  succeeds  ;  the  former  rounded  up 

like  loaves  of  sugar,  and  the  latter  indented  like 

dimples  on  the  cheek  of  beauty.    Occasionally, 

46* 


however,  nature  has  projected  into  the  stream 
one  of  her  bold  fronts — a  miniature  formation 
of  those  "  hills  of  fear,"  which  cast  their  sombre 
shadows  across  the  pass  of  the  Highlands.  One 
of  these  projections  is  Stony  Point.  It  stands  out 
in  bold  relief  from  the  rural  scenery  just  below, 
and  challenges  the  attention  of  the  passenger 
who  has  been  relieved  from  the  sublimity  of 
the  basaltic  rocks  of  the  Palisades  only  to  pre- 
pare him  for  a  wilder  development  of  nature's 
craniology.  But  the  impressions  which  crowd 
into  the  spectator's  mind  in  this  region  are  not 
all  derived  from  river,  mountain,  or  valley, — 
tradition  and  history  lend  a  melancholy  glory  to 
this  revolutionary  ground.  On  the  right  or 
eastern  bank  stretches  away  the  celebrated 
"  neutral  ground  "  throughout  the  entire  extent 
of  West  Chester  county,  where  regulars,  cow- 
boys, Virginia  horse,  and  continentals,  Whigs 
and  Tories,  appeared  and  disappeared  like  the 
actors  of  a  wild  and  bloody  tragedy.  On  the 
left,  Stony  Point  is  allied  to  associations  of  mili- 
tary achievements  of  unfading  renown — while 
farther  up,  the  memory  of  Arnold's  treason. 
Andre's  capture,  and  untimely  although  merited 
fate,  twines  around  the  memorable  rocks  of  West 
Point. 

Stony  Point  is  about  forty  miles  above  New 
York  and  ten  or  fourteen  below  West  Point. 
It  is  a  rounded,  gravelly  hill,  of  small  extent, 
jutting  into  the  stream,  and  connected  with  the 
main  land  by  a  low  morass  which  is  partially 
overflowed  with  the  tide  waters.  It  was  forti- 
fied in  the  revolutionary  war,  and,  occupied  by 
a  small  force,  might  have  been  considered  as  a 
remote  outpost  to  the  strong  fortress  of  West 
Point.  It  was  captured  by  the  British  in  the 
year  1779,  and  strongly  repaired  and  garrisoned 
by  more  than  six  hundred  soldiers  commanded 
by  the  brave  Lieut.  Col.  Johnson. 

A  few  days  before  the  sixteenth  of  July,  in 
the  same  year,  a  tall,  commanding  personage, 
mounted  on  a  strong  charger,  was  seen  on  the 
eminences  above  Stony  Point. — He  had  a  glass 
in  his  hand,  aud  appeared  to  study  the  charac- 
ter of  the  defences  with  an  intensity  of  interest. 
Johnson,  who  was  returning  the  gaze  of  the 
horseman  with  his  spy-glass,  turned  to  one  of 
his  staff  and  remarked  that  the  apparition  on  the 
hill  portended  no  good.  Rumors  were  afloat 
about  the  intrenchments  that  the  same  tall  fig- 
ure had  been  seen  across  the  river  on  the  high- 
est opposite  eminence  the  day  before,  like  a 
horseman  painted  against  the  sky.  A  cow-boy 
said  that  this  figure  was  the  apparition  of  Wash- 
ington, and  that  it  never  was  seen  excepting 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


STO 


544 


SUE 


just  before  a  battle  or  a  thunder  storm.  But 
while  these  idle  rumors  floated  around  the  at- 
mosphere of  the  camp,  the  real  Washington, 
from  observations  made  with  his  own  eyes,  was 
concertina1  a  soldier-like  plan  for  its  surprise. 

On  the  "night  ol  the  sixteenth  of  July,  by  the 
twinkling  light  of  the  stars  that  broke  over  and 
through  the  clouds,  two  columns  of  soldiers 
raighriiave  been  seen  under  the  brow  of  the 
eminence  in  the  rear  of  the  fort.  They  were 
stern  men — the  silent,  thoughtful  men  of  New- 
England.  The  eagle-eyed  Wayne  was  at  their 
hea'd,  and  his  heart  was  like  that  of  the  lion. 
The  regiments  of  Febigez  and  Meigs,  with  the 
youthful  Major  Hull's  detachment  formed  the 
right  column ;  Butler's  regiment,  with  two 
companies  under  Major  Murphy,  formed  the 
left.  The  van  of  the  right  was  formed  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  volunteers  at  whose  head 
stood  the  brave  floury  ;  one  hundred  volun- 
teers under  Hewart  composed  the  van  of  the 
left.  And  still  further  advanced,  the  noblest 
post  of  all,  stood  two  "  forlorn  hopes  "  of  twen- 
ty men  each — one  commanded  by  Lieut.  Gib- 
bins,  and  the  other  by  Lieut.  Knox.  Wayne 
stepped  from  man  to  man  through  the  van- 
guards, saw  them  take  their  flints  from  their 
pieces  and  fix  the  death- bayonet.  At  twenty 
minutes  past  eleven,  the  two  cdlumns  moved  to 
the  bloody  work  before  them,  one  going  to  the 
left  and  the  other  to  the  right  to  make  their  at- 
tack  on  opposite  sides. 

The  inhabitants  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  riv- 
er first  heard  a  sharp  crashing  as  the  forlorn 
hope  on  either  side  broke  in  the  double  row  of 
abattis ;  the  muskets  of  the  sentinels  flashed 
suddenly  amidst  the  darkness,  and  in  a  moment 
the  fortress  vomited  out  flame  and  thunder  as  if 
a  volcano  had  been  ignited,  and  was  tossing  its 
lava  upwards.  The  cry  of  battle  not  to  be  mis- 
taken, shrill,  wild  and  "fearful,  broke  upon  the 
dull  ear  of  niirht.  But  all  was  in  vain  for  the 
fortress.  Under  the  showers  of  grape,  and  full 
in  the  red  eye  of  battle,  the  two  gloomy,  still, 
unwavering  columns  moved  on,  and  the  two 
vanguards  met  in  the  centre  of  the  work.  The 
British  made  an  instant  surrender  to  avoid  the 
extermination  which  awaited  the  deploy  of  the 
columns  upon  the  intrenchments.  Sixty-three 
British  soldiers  lay  dead  at  their  guns ;  five 
hundred  and  forty-three  were  made  prisoners, 
and  the  spoils  were  two  standards,  two  flags, 
fifteen  pieces  of  ordnance,  and  other  materials 
of  war.  Of  the  sons  of  New  England,  ninety- 
eight  were  killed  or  wounded.  Of  Lieut.  Gib- 
bin's  forlorn  hope  seventeen  were  no  more.  Of 


Lieut.  Knox's  about  the    same  number  were 
slain. 

These  spots,  where  the  life-blood  of  the  free 
has  been  poured  out  like  water,  and  where  the 
traces  of  the  revolutionary  ditch  and  mound  still 
remain,  are  altars  sacred  to  the  high  recollec- 
tions of  freedom.  Green  be  the  turf  over  these 
departed  patriots.  The  bold  bluff  of  Stony 
Point  is  classic  ground.  Hither  in  future  time 
shall  the  poet  and  the  sentimentalist  come  to 
pay  their  tribute  of  affection  and  honor,  where 

'  our  fathers  knelt 

In  prayer  ami  battle  tor  a  world.'  " 

STRAFFORD,  Earl  of,  Thomas  Wentworth, 
eldest  son  of  sir  William  Wentworth,  of  York- 
shire, was  born  in  Chancery-lane,  London, 
April  13,  1593.  In  1614,  he  succeeded  to  the 
baronetcy,  and  the  following  year  was  nomina- 
ted keeper  of  the  archives  for  the  West  Riding, 
in  the  room  of  sir  John  Saville.  He  was  made 
president  of  the  council  of  York,  and  next  lord 
deputy  of  Ireland.  In  1639  he  was  created  earl 
of  Straffbrd.  made  knight  of  the  garter,  and  ap- 
pointed lord-lieutenant.  All  this  increased  the 
number  and  malignity  of  his  enemies  in  the 
house  of  commons ;  who,  when  the  earl  return- 
ed to  tajte  his  seat  in  the  house  of  lords,  carried 
up  an  impeachment  against  him,  and  he  was 
sent  to  the  Tower.  But  though  the  prosecu- 
tors took  four  months  to  prepare  their  case,  and 
pursued  it  with  virulence,  no  evidence  could  be 
found  to  support  the  charges.  Determined, 
howevej,  not  to  let  their  victim  escape,  Pym 
and  his  associates  brought  in  a  bill  of  attainder, 
which,  by  excitincr  the^mob  to  acts  of  outrage, 
they  forced  the  peers  to  pass.  The  king  like- 
wise yielded  to  his  fears,  against  his  conscience, 
and  gave  the  roval  assent  to  this  illegal  measure. 
He  suffered  on'Tower-hill,  May  12,  1641. 

STRONG,  Caleb,  L.  L.  D.  a  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  was  born  in  Northampton, 
Mass.,  in  1744  ;  and  was  educated  at  Harvard 
college.  In  1775  he  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee of  safety,  and  afterwards  served  in  the 
legislature.  In  18UO  he  was  elected»governor 
of  his  native  state,  and  held  the  office  for  seven 
successive  years.  In  1812  he  was  reelected, 
and  held  the  office  till  1616.  He  died  in  1820. 
He  was  upright,  patriotic,  and  learned. 

SUEVI.  In  'the  time  of  Caesar,  the  Suevi 
were  numbered  among  the  most  warlike  na- 
tions of  Germany,  and  agreed  in  customs  and 
manners  with  the  other  inhabitants  of  that  ex- 
tensive country.  Their  situation  is  said  to  have 
been  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Vistula.  Tibe- 
rius transported  some  thousands  of  them  into 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SUL 


545 


SUW 


Gaul,  and  assigned  lands  to  otheis  beyond  the 
Danube.  They  formed  a  kingdom  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  towns  of  Merida,  Seville,  and  Car- 
thagena,  which,  in  the  year  585,  was  reduced  to 
a  province  of  the  Gothic  monarchy,  by  Leovi- 
gild,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  after  it  had  subsist- 
ed one  hundred  and  seventy-four  years. 

SULLIVAN,  John,  for  a  few  years  before  the 
revolution,  practised  law  in  New  Hampshire, 
and  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Congress  of  1774, 
to  enter  the  army,  in  which  he  was  appointed 
brigadier- general  in  1775.  In  the  battle  of 
Long-Island  he  was  taken  prisoner  but  soon 
exchanged,  and  entrusted  with  the  command 
of  the  right  division  in  the  battle  of  Trenton. 
He  also  commanded  the  right  wing  at  the  bat- 
tles of  Brandywine  and  Germantown.  The 
differences  between  Count  d'  Estaing  and  Sul- 
livan caused  the  failure  of  the  siege  of  Newport 
in  August,  1777.  In  1779  he  defeated  the  Six 
Nations  of  Indians  in  New  York.  His  exten- 
sive calls  for  military  stores,  and  strictures  on 
the  conduct  of  Congress  with  regard  to  him, 
were  followed  by  his  resignation  of  his  com- 
mand on  the  9th  of  November.  After  the  close 
of  the  war,  in  176(5,  he  was  elected  president  of 
New  Hampshire  and  held  the  office  for  three 
years.  In  Oct.  1789,  he  was  appointed  judge 
of  New  Hampshire,  and  died,  Jan.  23,  1795. 

SULLIVAN,  James,  brother  of  the  prece- 
ding, was  born  at  Berwick,  Maine,  April  22, 
174-4,  and  studied  law  under  his  brother.  He 
was  for  several  years  governor  of  Mas^achu- 
setts,  and  held  some  high  judicial  offices.  He 
died  Dec.  10,  1808.  in  the  65th  year  of  his  age. 

SULLY,  Maximilian  de  Bethune,  baron  de 
Rosni,  and  duke  of,  was  born  at  the  castle  of 
Rosni  in  1559.  At  the  age  of  eleven,  the  ba- 
ron, his  father,  presented  him  to  the  queen  of 
Navarre,  who  gave  him  an  appointment  about 
the  person  of  her  son  Henry,  with  whom  Sully 
was  educated.  Soon  after  this  the  queen,  on 
the  invitation  of  Charles  [X  went  to  Paris,  and 
died  there,  not  without  suspicion  of  poison  ; 
which  opinion  received  confirmation  when  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  occurred  soon  af- 
terwards. In  that  carnage,  Sully  escaped  by 
passing  through  the  crowd  as  a  student,  to  the 
college  of  Burgundy,  where  the  principal  lock- 
ed him  up  in  a  closet  for  three  days.  In  157(5, 
the  king  of  Navarre  eluded  the  vigilance  of  his 
guards,°and  arrived  at  Tours,  accompanied  by 
Sully,  who,  in  the  war  that  ensued,  carried  his 
valor  almost  to  excess,  which  made  Henry  say 
to  him  one  day,  "  I  admire  your  courage,  but 
wish  you  to  reserve  it  for  better  occasions."  In 


all  the  battles  and  sieges  that  followed,  he  bore 
a  prominent  part.  Henry  IV  made  him  gov- 
ernor of  Poitou,  grand  master  of  the  ports  and 
harbors  of  France,  and  erected,  in  his  favor,  the 
lands  of  Sully  upon  the  Loire,  into  a  duchy. 
On  the  murder  of  that  great  monarch,  in  1610, 
the  duke  retired  from  court,  and  employed  him- 
self in  writing  his  memoirs.  He  died  at  his  cas- 
tle at  Villabon,  Dec.  22, 1641. 

SUMATRA,  an  island  in  the  eastern  seas, 
the  largest  of  the  Sunda  Isles,  is  divided  ob- 
liquely by  the  equator,  and  contains  about  160,000 
square  miles;  it  is  fertile,  but  the  interior  is 
little  known. 

SUMTER,  Thomas,  a  distinguished  partisan 
officer,  during  the  American  revolutionary  war, 
whose  operations  were  principally  confined  to 
South  Carolina,  where  he  died  in  his  ninety- 
eighth  year,  June  1,  1832.  In  the  halls  of  con- 
gress he  served*  his  country,  as  well  as  in  the 
field.  "  Sumter,"  says  Lee, ';  was  younger  than 
Marion,  who  was  about  forty-eight  years  of  age, 
larger  in  fiame,  better  fitted,  in  strength  of 
body,  for  the  toils  of  war,  and,  like  his  compeer, 
devoted  to  the  freedom  of  his  country.  His  as- 
pect was  manly  and  stern,  denoting  insupera- 
ble firmness  and  lofty  courage.  Determined  to 
deserve  success,  he  risked  his  own  life  and  the 
lives  of  his  associates  without  reserve." 

SUWAROFF  -  RIMN1TZKOLY,  Peter 
Alexis  Wasiliowitsch,  Count  of,  prince  Italin* 
ski,  field-marshal  and  generalissimo  of  the  Rus- 
sian armies,  better  known  by  the  name  of  Su- 


warrow,  was  born  of  a  Swedish  family,  about 
campaign  in  the 

years'  war,  and  distinguished  himself  so  much. 

.1    *  -     i«~,  •;*  i  *  - 


1730.     lie  made  his  first  campaign  in  the  seven 


that  in  1762  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  infan 
try.  In  1768  he  was  made  brigadier;  soon  af- 
ter which  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  and  for  his  services  in  Poland,  received 
the  orders  of  St.  Anne,  St.  George,  and  Alex- 
ander. In  J773  he  had  a  command  against  the 
Turks,  whom  he  defeated  at  Turtukey ;  on 
which  occasion  he  wrote  to  marshal  Roman- 
zow,  as  follows  : — "  Honor  and  glory  to.  God  ! 
Glory  to  you,  Romanzow  !  We  are  in  posses- 
sion of  Turtukey,  and  I  am  in  it."  On  the  re- 
newal of  the  war  in  1787,  Suwarrow  defended 
Kinburn,  and  was  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Oc- 
zakow.  September  22, 1789,  he  gained,  in  con- 
junction with  the  Austrian  general,  Saxe  Co- 
burg,  the  victory  of  Rymnik,  though  the  Turks 
mustered  four  to  one  against  the  allies.  This 
achievement  was  followed  by  the  taking  of  Ben- 
der and  Belgrade,  for  his  share  in  which,  Su- 
warrow was  created,  by  the  emperor  Joseph,  a 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


SWE 


546 


SWI 


count  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  by  his  own 
sovereign,  a  count  of  the  empire  of  Russia,  with 
the  title  of  Rymnikski.  In  1790,  he  took  Ismai- 
low,  where,  though  the  plunder  was  immense, 
Suwarrow  would"  not  take  a  single  article  for 
himself.  On  this  conquest  he  wrote  to  prince 
Potemkin  the  following  letter  :  "  The  Russian 
colors  wave  on  the  ramparts  of  Ismailow."  Af- 
ter this,  Suwarrow  had  a  principal  concern  in 
the  operations  which  produced  the  partition  of 
Poland,  for  which  he  was  made  a  field-marshal, 
and  presented  with  an  estate.  When  the  em- 
peror Paul  embarked  in  the  confederacy  against 
France,  Suwarrow  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  combined  army  in  Italy,  where  he  gained 
many  advantages,  particularly  the  battle  of  No- 
yi.  After  this  he  crossed  the  Alps,  and  march- 
ed into  Switzerland,  but  being  disappointed  of 
reinforcements,  he  was  obliged  to  retreat  towards 
the  lake  of  Constance.  He  was  then  recalled, 
and  died  of  chagrin,  May  18,  1800. 

SWEDEN,  united  with  Norway,  and  some- 
times styled  Scandinavia,  comprises  291,224 
square  miles.  Sweden  itself  contains  166,363 
square  miles,  and  3,000,000  inhabitants.  Some 
of  the  largest  lakes  are  Wenner,  and  Wetter. 
The  winters  are  long  and  cold ;  the  summers 
short  and  hot.  The  wealth  of  Sweden  is  prin- 
cipally derived  from  its  mines  of  iron  and  cop- 
per ;  the  principal  exports  being  iron,  copper, 
alum,  timber,  and  tar.  The  Swedes  are  viva- 
cious and  intelligent,  honest,  temperate,  and 
hospitable.  The  Goths,  the  ancient  inhabitants 
of  this  country,  joined  by  the  Normans,  Danes, 
Saxons,  Vandals,  &c.  subdued  the  Roman  em- 
pire, and  all  the  southern  nations  of  Europe. 
The  introduction  of  Christianity,  however,  by 
Ansgarius,  bishop  of  Bremen,  in  829,  seems  to 
present  the  first  certain  period  of  the  Swedish 
history.  The  history  of  Sweden,  and  indeed 
of  all  the  northern  nations,  even  during  the  first 
ages  of  Christianity,  is  confused  and  uninter- 
esting, and  often  doubtful,  but  sufficiently  re- 
plete with  murders,  massacres,  and  ravages. 
That  of  Sweden  is  void  of  consistency,  till  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  it 
assumes  an  appearance  more  regular  and  con- 
sistent. The  Swedes  perished  in  the  dissen- 
sions between  their  prelates  and  lay-barons,  or 
between  those  and  their  sovereigns  ;  they  were 
drained  of  the  litlle  riches  they  possessed,  to 
support  the  indolent  pomp  of  a  few  magnificent 
bishops ;  and,  what  was  still  more  fatal,  the  un- 
lucky situation  of  their  internal  affairs  exposed 
them  to  the  inroads  and  oppression  of  a  foreign 
enemy.  These  were  the  Danes,  who,  by  their 


neighborhood  and  power,  were  always  able  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  dissensions  in  Sweden. 
In  this  deplorable  situation,  Sweden  remained 
for  more  than  two  centuries  ;  sometimes  under 
the  nominal  subjection  of  its  own  princes,  some- 
times united  to  the  kingdom  of  Denmark. 
Denmark  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
Sweden  and  Great  Britain,  in  1814.  By  this 
treaty  Norway  was  surrendered  to  Sweden,  in 
return  for  which  Denmark  received  Swedish 
Pomerania,  and  the  isle  of  Rugen. 

SUCCESSION  OF  KINGS  FROM  SlGISMUND  I. 

Sigismund  I.  A.  D.      1592 

Charles  IX.  —        1G06 

Gustavus  II  (Adolphus).  —        1611 

Christina,  (aged  6)  —        1633 

Charles  X.  —        1654 

Charles  XI.  —        1660 

Charles  XII.  (aged  15)  —        1699 

Ulrica,  sister  to  Charles,  (aged  15)  —  1718 
Adolphus  of  Holstein  —  1751 

Gustavus  III.  —        1771 

Gustavus  IV.  —        1792 

Charles  XIII.  —        1809 

Charles  X  I  V  (Marshal  Bernadotte  ,)  —  1818 
SWIFT,  Jonathan,  an  eminent  English  au- 
thor, was  born  at  Cashel,  in  the  county  of  Tip- 
perary,  November  30,  1667.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  college,  Dublin,  but  neglecting  the 
academical  course,  was  refused  the  degree  of 
Arts  at  the  usual  time,  and  only  obtained  it 
some  years  after  as  an  especial  favor.  Having 
iu  1713 


theology,  he  took  orders,  and 
was  appointed  to  the  deanery  of  St.  Patrick's. 
In  1716  he  privately  married'Miss  Johnson,  the 
Stella  of  his  poems,  whom  he  treated  with  great 
coldness,  refusing  to  acknowledge  the  union 
publicly.  When  he  found  her  dying,  he  offered 
to  acknowledge  her  as  his  wife  :  but  she  repli- 
ed, "  It  is  too  late."  While  this  lady  was  liv- 
ing, he  engaged  the  attentions  of  his  pupil,  Miss 
Vanhomriglf,  who  died  in  1723,  on  learning  his 
marriaore  with  Miss  Johnson.  In  1742  the  mind 
of  Swift  was  completely  decayed,  and  he  died  in 
1745,  in  his  78th  year.  Besides  Jiis  political 
writings,  his  most  popular  works  are  Tale  of  a 
Tub,  Battle  of  the  Books,  Gulliver's  Travels, 
&c. 

Without  much  conscience,  or  much  consist- 
ency, Swift  possessed  a  ready  wit  —  a  sarcastic 
humor—  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  baser 
parts  of  human  nature  —  and  a  complete  famili- 
arity with  every  thing  that  is  low,  homely,  and 
fam'iliar  in  language.  These  were  his  gifts  ;- 
and  he  soon  felt  for  what  end  they  were  given. 
Almost  all  his  works  are  libels  ;  generally  upon 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SWI 


individuals,  sometimes  upon  sects  and  parties, 
sometimes  upon  hum;m  nature.  Whatever  be 
his  end,  'however,  personal  abuse,  direct,  vehe- 
ment, unsparing  invective,  is  his  means.  It  is 
his  sword  and  his  shield,  his  panoply,  and  his 
chariot  of  war.  In  all  his  writings,  according- 

j  ly,  there  is  nothing  to  raise  or  exalt  our  notions 
of  human  nature,  —  but  there  is  every  thing  to 
vilify  and  degrade  them.  We  may  learn  from 
them,  perhaps,  to  dread  the  consequence  of  base 

i  actions,  but  never  to  love  the  feelings  that  lead 
to  generous  ones.  There  is  no  spirit,  indeed, 

I      of  love  or  honor  in  any  part  of  them  ;  but  an 

|  ,  unvaried  and  harassing  display  of  insolence 
and  animosity  in  the  writer,  and  villany  and 
folly  in  those  of  whom  he  is  writing.  Though 
a  great  polemic,  he  makes  no  use  of  general 
principles,  nor  enlarges  his  views  to  a  wide  or 
comprehensive  conclusion.  Every  thing  is  par- 
ticular with  him,  and,  for  the  most  part,  strictly 
personal.  To  make  amends,  however,  he  is 
quite  without  a  competitor  in  personalities. 
With  a  quick  and  sagacious  spirit,  and  a  bold 
and  popular  manner,  he  joins  an  exact  know- 
ledge of  all  the  strong  and  weak  parts  of  the 
cause  he  has  to  manage;  and,  without  the  least 
restraint  of  delicacy,  either  of  taste  or  of  feel- 

•*  ing,  he  seems  always  to  think  the  most  effectu- 
al blows  the  most  advisable,  and  no  advantage 
unlawful  that  is  likely  to  be  successful  for  the 
moment.  Disregarding  all  the  laws  of  polished 
Tiostility.  he  uses,  atone  and  the  same  moment, 
his  sword  and  his  poisoned  dagger  —  his  hands 
and  his  teeth  and  his  envenomed  breath,  —  and 
does  not  even  scruple,  upon  occasion,  to  imi- 
tate his  own  yahoos,  by  discharging  on  his  un- 
happy victims  a  shower  of  filth,  from  which 
neither  courage  nor  dexterity  can  afford  any 
protection. 

Against  such  an  antagonist  it  was,  of  course 
at  no  time,  very  easy  to  make  head;  and  ac 
cordingly  his  invective  seems,  for  the  most  part 
to  have  been  as  much  dreaded,  and  as  tremen- 
dous as  the  personal  ridicule  of  Voltaire.  Both 
were  inexhaustible,  well  directed,  and  unspar- 
ing :  but  even  when  Voltaire  drew  blood,  he  did 
not  mangle  the  victim,  and  was  only  mischiev 
ous  when  Swift,  was  brutal. 

Swift  had  a  quarrel  with  a  pompous,  prag 
matical  attorney,  on  whom  he  determined  ti 
have  satisfaction  by  his  pen.  Accordingly  he 
turned  yEsop's  fable  of  the  apples  and  the  ordure 
into  verse  —  and  when  he  came  to  the  address 
of  the  latter  to  the  former, 

"  How  we  apples  swim," 
he  subjoined  — 


547  SWI 

"  Thus  at  the  bar, Jhat  booby  Bettsworth, 
Tho'  half  a  crown  ontpays  his  sweat's  worth, 
Who  knows  of  laxv,  nor  text,  nor  margeant, 
Calls  Singleton  his  brother  Sergeant." 

Singleton  was  a  first-rate  lawyer. 

Bettsworth,  stung  to  the  quick,  went  very 
pompously  to  Swift,  and  holding  out  the  paper, 
asked  him,  with  a  menacing  voice  and  gesture 
— ",Sir,  are  you  the  author  of  this  infamous  at- 
tack on  me?"  "Sit  down,  sir,"  says  Swift, 
very  calmly — "  do  not  be  in  a  passion,  but  let 
me  tell  you  a  short  story.  When  I  was  young, 
my  dear  father — heaven  rest  his  soul ! — seeing 
that  I  had  a  turn  for  scribbling,  and  fearfnl  of 
the  consequences,  one  day  told  me  that  he  was 
afraid  that  propensity  would  some  time  or  other 
bring  me  into  trouble.  '  And,  my  dear  son,' 
added  he.  '  let  me  give  you  a  piece  of  advice. 
Should  any  libellous  matter  appear  in  any  news- 
paper, and  any  fool  or  knave  call  on  you  to  de- 
mand whether  or  not  you  are  the  writer — say 
no ;' — and  therefore,  sir,  I  say  no  to  you." 
Bettsworth  had  no  remedy,  and  went  off 
grumbling — saying  Swift  was  like  one  of  his 
own  vile  Yahoos,  besmearing  people  with  his 
filth,  and  out  of  the  reach  of  punishment. 

SWITZERLAND.  The  Swiss  confedera- 
cy, as  its  limits  were  determined  by  the  con- 
gress of  Vienna,  contains  an  area  of  15,000 
square^  miles,  and  2,037,030  persons. 

CANTONS. 

Zurich,  Basle, 

Berne,  Schaffhausen, 

Lucerne,  Appenzell, 

Uri,  St.  Gall, 

Schweitz,  Grisons, 

Underwalden,  Aargau, 

Glarus,  Thurgau, 

Zug,  Tessin, 

Friburg,  Pays  de  Vaud, 

Soleure,  Valais, 

Neufchatel,  Geneva. 

The  rivers,  mountains,  and  lakes  of  Switzer- 
land, present  the  most  sublime  scenes  in  na- 
ture. In  a  cavern  near  the  lake  of  Lucerne, 
the  three  founders  of  the  Helvetic  confederacy, 
are  said,  in  Swiss  traditions,  to  sleep.  The 
herdsmen  call  them  the  three  Tell's.  and  say 
hat  they  lie  there,  in  their  antique  garb,  in 
.miet  slumber  ;  and  when  Switzerland  is  in  hei 
utmost  need,  they  will  awaken  and  regain  the 
liberties  of  the  land. 

When  Uri's  heechen-wooda  wave  red 

In  the  burnina  hamlet's  light, 
Then  from  the  caverns  ol  the  dead, 

Shall  the  sleepers  wake  in  might  t 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


SWI 


543 


swi 


With  a  leap,  like  Tell's  proud  leap, 
When  away  the  helm  he  flung, 

And  boldly  up  the  steep 

From  the  flashing  billow  sprung ! 

They  shall  wake  beside  their  forest-sea 

In  the  ancient  garb  they  wore, 
When  they  linked  the  hands  that  made  us  free, 
On  the  Grutli's  moonlight  shore  ; 
And  their  voices  shall  be  heard, 

And  be  answered  with  a  shout, 

Till  the  echoing  Alps  are  stirred, 

And  the  signal-fires  blaze  out ! 

And  the  land  shall  see  such  deeds  again, 

As  those  of  that  proud  day, 
When  Winkelried,  on  Sempack's  plain, 
Through  the  serried  spears  made  way! 
And  when  the  rocks  came  down 

On  the  dark  Morgartin  dell, 
And  the  crowned  helms  o'erthrown 
Before  our  fathers  full! 

For  the  Kuhreihen's*  notes  must  never  sound 

In  a  land  that  wears  the  chain, 
And  the  vines  on  Freedom's  holy  ground 
Untrampled  must  remain. 
And  the  yellow  harvests  wave, 

For  no  stranger's  hand  to  reap, 
While  within  their  silent  cave 
The  men  of  Grutli  sleep! 

Nearly  two  thirds  of  (he  Swiss  are  Protes- 
tants. Common  schools  are  well  supported, 
and  there  are  universities  at  Basle  and  Geneva. 
The  Swiss  are  hardy,  industrious,  temperate, 
and  ardently  attached  to  liberty.  * 

The  exaggerated  accounts  given  of  the  riches 
and  milder  climate  of  Italy,  occasioned  the  suc- 
cessive inroads  of  the  Ceenomani,  the  Lteves, 
and  Ananes,  and  the  various  troops  of  barbari- 
ans who  gloried  in  the  name  of  Gauls.  In  all 
these  expeditions,  the  Helvetians  took  a  consid- 
erable share,  and  afterwards  joined  the  Cimbri 
and  the  Teutones  against  the  Romans.  How- 
ever, their  want  of  discipline  finally  proved  fa- 
tal to  them ;  and  the  arms  of  Marius  and  Sylla 
obtained  over  the  combined  forces  of  Germany 
the  most  complete  and  decisive  victory.  From 
this  era,  the  Helvetians  lived  in  friendship  and 
alliance  with  the  Romans,  till  the  arts  of  Orge- 
torix,  one  of  their  chieftains,  involved  them  in 
that  unfortunate  expedition,  which  ended  in 
their  being  deprived  of  liberty  and  independ- 
ence, by  Julius  Caesar,  in  57 'B.  C.  Helvetia 
thus  became  a  province  of  Rome.  The  decline 
of  the  Roman  power,  and  the  irruption  of  the 
Goths,  Vandals,  Huns,  and  other  northern 

*  The  Kuhreihen  is  the  melody  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Ranz  des  Vachc-!,  which  was  forbidden  to  he 
played  by  the  royal  band*  in  Paris,  because  it  caused 
the  Swiss  guards  to  desert,  and  return  to  their  native 
mountains,  of  which  it  powerfully  reminded  them. 


tribes,  hastened  the  downfal  of  the  unhappy 
Helvetians.  Of  those  who  settled  in  Helvetia, 
the  chief  were  the  Burgundians  and  the  Ale- 
inanni,  a  German  nation,  who  made  their  first 
appearance  in  214,  and  settled  in  the  duchy  of 
Wirtemberg.  On  the  downfal  of  the  western 
nation,  the  Alemanni  overran  that  part  of  Gaul 
since  known  by  the  name  of  Alsace  ;  and  being 
joined  by  their  countrymen  in  Germany,  they 
entered  the  territories  of  the  Ripuarian  Franks, 
and  put  all  to  fire  and  sword.  This  unprovoked 
attack,  summoning  Clovis  king  of  the  Salian 
Franks  to  the  defence  of  his  allies,  the  Aleman- 
ni were  entirely  defeated  in  a  general  engage- 
ment, with  the  loss  of  their  king  ;  and  this  na- 
tion acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Clovis,  in 
496,  who  gradually  subdued,  and  afterwards 
civilized  the  greatest  part  of  Helvetia.  Under 
the  Franks,  it  remained  till  888,  when,  upon  the 
death  of  Charles  the  Gross,  it  was  seized  by 
Raoul,  and  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Bur- 

fundy,  which  was  given  by  Rodolf,  the  last 
ing  of  Burgundy,  to  Conrad  II  emperor  of 
Germany,  in  1032;  from  which  time  it  was  es- 
teemed a  part  of  the  empire  ;  but  being  unjust- 
ly treated  by  Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  the  in- 
habitants revolted  in  1308.  In  1315,  the  seve- 
ral states  of  which  this  country  was  composed  , 
made  their  league  perpetual;  and  in  1649,  their 
liberty  was  absolutely  fixed  by  treaty.  The 
peace  of  Arau,  in  1712,  terminated  the  intestine 
struggles  of  the  Swiss,  which  long  rent  in  sun- 
der the  bonds  of  their  union.  Under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Helvetic  league,  the  whole  terri- 
tory of  Switzerland  became,  and  for  ages  con- 
tinued, an  industrious,  a  free,  a  blameless,  and 
a  happy  nation,  until  they  were  attacked  by 
their  neighbors  the  French.  In  1798,  the  direc- 
tory of  trance,  having  become  daring  by  the 
peace  which  they  had  dictated  to  the  emperor, 
suddenly  declared  war  against  Switzerland.  At 
length,  the  French,  partly  by  force,  and  partly 


by  treachery,  succeeded  in  their  attempt,  and 
the  directory,  after  changing  the  government 
from  a  federal  into  an  united  republic,  continu- 


ed to  levy  contributions,  and  impose  exactions, 
with  the  most  unpardonable  severity.  Thus, 
after  enjoy  ing  the  sweets  of  independence  since 
the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
the  republics  of  Switzerland  were  overcome  by 
a  foreign  enemy,  and  obliged  to  change  the  form 
of  their  government.  The  treaties  of  Luneville 
and  of  Amiens,  held  out  to  the  Helvetic  con- 
federacy a  guarantee  of  her  ancient  freedom 
and  independence,  which  were  never  fully  real- 
ized. By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  the  in- 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SYL 


549 


SYR 


tegrity  of  the  nineteen  cantons,  as  they  existed 
in  a  political  body,  was  recognised  as  the  basis 
of  the  Helvetic  system.  To  Switzerland  were 
united  the  Valais,  the  territory  of  Geneva,  and 
the  principality  of  .Neufchatel,  which  form  three 
new  cantons ;  and  to  the  Helvetic  confederation 
were  added  the  bishopric  of  Basle,  and  the  city 
and  territory  of  Bienne,  which  form  part  of  the 
canton  of  Berne. 

SYLLA,  L.  Cornelius  a  celebrated  Roman, 
of  a  noble  family.  He  first  entered  the  army 
under  the  great  Marius,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  Numidia,  in  the  capacity  of  qusestor.  He 
rendered  himself  conspicuous  in  military  affairs, 
and  Bocchus,  one  of  the  princes  of  Numidia, 
delivered  Jugurtha  into  his  hands  for  the  Ro- 
man consul.  The  rising  fame  of  Sylla  gave 
umbrage  to  Marius,  who  was  always  jealous  of 
an  equal,  as  well  as  of  a  superior;  but  the  ill 
language  which  he  made  use  of,  rather  inflamed 
than  extinguished  the  ambition  of  Sylla.  He 
left  the  conqueror  of  Jugurtha,  and  carried  arms 
under  Catullus.  Sometime  after  he  obtained 
the  prastorship,  and  was  appointed  by  the  Ro- 
man senate  to  place  Ariobarzanes  on  the  throne 
of  Cappadocia,  against  the  views  and  interest 
of  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus.  This  he  easily 
effected,  one  battle  leaving  him  victorious;  and 
before  he  quitted  the  plains  of  Asia,  the  Roman 
prstor  had  the  satisfaction  to  receive  in  his 
camp  the  ambassadors  of  the  king  of  Parthia, 
who  wished  to  make  a  treaty  of  alliance  with 
the  Romans.  At  his  return  to  Rome,  he  was 
commissioned  to  finish  the  war  with  the  Marsi, 
and  when  this  was  successfully  ended,  he  was 
rewarded  with  the  consulship,  in  the  fiftieth 
year  of  his  age.  In  this  capacity  he  wished  to 
have  the  administration  of  the  Mlthridatic  war; 
but  he  found  an  obstinate  adversary  in  Marius, 
and  he  attained  the  summit  of  his  wishes  only 
when  he  had  entered  Rome  sword  in  hand. 
After  he  had  slaughtered  all  his  enemies,  set 
a  price  upon  the  head  of  Marius,  and  put  to 
death  the  tribune  Sulpitius,  who  hud  continually 
opposed  his  views,  he  marched  towards  Asia, 
and  disregarded  tlie  flames  of  discord  which  he 
left  behind  him  unextinguished.  Mithridates 
was  already  master  of  the  greatest  part  of 
Greece,  and  Sylla,  when  he  reached  the  coast 
of  Peloponnesus,  was  delayed  by  the  siege  of 
Athens,  and  of  the  Piraeus."  His  boldness  suc- 
ceeded, the  Pirceus  surrendered,  and  the  con- 
queror spared  the  city  of  Athens.  Two  cele- 
brated battles,  at  Cheromea  and  Orchomenos, 
rendered  him  master  of  Greece.  He  crossed 
the  Hellespont,  and  attacked  Mithridates  in  the 


very  heart  of  his  kingdom.  The  artful  mon- 
arch, who  well  knew  the  valor  and  persever- 
ance of  his  adversary,  made  proposals  of  peace , 
and  Sylla  did  not  hesitate  to  put  an  end  to  a 
war  which  had  rendered  him  master  of  so  much 
territory,  and  which  enabled  him  to  return  to 
Rome  like  a  conqueror.  Murcena  was  left  at 
the  head  of  the  Roman  forces  in  Asia,  and  Sylla 
hastened  to  Italy.  In  the  plains  of  Campania, 
he  was  met  by  a  few  of  his  adherents,  and  he 
was  soon  informed,  that  if  he  wished  to  contend 
with  Marius,  he  must  encounter  fifteen  gene- 
rals, followed  by  twenty-five  well  disciplined 
legions.  Pompey  embraced  his  cause,  and 
marched  to  his  camp  with  three  legions.  Soon 
after  he  appeared  in  the  field  to  advantage ;  the 
confidence  of  Marius  decayed  with  his  power, 
and  Sylla  entered  Rome  like  a  tyrant  and  a 
conqueror.  The  streets  were  daily  filled  with 
dead  bodies,  and  seven  thousand  citizens,  to 
whom  the  conqueror  had  promised  pardon, 
were  suddenly  massacred  in  the  circus.  The 
slaughter  was  continued,  and  no  less  than  four 
thousand  seven  hundred  of  the  most  powerful 
and  opulent  were  slain.  Sylla  at  last  died,  in 
the  greatest  torments,  of  loathsome  disease, 
about  seventy-eight  years,  B.  C.,  in  the  sixtieth 
year  of  his  age. 

SYPHAX,  a  king  of  the  Masssyli  in  Libya, 
married  Sophonisba.  the  daughter  of  Asdrubal, 
and  forsook  the  alliance  of  the  Romans  to  join 
himself  to  the  interest  of  his  father-in-law,  and 
of  Carthage.  He  was  conquered  in  a  battle  by 
Masinissa,  the  ally  of  Rome,  and  given  to  Sci- 
pio  the  Roman  general.  The  conqueror  carried 
him  to  Rome,  where  he  adorned  his  triumph. 
Syphax  died  in  prison,  two  hundred  and  one 
years  B.  C.,  and  his  possessions  were  given  to 
Masinissa. 

SYRACUSE,  now  Siragosa,  containing 
13,800  souls;  a  celebrated  city  of  Sicily,  found- 
ed about  seven  hundred  and  thirty-two  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  by  Archi'as,  a  Corin- 
thian, and  one  of  the  Heraclidffi.  It  was  under 
different  governments;  and  after  being  freed 
from  the  tyranny  of  Thrasibulus,  B.  C.  446,  it 
enjoyed  security  for  sixty-one  years,  till  the 
usurpation  of  the  Dionysii,  who  were  expelled 
by  Timoleon,  B.  C.  343.  In  the  age  of  the 
elder  Dionysius,  an  army  of  one  hundred  thou- 
sand foot  and  ten  thousand  horse,  and  four 
hundred  ships,  were  kept  in  constant  pay.  It 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  under  the 
consul  Marcellus,  after  a  siege  of  three  years, 
B.  C.  212. 

SYRIA,  a  country  of  Western  Asia,  border 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


TAL 


550 


TAL 


ing  on  the  Mediterranean  sea,  forming  part 
of  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  containing  about 
50,UUO  square  miles,  and  2,400,000  inhabitants. 
It  was  subjected  to  the  monarchs  of  Persia,  but 
after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Seleu- 
cus,  surnamed  Nicator,  raised  it  into  an  empire, 
known  in  history  by  the  name  of  the  kingdom 
of  Syria,  or  Babylon,  B.  C.  312.  Seleucus  died 
after  a  reign  of  thirty-two  years,  and  his  succes- 
sors, named  the  Seleucidse,  ascended  the  throne 
in  the  following  order: — Antiochus,  surnamed 
Soter,  2dO,  B.  C. ;  Antiochus  Theos,  261 ;  Se- 
leucus Callinicus,  240 ;  Seleucus  Ceraunus, 
226;  Antiochus  the  Great,  223;  Seleucus  1'hil- 
opator,  187;  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  175;  Antio- 
chus Eupator,  164;  Demetrius  Soter,  162; 
Alexander  Balas,  150;  Demetrius  Nicator,  146; 
Antiochus  the  Sixth  144;  Diodotus  Tryphon, 
147;  Antiochus  Sidetes,  139;  Demetrius  Nica- 
tor restored,  130;  Alexander  Zebina,  127,  who 
was  dethroned  by  Antiochus  Grypus,  123; 
Antiochus  Cyzicenus,  112,  who  takes  part  of 
Syria,  which  he  calls  Coslesyria;  Philip  and 
Demetrius  Eucerus,  93;  and  in  Coelesyria,  An- 
tiochus Pius;  Aretas  was  king  of  Ccelesyria, 
85;  Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia,  83 ;  and  Anti- 
ochus Asiaticus,  69,  who  was  dethroned  by 
Pompey,  B.  C.  65 ;  in  consequence  of  which 
Syria  became  a  Roman  province.  In  August, 
1822,  Syria. was  greatly  damaged  by  an  exten- 
sive earthquake,  when  several  cities  were  over- 
thrown, and  above  20,000  persons  were  killed 
in  a  few  seconds. 


TALAVERA,  a  town  of  Spain,  situated  on 
the  Tagus,  35  miles  W.  of  Toledo,  famous  for 
the  battle  fought  here  July  28,  1809,  between 
the  French  under  Soult,  and  the  English  under 
Wellington.  The  French  army,  amounted  to 
47,000  men,  and  the  allied  force,  to  19,000  Brit- 
ish, and  38,000  Spaniards.  In  the  afternoon 
of  the  27th,  the  French  opened  a  cannonade  on 
the  left  of  the  British  position,  while  their  cav- 
alry attacked  the  Spanish  infantry,  and  attempt- 
ed to  win  the  town  of  Talavera;  they  were 
finally  repulsed.  At  nine  in  the  evening,  the 
action  ceased,  but  Soult,  the  French  general, 
ordered  a  night  attack  to  be  made  on  the  height 
occupied  by  general  Hill,  which  he  considered 
the  key  of  the  English  position.  Of  this  height 
the  enemy  gained  a  momentary  possession,  but 
the  gallant  general  recovered  it  at  the  point  of 
the  bayonet.  At  day -break,  the  28th,  the  French 
again  attacked  general  Hill's  position,  and  were 


repulsed ,  failing  also  in  their  other  attempts, 
they  rested  about  eleven,  and.  it  is  siid,  cooked 
their  dinners  on  the  field.  Some  refreshments 
were  then  served  out  to  the  British  troops.  At 
noon,  Soult  ordered  a  general  attack  along  the 
whole  line,  and  directed  his  own  three  divisions 
against  general  Hill's  position.  They  were 
driven  back,  and  their  retrograde  movement 
exposed  Sebastiani's  right,  which  suffered  se- 
verely. Their  general  at  length  rallied  them, 
and  some  columns  under  Vilatte  advanced  to 
their  support.  General  Anson's  brigade,  con- 
sisting of  the  1st  German  light  dragoons,  and 
the  23d  dragoons,  with  general  Fane's  brigade 
of  heavy  cavalry,  were  ordered  to  charge  them. 
In  this  charge  the  British  suffered  dreadfully, 
and  the  23d  were  almost  annihilated ;  they, 
however,  deterred  the  enemy  from  any  farther 
attempts  against  the  hill.  The  attack  upon  the 
centre,  which  commenced  at  the  same  time, 
was  gallantly  resisted  by  general  Campbell, 
supported  by  the  Spaniards,  who  turned  the 
flank  of  the  assailants,  while  the  English  took 
their  cannon.  General  Sherbroke  repelled  the 
force  opposed  to  him  by  a  charge  of  bayonets 
from  the  whole  division;  but  the  brigade  of 
guards,  advancing  too  far,  exposed  themselves 
to  the  fire  of  the  hostile  batteries  and  retiring 
columns.  At  this  moment,  when  the  fate  of 
the  battle  appeared  worse  than  doubtful,  sir 
Arthur  Wellesley  secured  the  victory,  by  mov- 
ing from  the  heights  a  battalion  of  the  48th, 
which,  with  the  assistance  of  Cotton's  brigade 
of  cavalry,  enabled  the  guards  to  retreat  under 
cover.  At  the  close  of  the  day,  the  enemy 
were  repulsed  at  all  points,  and  effectually  de- 
feated. 

TALBOT,  lord,  born  at  Blechmore,  in  Shrop- 
shire, in  1373.  In  the  first  year  of  Henry  V, 
he  was  appointed  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  where 
he  suppressed  a  rebellion,  and  brought  the  chief, 
Donald  M;Guire,  to  England.  He  next  served 
in  France,  to  the  conquest  of  which  he  greatly 
contributed.  In  the  next  reign  he  laid  siege 
to  Orleans,  where  his  name  struck  terror  into 
the  French  soldiers,  till  the  appearance  of  Joan 
of  Arc,  as  a  supernatural  being,  turned  the 
scale,  and  the  English  army  retreated.  The 
battle  of  Patay  completed  the  disaster,  and  lord 
Talbot  fell  wounded  into  the  hands  of  the  en- 
emy. At  the  end  of  three  years  and  a  half,  he 
was  exchanged  ;  and  again  led  the  English  to 
victory.  He  took  a  number  of  strong  places, 
and  carried  his  arms  to  the  walls  of  Paris,  for 
which  he  was  created  earl  of  Shrewsbury.  In 
1443  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  French 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TAL 


551 


TAR 


king;  and  the  following  year  went  again  to 
Ireland  as  lord  .lieutenant;  but  in  1450  he  was 
recalled  to  serve  in  France,  where  he  ftll  at 
the  battle  of  Chastillon,  in  his  eightieth  year, 
July,  1453. 

TALLART  Camille  d'Hostum,  count  and 
duke  de,  marshal  of  France,  was  born  in  1652, 
in  Dauphiny.  Me  served  uader  I.onis  XIV  in 
Holland,  in  1672.  In  1G93,  he  was  made  lieu- 
tenant-general, and  in  161W,  was  sent  ambas- 
sador to  England.  The  war  being  renewed, 
he  assumed  the  command  on  the  Rhine  in  170*2. 
and  the  year  following  made  himself  master  of 
Landau,  after  defeating  the  prince  of  Hesse; 
but  in  1704  he  lost  the  battle  of  Hochstet,  and 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Marlborough,  to  whom 
he  said, :'  Your  grace  has  beaten  the  finest  troops 
in  Europe."  The  duke  replied.  '•  You  will  ei- 
cepf,  I  hope,  those  who  defeated  them."  Mar- 
shal Tallart  remained  in  England  till  1712, 
when  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  was  created  a 
duke.  In  1736,  he  was  made  secretary  of  state. 
He  died  in  1728.  .  .* 

TALNF.RE.  a  celebrated  town  and  fortress 
of  Hindostan.  province  of  Khandeish.  At  the 
conclusion  of  the  late  war  with  Holcar,  it  was 
stipulated  that  this  fortress  should  be  ceded  to 
the  British;  but  when' the  troops  were  sent  to 
take  possession,  tag  governor  refused  to  deliver 
it  up;  in  cdnsequenca  of  which,  a  large  force, 
under  the  command  of  sir  Thomas  Hislop,  in- 
vested the  fortress,  in  February,  1813.  Soon 
after  the  batteries  had  opened,  the  governor  sent 
to  solicit  terms,  but  was  told  he  must  yield  un- 
conditionally ;  a  punishment  for  having  dis- 
obeyed the  orders  of  his  chief,  and  refusing  to 
acknowledge  the  British  authority.  3\'o  further 
submission  having  b?en  offered,  some  guns 
were  brought  to  the  outer  gate,  and  blew  it 

rn.  after  which  a  corps  of  Europeans  entered  ; 
second  gate  was  found  open,  and  when  the 
troops  arrived  at  the  third  gate,  the  governor 
came  out,  and  delivered  himself  up  to  the  adju- 
tant-oeneral  Conway.  The  troops  continued 
to  advance,  and  having  passed  the  third  and 
fourth  gates  without  opposition,  reached  the 
gate  of  the  citadel.  Here  they  were  opposed 
by  the  garrison,  consisting  of  Arabs,  who  re- 
fused to  yield,  unless  paid  the  arrears  due  to 
them.  After  some  discussion,  the  wicket  of 
the  gate  was  opened,  and  lieutenant-colonel 
Macgregor,  majors  Macgregor  and  Gordon, 
with  several  other  orEcers.  and  twelve  grena- 
diers, were  permitted  to  enter,  but  were  imme- 
diately after  "attacked  by  the  Arabs,  who  killed 
the  two  majors,  and  wounded  colonel  Macgre- 


gor, with  several  other  officers.  During  this 
time  one.  of  the  other  gates  was  blown  open  by 
the  troops  under  colonel  Conway,  and  the 
storming  party  having  entered,  out  the  whole 
garrison,  consisting  of  three  hundred  men,  to 
the  sword ;  shortly  after  which  the  governor, 
a  Hindoo,  was  hung  pn  one  of  the  bastions  as 
a  punishment  for  his  rebellion,  and  for  having 
been  the  cause  of  the  loss  of  so  many  brave 
officers  and  men. 

TARQULNIUS  Lucius,  surnamed  Priscus, 
the  5th  king  of  Rome.  He  distinguished  him- 
self so  much  by  his  liberality  and  engaging 
manners,  that  Ancus  MartiuP,  the  reigning 
monarch,  nominated  him  the  guardian  of  bis 
children.  Tarquin  reigned  with  moderation 
•and  popularity.  He  increased  the  number  of 
the  senate,  and  made  himself  friends  by  electing 
one  hundred  new  senators  from  the  plebeians. 
The  glory  of  the  Roman  arms,  which  was  sup-, 
ported  with  so  much  dignity  by  the  former 
monarchs,  was  not  neglected  in  this  reign,  and 
Tarquin  showed  that  he  possessed  vitjor  and 
military  prudence  in  the  victories  which  he  ob- 
tained over  the  united  forces  of  the  Latins  and 
Sabines,  and  in  the  conquest  of  the  twelve  na- 
tions of  Etruria.  He  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  capital,  and  to  the  industry  and  the  public 
spirit  of  this  monarch,  the  Romans  were  indebt- 
ed for  their  aqueducts  and  subterranean  sewers, 
whicli  supplied  the  city  with  fresh  and  whole- 
some water,  and  removed  all  the  filth  and  or- 
dure, which,  in  a  great  capital,  too  often  breed 
pestilence  and  diseases.  Tarquin  was  the  first 
who  introduced  among  the  Romans  the  custom 
to  canvass  for  omces~of  trust  and  honor;  he 
distinguished  the  monarch,  the  senators,  and 
other  inferior  magistrates,  with  particular  robe* 
and  ornaments,  with  ivory  chairs  at  spectacles, 
and  the  hatchets  carried  before  the  public  mag 
Utrates,  were,  by  his  order,  surrounded  with 
bundles  of  sticks",  to  strike  more  terror,  and  to 
be  viewed  with  greater  reverence.  Tarquin 
\vas  assassinated  by  the  two  sons  of  his  prede- 
cessor, in  the  8<)th  year  of  his  age,  thirty -eight 
of  which  he  had  salt  on  the  throne,  57ti  years 
before  Christ. 

The  second  Tarquin,  surnamed  Superbus, 
was  grandson  of  Tarquinius  Priscus.  He  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Rome  after  his  father-in- 
law  Servius  Tullius,  and  was  the  seventh  and 
last  king  cf  Rome.  He  murdered  his  father- 
in-law,  and  seized  the  kingdom.  The  crown 
which  be  had  obtained  with  violence,  he  en- 
deavored to  keep  by  a  continuation  of  tyranny. 
He  paid  no  regard  to  the  decisions  of  the  sen 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


TAR 


552 


TEM 


ate,  or  the  approbation  of  the  public  assemblies, 
and  by  wishing  *j  disregard  both,  he  incurred 
the  jealousy  of  the  one,  and  the  odium  of  the 
other.  He  was  successful  injiis  military  ope- 
rations, and  the  neighboring  cities  submitted; 
but  while  the  siege  of  Ardea  wus  continued, 
the  wantonness  of  the  son  of  Tarquin  at  Rome, 
for  ever  stopped  the  progress  of  his  arms;  anil 
the  Roma/is,  whom  a  series  of  barbarity  and 
oppression  had  hitherto  provoked,  no  sooner 
saw  Ahe  virtuous  Lucretia  stab  herself,  not  to 
survive'  the  loss  of  her  honor,  than  the  whole 
city  and  camp  arose  with"  indignation  against 
the  monarch.  The  gates  of  Rome  were  shut 
against  him,  and  Tarquin  was  for  ever  banished 
from  his  throne,  in  the  year  of  Rome  244.  Tar- 

Suin  died  in  the  'Jtlth  year  of  his  age,  about 
jurteen  years  after  his  expulsion  from  Rome. 
TARCHflNlUS  Sextus,  the  eldest  of  the 
sons  of  Tarquin  the  proud,  rendered  himself 
known  by  a  variety  of  adventures.  When  his 
father  besieged  Gabii,  young  Tarquin  publicly 
declared  that  he  was  at  variance  with  the  mon- 
arch, and  the  report  was  the  more  easily  believed 
when  he  came  before  Gabii  with  his  body  all 
mangled  and  bloody  with  stripes.  Tin's  was 
an  agreement  between  the  father  and  the  son, 
and  Tarquin  had  no  sooner  declared  that  this 

Eroceeded  from  the  tyranny  and  oppression  of 
is  father,  than  the  people  of  Gabii  entrusted 
him  with  the  command  of  their  armies,  fully 
convinced  that  Rome  could  never  have  a  more 
inveterate  enemy.  When  he  had  thus  succeed- 
ed, he  despatched  a  private  messenger  to  his 
father,  but  the  monarch  gave  no  answer  to  be 
returned  to  his  son.  Sextus  inquired  more 
particularly  about  his  father,  and  when  he 
heard  from  the  messenger  that  when  the  mes- 
sage was  delivered,  Tarquin  cut  off  with  a  stick 
the  tallest  poppies  in  his  garden,  the  son  follow- 
ed the  example  by  putting  to  death  the  most 
noble  and  powerful  citizens  of  Gabii.  The 
town  soon  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 
Sextus  was  at  last  killed,  bravely  fighting  in  a 
battle  during  a  war  which  the  Latins  sustained 
against  Rome  in  the  attempt  of  re-establishing 
the  Tarquins  on  their  throne. 

TARTARY.  Nothing  is  known  concerning 
the  ancient  state  of  this  country.  Some  time 
before  1200,  we  find  Ung  Khan,  prince  of  the 
tribe  of  the  Koraits,  a  very  powerful  sovereign 
and  the  greatest  part  of  Tartary  tributary  to 
him;  but  in  1202  he  was  defeated  and  put  to 
death  by  Genghis  Khan,  of  the  tribe  of  the 
Mongols  in  the  Mogulestan.  This  great  man 
was  acknowledged  sovereign  of  this  country, 


and  of  all  the  rest  of  Tartary  in  liOG :  after 
which  he  extended  his  conquests  in' 
the  southern  parts  of  Asia.  In  lx'2  the  Mon- 
gols revolted  from  the  descendants  of  Genghis 
Khan,  and  became  subject  to  the  Manchew 
Tartars,  who  now  reign  in  China.  At  what 
time  the  Khalkas  became  independent  is  not 
known,  but  they  were  conquered  by  the  Chinese 
Tartars  in  165)6.  The  Eluths  became  a  separate 
state  about  1400,  and  continue  independent  to 
this  day. 

TEKELI,  Eraeric.  Count  of.  who  went  into 
Transylvania  in  1671,  and  with  some  others 
soon  distinguished  himself  at  Prince  Abafti's 
court,  where  he  became,  in  a.  little  time,  first 
minister  of  state,  and  afterwards  geneialissimo 
of  the  troops  sent  to  assist  the  malcontents, 
with  which  he  made  himself  master  of  several 
places  in  Upper  and  Lower  Hungary. 

TELL,  William,  a  Swiss  patriot,  was  an  in- 
habitant of  Burgelm  in  Uri.  *  In  1307,  Herman 
Gesler,  the  Austrian  governor  of  that  province, 
set  his  cap  on  a  pole,  to  which  all  who  passed 
were  required  to  pay  obeisance.  This  order 
Tell  disobeyedvfor  which  Gt/s!er  commanded 
him,  on  pain  of  death,  to  shoot  an  arrow  at  an 
apple  placed  upon  tlje  head  of  his  own  son. 
Tell,  who  was  an  excellent  marksi:>an.  cleft  the 
apple  without  hurting  the  child  ;  after  which  he 
declared,  that  if  he  had  missed  his  aim,  it  was 
his  intention  to  have  directed  another  arrow 
through  the  heart  of  the  tyrant.  Gesler  then 
caused  Tell  to  be  taken  into  a  boat,  ibr  the  pur- 
pose of  convoying  him  out  of  the  province  ;  but 
in  crossing  the  lake  a  storm  arose,  and  as  the 
prisoner  was  an  experienced  steersman,  he  was 
entrusted  with  the  helm,  of  which  he  was  no 
sooner  possessed  than  he  steered  close  to  a  rock, 
leapt  on  shore,  and  sr>on  afterwards  shot  Gesler 
np;ir  Kusnachr.  He  then  retired  to  StaurTacher, 
and  on  new  year's  day  following,  the  Austrian 
•rnverniuent  "was  overthrown.  Tell  perished 
in  rin  inundation  in  ! 

TEMPLARS  and  other  orders  of  Knight- 
hood. The  Knights  Templars  formed  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  orders  of  Knighthood,  and 
originated  in  the  following  manner.  In  the 
year  1110,  Hugh  de  Paganes  and  Godfrey  de 
St.  Amor,  with  seven  gentlemen,  went  to 
the  Holy  Lnna.  where  they  determined  to  erect 
and  enter  into  a  brotherhood;  and  being  at 
Jerusalem  they  consulted  what  they  should  do, 
that  might  be  a  service  acceptable  to  God; 
and  being  informed  that  in  the  town  of  Zaff, 
there  resided  many  thieves  that  used  to  rob  the 
pilgrims  that  resorted  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL 


TEM 


553 


TEM 


gre 
hal 


they  resolved  to  make  the  passage  more  free  by 
dispersing  these  robbers  ;  and  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  these  gentlemen  in  so  good  an  under- 
taking, the  king  of  Jerusalem  assigned  them 
lodgings  in  his  palace  adjoining  to  Solomon's 
palace,  from  which  place  they  were  called 
Knights  Templars. 

King  Baldwin  the  second,  third  king  of  Je- 
rusalem, and  Guarimond  the  Patriarch,  finding 
their  actions  successful,  furnished  them  with 
necessary  provisions  ;  and  though  their  charita- 
ble services  made  them  acceptable  unto  all,  yet 
for  the  first  nine  years  they  were  in  so  great 
distress,  they  were  forced  to  accept  the  charily 
of  well  disposed  people.  But  many  Christians 
resorted  to  them,  and  increased  their  numbers 
atly.  When  at  war,  their  banner  was  one 

lf  black,  the  other  half  white,  signifying  that 
they  were  white  and  fair  to  Christians,  but 
black  and  terrible  to  their  enemies.  Pope 
Honorius,  at  the  request  of  Stephen,  patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  prescribed  unto  them  an  order 
of  life,  whereby  they  were  to  wear  a  white  gar- 
ment, to  which  Pope  Eugenius  added  a  red 
cross.  They  made  their  vows,  in  the  presence 
of  the  before  mentioned  patriarch,  of  obedience, 
poverty,  and  chastity,  and  to  live  under  the 
rule  of  the  regular  canons  of  St.  Augustin. 

The  Knights  Templars  (according  to  Dug- 
dale),  wore  linen  coifs  and  red  caps  close  over 
them  :  on  their  bodies  shirts  of  mail,  and  swords 
girded  on  with  a  broad  belt  :  over  all  they  had  a 
while  cloak  reaching  to  the  ground,  with  a 
cross  on  their  left  shoulder.  They  used  to 
wear  their  beards  of  great  length,  whereas  most 
of  the  other  orders  shaved. 

The  Templars  being  numerous  and  famous 
for  their  enterprises,  not  only  for  securing  the 
passages,  but  for  fighting  both  by  sea  and  land 
against  the  infidels,  they  became"  highly  favored 
by  the  Christian  princes,  who  assigned  to  them 
great  revenues  to  be  spent  in  God's  service. 
In  process  of  time,  they  became  exceedingly 
wealthy  and  powerful,  so  that  they  grew  proud, 
and  withdrew  themselves  from  their  obedience 
to  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  and  attached 
themselves  to  the  Pope.  But  in  the  end  they 
did  not  receive  that  favor  they  expected  from 
the  Pope,  for  by  him  or  through  his  Consent, 
upon  some  infamous  crimes  charged  against 
them,  their  lands  and  possessions  were  seized 
upon,  and  otherwise  disposed  of,  their  order  sup- 
pressed, and  they  themselves  imprisoned,  con- 
demned, and  cruelly  executed.  According  to 
the  opinions  of  many  authors,  they  were  un- 
justly accused  by  subornation  of  witnesses, 


merely  to  gain  their  revenues,  which,  according 
to  Dr.  Heylin,  were  exceedingly  great,  having 
no  less  than  sixteen  thousand  lordships  in  Eu- 

The  first  settrehient  of  this  order  in  England 
(according  to  Dugdale)  was  in  Holborn  inTbon- 
don,  but  their  chief  residence,  in  the  reign  of 
king  Henry  II,  was  the  Temple  in  Fleet-street 
which  was  erected  by  them,  and  the  church, 
(built  after  the  form  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem) 
dedicated  to  God  and  our  Blessed  Lady,  by 
Heradius,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  in  the"  year 
1185. 

On  Wednesday  after  the  feast  of  the  Epipha- 
ny, in  the  year  1387,  the  first  of  Edward  II,  by 
the  king's  special  command,  and  a  bull  from 
the  Pope,  the  Knights  Templars  generally, 
throughout  England,  were  seized  and  cast  into 
prison  ;  and  in  a  general  council  held  at  London, 
being  convicted  of  various  impieties,  all  their 
possessions  were  confiscated  by  the  crown. 

This  order  was  condemned  in  a  general 
council  at  Vienna  under  Pope  Clement  V.  in 
1311,  and  by  a  general  decree  of  the  said  Cle- 
ment, in  the  seventh  year  of  his  papacy,  they 
were  incorporated  with  the  Knights  Hospital- 
lers. The  badge  of  the  order  was  a  patriarchal 
cross,  enamelled  red,  and  edged  with  gold, 
worn  on  the  breast  pendent  to  a  ribbon. 

Having  given  the  above  notice  of  a  celebrat- 
ed order,  it  will  not  be  inappropriate  briefly  to 
review  tlie  other  important  orders  which  gave 
a  lustre  to  the  institution  of  knighthood. 

As  regards  those  knights  who.  without  any 
other  addition,  are  thus  staled,  they  are  of  the 
greatest  antiquity.  For  according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  the  Romans  (a  gowned  nation),  who 
bestowed  on  each  entering  upon  man's  estate 
a  virile  and  plain,  the  Germans  bestowed  upon 
their  young  men,  when  fit  to  handle  arms,  ar- 
mor and  weapons.  Cornelius  Tacitus  speaks 
of  this  custom  in  the  following  words,  which 
we  copv  from  the  Britannia.  "The  manner 
was  not'for  any  one  to  take  arms  in  hand,  before 
the  state  allowed  him  as  sufficient  for  martial 
service.  And  then  in  the  very  assembly  of 
Counsell  either  some  one  of  the'princes.  or  the 
father  of  the  young  man,  or  one  of  his  kins 
folke,  furnish  him  with  a  shield  and  a  javelin. 
This  with  them  standeth  instead  of  a  virile 
gowne,  this  is  the  first  honor  done  to  youth: 
before  this  they  seeme  to  be  but  part  of  a  pri- 
vate house,  but"  now  within  a  while  members 
of  the  common  weale." 

Hence  the  origin  of  knights,  or.  as  they  are 
termed  in  the  German  language,  Knccts  ;  which 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


TF.M 


554 


TEM 


was  the  simple  form  of  creating  a  knight,  used 
also  in  former  times  by  the  Lombards,  the 
Franks,  and  the  English,  who  are  descended 
from  the  Germans.  Paulas  Diaconus  says  that- 
among  the  Lombards,  "  It  is  the  custom  tor  the 
king's  son  not  to  dine  with  his  father,  unless 
he  have  previously  received  arms  from  some 
foreign  king." 

It  is  also  recorded  in  the  annals  of  the  French 
nation,  that  the  kings  of  the  Franks  gave  arms 
to  their  sons  and  others,  and  girded  them  with 
a  sword.  King  Alfred  of  England,  when  he 
dubbed  his  nephew  Athelstane  a  knight,  gave" 
him  a  scarlet  mantle  set  with  precious  stones, 
and  a  Saxon  sword  with  a  golden  scabbard. 

In  the  course  of  time,  the  English,  before 
the  arrival  of  the  Normans,  received  their 
knightly  arms  with  religious  ceremonies.  In- 
gulphus  says :  "  He  that  was  to  be  consecrated 
unto  lawful  warfare,  should  the  evening  before, 
with  a  contrite  heart,  make  confession  of  his 
sins  unto  the  Bishop,  Abbot,  Monk,  or  Priest, 
and  being  absolved,  give  himself  to  prayer,  and 
lodge  all  night  in  the  church,  and  on  his  going 
to  hear  divine  .service  the  next  day,  to  offer  his 
sword  upon  the  altar  :  and  after  the  gospel,  the 
priest  was  to  put  the  sword,  being  previously 
blessed,  upon  the  knight's  neck,  with  his  bene- 
diction, and  thus  after  he  had  heard  mass  again, 
or  received  the  sacrament,  he  became  a  lawful 
knight."  This  custom  did  not  become  absolute 
among  the  Normans. 

Kings  were  afterward  accustomed  to  send 
their  sons  to  neighboring  courts  to  receive 
the  honors  of  knighthood.  Thus  Henry  II 
sent  to  David,  kin<f>«f  Scots  ;  and  Malcolm, 
king  of  Scots,  to  Henry  II ;  and  Edward  I  of 
England  to  the  king  of  Castile.  It  was  at  this 
time  also  that  to  the  sword  and  girdle,  already 
in  use,  gilt  spurs  were  added  as  an  extra  orna- 
ment, whence  to  this  day  they  are  called  in 
Latin  E'/uites  aurate.  Moreover,  they  had  the 
privilege  of  wearing  and  using  a  signet. 

In  the  succeeding  age,  knights  were  created 
from  their  wealth.  Concerning  the  creation  of 
knights,  Matthew  Fioreligus,  in  the  time  of  Ed- 
ward I,  has  written  as  follows  : 

"  The  king  for  to  augment  and  make  goodly 
show  of  his  expedition  into  Scotland,  eqiuaed 
public  proclamation  to  be  made  throughout 
England,  that  whomever  were  to  be  m.u.- 
knights  by  hereditary  succession,  and  had 
wherewith  to  maintain  that  degree.  s!).>ul.i  pre- 
sent themselves  in  Westminster,  at  the  feast 
of  Witsuntide  there  to  receive  every  one,  the 
ornaments  of  a  knight  (saving  the  equipage  or 


furniture  that  belongeth  to  horses)  out  of  the 
king's  wardrobe.  When  as  therefore  there  flock- 
ed thitherto  the  number  of  three  hundred  gallant 
youths,  the  sons  of  Earls,  B irons,  and  Knights, 
purple  liveries,  fine  silk  scarfs,  robes  most  richly 
embroidered  with  gold,  were  plentifully  bestow- 
ed  among  them,  according  as  was  befitting  each 
one :  and  because  the  king's  palace  (large  though 
it  were)  was  '  streited  '  of  room  for  so  great  a 
multitude  assembled,  they  cut  down  the  apple- 
trees  about  the  new  temple  in  London,  laid  the 
walls  along,  and  there  set  up  pavilions  and 
tents,  wherein  these  noble  young  gallants  might 
array  and  set  out  themselves  one  by  one  in  their 
gorgeous  and  golden  garments.  All  the  night 
long  also,  these  foresaid  youths,  as  many  as  the 
place  would  receive,  watched  and  prayed  in  the 
said  temple.  But  the  Prince  of  Wales,  by  com- 
mandment of  the  king  his  father,  held  his  wake,, 
together  with  the  principal  and  goodliest  men  of 
this  company,  within  the  church  of  Westmin- 
ster. Now  such  sound  was  there  of  trumpets, 
so  loud  a  .noise  of  minstrelsy,  so  mighty  an  ap- 
plause and  cry  of  those  that  for  joy  shouted, 
that  the  chanting  of  the  convent  could  be  heard 
from  one  side  of  the  quire  to  the  othqr. 

"Well,  the  morrow  after,  the  king  dubbed 
his  son  knight,  and  gave  him  the  girdle  of 
knighthood  in  his  own  palace,  and  therewith 
l-estowed  upon  him  the  Duchy  of  Aquitaine. 
The  prince  then,  thus  created  knight,  went 
directly  into  Westminster  church  for  to  grace 
with  the  like  glorious  dignity  his  peers  and 
companions.  But  so  great  was  the  press  of 
people  thronging  from  the  high  altar,  that  two 
knights  were  thronged  to  death,  and  very  many 
of  them  fainted,  and  were  reaHy  to  swoon,  yea, 
although  every  one  of  them  had  three  soldiers, 
at  least  to  lead  and  protect  him  :  the  Prince 
himself,  l.-y  reason  of  the  multitude  pressing 
upon  him,  having  divided  the  people  by  means 
o!'  steeds  of  service,  no  otherwise  than  upon 
the  hj<rh  altar  girt  his  foresaid  companions  with 
the  orders  of  knighthood." 

At  present,  those  on  whom  the  title  of  knight 
is  conferred,  kneel  down,  when  the  king,  with 
his  drawn  sword,  slightly  taps  him  on  the 
shoulder,  sa\-in<>-  to  him  in  French  "sols  fhtca- 
li.cr  an  twm  (BcDieu"  that  is,  be  thou  a  knight 
in  the  name  of  God ;  afterwards  his  majesty 
adds,  "  .-leaiiccs.  ChcvuJirr"  Arise,  Sir  Knight. 

The  honor  of  knighthood  was  formerly  so 
highly  and  sacredly  "prized,  that  if  any  thing 
was  promised  on  the  faith  and  honor  of  a 
knight,  it  was  always  performed  in  the  most 
scrupulous  and  punctilious  manner,  at  whatever 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TEM 


555 


TEM 


risk  it  was  undertaken.  When  a  knight  was 
disgraced  for  having  offended  the  laws,  and 
sentenced  to  suffer  death,  he  was  first  despoiled 
of  his  ensigns  of  knighthood,  by  taking  off  his 
military  girdle,  taking  away  his  sword,  cutting 
his  spurs  off  with  a  hatchet,  his  gauntlets  or 
gloves  were  then  torn  from  him,  and  the  es- 
cutcheon of  his  arms  reversed. 

The  first  account  (according  to  Sir  William 
Segar)  that  we  have  of  ceremonies  in  making 
a  knight  in  England,  was  in  the  year  506,  in 
the  following  manner  :  viz.  a  stage  was  erected 
in  some  cathedral,  or  spacious  place  near  it,  to 
which  the  gentleman  was  conducted  to  receive 
the  honor  of  knighthood.  Being  seated  on  a  chair 
decorated  with  green  silk,  it  was  demanded  of 
him,  if  he  were  of  good  constitution,  and  able 
to  undergo  the  fatigue  required  of  a  soldier ; 
also,  whether  he  was  a  man  of  good  morals, 
and  what  credible  witnesses  he  could  produce 
to  affirm  the  snme. 

Then  the  bishop,  or  chief  prelate  of  the 
church,  administered  the  following  oath  :  '•'  Sir, 
you  that  desire  to  receive  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood, swear,  before  God  and  this  holy  book, 
that  you  will  not  fight  against  his  majesty,  that 
now  bestoweth  the  honor  of  knighthood  upon 
you ;  you  shall  also  swear  to  maintain  and 
defend  all  ladies,  gentlemen,  widows,  and  or- 
phans ;  and  you  shall  shun  no  adventure  of 
your  person  in  any  way  where  you  shall  hap- 
pen to  be." 

The  oath  being  taken,  two  lords  led  him  to  the 
king,  who  drew  his  sword,  and  laid  it  upon  his 
head,  saying  "  God,  and  Saint  George  (or  what- 
ever other  saint  the  king  pleased  to  name)  make 
thee  a  good  knight."  After  this,  seven  ladies 
dressed  in  white,  came  and  girt  a  sword  to  his 
side,  and  four  knights  put  on  his  spurs.  These 
ceremonies  being  over,  the  queen  took  him  by 
the  right  hand,  and  a  duchess  by  the  left,  and 
led  him  to  a  rich  seat,  placed  on  an  ascent, 
where  they  seated  him,  the  king  sitting  on  his 
right  hand,  and  the  queen  on  his  left.  Then 
the  lords  and  ladies  sat  down  upon  other  seats, 
three  descents  under  the  king ;  and  being  all 
thus  seated,  were  entertained  with  a  delicate 
collation  ;  *.nd  so  the  ceremony  ended. 

If  any  knight  absented  himself  dishonorably 
from  his  king's  service,  leaving  his  colors, 
going  over  to  the  enemy,  betraying  castles, 
forts,  &c.,  for  such  crimes  he  was  apprehended, 
and  caused  to  be  armed,  and  then  seated  on  a 
scaffold  erected  in  the  church,  where,  after  the 
king  had  sung  some  funeral  psalms,  as  though 
he  had  been  dead,  they  first  took  off  the  knight's 
47* 


helmet  to  show  his  face,  then  his  military  gir- 
dle, broke  his  sword,  cut  off  his  spurs  from 
his  heels  with  a  hatchet,  pulled  off  his  gauntlets, 
and  afterwards  his  whole  armor,  and  then  re- 
versed his  coat  of  arms.  After  this  the  heralds 
cried  out,  "  this  is  a  disloyal  miscreant,"  and, 
with  many  other  ignoble  ceremonies,  he  was 
thrown  down  the  stage  with  a  rope. 

The  famous  order  of  the  farter  was  instituted 
by  king  Edward  III,  Jan.  19,  1344.  King  Ed- 
ward, being  of  a  military  genius,  and  engaged 
in  a  war  for  recovering  France,  made  it  his 
business  to  draw  the  best  soldiers  of  Europe 
into  his  interest.  With  this  view  he  projected 
a  restoration  of  king  Arthur's  round  table ;  and 
proclaimed  a  solemn  tilting  to  invite  foreigners 
of  quality  and  courage  to  the  exercise.  The 
place  for  the  solemnity  being  fixed  at  Windsor, 
lie  published  his  royal  letters  of  protection  for 
the  safe  coming  and  returning  of  such  foreign 
knights  as  intended  to  venture  their  reputation 
at  those  Justs  and  Tournaments  which  were  to 
be  held  on  the  19th  of  January,  1344. 

He  provided  a  great  supper  to  begin  the  so- 
lemnity, and  then  ordering  this  feast  to  be  anu- 
ally  kept  at  Whitsuntide,  he  for  that  purpose 
erected  a  particular  building  in  the  castle, 
wherein  he  placed  a  round  table,  of  two  hun- 
dred feet  diameter,  in  imitation  of  kingAuthur's 
at  Winchester,  and  thereat  entertained  the 
knights  at  his  own  expense  of  a  hundred  pounds 
per  week. 

The  prince  (Edward)  commended  himself 
and  his  companions,  to  the  patronage  of  St. 
George,  who  suffered  martyrdom  under  the 
emperor  Diocletian,  and  was  a  person  of  greater 
eminence  both  in  the  Eastern  and  Western 
churches,  than  any  other  military  saint;  and 
that  his  memory  might  be  still  continued,  he 
gave  them,  for  part  of  their  daily  dress,  the 
image  of  the  saint  (sitting  on  horseback,  attack- 
ing the  dragon  with  a  spear)  hung  to  a  blue 
ribbon,  to  be  worn  all  the  time  about  their  necks. 

The  said  king  issuing  out  his  garter  for  the 
signal  of  a  battle  that  was  crowned  with  suc- 
cess, he  instituted  this  order,  giving  the  garter 
pre-eminence  among  its  ensigns,  whence  the 
select  number,  whom  he  incorporated  into  a 
fraternity,  were  styled  Equites  Jlurea  Perisceti- 
dis,  viz.  the  knights  of  the  Golden  Garter. 

The  habits  and  ensigns  of  this  order,  and  the 
forms  of  investiture,  are  thus: 

They  consist  of  the  Garter,  Surcoat,  Mantle, 
Hood,  George,  Collar,  Cap,  and  Feathers;  the 
four  first  were  assigned  by  the  founder,  and  the 
rest  by  king  Henry  VIII. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


TEM 


556 


TEM 


The  garter,  appointed  to  be  worn  by  the 
knights  on  the  left  leg  between  the  knee  and 
calf^  was  instituted  by  the  founder,  as  a  tie  of 
association,  honor  and  military  virtue,  to  bind 
the  knights  strictly  to  -himself  and  each  other 
in  friendship,  and  as  an  ensign  of  unity  and 
combination,  to  promote  the  honor  of  God,  and 
the  interest  of  their  prince  and  sovereign.  He 
also  caused  to  be  wrought  in  gold  letters  this 
motto,  Ho-ii  soil  qui  mal  y  pense ;  declaring 
thereby  the  equity  of  his  intention,  retorting 
shame  and  defiance  upon  him  who  should  dare 
to  think  ill  of  the  just  enterprise  in  which  he 
had  engaged,  for  the  support  of  his  right  to  the 
crown.  Thegarteris  ofblue  velvet  bordered  with 
gold  (having  the  letters  of  the  motto  of  the  same), 
and  is  buckled  on  at  the  time  of  the  election. 

The  kaight's  pantaloons  are  of  pearl-colored 
silk.  On  the  outside  of  the  right  knee  is  fixed 
a  knot  of  open  silver  lace  and  ribbons  inter- 
mixed, iu  the  form  of  a  large  rose;  and,  a  little 
below  the  knee,  is  placed  the  garter.  His  shoes, 
which  are  of  white  shammy,  with  red  heels, 
have  each  a  knot  on  the  exterior  side.  His 
doublet  is  cloth  of  silver,  adorned  before  and 
behind,  and  down  the  sleeves,  with  several 
guards  or  rows  of  silver  lace,  each  having  a  row 
of  small  buttons  set  down  the  middle.  The 
cuffs  are  open  and  adorned  with  the  before 
mentioned  luce  and  ribbons  set  in  small  loops. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  upper  scum  of  each  cutf, 
is  fixed  a  knot  of  silver  ribbons  that  fall  over 
his  gloves,  which  are  of  kid.  laced  at  the  top 
with  silver,  and  adorned  at  the  opening  with 
a  knot,  like  that  on  the  cuff.  His  snrcoat  is  of 
crimson  velvet,  lined  with  white  tafivta.  His 
cap  is  of  black  velvet  adorned  with  a  diamond 
band,  and  a  plume  of  white  feathers,  with  a 
heron  sprig  in  the  middle.  The  mantle  is  of 
Bky-colored  velvet,  adorned  oil  the  left  shoul- 
der with  St.  George's  cross  encircled  with  the 
garter,  wreathed  en  the  edges  with  blue  and 
gold.  The  hood  is  of  crimson  velvet  and  lined 
with  white  taffeta.  The  collar,  which  weighs 
thirty  ounces  troy,  of  gold,  was  introduced"  by 
Henry  VIII,  and  contains  twenty-six  garters 
enamelled,  and  as  many  kftots,  alluding  to 
the  sovereign  of  the  order,  to  which  is  pendent 
the  figure  of  St.  George  and  the  dragon,  which 
is  a  gold  medal,  and  may  be  enriched  with 
jewels  at  the  pleasure  of  the  owner.  The  offi- 
cers of  the  order  are  the  prelate  of  the  garter, 
the  chancellor  of  the  garter,  the  register  of  the 
garter,  and  black  rod,  the  last  otficer  beinf 
instituted  by  the  founder. 

Another  famous  order  was  that  of  the  Knights 
of  the  Bath,  so  called  from  the  ceremony  of 


bathing,  that  the  knights  underwent  previous 
to  their  inauguration.  This  order  took  iis  origin 
iti  France,  and  its  antiquity  in  England  js  traced 
back  to  the  time  of  Henry  IV,  who  on  the  day  he 
was  at  the  tower  of  London,  dubbed  forty-six 
esquires  knights,  who  had  watched  and  bathed 
the  preceding  night.  To  each  of  these  he 
gave  green  side-coats  reaching  down  to  their 
ancles,  with  straight  sleeves,  and  furred  with 
minivere  ;  they  also  wore  upon  their  left  shoulder 
two  cordons  of  white  silk,  with  tassels  hanging 
down. 

It  was  usual  in  former  times  to  create  knights 
of  this  order  from  the  flower  of  the  nobility, 
who  hnd  not  previously  received  the  order  of 
knighthood,  at  the  Coronation  of  kings  and 
queens,  and  at  their  marriages,  sometimes  also, 
when  their  sons  were  invested  princes  of  Wales, 
or  dukes,  or  when  they  solemnly  received  the 
cincture  or  military  girdle  of  knighthood,  and 
that  accompanied  with  many  ceremonies,  which 
at  present  are  for  the  most  part  disused. 

By  statute  January  2d.  ]^15,  it  was  ordained 
that,  "  for  the  purpose  of  commemorating  the 
auspicious  termination  of  the  long  and  arduous 
contest  in  which  this  empire  (Great  Britain)  has 
been  engaged,"  the  order  should  be  composed 
of  these  classes,  \  iz. 

1st.  Class.  — To  consist  of  Knights  Grand 
Crosses;  number  not  to  exceed  seventy-two, 
exclusive  of  the  sovereign  and  princes  of  the 
blood  royal  ;  one-sixtli  of  which  may  be  apr- 
pointed  for  civil  and  diplomatic  purposes.  The 
remainder  must  have  attained  the  rank  of  ma- 
jor-general  in  the  army,  or  rear-admiral  in  the 
navy  ;  and  must  have  been  previously  appointed 
to  the  Second  Class. 

2d.  Class. — Knights  Commanders;  number 
not  to  exceed,  up  ai  the  first  institution,  one 
hundred  and  eighty,  exclusive  of  foreign  offi- 
cers, holding  British  commissions,  of  which  not 
exceeding  ten  may  be  admitted  as  honorary 
knights  commanders.  In  the  event  of  actions 
of  signal  distinction,  or  of  future  wars,  the  num- 
ber of  this  class  may  be  increased.  To  be  en- 
titled to  the  distinctive  appellation  of  kn in ht- 
Iiood  ;  to  have  the  same  rights  and  privileges 
as  Knights  Bachelois,  but  to  take  precedence 
of  them3;  to  wrar  the  badge.  &c.  pendent  by  a 
ribbon  round  the  neck,  the  star  embroidered  on 
the  left  side. 

No  officer  can  be  nominated,  unless  he  shall 
have  received  a  medal  or  other  badge  of  honor, 
or  shall  have  been  especially  mentioned  in  des- 
patches in  the  London  Gazette,  as  having  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  action. 

No  person  is  now  eligible  to  this  class  under 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TEM 


557 


TEM 


the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  army,  or  rear- 
admiral  of  the  navy. 

3d.  Class.— Companions  of  the  Order;  not  lim- 
ited in  order  ;  not  limited  in  number  >  they  are 
to  take  precedence  of  Esquires,  but  not  entitled 
to  Hie  appellation,  style,  &c.  of  Knights  Bach- 
elors. To  wear, the  badge  assigned  to  the  Third 
Class,  pendent  by  a  narrow  red  ribbon  to  the 
button-hole. 

MOTTO  OF  THE  ORDER — Triajuncta  inuno— 
the  Trinity. 

The  Knights  of  the  Thistle  is  a  Scotch  order. 
As  to  the  origin  of  this  ancient  order,  John  Les- 
ly.  bishop  of  Ross,  in  his  History  of  Scotland, 
says,  it  took  its  beginning  from  a  bright  cross  in 
Heaven,  like  that  whereon  St.  Andrew  the  apos- 
tle suffered  martyrdom,  which  appeared  to 
Achaius.  king  of  Scots,  and  Hungus,  king  of 
the  Picts,  the  night  before  the  battle  was  fought 
betwixt  them  and  Athelstane,  king  of  England, 
as  they  were  on  their  knees  at  prayer  ;  "when 
St.  Andrew,  their  tutelary  saint,  is  said  also  to 
have  appeared,  and  promised  to  these  kings  that 
they  should  always  be  victorious  when  that  sign 
appeared  ;  and  the  next  day  these  kings  pre- 
vailing over  king  Athelstane  in  battle,  they 
went  in  solemn  procession,  bare  footed,  to  the 
kirk  of  St.  Andrew,  to  return  thanks  to  God 
and  his  apostle  for  their  victory,  vowing  that 
they  and  their  posterity  would  ever  wear  the 
figure  of  that  cross  in  their  ensigns  and  banners  ; 
t!ie  place  where  this  battle  was  fought  retains 
to  this  day  the  name  of  Athelstane's  Ford,  in 
Northumberland. 

James  the  Fifth,  king  of  Scotland,  in  1534. 
received  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece  from  the 
Emperor  Charles  V,'as  also  that  of  St.  Michael 
from  Francis  the  First,  kintr  of  France,  in  1035, 
and  that  of  the  Garter  in  1536,  from  Henry  VIII, 
king  of  England  ;  and  in  memory  of  the"  recep- 
tion of  these  orders,  keeping  open  court,  he  sol- 
emnized tlie  several  feasts  of  St.  Andrew,  the 
Golden  Fleece.  St.  Michael,  and  St.  George  of 
England,  that  the  several  princes  might  know 
how  much  he  honored  their  orders  ;  he  set  the 
arms  of  the  princes  (encircled  with  their  or- 
ders) over  the  gate  of  his  palace  at  Linlithgow, 
with  the  order  of  St.  Andrew. 

About  the  time  of  the  Reformation  this  order 
was  scarcely  used,  the  knights  then  being  so 
zealous  for  the  reformed  religion,  that  they  left 
their  order ;  and  it  was  not  resumed  till  the 
reign  of  king  James  VII,  who  created  eight 
knights,  and  for  their  better  regulation,  signed 
a  body  of  statutes,  and  appointed  the  royal  chap- 
el at  Holy  rood  House  to  be  the  chapel  of  the  or- 


der as  it  still  continues.  Queen  Anne  restored 
this  order  to  its  ancient  magnificence. 

The  order  of  Knights  of  St.  Patrick  was  in- 
stituted by  king  George  III,  Feb.  5,  1783,  con- 
sisting of  the  sovereign,  a  grand  master,  a  prince 
of  the  blood  royal,  thirteen  knights,  and  seven 
officers.  The  first  investiture  of  knights  of  this 
order  was  performed  the  llth  of  March,  1783, 
with  much  ceremony. 

MOTTO — Quis  scparabit? — Who  shall  part  us  ? 

The  order  of  knights  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
George  was  instituted  April  27.  1818,  for  the 
United  States  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  for  the 
ancient  sovereignty  of  Malta  and  its  dependen- 
cies, consisting  of  eight  knights  grand  crosses, 
twelve  knights  commanders,  and  twenty-four 
knights,  exclusive  of  British  subjects  holding 
high  and  confidential,  employ  in  the  Ionian 
islands,  and  in  the  government  of  Malta  and  its 
dependencies. 

MOTTO.  Jlvsjricium  mclioris  crt.  RIBBON. 
Red  with  blue  edges. 

The  order  of  knights  Bachelors  is  the  most 
ancient,  though  the  lowest  crder  of  knights  in 
England.  It  was  accounted  the  first  of  all  mil- 
itary dignity,  and  the  foundation  of  all  honors. 
The  word  Bachelor  was  added  by  king  Henry 
III,  and  so  styled,  because  this  title  of  honor 
dies  with  the  person  to  whom  it  is  given,  and 
descends  not  to  his  posterity. 

This  title,  which  was  anciently  in  high  es- 
teem, is  now  conferred  indiscriminately  upon 
gownsmen,  physicians,  burghers,  and  artists, 
but  it  is  still  accounted  a  respectable  degree  of 
honor  both  in  England  and  foreign  countries. 
A  knight  may  be  made  as  soon  as  a  child  is 
baptized,  the  ceremony  now  in  use  being  no 
other  than  kneeling  down  before  the  king,  who, 
with  a  drawn  sword,  lightly  touches  him  on  the 
right  shoulder,  with  these  words,  Sois  chcralier 
au  nom  de  Dicu  ;  and  then,  Arancez,  chczalir.r. 

We  shall  now  give  an  account  of  the  KNIGHTS 
or  THK  ROUND  TABLE.  Arthur,  king  of  the 
Britons,  succeeded  his  father,  Uther  Pendra- 
gon,  who  was  brother  to  Aurelius  Arnbrosius, 
the  third  son  of  Constantine  :  he  married  Igren. 
duchess  of  Cornwall,  by  whom  he  had  this  son 
Arthur  (born  at  Tindagal  in  Cornwall),  who 
was  the  eleventh  king  of  England  from  the  de- 
parture of  the  Romans,  and  was  crowned  about 
the  year  516. 

King  Arthur,  having  expelled  the  Saxons 
from  England,  conquered  Norway,  Scotland, 
and  the  greatest  part  of  France,  where  he  was 
crowned  at  Paris  ;  and,  returning  home,  lived 
with  such  splendor,  that  many  princes  and 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


TEM 


558 


TEM 


knights  came  from  all  parts  to  his  court,  to  give 
proof  of  their  valor  in  the  exercise  of  arms. 
Upon  this  he  erected  a  Fraternity  of  knights, 
which  consisted  of  four  and  twenty  ;  of  whom 
he  was  chief;  and  to  avoid  controversies  about 
precedency,  he  caused  a  Round  Table  to  be 
made,  from  which  they  were  denominated 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  The  said  table, 
according  to  tradition,  hangs  up  in  the  castle  of 
Winchester,  where  they  used  to  meet,  and  the 
time  of  their  meeting  was  at  Whitsuntide. 

None  were  admitted  but  those  who  gave  suf- 
ficient proofs  of  their  valor  and  dexterity  in 
arms.  They  were  to  be  always  well  armed  for 
horse  or  foot ;  "  they  wore  to  protect  and  de- 
fend widows,  maidens,  and  children,  relieve  the 
distressed,  maintain  the  Christian  faith,  contri- 
bute to  the  Church,  to  protect  pilgrims,  advance 
honor,  and  suppress  vice.  To  bury  soldiers 
that  wanted  sepulchres,  to  ransom  captives, 
deliver  prisoners,  and  administer  to.  the  cure  of 
wounded  soldiers,  hurt  in  the  service  of  their 
country.  To  record  all  noble  enterprises,  that 
the  fame  thereof  may  ever  live  to  their  honor 
and  the  renown  of  the  noble  order." 

That  upon  any  complaint  made  to  the  king 
of  injury  or  oppression,  one  of  these  knights. 
whom  the  king  should  appoint,  was  to  revenge 
the  same.  If  any  foreign  knight  came  to  court, 
with  desire  to  show  his  prowess,  some  one  of 
these  knights  was  to  be  ready  in  arms  to  answer 
him.  If  any  lady,  gentlewoman,  or  other  op- 
pressed and  injured  person,  did  present  a  peti- 
tion, declaring  the  same,  whether  the  injury 
was  done  here,  or  beyond  sea,  he  or  she  should 
be  graciously  heard,  and,  without  delay,  one  or 
more  knights  should  be  sent  to  take  revenge. 
Every  knight,  for  the  advancement  of  chivalry, 
should  be  ready  to  inform  and  instruct  young 
lords  and  gentlemen  in  the  exercises  of  arms. 
According  to  Guillim,  there  was  no  robe  or 
habit  prescribed  unto  these  knights,  nor  could 
he  find  with  what  ceremony  they  were  made, 
neither  what  offices  belonged  to  the  said  order, 
excepta  register  to  record  their  noble  enterprises. 

The  Ordo  Equestris,  (Equestrian  order)  of  the 
German  empire  is  of  considerable  antiquity  and 
highly  honorable,  being  composed  of  persons  of 
the  most  ancient  and  illustrious  families  in  Ger- 
many, and  in  point  of  rank  takes  place  next  to 
the  barons.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  ancient  Roman  Equestrian  Or- 
der, which  ranked  next  to  the  Senate. 

Formerly  all  those  who  were  admitted  into 
Ordo  Equestris,  wore  round  their  neck  a  golden 
chain,  with  a  medal  pendent  thereto,  and  which 


is  still  painted  on  the  helmet  placed  over  each 
coat  of  arms.  But  since  a  great  number  of  so- 
cial and  regular  orders  of  knighthood  have  been 
introduced  all  over  Europe,  the  chain  has  in 
general  been  laid  aside,  and  is  now  only  worn 
by  the  principal  officers  of  the  districts  of  the 
empire  belonging  to  those  Equitcs,  and  where 
they  are  formed  into  corporations  as  a  free  state, 
holding  immediately  under  the  emperor.  Here, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  the  im- 
perial patent  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  the 
Grantee  to  belong  to  this  body  corporate,  un- 
less he  holds  a  fee  of  the  empire  ;  on  the  con- 
trary, without  such  a  holding,  the  patent  gives 
him  only  personal  honor  and  precedency  in 
courts  of  justice  and  all  other  places  indiscrimi- 
nately, and  that  free  from  all  hindrance  or  mo- 
lestation whatsoever.  The  Ordo  Equestris  are 
not  under  any  particular  restraint,  or  governed 
by  any  laws,  statutes,  or  ordinances,  other  than 
such  as  concern  the  empire  in  general.  The 
title  is  hereditary  to  all  the  children  and  de- 
scendants, in  a  right  line  of  the  grantee,  both 
male  and  female,  and  is  entirely  patrimonial 
and  feudal ;  a  circumstance  elucidated  and  fully 
confirmed  by  an  established  rule  of  Empire, 
already  mentioned,  viz.  That  such  grantee 
cannot  belong  to  the  body  corporate  of  the  Ordo 
Equestris,  unless  he  holds  a  fee  of  the  empire  ; 
and  if  he  doth  not  hold  such  a  fee,  that  he  gains 
nothing  farther  by  his  patent  than  personal 
honor  and  precedency. 

In  June,  1757,  the  empress  queen  of  Germa- 
ny instituted  the  MILITARV  ORDER  OF  MARIA 
THERESA,  which  was  at  first  composed  of  an 
unlimited  number  of  knights,  divided  into  two 
classes ;  the  first  of  which  wear  the  badge  of 
the  order  pendent  to  a  broad  striped  watered 
ribbon,  of  which  two  fifths  are  black  and  three 
fifths  yellow,  sashwnys  over  the  right  shoulder, 
and  across  or  star  embroidered  in. silver  on  the 
left  breast  of  their  outer  garment. 

The  second  class  wear  the  badge  pendent  to 
a  narrow  striped  ribbon  at  the  button-hole.  This 
order  continued  from  its  first  institution  until 
the  year  17G5,  when  the  emperor  added  an  in- 
termediate class,  styled  Knights  Commanders, 
who  wear  the  ribbon  sash-ways  but  without 
any  star  on  the  outer  garment.  The  badge  of 
the  order  is  a  cross  of  gold  enamelled  white, 
edged  with  gold,  on  the  centre  are  the  arms  of 
Austria  encircled  with  the  word  Fortitudine, 
and  on  the  reverse  is  a  cipher  of  the  letter  M. 
T.  F.. (Maria  Theresa  Fundator)  in  gold,  on  an 
enamelled  ground.  This  order  is  conferred  on 
military  men  only. 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TEM 


559 


TEM 


The  ladies'  order  in  honor  of  the  Cross,  is 
another  German  order.  A  conflagration,  which 
happened  at  the  emperor's  palace  in  the  year 
1668,  was  the  occasion  of  the  foundation  of  this 
order.  The  badge  of  the  order  is  a  golden 
medal  chased  and  pierced  ;  in  the  centre  the 
imperial  eagle,  over  all  a  cross  surmounted 
with  the  letters  I.  H.  S.  and  a  small  cross  over 
the  H,  with  this  motto,  Salus  et  Gloria — Safety 
and  Glory. 

Eleonora  Di  Gonzaga,  widow  of  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  111  instituted  the  order  of  Ladies 
Slaves  to  Virtue  in  1662,  and  declared  herself 
sovereign  of  it.  The  number  that  compose  it 
is  limited  to  thirty,  all  to  be  of  the  Romish  re- 
ligion, and  of  the  best  nobility.  The  badge 
worn  by  the  ladies  of  this  order  is  a  golden  sun, 
encircled  with  a  chaplet  of  laurel,  e.namelled 
green,  with  this  motto  over  it.  Sola  ubique  tri- 
umphal. It  is  worn  pendent  at  the  breast  to  a 
small  chain  of  gold,  or  a  plain  narrow  black 
ribbon. 

The  order  of  the  Bear  was  instituted  at  the 
Abbey  of  St.  Gall,  in  Switzerland,  by  the  em- 
peror Frederic  II,  in  the  year  1213.  St.  Ursus, 
being  the  patron  of  it,  communicated  their  name 
to  the  same  ;  it  flourished  from  its  institution 
until  the  revolution  by  which  the  House  of 
Austria  lost  the  Swiss  cantons,  when  it  was 
abolished.  The  order  having  been  upwards  of 
three  centuries  extinct,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say 
any  thing  farther  of  it.  The  collar  was  a  gold 
chain  interlaced  with  oak  leaves,  to  which  hung 
the  figure  of  a  black  bear  on  a  medallion,  hav- 
ing under  it  a  hillock  enamelled  vest. 

The  order  of  the  Elephant  is  a  Danish  order 
of  great  celebrity.  It  was  instituted  by  Chris- 
tian the  First,  on  the  marriage  of  his  son  John 
with  Christina  of  Saxony,  in  the  year  1748, 
since  which  time  it  has  subsisted  without  inter- 
ruption or  degradation.  It  is  now  conferred 
only  on  princes  of  the  blood,  foreign  princes,  or 
noblemen  of  the  first  rank.  The  knights  of  it 
are  addressed  by  the  title  of  Excellency.  On 
ordinary  occasions  they  wear  the  badge  of  the 
order  pendent  to  a  sky-blue  watered  ribbon, 
worn  sashways  over  the  right  shoulder,  and  a 
star  of  eight  points  embroidered  in  silver  on  the 
left  side  of  their  outer  garments.  But  on  days 
of  ceremony  they  wear  it  pendent  to  a  collar  of 
gold  composed  of  Elephants  and  Towers.  The 
badge  is  an  elephant,  on  his  back  a  castle  en- 
amelled, and  on  the  side  of  the  elephant  across 
of  Danehrojr  in  diamonds. 

The  Order  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  the  most  il- 
lustrious order  of  knighthood  in  France.  It  was 


instituted  by  Henry  the  Third,  in  the  year  1579, 
on  Whitsunday,  the  festival  on  which  he  wae 
born  in  the  year  1551.  elected  king  of  Poland 
157'.},  and  called  to  the  throne  of  France  in  the 
year  1574.  The  number  of  persons  that  com- 
pose it  is  limited  by  the  statutes  to  one  hundred, 
exclusive  of  the  Sovereign  or  Grand  Master. 
Of  these,  four  cardinals,  five  prelates,  the  chan- 
cellor, the  master  of  the  ceremonies,  the  trea- 
surer, the  register,  and  the  provost,  are  styled 
commanders,  without  being  considered  as 
knights,  though  they  usually  wear  the  badges 
or  insignia  of  the  order.  All  are  to  profess  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  ;  and  the  knights  are 
to  prove  the  nobility  of  their  descent  for  a  hun- 
dred years  and  upwards  ;  but  no  proofs  of  this 
kind  are  required  of  the  commanders  whose 
offices  or  honors  are  commonly  sold  at  a  regu- 
lated price.  The  king  of  France  is  sovereign 
or  grand  master  of  it ;  and  by  the  statutes  this 
office  is  inalienably  annexed  to  the  crown,  but 
he  cannot  exercise  its  functions  until  after  his 
coronation,  when  he  is  installed,  with  much 
ceremony,  as  sovereign  of  the  order.  To  be  a 
knight  of  it,  it  is  necessary  for  all  except  prin- 
ces of  the  blood,  to  have  attained  the  age  of 
thirty-three,  and  to  have  been  admitted  into  the 
order  of  St.  Michael,  into  which  even  the  prin 
ces  must  enter  at  sixteen  years  old.  The  Dau 
phin  only  is  excepted  from  this  rule,  he  being 
received  into  both  orders  on  the  day  of  his  birth. 
The  commandeis  are  not  knights  of  the  order 
of  St.  Michael,  and  here  arises  the  difference 
between  their  styles  and  titles  and  those  bv 
which  the  knights  are  distinguished;  the 
knights  being  called  C/teraliers  dcs  Ordrcs  du 
Roy ;  and  the  commanders,  if  ecclesiastics, 
Coiiunfindcur  de  I'  drdre  du  St.  Esprit;  if  lay- 
men, Commandeur  dcs  Ordres  du  Roy. 

The  Royal  and  Military  Order  of  St.  Louis 
was  instituted  by  Louis  XIV,  in  the  year  1693, 
and  by  the  statutes  of  it  the  oflice  of  the  Sove- 
reign or  Grand  Master  is  annexed  to  the  crown. 
It  is  conferred  on  naval  and  military  officers, 
who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  the  ser- 
vice at  any  age.  or  at  any  time,  but,  unless  they- 
have  done  so,  they  do  not  obtain  it  until  they 
have  served  five  and  twenty  years  as  commis- 
sioned officers  .-  after  that  period,  they  expectit 
as  a  matter  of  right,  more  than  of  favor  ;  hence 
it  happens  that  the  number  of  knights  is  great 
and  unlimited.  In  this  order  are  three  classes  ; 
the  first  consists  of  forty  knights,  who  are  styled 
Chevaliers  Grand  Croix—  Knights  Grand  Cross. 
They  wore  a  flame-colored  watered  ribbon  sash- 
ways,  to  which  is  pendent  a  cross  of  eight  points 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY 


TEM 


560 


.TEM 


enamelled  white,  edged  with  gold  ;  in  the  an- 
gles four  Fleurs  de  Lys,  and  on  the  middle.a 
circle,  within  which  on  one" side  is  the  image  of 
St.  Louis  in  armor,  with  the  royal  mantle  over 
it,  holding  in  his  left  hand  a  crown  of  thorns, 
and  in  his  right  hand  a  crown  of  laurel,  and  the 
three  passion  nails  all  proper,  with  this  inscrip- 
tion Ludovicus  Magnus  instltu.it  anno  1693.  On 
the  reverse  a  sword  erect,  the  point  through  a 
chaplet  of  laurel,  bound  witli  a  white  ribbon, 
enamelled  with  this  motto,  Bellicce  virtutis  prcc- 
mium ;  besides  which  they  wear,  embroidered 
on  the  left  side  of  their  outer  garment,  a  gold 
star  of  eight  points  with  Fleur  de  Lys  at  the  an- 
gles and  the  figures  of  St.  Louis,  with-the  motto 
on  the  centre.  The  second  class  are  eighty  in 
number,  and  are  styled  Chevaliers  Comman- 
deurs,  &c.  These  wear  the  ribbon  and  badge 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  knights  of  the  former 
class,  but  have  no  star  embroidered  on  their 
outer  garment.  The  third  class  is  not  limited 
to  any  number :  and  the  knights  of  it  are  styled 
simply  Ckecaliers  de  Vordre  Royale  ct  Mititaire 
de  St.  Louis.  These  wear  the  badge  of  the  or- 
der pendent  to  a  flame-colored  watered  ribbon, 
at  the  button-hole  of  their  outer  garment.  The 
knights  of  the  first  class  have  pensions  of  from 
four  to  six  thousand  livres  a  year,  and  when  a 
vacancy  happens  among  them,  it  is  filled  by 
the  next  seniority  of  the  second  class.  The 
knights  of  the  second  class  have  pensions  of 
from  three  to  four  thousand  livres  a  year,  and 
the  vacancies  that  happen  among  them  are 
filled  up  by  the  king,  from  among  the  most  fa- 
vored and  deserving  of  the  third  class.  The 
knights  of  the  third  class  have  no  pensions  of 
right,  but  it  frequently  happens  that  the  poorest 
.and  the  most  distinguished  of  them  obtain  small 
pecuniary  favors,  which  they  term  Gratification. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  be  of  a  noble  family  to  be 
admitted  into  this  order ;  nor  does  it  ennoble 
the  family  of  the  person  who  obtains  it,  though 
it  gives  him  the  privileges  of  the  JYoblesse;  and 
if  there  be  three  knights  of  it,  in  regular  suc- 
cession, in  a  plebeian  family,  it  ennobles  all  the 
branches  of  it.  All  knights  of  this  order  must 
be  Roman  Catholics. 

The  knights  of  the  order  of  Bourbon  were 
sometimes  called  knights  of  the  Thistle,  and 
knights  of  our  Lady.  They  were  in  number 
twenty-six,  were  instituted  by  Louis  the  Good, 
Duke  of  Bourbon,  in  honor  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
in  the  year  13?0,  and  became  extinct  soon  after. 
Their  m->tto  was  Mien  or  JHIons,  and  on  the 
collar  of  their  order  the  word  ESHEKANCE. 

The  collar  was  of  gold,  weighing  ten  marks, 


fastened  with  a  goldeji  buckle  ;  it  consisted  of 
whole  lozenges,  and  .a  double  role  of  half  lozen- 
ges, enamelled  green",  and  rilled  with  Fleurs- 
de-Lisof  gold,  in  the  whole  'lozenges  the  word 
Espcrance,  each  letter  withrn  a  lozenge,  enam- 
elled red;  and  pendent  to  the  collar  was  an 
oval,  enamelled  green  and  red,  thereon  the 
image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  crowned  with 
twelve  stars  of  silver,  a  crescent  of  the  same 
under  her  feet,  her  garments  enamelled  purple 
and  sky-color,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  oval  a 
Thistle  Green. 

The  order  of  the  Death's  Head  was  first  in- 
stituted by  the  Duke  of  Wirtemberg,  in"  the 
year  1652,  and  both  sexes  were  equally  admitted 
to  it,  but,  having  soon  fallen  into  disuse,  it  was 
revived  again  in  the  year  1709,  by  Louise  Eliz- 
abeth, widow  of  Philip,  Duke  of  Saxe  Mers- 


burg,  and'  daughter  of  the  original  founder. 
The  badge  of  this  order  is  a  Death's  head, 
enamelled  white,  surmounted  with  a  cross  pattee 
black;  above  the  cross  pattee  another  cross 
composed  of  five  large  jewels,  by  which  it  hangs 
to  a  black  ribbon  edged  with  white,  and  on  the 
ribbon  these  words,  Memento  Morii,  worn  at  the 
breast.  But  on  the  death  of  any  of  the  order, 
the  survivors  wear  the  badge  pendent  to  a  black 
ribbon  over  a  white  one,  on  which  is  the  name 
of  the  deceased. 

Some  of  the  orders  of  knighthood  in  Palestine 
and  other  parts  of  Asia  were  very  celebrated. 
The  order  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem, 
according  to  Favin,  was  instituted  by  Baldwin 
I,  king  of  Jerusalem,  who  made  the  regular 
canons  (which  then  resided  in  a  convent  adjoin- 
ing to  the  Holy  Sepulchre)  knights  of  the  said 
order  ;  they  were  to  guard  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 
to  relieve  and  protect  prilgrims.  The  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem  was  appointed  their  Grand  Mas- 
ter, with  power  for  conferring  the  order,  and 
receiving  the  vow  made  by  the  knights,  which 
was  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience.  Their 
habit  was  white,  and  on  their  breast  a  gold  cross 
potent,  cantoned  with  four  crosses  of  the  same 
without  enamel,  pendent  to  a  black  ribbon. 
They  wore  tjte  cross  of  yellow  embroidery  on 
the  left  side  of  their  robe.  *  When  the  city  of  Je- 
rusalem was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  the  knights 
retired  to  Italy,  and  settled  atFemgia.and  were 
afterwards  united  to  the  knights  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem. 

Certain  Christian  merchants  of  Malfis  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  who  tracled  to  Palestine, 
obtained  leave  from  the  Caliph  of  Egypt  to 
dwell  near  the  Holy  Sepulchre  of  Christ,  and 
to  erect  a  small  house  for  the  entertainment  of 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TEM. 


561 


TEM 


themselves  and  p'ilgrims,  which  they  named  the 
Hospital* of  Chrfstians,  with  a  small  oratory 
dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  Their  number 
increasing,  they  built  another  house  for  women, 
and  dedicated  it  to  St.  Mary  Magdalen.  Their 
number  still  increasing,  they  built  a  more  con- 
venient house,  the  others  being  too  small,  and 
dedicated  it  to  St.  John  tlie  Baptist.  They  enter- 
tained all  pilgrims  that  came  for  devotion,  and 
cured  the  diseased  among  them.  They  became 
eminent  for  their  devotion,  charity,  and  hospi- 
tality. St.  John  Baptist,  being  their  patron, 
they  were  called  Brethren  Hospitallers  of  St. 
John  Baptist  of  Jerusalem,  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  knights  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre ;  they 
took  the  black  habit  of  the  Hermits  of  St.  Au- 
gustin,  and  on  the-  left  side  of  the  breast,  they 
wore  a  cross  of  white,  cloth,  with  eight  points. 
In  war  they  wore  crimson,  with  a  white  cross, 
•  but  in  their  monasteries  and  on  the  day  of  their 
profession  the  black  garment  only.  This  order 
increased  in  wealth  after  the  suppression  of  the 
Templars,  most  of  whose  lands  were  given  to 
them.  They  had  in  several  parts  of  Christen- 
dom 20,000  manors ;  in  England  the  Lord  Prior 
of  the  order  was  accounted  the  prime  baron  of 
the  realm. 

Their  first  Great  Master  was  Gerard  de  Sainct 
Uidier.  by  whom  they  were  founded ;  the  last 
master  that  had  his  residence  in  the  Holy  Land 
was  John  de  Villers,  in  whose  time. being  driven 
out  of  Palestine,  they  removed  to  Cyprus,  and 
then  to  the  isle  of  Rhodes,  which  thev  possessed 
till  the  year  1523,  when  they  were  e'xpelled  by 
Solyman  the  Magnificent,  who  took  it  by  force, 
through  want  of  succor  by  the  Christian  princes. 
The  city  was  admirably  defended  by  the  knights, 
under  the  conduct  of  their  Great  Master,  Philip 
de  Villiers. 

After  the  loss  of  the  isle  of  Rhodes,  they  re- 
moved to  the  island  of  Malta,  •which  w^th  Tri- 
poli and  Gaza  were  granted  to  them  in  fee  by 
the  emperor  Charles  V.,  A.  D.  1530,  under  the 
tender  of  one  falcon  yearly  to  the  viceroy  of 
Sicily,  and  to  acknowledge  the  king  of  Spain 
and  Sicily  for  their  protectors.  In  this  isle 
they  continued  a  bulwark  to  those  parts,  and 
from  this  their  settlement,  were  called  Knights 
of  Malta. 

In  May,  1563,  they  were  besieged  by  Soly- 
man, with  a  navy  of  ICO  galleys  full  of  Turkish 
soldiers,  and  100  vessels  with"  precisions.  The 
siege  was  sustained  for  four  months  by  the  bra- 
very of  the  kniorhts,  and  the  conduct  of  their 
Great  Master,  John  de  Velete,so  that  the  Turks 
were  obliged  to  raise  the  siege,  and  leave  3000 


of  their  men  behind,  and  the  greater  part  of 
their  artillery,  on  the  8th  qf  September  in  the 
same  year.  Upon  which  day  there  is  annually 
a  processio'n  at  Malta,  in  memory  of  their  deliv- 
erance. 

These  knights  were  in  number  1000;  500  to 
reside  in  the  island  of  Malta,  the  remainder  dis- 
persed at  their  seminaries  in  Spain,  Germany, 
Italy,  and  France,  and  at  any  summons  to  make 
their  personal  appearance.  A  seminary  they 
had  in  England  till  the  suppression  of  it  by 
Henry  VIII ;  yet  they  continued  to  appoint  one 
to  whom  they  gave  the  title  of  the  Grand  Prior 
of  England.  Out  of  the  following  nations,  they 
•  chose  the^r  officers,  xiz.  Pro.vence,  the  Grand 
Prior;  Auvergne,  the  Marshal  of  the  Order; 
Italy,  the  Admiral  of  the  Order;  Arragon,  the 
Conservator  of  the  Order ;  England  they  used 
to  appoint  the  Great.  Colonel  of  the  cavalry  ; 
Germany,  the  High  Bailiff  of  the  Order;  Cas- 
tile, the  High  Chancellor  of  the  Order. 

None  were  admitted  into  this  order,  but  such 
as  could  prove  their  gentility  for  six  descents  : 
they  swore  to  defend  the  church,  to  obey  their 
superiors,  and  to  live  upon  the  revenues  of  their 
order  only.  There  were  sixteen  called  the 
Great  Crosses,  out  of  whom  the  officers  of  their 
order,  as  the  Marshal,  Admiral,  Chancellor, 
&.c.  were  chosen,  who,  together  jvith  the  Mas- 
ter, punished  such  as  were  convicted  of  any 
crime. 

When  the  Grand  Master  died,  they  suffered 
no  vessel  to  go  out  of  the  island  till  another 
was  chosen,  lest  the  pope  should  interfere  in 
their  election,  which  was  as  follows  :  the  several 
seminaries  named  two  knights  each,  allowing 
also  two  for  the  English;  and  those  sixteen 
from  among  themselves  chose  eight ;  those  eight 
chose  a  knight,  a  Priest,  and  a  Friar  Servant; 
and  these  three,  out  of  the  sixteen  Great  Crosses, 
elected  the  Great  Master,  who,  being  chosen, 
was  styled, '  The  most  illustrious  and  most  rev- 
erend "Prince,  the  Lord  Friar  N.  N.  Great  Mas- 
ter of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem, 
Prince  of  Malta  and  Gaza.' 

The  badge  of  the  order  was  a  gold  cross  of 
eight  points,  enamelled  white,  pendent -to  a 
black  watered  ribbon,  worn  at  the  breast.  This 
order  having  been  composed  of  persons  of  dif- 
ferent countries,  the  badge  was  decorated  so  as 
to  distinguish  the  country  of  the  bearer,  riz. 
Germany,  by  an  Imperial  crown  and  eagle; 
France,  the  crown  and  Fleurs-de-lis,  &c. 

In  1798,  the  knights  of  Malta  yielded  their 
dominion  to  the  French  power,  from  whom  it 
was  soon  after  wrested  by  the  British,  in  which 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


TEM 


562 


TEM 


crown  it  was  finally  vested  by  the  peace  of 
1814. 

When  the  Holy  land  began  to  grow  famous 
by  the  expeditions  of  Christian  princes,  the 
Order  of  the  knights  Hospitallers  had  its  begin- 
ning, or  rather  its  restoration,  by  Girardus  ;  for 
the  origin  is  attributed  to  Schannes  Hircanus 
Machabeus,  or  John,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
who,  for  his  liberality  to  the  poor,  was  surnamed 
Eleemosynarius.  These  knights,  having  their 
chief  seat  at  first  in  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  i 
Baptist  at  Jerusalem,  which  was  re-edified  by 
the  same  Girard,  took  that  Saint  for  their  pa- 
tron, but  their  rule  from  Pope  Gelasius  II ;  and 
Honorious  II  assigned  them  a  black  mantle^ 
with  a  white  cross.  Raimundus  de  Podis,  the 
first  Master,  devised  the  statutes  of  their  order, 
and  entitles  himself  Scrvus  pauperum  C'/irisU, 
ct  Hospitalis  t/iicrosolomitani  Ctistodem. 

The  Polish  order  of  the  White  Eagle  was 
first  instituted  in  the  year  1325,  by  Uladislaus 

V,  but  having  soon  fallen  into  disuse,  it  lay  in 
oblivion  till    the  year  1705,  when  Augustus. 
Elector  of  Saxony  and  king  of  Poland,  revived 
it  as  an  instrument  to  attach  to  his  own  interest 
and  person  several  of  the  Polish  nobility,  who, 
he  feared,  were  inclined  to  Stanislaus,  Ins  com- 
petitor.    Motto,  Projide,  rcve,  Icge. 

Alphonso  Henriquez,  king  of  Portugal,  insti* 
luted  the  Order  of  the  Wing  of  St.  Michael,  in 
the  year  1172,  in  commemoration  of  a  victory 
obtained  by  him  over  the  Moors,  whom  lie 
imagined  he  overcame  by  the  direct  interposi- 
tion of  St.  Michael,  who,  according  to  the  le- 
gend, appeared  fighting  in  the  king's  right 
wing. 

The  Order  of  St.  George  in  Rome  was  insti- 
tuted, according  to  some,  by  pope  Alexander 

VI,  in  the  year  1498,  or,  according  to  Michaeli, 
by  pope  Paul  III,  to  encourage   naval   men  to 
defend  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic  against  pirates. 
The   badge  of  it  was  a  cross  of  gold  within  a 
circle  of  the  same,  like  an  open  crown. 

The  Order  of  Si  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  was  in- 
stituted by  Leo  the  Tenth,  in  the  year  15520, 
to  defend  the  sea-coasts  of  his  territories  against 
the  Turks  who  threatened  them. 

The  Prussian  Order  of  the.  Black  Eagle  was 
instituted  by  Frederick  I.  at  his  coronation  in 
the  year  1701.  By  the  statutes  of  it,  the  num- 
ber of  knights,  exclusive  of  the  Princes  of  the 
blood,  is  limited  to  thirty,  who  must  all  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  order  of  Generosity  previous  to 
their  receiving  this,  unless  they  he  sovereign 
princes ;  the  knights  to  prove  their  nobility  by 
sixteen  descents.  The  kings  of  Prussia  are 


perpetual  Grand  Masters  of  it.  There  belong 
to  it  a  Chancellor,  who  is  also  a  knight,  a  Mas- 
ter of  the  Ceremonies,  and  a  Treasurer.  The 
ensign  of  the  order  is  a  gold  cross  of  eight  points 
enamelled  blue,  having  at  each  angle  a  spread 
eagle  enamelled  black,  and  charged  with  a  ci- 
pher of  the  letters  F.  11.  This  each  knight 
wears  commonly  pendent  to  a  broad  orange  rib- 
bon, worn  sash-wise  over  the  left  shoulder,  and 
a  silver  star  embroidered  on  the  left  side  of  their 
outer  garment,  whereon  is  an  escutcheon  con- 
taining a  spread  eagle,  holding  in  one  claw  a 
chaplet  of  laurel,  and  in  the  other  a  thunderbolt, 
with  this  motto  in  gold  letter  round  it,  Suum 
cuique.  The  king  chose  the  Black  Eagle,  being 
the  ai;ms  of  Prussia ;  and  the  color  of  the  ribbon, 
on  account  of  his  mother,  a  Princess  of  Orange. 

First  among  the  Russian  orders  is  that  of  fit. 
Andrew.  Peter  the  Great  instituted  this  order 
in  the  year  lUtlB,  and  chose  for  its  patron  St. 
Andrew,  (on  account  of  this  Apostle's  having 
been,  according  to  tradition,  tin;  founder  of 
Christianity  among  the  Muscovites).  His  mo- 
tive for  instituting  this  order  was  to  animate 
his  nobles  and  chief  officers  in  their  wars  against 
the  Turks;  and  he  conferred  it  on  those  who 
had  signalized  themselves  in  his  service. 

The  Order  of  the-  Sword  in  Cyprus  was  insti- 
tuted by  Guy  de  Lusignan,  about  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century,  soon  after  he  hud  acquired 
the  kingdom  of  Cyprus  by  purchase  from  Rich- 
ard Coeur  de  Lion.  This  order  was  on  its  insti- 
tution conferred  on  three  hundred  Barons,  who 
were  then  created :  it  continued  to  nourish 
until  it  became  extinct,  on  the  Turks  conquer- 
ing the  island  of  Cyprus.  Motto,  Securitas 
Regm. 

The  most  celebrated  Spanish  order,  was  the 
Order  of  the  Golden  Flttce.  This  order  was 
instituted  at  Bruges,  in  Flanders,  the  10th  of 
January,  14912  [the  day  of  his  marriuge  with  his 
third  wife,  Isabella  of  Portugal,]  by  Philip, 
Duke  of  Burgundy.  The  occasion  of  its  insti- 
tution is  a  subject  of  controversy  among  anti- 
quaries :  but  it  appears  most  probable,  that, 
having  determined  to  institute  an  order  of 
knighthood,  he  chose  for  the  badge  of  it  the 
material  of  the  staple  manufactories  of  his  coun- 
try, which  was  the  fleece;  and  this  emblem 
might  have  been  the  more  agreeable  to  him  from 
the  figure  it  made  in  the  heroic  ages  of  the 
world,  when  the  Argonautic  expedition  was 
undertaken  for  it.  However  this  may  be,  it  at 
first,  eoiisisted  of  thirty  knights,  including  the 
sovereign,  who  were  of  the  first  families  in  the 
Low  Countries ;  and  though  it  has  undergone 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TEN 


563 


TEN 


some  changes  since  its  foundation,  it  has  ever 
been  ranked  "among  the  most  illustrious  and 
distinguished  orders  of  knighthood  in  Europe. 

At  present  there  are  two  different  branches 
of  this  order;  of  one  of  which  the  emperor  is 
sovereign  ;  and  the  king  of  Spain  of  the  other, 
of  which  we  now  speak.  The  number  of  knights 
is  not  limited,  though  it  seldom  exceeds  seventy 
or  eighty,  of  which,  there  are  generally  a  good 
many  of  the  French  and  Italian  nobility  ;  but 
all  must  prove  their  noble  descent  from  the 
twelfth  century.  Tliry  wear  usually  a  Golden 
fleece  Cross,  pendent  to  a  broad  plain  red  ribbon 
round  their  necks ;  but  en  days  of  ceremony 
they  v;enr  the  collar  of  the  order,  which  is  com- 
posed of  double  steels,  interwoven  witli  Hint 
stone,  emitting:  sparks  of  f;ie,  the  whole  enam- 
elled in  their  p$t»}>er  colors,,  a't  (he  end  whereof 
lungs  on  the  breast  th«  golden  fleece.  The  fu- 
wil;j  are  joined  two  and  two  together,  ;.s  if  the/ 
\ver.e  double  BB's,  the  cipher  of  Burgundy,  au'd 
the  flint  stones  the  ancient  arms  of  the  Sov<  - 
reigns  of  Burgundv  of  the  first  race  :  with  their 
motto.  ^ntcf/rit  r.Iiar,i  j!t:imna  j.tictl.  The  mot- 
to of  the  order,  is  Prcftiun:  nun  Tile 
There  aie  four  officers,  viz.  the  chancellor,  the 
treasurer,  the:  register,  and  a  king  at  a: 
ed  Toison  d'  or. 

The  OKDF.K  or  jfr.  MARK,  was  conferred  by 
the  duke  of  Venice,  end  by  the  sen:: 
persons  of  eminent  quality,  or  sucli  as  had  ue- 
:-envd  well  of  the  State,  in  the  year  .-2V.  the 
bodv  of  St.  Mark  v  as  ri  i  :  vc-d  fn.,;i  Alexandria* 
; V.iere  it  was  buried)  to  the  city  of 
Venice.  This  saint  has  been  taken  for  thoir  tu- 
U'hr  snail  and  guardian.  His  picture  was  nn- 
.•icntly  painted  upon  their  ensigns  and  banners. 
Motto.  I'as  till,  Murrr  ErangdisUt  .Metis. 

TEMPLE,  Sir  William,  a  celebrated  states- 
man, born  in  London  in  1623.  In  1065,  he  went 
<>n  a  secret  mission  to  Munster  ;  after  which  he  • 
vn.s  employed  in  forming  the  triple  alliance  be-  ' 
iweeri  England,  Sweden,  and  Holland.  He 
next  became  tiie  resident  minister  at  the  Hague, 
Hud  in  that  capacity  promoted  the  marriage  of 
the  printv  of  Orange  and  the  princess  Mary. 
In  1!;7D  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  ; 
lint  the  next  year  he  resigned  that  situation,  and 
retired  to  his  country  seat  in  Surrey,  where  he 
was  often  visited  by  Charles  II,  James  II,  and 
\Vilii:.in  III.  lie  died  in  1700. 

TENNESSEE,  one  of  the    United    States, 

bounded  3V.  by  Kentucky  and  Virginia;  E.  by 

North  Carolina, TS.  by  Alabama, and  Mississippi, 

and  W.  by  Mississippi  river.     It  contains  40,000 

43 


square  miles,  and  had,  in  1830,  829,510  inhabit- 
ants, of  whom  183,359  were  slaves. 
•  The  Cumberland  mountains  divide  this  state 
into  East  and  West  Tennessee. 

The  western  part  of  this  state  is  level  or  gen- 
tly undulating,  the  middle  is  broken  by  hills, 
and  the  eastern  part  is  mountainous.  Of  this 
variety,  Mr.  Flint  says,  "  There  can  be  nothing 
of  grand  and  imposing  in  scenery,  nothing 
striking  and  picturesque  in  cascades  and  pre- 
cipitous sides  of  mountains  covered  with  woods, 
nothing  romantic  and  delightful  in  deep  and 
sheltered  valleys,  through  which  wind  still  and 
clear  streams,  which  is  not  found  in  this  state.1' 
The  articles  which  are  sent  to  the  New  Or- 
leans' market  are  cotton,  indigo,  corn,  whiskey, 
hogs,  horses,  cattle,  flour,  gunpowder,  salt-petie, 
poultry,  bacon. lard,  butter,  apples,  pork,  coarse 
linen,  tobacco,  &c. 

The  chief  towns  are  Murfreeshprough,  Nash- 
ville, Knoxville,  Franklin,  FayetteviTle.  Shel- 
byville,  Columbia.  Clarksville",  Carthage,  and 
Gallatin.  Colleges  have  been  established  at 
Greenville1,  Knoxville,  Nashville,  and  in  Wash- 
ington county.  The  first  permanent  settlement 
of  the  whites  was  made  by  emigrants  from  Vir- 
ginia and  North  Carolina,  in  1757  and  1758. 
The  settlers  were  annoyed  by  the  Indians,  Cher- 
bkees.  Choctaws,  Chickasaws,  and  Shawnees, 
whose  hostilities  for  a  long  time  retarded  the 
progress  of  the  settlements.  Tennessee  formed 
part  of  North  Carolina  until  17W),  and  in  17(J(3,  it 
was  erected  into  a  state.  •  , 

TEWKESBUKY,  a  market  town  of  Glou 
cestershire.  It.  was  at  this  place  that  the  last 
^Id^SNHkght  between  the  adherents  of  the 
and  Lancaster.  This  battle,  it 
:  'wn.  proved  fatal  to  tiie  Lancastrians 
The  field  in  which  it  was  fought  is  still  called 
the  Bloody  Meadow,  and  is  situated  about  half 
a  mile  from  the  town.  In  the  civil  war  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  Tewkesbury  was  the  scene 
of  inany  severe  c  atests  between  the  contend 
inof  forces. 

TEXAS,  fd^pilcny  belonging  to  Mexico,  since 
1835,  an  hide  --ident  republic ;  is  bounded  by 
the  Red  river  v,  •  north,  by  the  Sabine  on  the 
east,  and  '  '  ico  on  the  South. 

The  west.  Denied,  between 

it  and  Mc\i:-o.  It  has  a  gulf  coast  of  250 
miles,  but  no  good  harbors  for  large  ships  ;  the 
bays  b  fa  in. '7  shallow,  and  the  mouths  of  the  rivers 
obstructed  by  san:l  burs.  The  main  channel 
through  Galvcston  bar,  however,  has  13  feet 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


THE 


water.  The  principal  rivers  arc  the  Sane, 
Trinidad,  San  Jacinto,  Brazos,  de  Dios,  Colorado, 
Varca,  Guadaloupe,  San  Antonio,  and  Neuces. 
There  are  no  large  towns.  Houston,  Goliad, 
Bexar,  Gonza'.cs,  Montezvnna,  Matagorda,  Vic- 
toria, Washington.  San  Felipe  de  Austin,  Bra- 
zoria,  Colombia,  and  Bolivar  are  the  principal. 
Austin  is  now  the  capital  of  Texas.  Gal- 
veston  promises  to  be  the  most  important  sea- 
port, though  it  is  liable  to  bo  overflowed  by  high 
tides,  when  the  sea  is  driven  in  by  storms.  Na- 
cogdoches,  an  old  Spanish  town,  contains  1000 
inhabitants  It  is  generally  a  prairie  country, 
flat'  near  the  coast,  and  undulating  in  the  inte- 
rior. There  are  few  trees  except  on  the  banks 
of  the  streams,  and  in  clusters  on  the  prairies, 
which  also  afford  excellent  pasturage.  The  cli- 
mate is  fine,  and  the  soil  productive.  The  in- 
habitants are  generally  from  the  United  States. 

THEBES,  a  celebrated  city,  capital  of  BCEO- 
tia.  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Isme- 
nus.  The  manner  of  its  foundation  is  not  pre- 
ciselj'  known.  Cadmus  is  supposed  to  have 
first  begun  to  found  it  by  building  the  citadel 
Cadinea.  It  was  afterwards  finished  by  Amphi- 
on  and  Zethus  ;  but,  according  to  Varro,  it  owed 
its  origin  to  Ogyges.  The  government  of 
Thebes  was  monarchical,  arid  many  of  the  sove- 
reigns are  celebrated  for  their  misfortunes,  such 
s  Lais,  ( 


(Edipus,  Polynices,  Eteocles,  &c.    The 
ich  Thebes  supported  against  the  A 
ve,s,  is  famous  as  well  as  that  of  the  Epigo 


war  which  Thebes  supported  against  the  Ar- 
give,s,  is  famous  as  well  as  that  of  the  Epigoni. 
Under  Epaminondas,  the  Thebans,  though  be- 


fore dependent,  became  masters  of  Greece,  and 
every  thing  was  done  according  to  their  will 
and  pleasure.  When  Alexander  invaded 
Greece,  he  ordered  Thebes  to  be  totally  demol- 
ished, because  it  had  revolted  against  him,  ex- 
cept the  house  where  the  poet  Pindar  had  been 
born  and  educated.  In  this  dreadful  period, 
6,000  of  its  inhabitants  were  slain,  and  :;  i,!!«i) 
sold  for  slaves.  Thebes  was  afterwards  repair- 
ed by  Cassander,  the  son  of  Antipnter.  but  it 
never  rose  to  its  original  consequence,  and  Stra- 
bo,  in  his  age,  mentions  it  merely  as  an  incon- 
siderable village.  The  monarchical  govern- 
ment was  abolished  there  at  the  death  of  A';-n- 
thus,  about  1  1!HJ  years  before  Christ,  and  Thebes 
became  a  republic. 

TIIEliES,  an  ancient  celebrated  city  of  The- 
bais,  in  Egypt,  culled  also  Hecatonipyfoa  on  ac- 
count of  its  hundred  gates,  and  Diospolis.  aa 
being  sacred  to  Jupiter.  It  was  ruined  by  Caiu- 
oyses,  king  of  Persia.  It-  mat  munificent  ru- 
ins are  those  of  Luxor  and  Karnac,of  wliicti  an 


4  THE 

account  is  subjoined.  Although  there  is  a  same- 
ness in  the  character  of  the  Egyptian  scenery, 
it  is  such  as  is  to  be  seen  in  no  other  land.  The 
Libyan  and  Arabian  chains  of  mountains,  per- 
fectly naked,  stretch  on  each  side  of  the  Nile 
nearly  to  the  first  cataract,  generally  within  a 
few  miles  of  the  river,  and  sometimes  close  t<* 
it,  or  forming  its  bank.  At  the  loot  of  these 
naked  masses  of  a  light  color,  often  appeal- 
groups  of  the  most  vivid  and  beautiful  verdure, 
the  palm  and  sycamore  spreading  over  some 
lonely  cottage,  a  herd  of  goats  and  buffaloes 
winding  their  way,  or  ac-imel  silently  gracing. 
The  utter  barrenness  and  desolation  that  ofteiv 
encompass  scenes  and  spots  of  exquisite  fruitfu'- 
ness  and  beauty,  the  tomb  of  the  Hanton  \vitli 
its  scanty  shade,  and  the  white  minaret  with  its 
palm  and  cypress  placed  on  the  very  verge  of  a 
boundless  desert,  or  amidst  a  burning  expanse 
of  sand,  are  almost  peculiar  to  Egj-pt.  Then 
you  often  pass  from  the  rich  banks  of  the  Nile. 
covered  with  lime  and  orange-trees,  where 
groups  of  Orientals  are  seated  luxuriously  in 
the  shade,  into  a  wild  and  howling  waste,  where 
all.  even  the  broken  monuments  of  pa>t  ages. 
only  inspire  feelings  of  sadness  and  regret. 

"  It  was  evening  ere  we  arrived  at  Luxor,  a 
p  -or  yet  populous  village,  erected  p-irtly  amidst 
the  ruins  of  the  great  temple.  This  edilice  is 
near  the  water's  ed.'.re,  »u<J  its  lofty  yellow  pil- 
br.--.  eaeh  thirlv  feet  in  rhvi'.mlei'ejiee.  and 
ranged  in  long  colonnades,  instantly  arrest  tin- 
attention .  On  landing,  we  found  on  the  stindii 
dozen  grim  ivrv;v't.i;ui  statues.  large  as  life,  cut 
in  coarse  » ramie,  ntVr  Ihe  i:\shioa  of  the  great 
Memiion.  and  in  a  sitting  posture,  close  t.;>  t'u- 
edge  of  the  water,  that  rippled  at  their  feet. 
The  weight  of  each  statue  was  enormous,  and 
would  render  the  removal  difficult ;  or  else  :> 
traveller  might  well  be  tempted  to  ship  one  <>f 
them,  as  tht?y  seemed  to  be  no  man's  prrpertv. 
There  are  two  most  beautiful  obelisk- 
the  g-iteway,  seventy  feet  high,  or  i.n  re V.it.v 
much  loftier,  as  a  considcralile  part  i.;  I'in.  .1  i-i 
rubbish.  Their  hieroglyphics  are  cut.  deeper.  ;m-l 
with  greater  deliouev,  than  those  on  any  other 
obelisks  in  l'>vr>t.  "A  Frenchman,  in  the  em- 
ployment of  IX-ovetti  !j,  ill,  i  I  h< 
\vh'»  showed  UH  mudi  p  ! 
teilijrcnt  m:,:i.  dr 

hacf  resided  sixteen  yean  in  rftrioui  parts  of  .this 
country-  His  companion,  Mori*  Bonn.-l.  !nd 
gone  to  (J;ii:-D  {or  ;>  ;-nj>p!v  of  wi::i-  and  other 
e.)iniort.s.  an.l  he  fi'if  uolitary  and  im]>atient  for 
his  return  :  lie  possess d  a  small  e-.llertion  of 
minerals  and  other  curiosities,  and  hud  nrmu- 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


THE 


5G5 


THE 


factured  a  cool  and  delightful  sort  of  palm-wine 
out  of  the  juice  of  the  tree,  which  was  very 
grateful  to  us  in  the  sultry  heat  of  the  day. 
Sixteen  years'  residence  in  Upper  Egypt  is  really 
a  trial  of  a  man's  patience  and  enthusiasm,  and 
for  two  Frenchmen  above  all  beings.  SuJeirnan 
Aga,  commander  of  the  Pacha's  Mamelukes  at 
Esneh,  a  town  two  days'  sail  further,  was  not 
so  resigned :  this  man  was  one  of  Bonaparte's 
colonefs,  and  on  the  ruin  of  his  master's  fortunes 
he  came  to  Egypt,  and  offered  his  services  to 
the  Pacha,  protesting  at  the  same  time  he  would 
never  consent  to  change  his  religion.  Mah- 
moud  laughed,  and  said,  he  cared  nothing  about 
his  religion,  if  he  only  served  him  well ;  but  lie 
must  allow  himself  to  be  called  by  a  Turkish 
name,  and  wear  the  costume.  Suleiman  Aga 
now  lives  in  style  as  commandant  at  Esneh,  and 
receives  travellers  very  hospitably  ;  but  his  soul 
pines,  amidst  Egyptian  beauty,  for  a  suitable 
companion,  and  he  implored  a  fellow  traveller 
and  friend  of  mine,  to  send  him  out  an  English 
or  Italian  wife  :  he  swore  he  would  pay  implicit 
deference  to  his  friend's  advice,  and  marry  the 
lady  the  moment  she  arrived.  The  women 
around  him,  he  said,  were  so  insipid  ;  and  he 
would  live  there  contented  could  he  be  but 
blessed  with  one  whom  he  could  converse  with, 
and  whose  vivacity  and  intelligence  would 
brighten  his  solitary  hours. 

"  It  is  difficult,  to  describe  the  stupendous 'and 
noble  ruins  of  Thebes.  Beyond  all  others  they 
give  you  the  idea  of  a  ruined,  yet  imperishable 
city  ;  so  vast  is  their  extent,  that  you  wander  a 
long  time  confused  and  perplexed,  and  discover 
at  every  step  some  new  object  of  interest.  From 
the  temple  of  Luxor  to  that  of  Karnac,  the  dis- 
tance is  a  mile  and  a  half,  and  they  were  for- 
merly connected  by  a  long  avenue  of  sphinxes, 
the  mutilated  remains  of  which,  the  heads  being 
broken  off  the  greater  part,  still  line  the  whole 
path.  Arrived  at  the  end  of  this  avenue,  you 
first  pass  under  a  very  elegant  arched  gateway, 
seventy  feet  high,  and  quite  isolated.  About 
fifty  yards  farther  you  enter  a  temple  of  inferior 
dimensions,  which  Drovetli  has  been  busy  in 
excavating;  you  then  advance  into  a  spacious 
area,  strewed  with  broken  pillars,  and  surround- 
ed with  vast  and  lofty  masses  of  ruins, — all  parts 
of  the  great  temple  :  a  little  on  your  right  is  the 
magnificent  portico  of  Karnac.  the  vivid  remem- 
brance of  which  will  never  leave  him  who  has 
once  gazed  on  it.  Its  numerous  colonnades  of 
pillars,  of  gigantic  form  and  height,  are  in  ex- 
cellent preservation,  but  without  ornament;  the 
ceiling  and  walks  of  the  portico  are  gone  ;  the 


plat-stone  still  connects  one  of  the  rows  of  pil- 
lars, and  is  ornamented;  and  viewed  from  be- 
low, with  a  slender  remain  of  the  edifice  still 
attached  to  it,  it  seems  almost  to  hang  in  the 
sky.  Passing  hence,  you  wander  amidst  obe- 
lisks, porticoes,  and  statues,  the  latter  without 
grace  or  beauty,  but  of  a  most  colossal  kind.  If 
you  ascend  one  of  the  hills  of  rubbish,  and'look 
around,  you  see  a  gateway  standing  afar,  con- 
ducting only  to  solitude  ;  detached  and  roofless 
pillars,  while  others  lie  broken  at  their  feet,  the 
busts  of  gigantic  statues  appearing  above  the 
earth,  while  the  rest  of  the  body  is  yet  buried, 
or  the  head  torn  away,  while  others  lie  pros 
trate  or  broken  into  useless  fragments.  On  the 
left  spread  the  dreary  deserts  of  the  Thebais,  to 
the  edge  of  which  the  city  extends.  In  front  is 
a  pointed  and  barren  range  of  mountains  :  the 
Nile  flows  at  the  feet  of  the  temple  of  Luxor; 
but  the  ruins  extend  far  on  the  other  side  of  the 
river,  to  the  very  feet  of  those  formidable  preci- 
pices, and  into  the  wastes  of  sand  ;  the  natural 
scenery  around  Thebes  is  as  fine  as  can  possibly 
be  conceived.  The  remainder  of  the  statue  is 
still  here,  the  beautiful  bust  of  which  Belzoni 
sent  to  the  British  Museum  ;  it  was  fallen  and 
broken  off  long  since.  Drovetti  is  quite  inex- 
cusable in  causing  one  of  the  two  beautiful  obe- 
lisks at  the  entrance  of  the  temple  of  Karnac  to 
be  thrown  down  and  broken,  that  he  might  car- 
ry ofF  the  upper  part :  such  an  act  is  absolute 
sacrilege.  One  cannot  help  imagining  that  a 
vast  deal  yet  remains  to  be  discovered  beneath 
this  world  of  ruins,  on  both  sides  of  the  river ; 
but  the  pursuit  requires  incessant  and  undivided 
attention  A  traveller  must  lay  his  account  to 
spend  six  months  in  excavating  here,  with  a 
body  of  Arabs,  who  work  very  cheaply,  and 
must  put  up  with  many  privations,  before  he 
could  expect  to  be  richly  compensated  for  his 
pains. 

<;  The  second  visit  we  paid  to  Karnac  was  still 
more  interesting.  The  moon  had  risen,  and 
we  passed  through  one  or  two  Arab  villages  in 
the  way,  where  fires  were  lighted  in  the  open 
air,  and  the  men,  after  the  labors  of  the  day, 
were  seated  in  groups  round  them,  smoking  and 
conversing  with  great  cheerfulness.  It  is  sin- 
gular that  in  the  most  burning  climates  of  the 
East,  the  inhabitants  always  love  a  good  fire  at 
night,  and  a  traveller  soon  catches  the  habit ; 
yet  the  air  was  still  very  warm.  There  was  no 
fear  of  interruption  in  exploring  the  ruins,  as 
the  Arabs  dread  to  come  here  after  daylight,  as 
they  often  say  these  places  were  built  by  Afrit, 
the  devil ;  and  the  belief  in  apparitions  prevails 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


THE 


566 


THE 


among  most  of  the  Orientals.  \Ve  again  en- 
tered with  delight  the  grand  portico.  It  was  a 
night  of  uncommon  beauty,  without  a  breath 
of  wind  stirring,  and  the  moonlight  fell  vividly 
on  some  parts  of  Mie  colonnades,  while  others! 
were  shaded  so  as  to  add  to,  rather  thun  dimin- 
ish their  grandeur.  The  obelisks,  the  statues, 
the  lonely  columns  on  the  plain  without,  threw 
their  long  shadows  on  the  mass  of  ruins  around 
them,  and  the  scene  WHS  in  truth  exquisitely 
mournful  and  beautiful." 

THEMISTOCLES,acelebrated  general  born 
at  Athens.  When  Xerxes  invaded  Greece, 
Themistocles  was  at  the  head  of  the  Athenian 
icpublic,  and  in  this  capacity  the  fleet  wes  en- 
trusted to  his  care.  While  the  Lacedaemonians 
under  Leonidas  were  opposing  the  Persians  at 
Thermopylae,  the  naval  operations  of  Themis- 
tocles, and  of  the  combined  fleet  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesians  were  directed  to  destroy  the  armament 
of  Xerxes,  and  to  ruin  his  maritime  power. 
This  battle,  which  was  f  >ught  near  the  island 
of  Salamis,  B.  C.  480,  was  decisive ;  the  Greeks 
obtained  the  victory,  and  Themistocles  the 
honor  of  having  destroyed  the  formidable  navy 
of  Xerxes.  Further  to  ensure  the  peace  of  his 
country,  Themisiocles  informed  the  Asiatic 
monarch,  that  the  Greeks  had  conspired  to  cut 
the  bridge  which  he  had  built  across  the  Helles- 
pont, and  to  prevent  his  retreat  into  Asia.  This 
met  with  equal  success,  Xerxes  hastened  away 
from  Greece,  and  while  he  believed  on  the 
word  of  Themistocles,  that  his  return  would  be 
disputed,  he  left  his  forces  without  a  general, 
and  his  tleets  an  easy  conquest  to  the  victorious 
Greeks.  These  signal  services  to  his  country, 
endeared  Themistocles  to  the  Athenians,  and 
he  was  universally  called  the  most  warlike  and 
most  courageous  of  all  the  Greeks  who  fought 
against  the  Persians.  He  was  received  with  the 
most  distinguished  honors  ;  and  by  his  prudent 
administration,  Athens  was  soon  fortified  with 
strong  walls,  the  Pireus  was  rebuilt,  aria  her 
harbors  were  filled  with  a  numerous  and  power- 
ful navy,  which  rendered  her  the  mistress  of 
Greece.  Yet  in  the  midst  of  that  glory,  the 
conqueror  of  Xerxes  incurred  the  displeasure  of 
his  countrymen,  which  had  proved  so  fatal  to 
many  of  his  illustrious  predecessors,  lie  was 
banished  from  the  city,  and  after  he  had  sought 
in  vain  a  safe  retreat  among  the  republics  of 
Greece,  and  the  barbarians  of  Thrace,  he  threw 
himself  into  the  arms  of  a  monarch,  whose  fleets 
he  had  defeated,  and  whose  father  he  had  ruin- 
ed. Artaxerxes,  the  successor  of  Xerxes,  re- 
ceived the  illustrious  Athenian  with  kindness. 


Themistocles  died  in  the  Goth  year  of  his  age, 
about  44i,'  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

THEODORIC  I,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  in 
Spain,  succeeded  Vallia,  in  41U.  He  laid  siege 
to  Aries,  but  was  repulsed  by  Aetius;  some 
time  after  he  defeated  Litorius.  general  of  the 
Roman  army,  and  led  him  prisoner  to  Toulouse. 
But  when  tae  formidable  forces  of  Attila,  king 
of  the  Huns,  put  all  the  princes  of  the  Gauls  into 
a  great  consternation,  he  united  his  forces  with 
Merovee,  king  of  France,  Aetius,  and  Gundi- 
caire,  king  of  the  Burgundians,  and  fought  and 
defeated  Attila.  Theodoric  was  killed  in  the 
battle,  in  451. 

THEODORIC  II,  son  of  the  first,  murdered 
his  eldest  brother  Thorismond,  in  453,  and  made 
himself  master  of  the  town  of  Narbonne,  which 
was  surrendered  to  him  by  Count  Agrippin,  in 
46*J.  Advancing  into  Spain,  Rechaire,  king  of 
the  Suevi,  his  brother-in-law,  gave  him  battle  ; 
but  having  worsted,  and  taken  Rechaire  in  his 
retreat,  Theodoric  sentenced  him  to  death,  and 
was  himself  killed  soon  after  by  the  contrivance 
of  one  of  his  brothers  called  Evaric,  who  as- 
cended the  throne  in  4GG. 

THEODOSIUS  FLAVIU3,a  Roman  empe- 
ror, surnamed  Magnus,  from  the  greatness  of 
his  exploits.  He  was  invested  with  the  impe- 
rial purple  by  Gratian,  and  appointed  over 
Thrace  and  the  eastern  provinces,  which  had 
been,  in  the  possession  of  Valentinian.  The 
first  years  of  his  reign  were  marked  by  different 
conquests  over  the  barbarians.  The  Goths  were 
defeated  in  Thrace,  and  4000  of  their  chariots, 
with  an  immense  number  of  prisoners  of  both 
sexes,  were  the  reward  of  the  victory.  Some 
conspiracies  v;ere  formed  against  the  emperor, 
but  Thcodosius  totally  disregarded  them  ;  and 
while  he  punished  his  competitors  for  the  impe- 
rial purple,  he  thought  himself  sufficiently  se- 
cure in  the  love  and  the  affection  of  his  sub- 
ject.-). He  triumphed  over  the  barbarians,  and 
restored  peace  in  every  part  of  the  empire.  He 
died  of  a  dropsy  at  Milan,  in  the  GOth  year  of 
his  age,  after  a  reign  of  1(5  years,  the  17th  of 
January,  A.  D.  305.  Theodosius  was  the  last 
of  the  emperors  who  was  the  sole  master  of  the 
whole  Roman  empire.  Hio  want  of  clemency, 
however,  in  one  instance,  was  too  openly  be- 
trayed, and  when  the  people  of  Thessalonica 
hi.l  unmeaningly,  perhaps,  killed  cne  of  his 
officers,  the  emperor  ordered  his  soldiers  to  put 
all  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  and  no  less  than 
(i'JUO  persons,  without  distinction  of  rank,  age, 
or  sex,  were  cruelly  butchered  in  that  town  in 
the  space  of  three-  hours.  This  violence  irrita- 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


THE 


567 


THE 


led  the  ecclesiastics,  and  Theodosius  was  com- 
pelled by  St.  Ambrose  to  do  open  penance  in 
the  church,  and  publicly  to  make  atonement  for 
an  act  of  barbarity  which  had  excluded  him  from 
the  bosom  of  the  church,  and  the  communion  of 
the  faithful.  In  his  private  character  Theodo- 
sius was  an  example  of  soberness  and  temper- 
ance, his  palace  displayed  becoming  grandeur, 
but  still  with  moderation.  He  never  indulged 
luxury. or  countenanced  superfluities.  He  was 
fond  of  bodily  exercise,  and  never  gave  himself 
up  to  pleasure  and  enervating  enjoyments.  The 
laws  and  regulations  which  heintroducedin  the 
Roman  empire,  were  of  the  mostsalutary  nature. 

THEODOSIUS  Second,  succeeded  his 
father  Arcadius,  as  emperor  of  the  western  llo- 
man  empire,  though  only  in  the  eighth  year  of 
his  age.  The  territories  of  Theodosius  were 
invaded  by  the  Persians,  but  the  emperor  soon 
appeared  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  force,  and 
the  two  hostile  armies  met  on  the  frontiers  of 
the  empire.  The  consternation  was  universal 
on  both  sides  ;  without  even  a  battle,  the  Per- 
sians fled,  and  no  less  than  100.000  were  lost  in 
the  waters  of  the  Euphrates.  Theodosius  raised 
the  siege  of  A'isibis,  where  his  operations  failed 
of  success,  and  he  averted  the  fury  oi'lhe  Huns 
and  Vandals  by  bribes  and  promises.  He  died 
on  the  y'Jth  of  July,  in  the  4!Jth  year  of  his  age, 
A.  D.  450. 

THERAMENES,  an  Athenian  philosopher 
and  general  in  the  age  of  Alcibiades.  He  was 
one  of  the  thirty  tyrants  of  Athens,  but  he  had 
no  share  in  the  cruelties  and  oppression  which 
disgraced  their  administration  lie  was  accused 
by  Critias,  one  of  his  colleagues,  because  he  op- 
posed their  views,  and  he  was  condemned  to 
drink  hemlock,  though  defended  by  his  own  in- 
nocence, and  the  friendly  intercession  of  the 
philosopher  Socrates.  He  drank  the  poison 
with  great  composure,  and  poured  some  of  it  on 
the  ground,  with  the  sarcastical  exclamation  of, 
"  This  is  to  the  health  of  Critias."  This  hap- 
pened about  404  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

THERMOPYL/E,  a  small  pass  leading  from 
Thessaly  into  Lociis  and  Phocis.  It  has  a  large 
ridge  of  mountains  on  the  west,  and  the  sea  on 
the  east,  with  deep  and  dangerous  marshes,  be- 
ing in  the  narrowest  part  only  twenty-five  feet 
in  breadth.  It  is  celebrated  for  a  battle  which 
was  fought  there,  B.  C.  460.  on  the  7th  of  Au- 
gust, between  Xerxes,  and  the  Greeks  under 
Leonidas.  Xerxes  assembled  his  troops  and 
encamped  on  the  plains  of  Trachis.  Xerxes 
having  no  particular  quarrel  with  the  Spartans, 
<«ent  messeno-ers  to  desire  them  to  lay  down  their 
4S* 


arms;  to  which  the  Lacedaemonians  boldly  re- 
plied "  Let  Xerxes  come  and  take  them."  On 
the  evening  of  the  seventh  day  after  Xerxes  had 
airived  at  the  straits  of  Thermopyla},  twenty 
thousand  chosen  men, commanded  by  Hydarnes, 
and  conducted  by  the  traitor  Epialtes,  who  had 
offered  to  lead  them  through  another  passage  in 
the  mountains,  left  the  Persian  camp.  The 
next  morning  they  perceived  a  thousand  Pho- 
cians,  whom  Leonidas  had  sent  to  defend  this 
important,  but  generally  unknown,  pass.  The 
immense  shower  of  darts  from  the  Persians, 
compelled  the  Phocians  to  abandon  the  passage 
they  had  been  sent  to  guard  ;  and  they  retired 
to  the  highest  part  of  the  mountain.  This  gave 
the  Persians  an  opportunity  of  seizing  the  pass 
through  which  they  marched,  with  the  greatest 
expedition.  In  the  dead  of  the  night  the  Spar- 
tans, headed  by  Leonidas,  and  full  of  resent- 
ment and  despair,  marched  in  close  battalion  to 
surprise  the  Persian  camp.  Dreadful  wae  the 
fury  of  the  Greeks ;  and  on  account  of  want  of 
discipline,there  being  no  advance  guard  or  watch, 
greatly  destructive  to  the  Persians.  Numbers 
tell  by  the  Grecian  spears,  but  far  more  perished 
by  the  mistakes  of  their  own  troops,  who,  in  the 
confusion  that  prevailed,  could  not  distinguish 
friends  from  fees.  Wearied  with  slaughter,  the 
Greeks  penetrated  to  the  royal  tent ;  but  Xerxes 
with  his  favorites,  had  fled  to  the  extremity  of 
the  encampments.  The  dawn  of  day  discover- 
ed to  the  Persians  a  dreadful  scene  of  carnage, 
and  the  handful  of  Greeks  by  whom  this  terri- 
ble slaughter  had  been  made.  The  Spartans 
now  retreated  to  the  straits  of  Thermopyke  ;  and 
the  Persians,  by  menaces,  stripes,  and  blows, 
could  scarcely  be  compelled  to  advance  against 
them.  The  Greeks  halted  where  the  pass  was 
widest,  to  receive  the  charge  of  the  enemy. 
The  shock  was  dreadful.  After  the  Greeks  had 
blunted  or  broken  their  spears,  they  attacked 
with  sword  in  hand,  and  made  an  incredible 
havoc.  Four  times  they  dispelled  the  thickest 
ranks  of  the  enemy,  in  order  to  obtain  the  sa- 
cred remains  of  their  king  Leonidas,  who  had 
fallen  in  the  engagement.  At  this  crisis,  when 
their  unexampled  valor  was  about  to  carry  off 
the  inestimable  prize,  the  hostile  battalions  un- 
der the  conduct  of  Epialtes,  were  seen  descend- 
ing the  hill.  All  hopes  were  now  dispersed, 
and  nothing  remained  to  be  attempted  but  the 
last  effort  of  a  generous  despair.  Collecting 
themselves  into  a  phalanx,  the  Greeks  retired 
to  the  narrowest  part  of  the  strait ;  and  on  a 
rising  ground,  took  post  behind  the  Phocian 
wall.  As  they  made  this  movement,  the  The- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


THO 


568 


TIB 


bans,  whom  fear  had  hitherto  icstrained  from  dp- 
lection,  revolted  lo  the  Persians  ;  declaring  that 
their  republic  h:id  sent  earth  and  water  in  token 
of  their  submission  to  Xerxes;  and  that  they 
had  been  reluctantly  complied  to  resist  the  pro- 
gress of  his  arms.  In  the  meantime,  the  Lace- 
daemonians and  Thespians  were  assaulted  on 
every  side  ;  th'.'  wall  was  beaten  down,  and  the 
enemy  entered  the  breaches.  But  instant  death 
befell  the  Persians  that  entered.  In  this  last 
struggle,  the  most  heroic  and  determined  cour- 
:ige  was  displayed  by  every  Grecian.  It  being 
observed  to  Diocenes,  the  .Spartan,  that  the  Per- 
sian arrows  were  so  numerous  as  lo  intercept 
the  lig'it  of  the  sun,  he  replied  this  was  a  favor- 
able circumstance,  because  the  Greeks  thereby 
fought  in  the  shade.  At  length  it  became  im- 
possible for  the  Greeks  to  resist  the  impetuosity 
and  weight  of  the  darts  .and  other  missiles  con- 
tinually poured  upon  them.  They  therefore 
fell,  not  conquered,  but  buried  under  a  trophy 
of  Persian  arms.  In  this  dreadful  conflict,  the 
Persians  lost  20,000  men,  and  according  to  some 
historians,  the  whole  of  the  Persian  army 
amounted  to  five  millions  ! 

THESSALY.  The  boundaries  of  Thessaly 
varied,  but  it  had  the  Egean  sea  on  the  east,  and 
the  northern  parts  of  Greece  on  the  south.  It 
contained  four  provinces,  mostlv  surrounded 
with  mountains.  In  the  centre  of  Thessaly,  on 
the  river  Enipeus,  were  the  city  and  plain  of 
Ph  irh'iliis,  i'amous  for  the  battle  fought  there 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey.  The  greater  part 
ofPompey's  army  was  cut  in  pieces,  or  made 
prisoners  by  the  conqueror.  Thessaly  was  gov- 
erned by  its  own  kings  till  it  became" subject  to 
Macedon. 

THISTLEWOOD,  Arthur,  a  disappointed 
man  and  desperate  politician,  who.  in  1*1!), 
planned  a  conspiracy  to  assassinate  Ihe  king's 
ministers,  at  a  cabinet  dinner  in  Grosvenor- 
Bquare.  He,  and  his  confederates,  fifteen  or 
sixteen  in  number,  assembled  in  a  stable-loft  in 
Cato-street,  Mary-la-bonne,  on  the  evening  on 
which  they  proposed  to  effect  their  purposeful 
thr  p-.luT  having  notice,  they  were  surround- 
ed, and  raojt  of  them  captured.  Tbisttewood 
und  f.ur  others  were  tried  at  the  Old  liailey, 
and  l»eing  convicted,  were  executed  in  the  usual 
manner  in  which  death  is  inflicted  for  high 
treason. 

THOMPSON,  Charles,  secretary  of  the  con- 
tinental r.uigri-ss,  was  born  in  Ireland,  Nov. 
1 7:£),  and  came  to  America  lit  the  age  of  eleven. 
He  went  into  business  in  Philadelphia,  where 
he  distinguished  himself  by  his  early  opposition 


to  the  obnoxious  measures  of  the  British  minis- 
try. He  retired  afer  the  organization  of  the 
constitution,  and  died  in  1624: 

THRACE,  a  large  country  of  Europe,  south 
of  Scylhia,  bounded  by  Mount  liscmus.  It  had 
the  jEgean  sea  on  the  south,  on  the  west,  Ma- 
cedonia and  the  river  Strymon,  and  on  the  east 
the  Euxine  sea,  the  Propontis,  and  the  Helles- 
pont. Its  northern  boundaries  extended  as  far 
as  the  Isler,  according  to  Pliny  and  others.  The 
Thracians  were  looked  upon  as  a  cruel  and  bar- 
barous nation  ;  they  were  naturally  brave  and 
warlike,  addicted  to  drinking  and  licentious  plea- 
sures, and  they  sacrificed,  without  the  smallest 
humanity,  their  enemies,  on  the  altars  of  their 
gods.  Their  government  was  originally  mon- 
archical, and  divided  among  a  number  of  inde- 
pendent princes.  Thrace  is  barren  as  to  its  soil. 
It  received  its  name  from  Thrax,  the  son  of 
Mars,  the  chief  deity  of  the  country.  The  first 
inhabitants  lived  upon  plunder,  and  on  the  milk 
and  tlesh  of  sheep.  It  forms  now  the  province 
of  Romania. 

THRASYBULUS,  a  famous  general  of 
Athens,  who  began  the  expulsion  of  the  thirty 
tyrants  of  his  country,  though  he  was  only  as- 
sisted by  thirty  of  his  friends.  His  efforts  were 
attended  with  success,  B.  C.  401.  and  the  only 
reward  he  received  for  this  patriotic  action,  was 
a  crown  made  with  two  twigs  of  an  olive  branch  ; 
a  proof  of  his  own  disinterestedness  and  of  the 
virtues  of  his  countrymen.  The  Athenians 
employed  a  man  whose  abilities  and  humani- 
tv  were  so  conspicuous,  and  Thrasybulus  was 
sent  with  a  powerful  fleet  to  recover  their  lost 
power  in  the  52gean,  and  on  the  coast  of 
Asia.  After  he  had  gained  many  advantages, 
this  great  man  was  killed  in  his  camp  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Aspeiidns,  whom  his  soldiers  had 
plundered  within  his  knowledge,  B.  C.  391. 

THRASYMENUS,  a  lake  of  Italy  near  IV 
rnsia,  celebrated  for  a  battle  fought  there  be- 
tween Hannibal  and  the  Romans,  under  Flami- 
nius,  B.  C.  217.  No  less  than  15,1)00  Romans 
were  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  10,000 
taken  prisoners,  or;  according  to  Livy.  0000,  or 
Polybius  15,000.  The  loss'of  Hannibal  was 
about  1500  men.  About.  10,000  Romans  made 
their-  escape  all  covered  with  wounds.  This 
lake  is  now  called  the  lake  of  Peruiria. 

TIBERIUS,  Claudius  Nero,  a  Roman  empe- 
ror after  the  death  of  Augustus,  was  descended 
from  the  family  of  the  Claud ii.  His  first  ap- 
pearance in  the  Roman  armies  was  under  Au- 
gustus, in  the  war  against  the  Cnntabri ;  and 
afterwards  in  the  capacity  of  general,  he  obtain- 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TIB 


5G9  TIL 


ed  victories  in  different  parts  of  the  empire, 
and  was  rewarded  with  a  triumph.  He  had  the 
command  of  the  Roman  armies  in  Illyricum, 
Pannonia,  and  Dalmatia,  and  seemed  to  divide 
the  sovereign  power  with  Augustus.  At  the 
death  of  this  celebrated  emperor,  Tiberius,  who 
had  been  adopted,  assumed  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment. The  beginning  of  his  reign  seemed  to 
promise  tranquillity  to  the  world  ;  Tiberius  was 
a  watchful  guardian  of  the  public  peace ;  he 
was  the  friend  of  justice ;  and  never  assumed 
the  sounding  titles  which  must  disgust  a  free 
nation,  but  he  was  satisfied  to  say  of  himself 
that  he  was  the  master  of  his  slaves,  the  gene- 
ral of  his  soldiers,  and  the  father  of  the  citizens 
of  Rome.  That  seeming  moderation,  however, 
which  was  but  the  fruit  of  the  deepest  policy, 
soon  disappeared,  and  Tiberius  was  viewed  in 
his  real  character.  The  armies  mutinied  in 
Pannonia  and  Germany,  but  the  tumults  were 
silenced  by  the  prudence  of  the  generals  and  the 
fidelity  of  the  officers,  and  the  factious  dema- 
gogues were  abandoned  to  their  condign  pun- 
ishment. This  acted  as  a  check  upon  Tiberius 
in  Rome  ;  he  knew  from  thence,  as  his  succes- 
sors had  experienced,  that  his  power  was  pre- 
carious, and  his  very  existence  in  perpetual 
danger.  He  continued,  as  he  had  begun,  to 
pay  the  greatest  deference  to  the  senate ;  all  li- 
bels against  him  he  disregarded, .and  he  observ- 
ed, that,  in  a  free  city,  the  thoughts  and  the 
tongue  of  every  man  should  be  free.  While 
Rome  exhibited  a  scene  of  peace  and  public 
tranquillity,  the  barbarians  were  severally  de- 
feated on  the  borders  of  the  empire,  and  Tibe- 
rius gained  new  honors,  by  the  activity  and  va- 
lor of  Germanicus  and  his  other  faithful  lieu- 
tenants. He  at  last  retired  to  the  island  of 
Capreaj  on  fhe  coast  of  Campania,  where  he 
buried  himself  in  unlawful  pleasures.  The  care 
of  the  empire  was  entrusted  to  favorites,  among 
whom  Sejanus  for  awhile  shone  with  uncom- 
mon splendor.  In  this  solitary  relreat,  the  em- 
peror proposed  rewards  to  such  as  invented  nr  w 
pleasures,  or  could  produce  fresh  luxuries. 
While  the  emperor  was  lost,  to  himself  and  the 
world,  the  provinces  were  harassed  on  every 
side  by  the  barbarians,  and  Tiberius  found  him- 
self insulted  by  those  enemies  whom  hitherto 
he  had  seen  fall  prostrate  at  his  feet  with  every 
mark  of  submissive  adulation.  At  last  grown 
weak  and  helpless  through  infirmities,  he 
thought  of  his  approaching  dissolution  ;  and  as 
he  well  knew  that  Rome  could  not  exist  with- 
out a  head,  he  nominated,  as  his  successor, 
Caius  Caligula.  Tiberius  died  at  Misenum, 


of  March,  A.  D.  37,  in  the  78th  year 
of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-two  years, 
six  months,  and  twenty-six  days.  "  It  has  been 
wittily  observed  by  Seneca,  that  he  never  was 
intoxicated  but  once  all  his  life,  for  he  continued 
in  a  perpetual  state  of  intoxication  from  the 
time  he  gave  himself  to  drinking,  till  the  last 
moment  of  his  life. 

T1CONDEROGA,  a  post-town  of  Essex 
county,  N.  Y.,  on  the  west  side  of  the  E.  end 
of  lake  Champlain,and  at  the  north  end  of  lake 
George.  Population  2169.  The  fort  at  the 
north  of  the  outlet  from  lake  George  into  lake 
Champlain  is  in  a  ruinous  condition. 

TIG  RANKS,  a  king  of  Armenia,  who  made 
himself  master  of  Assyria  and  Cappadocia.  By 
the  advice  of  his  father-in-law,  he  declared  war 
against  the  Romans.  He  despised  these  distant 
f7iemies,and  even  ordered  the  head  of  the  mes- 
senger to  be  cut  cff  who  first  told  him  that  the 
Roman  general  was  boldly  advancing  towards 
his  capital.  His  pride,  however,  was  soon 
abated,  and  though  he  ordered  the  Roman  con- 
sul Lucullus  to  be  brought  alive  into  his  pre- 
sence, he  fled  with  precipitation  from  his  capi- 
tal, and  was  scon  after  defeated  near  mount 
Taurus.  This  totally  disheartened  him  ;  he  re- 
fused to  receive  Mithridates  into  his  palace, 
and  even  set  a  price  upon  his  head.  His  mean 
submission  to  Pompey,  the  successor  of  Lu- 
cullus in  Asia,  and  a  bribe  of  60,000  talents,  in- 
sured him  on  his  throne, and  he  received  a  gar- 
rison in  his  capital,  and  continued  at  peace  with 
the  Romans.  His  second  son,  of  the  same 
name,  revolted  against  him.  and  attempted  to 
dethrone  him  with  the  assistance  of  the  king 
of  Parthia,  whose  daughter  he  had  married. 
This  did  not  succeed,  and  the  son  had  recourse 
to  the  Romans,  by  whom  he  was  put  in  posses- 
sion of  Sophene,  while  the  father  remained 
quiet  on  the  throne  of  Armenia.  The  son  was 
afterwards  sent  in  chains  to  Rome,  for  his  inso- 
lence to  Pompey. 

TILLY,  John  Tzerklas,  count  de,  a  celebrated 
general,  was  born  near  Brussels,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  originally  a  Jesuit,  which  order  he 
quitted  for  the  army.  He  commanded  the  Ba- 
varian troops  under  duke  Maximilian,  and  had 
a  great  share  in  the  battle  of  Prague,  Nov.  8, 
1620.  At  that  of  Lutter,  in  Lunenburg,  in 
16^0,  he  defeated  the  king  of  Denmark,  with 
whom  he  afterwards  concluded  a  treaty.  In 
1631  he  took  the  city  of  Magdeburg,  where  he 
committed  a  horrible  massacre.  The  same 
year  he  was  routed  by  Gustavus  Adolphus ;  and 
while  defending  the  passage  of  the  Lech  against 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


TIM 


570 


TIM 


the  Swrde,  he  received  a  mortal  wound,  Airil  yearly  to  be  observed  on  the  day  of  his  death. 
:«),  li;:K.  TIMOUR,  called   also  Timour   Lenk  (the 

TLMOLEOX,  a  celebrated  Corinthian,  who  lame)  by  corruption,  Tamerlane,  was,  according 
slew  his  own  brother.  When  the  Syracusans,  to  some  authorities,  thp  son  of  a  shepherd,  and 
oppressed  with  the  tyranny  of  Dionysius  the  to  others,  of  roval  descent.  He  was  born  in 
younger,  and  of  the  Carthaginians,  had  solicited  1335,  at  Kesch,  in  the  ancient  Sogdiana.  His 
the  assistance  of  the  Corinthians,  all.  looked  'first  conquest  was  that  of  Balck,  the  capital  of 
upon  Tiuioleon  as  a  proper  deliverer;  but  all  Khorassan.  on  the  frontiers  of  Persia.  He  next 
applications  would  have  been  disregarded,  if  made  himself  master  of  Kandahar,  and  after  re- 
one  of  the  magistrates  had  not  awakened  in  ducing  all  ancient  Persia  under  his  dominion, 
him  the  sense  of  natural  liberty.  "Timoleon,"  he  turned  back  in  order  to  subdue  the  people 
nays  he, '-if  you  accept  of  the  command  of  this  of*  Transoxana.  Thence  he  marched  to  lav 
expedition,  we  will  believe  that  you  have  killed  siege  to  Bagdad,  which  lie  took,  and  proceeding 
a  tyrant;  but  if  not,  we  cannot  but  call  you  with  his  victorious  army  into  India,  he  subdued 
your  brother's  murderer."  This  had  due  effect ;  the  whole  of  that  nation,  and  entered  Delhi,  the 
and  Timoleon  sailed  for  Syracuse  in  ten  ships,  capital  of  the  empire.  After  Tamerlane  had 
accompanied  by  about  1000  men.  The  Cartha-  completed  the  conquest  of  India,  he  marched 
gioiatu  attempted  t>  oppose  him,  but  Timoleon  his  army  back,  and  falling  upon  Syria,  he  took 
i-ludeJ  their  vigilance.  Icetas,  who  had  the  Damascus.  From  thence,  he  suddenly  returned 
possession  of  the  city,  was  defeated,  and  Di-  to  Bagdad,  in  1401,  which  had  partly  shaken 
onysi  us,  who  despaired  of  success,  gave  himself  off  the  yoke.  He  soon  became  master  of  it 
up  into  the  hands  of  the  Corinthian  general,  again,  and  gave  it  up  to  the  fury  of  the  soldiers, 
This  success  gained  Timoleon  adherents  in  Si-  on  whicli  occasion  eight  hundred  thousand  in- 
cily  ;  many  cities  which  hitherto  had  looked  habitants  are  said  to  have  been  destroyed,  and 
upon  him  as  an  irnposter,  claimed  his  protec-  the  city  was  razed  to  the  ground.  About  this 
tion  ;  and  when  he  was  at  last  master  of  Syra-  time,  five  Mahometan  princes,  who  had  been 
cuse.  by  the  total  overthrow  of  Icelas,  and  of  dispossessed  by  Bajazet  of  their  dominions,  sit- 
the  Carthaginians,  he  razed  the  citadel  which  uated  on  the  borders  of  the  Euxine  sea,  implored 
had  been  the  seat  of  tyranny,  and  erected  on  Tamerlane's  assistance ;  and  at  length  he  was 
the  spot  a  common  hall.  When  Syracuse  was  prevailed  on  to  march  his  army  into  Asia  Minor, 
thus  delivered  from  tyranny,  the  conqueror  ex-  He  be<ran  with  sendin*r  ambassadors  to  Bajazet, 
tended  hi*  benevolence  to  the  other  states  of  who  were  ordered  to  msist  on  his  raising  the 
bicily,  and  all  the  petty  tyrants  were  reduced  siege  of  Constantinople,  and  doincr  justice  to 
ana  banished  from  the  island.  A  code  of  salu-  the  five  Mahometan  princes,  whom  lie  had 
tary  laws  was  trained  fjr  the  Syracusans;  and  stripped  of  their  dominions.  Bajazet  disdaining 
the  armies  of  Carthage,  which  had  attempted  these  proposals,  Tamerlane  declared  war  against 
again  to  raise  commotions  in  Sicily,  were  de-  him,  and  put  his  troops  in  motion.  Bajazet 
feated,  and  peace  was  at  last  re-established,  raised  the  sie-re  of  Constantinople,  and  July  28. 

he  gratitude  of  the  bicilidM  was  shown  every  1402,  the  ever  memorable  battle  took  place,  be- 

3  their  deliverer.      Timoleon  was  re-  tween  Crcsirea  and  Anwra.    After  an  obstinate 

a   with    repeated    applause  in  the  public  contest  Bajazet  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner. 

s;  and  though  a  private  man,  uncon-  Tamerlane,  who  had  hitherto  foiiffht  with  the 

,vith  the  government,  he  continued  to  scvmitar  and   with   arrows,  employed  several 

.-njoy  his  former  induce  at  Syracuse ;  his  ad-  field-pieces  in  this  engagement,  and  the  Tftrks 

ce  was  consulted  on  matters  of  importance,  employed  cannon  and  the  ancient  Greek  fire. 

and  hi.  authority  respected.     He  ridiculed  the  Tamerlane's  splendid  victory  did  not,  however, 

Mialovolence;  and   when  some  deprive  the  Turkish  empire  of  a  single  city. 

f,r,,,,.»  had    chug-d    him   with  oppression,  Musa,  the  son  of  Bajazet,  became  suTtan.  but 

:usans,  who  were  going  to  notwithstanding  the  protection  of  Tamerlane, 

put  the  a,  .-hate  death.     T.moleon  he  was   un::ble   to  oppose   his  brothers;   and   a 

>!•$  before   the  civil  war  ra-red  thirteen  years  among  the  family. 

Chruuan  era.     H,s  body  revived  an  honorable  Soon  after  this,  Tamerlane  ravage!  Svria,  and 

bur,.,!,  ,„  a  puM.c  place,  called,  from  him,  Ti-  from  thence  he  reputed  the  Euphrates,  and  re- 

••onuv.m;  but  the  tears  of  a  grateful  nation  turned  to  Samarkand.     He  conquered  nearly 

m-  convincing  proof,  of  the  pubhc  re-  as  great  an  extent  of  territory  as  Jenghis  Khan 

grel,  than  the  institution  of  festivals  and  games  He  was  scarcely  settled  in  his  newfy  acquired 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TOL 


571 


TOU 


empire,  India,  when  he  began  to  plan  the  con-  vinfe  of  the  same  name,situnted  on  the  Tagus, 

quest  of  China,  but  he  died  in  the  rnidst  of  his  32  miles  S.  W.  of  Madrid.     Jt  was  successively 

glorious  career.  April  1,  1405.  the  seat  of  government  under  the   Goths,  the 

TIPPOO  SA1B,  the  son  of  Hyder  Ali,  and  Moors,  and  the  kings  of  Castile.     In  the  year 

equally  distinguished  for  his  vigilance  and  brav-  1085,  this  ancient  capital  fell  into  tiie  hands  of 

ery,  in  resisting  the  British  during  the  war  in  the  Christians,  and  became  the    residence  of 

India.— See  India.  their  kings.     It  was  besieged  in  IIU'J,  1 1 14.  and 

TITUS  Vespasian,  son  of  Vespasian  and  1227,  but  without  success.  At  a  subsequent 
Flavia  Domitilln,  became  known  by  his  valor  date  it  was  less  fortunate,  having  been  besieged 
in  the  Roman  armies,  particularly  at  the  siege  and  taken  in  1467,  and  in  1641.  Great  part  of 
of  Jerusalem.  In  the  79th  year  of  the  Christian  the  town  was  burnt  on  each  occasion,  which, 
era,  he  was  invested  with  the  imperial  purple,  with  the  removal  of  the  government  to  Madrid, 
and  the  Roman  people  had  every  reason  to  ex-  has  been  the  cause  of  its  decline, 
pect  in  him  the  barbarities  of  a  Tiberius,  and  TOULON,  a  sea-port  in  the  south-east  of 
the  debaucheries  of  a  Nero.  When  raised  to  Fiance.  The  most  remarkable  event  in  its  his- 
the  throne,  he  thought  himself  bound  to  be  the  tory  is  the  occupation  of  the  town  and  harbor 
father  of  his  people,  the  guardian  of  virtue,  and  by  the  British,  in  the  autumn  of  17!)3,  the  sub- 
the  patron  of  liberty  ;  and  Titus  is,  perhaps,  the  sequent  siege  by  the  republican  troops  of  France, 
only  monarch  who,  when  invested  with  uncon-  and  the  precipitate  abandonment  of  the  place 
trollable  power,  bade  adieu  to  those  vices,  those  by  the  British  troops,  on  the  lUth  of  December, 
luxuries,  and  indulgences,  which,  as  a  private  1793,  after  burning  and  carrying  oft"  nboul  half 
man,  he  never  ceased  to  gratify.  All  informers  the  squadron  contained  in  the  port.  Bonaparte 
were  banished  from  his  presence,  and  even  se-  commanded  part  of  the  besieging  artillery,  and 
verely  punished.  A  reform  was  made  in  the  directed  it  with  great  judgment, 
judicial  proceedings,  and  trials  were  no  longer  TOULOUSE;  a  city  of  France,  capital  of 
permitted  to  be  postponed  for  years.  To  do  good  Upper  Garonne,  containing  55,319  inhabitants, 
to  his  subjects  was  the  ambition  of  Titus;  and  In  a  historical  light,  it  acquired  an  unfortunate 
it  was  at  the  recollection  that  he  had  done  no  title  to  notice,  by  an  obstinate  battie  fought  on 
service,  or  granted  no  favor  one  day,  that  he  the  10th  of  April,  1814,  between  the  British, 
exclaimed  in  the  memorable  words  of,  "My  under  lord  Wellington,  and  the  Fiench,  under 
friends,  I  have  lost  a  day  !"  Two  of  the  sen-  Soult;  neither  commander  having  been  apprised 
ators  conspired  against  his  life,  but  the  emperor  of  the  abdication  of  Bonaparte.  The  British 
disregarded  their°attempts.  He  made  them  his  troops  were  successful,  but  suffered  severely; 
friends  by  kindness,  and,  like  another  Nerva,  their  loss,  in  killed  and  wounded,  was  between 
presented  them  with  a  sword  to  destroy  him.  four  and  five  thousand  men. 
During  his  reign,  Rome  was  three  days  on  fire ;  TOURNAMENTS.  The  following  sketch 
the  towns  of  Campania  were  destroyed  by  an  of  the  origin  and  nvmnerof  constructing  a  tour- 
eruption  of  Vesuvius;  and  the  empire  was  visi-  nament,  from  the  History  of  Chivalry,  we  hope 
ted  by  a  pestilence,  which  carried  off  an  infinite  will  not  prove  uninteresting  to  our  readers, 
number  of  inhabitants.  In  this  time  of  public  The  first  authentic  mention  of  a  tournament 
calamity,  the  emperor's  benevolence  and  phi-  is  to  be  found  in  the  Chronicle  of  Tours,  which 
lanthrophy  were  conspicuous.  The  Romans,  records  the  death  of  Geoffrey  de  Friuli  in  1006; 
however,  had  not  long  to  enjoy  the  fuvors  of  adding  the  words  qni  torncnmentu  invenit — who 
this  magnificent  prince.  Titus  was  taken  ill ;  invented  tournaments.  From  the  appearance 
and  as  he  retired  into  the  country  of  the  Sabines,  of  these  exercises  in  Germany  about  the  same 
to  his  father's  house,  his  indisposition  was  in-  time,  we  may  conclude  that  this  date  is  pretty 
creased  by  a  burning  fever.  He  died  the  13th  nearly  correct;  and  that  if  tournaments  were 
of  September,  A.  D.  81,  in  the  4lst  year  of  his  not  absolutely  invented  at  that  precise  period, 
age,  after  a  reign  of  two  years,  two  months,  they  were  then  first  regulated  by  distinct  laws, 
and  twenty  days.  In  England  they  did  not  appear  till  several 

TLASCALA,  a  territory  of  the  Mexican  re-  years  later,  when  the  Nor  man  manners  intro- 
public,  containing  60,000 "inhabitants.     At  the  duced  after  the  conquest  had  completely  super- 
time  of  the  conquest  by  the  Spaniards,  the  city  seded  the  customs  of  the  Saxons. 
of  Tlascala  alone  contained  300,000.  Thus  much  has  seemed  necessary  to  me  to 

TOLEDO,  anciently  Toletum,  a  handsome  say  concerning  the  origin  of  tournaments,  as 

city  of  Spain,  in  New  Castile,  capital  of  a  pro-  theie   are  so  many  common  fables  on  the  sub 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


TOD 


572 


TOU 


ject  which  give  far  greater  antiquity  to  the  A- 
ercise  than  that  which  it  is  entitled  to  claim. 

The  ceremonies  and  the  splendor  of  the  tour- 
nament of  course  differed  in  different  ages  and 
different  countries;  but  the  general  principle 
was  the  same.  It  was  a  chivalrous  game,  orig- 
inally instituted  for  practising  those  exercises, 
and  acquiring  that  skill  which  was  likely  to  be 
useful  in  knightly  warfare. 

A  tournament  was  usually  given  upon  the 
occasion  of  any  great  meeting,  for  either  mili- 
tary or  political  purposes.  Sometimes  it  was 
the  king  himself  who  sent  his  heralds  through 
the  land  to  announce  to  all  noblemen  and  ladies, 
that  on  a  certain  day  he  would  hold  a  grand 
tournament,  where  all  brave  knights  might  try 
their  prowess.  At  other  times  a  tournament 
was  determined  on  by  a  body  of  independent 
knights ;  and  messengers  were  often  sent  into 
distant  countries  to  invite  all  gallant  gentlemen 
to  honor  the  passage  of  arms. 

The  spot  fixed  upon  for  the  lists  was  usually 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  some  abbey 
or  castle,  where  the  shields  of  the  various  cava- 
liers who  purposed  combatting,  were  exposed 
to  view  for  several  days  previous  to  the  meeting. 
A  herald  was  also  placed  beneath  the  cloisters 
to  answer  all  questions  concerning  the  cham- 
pions, and  to  receive  all  complaints  against  any 
individual  knight.  If,  upon  investigation,  the 
kings  of  arms  and  judges  of  the  field  found  that 
a  just  accusation  was  laid  against  one  of  the 
knights  proposing  to  appear,  a  peremptory  com- 
mand excluded  him  from  the  lists ;  and  if  he 
dated  in  despite  thereof  to  present  himself,  he 
was  driven  forth  with  blows  and  ignominy. 

Round  about  the  field  appointed  for  the  spec- 
tacle were  raised  galleries,  scaffoldings,  tents, 
and  pavilions,  decorated  with  all  the  "magnifi- 
cence of  a  luxurious  age.  Banners  and  scutch- 
eons, and  bandrols,  silks  and  cloth  of  gold,  cov- 
ered tlie  galleries  and  floated  round  'the  field  ; 
while  all  th.it  rich  garments  and  precious  stones, 
beauty  and  youth,  could  do  to  outshine  the 
inanimate  part  of  the  scene,  was  to  be  found 
am..n^r  the  spectators.  Here  too  was  seen  the 
venerable  age  of  Chivalry— all  those  old  knights 
whose  limbs  were  no  longer  competent  to  bear 
•  it  of  arms,  surrounding  tlie  field  to 
view  the  prowess  of  their  children,  and  judge 
the  deed*  of  the  day.  Heralds  and  pursuivants, 
in  Un:  gjy  and  many-colored  garments  which 
they  peculiarly  affected,  fluttered  over  the  field, 
and  l»,md.i  of  warlike  music  wen-  stationed  near 
to  aniurittt  the  contest  and  to  salute  the  victors. 

The  knighU,  as  they  appeared  in  the  list*, 


were  greeted  by  the  heralds  and  the  people  ac- 
cording to  their  renown  ;  but  the  approbation 
of  the  female  part  of  the  spectators  was  the 
great  stimulous  to  all  the  Chivalry  of  the  field. 
Each  knight,  as  a  part  of  his  duty,  either  felt 
or  feigned"  himself  in  love;  and  "it  was  upon 
these  occasions  that  his  lady  might  descend 
from  the  high  state  to  which  the  mystic  adora- 
tion of  the  day  had  raised  her,  and  bestow  upon 
her  favored  champion  a  glove,  a  riband,  a  brace- 
let, a  jewel,  which  borne  on  his  crest  through 
the  hard-contested  field,  was  the  chief  object  of 
his  care,  and  the  great  excitement  to  his  valor. 

Often,  too,  in  the  midst  of  the  combat,  if  ac- 
cident or  misfortune  deprived  the  favored  knight 
of  tlie  gage  of  his  lady's  affection,  hei  admira- 
tion or  her  pity  won  her  to  supply  another 
token,  sent  by  a  page  or  squire,  to  raise  again 
her  lover's  resolution,  and  animate  him  to  new 
exertions. 

The  old  romance  of  Perce-forest  gives  a  curious 
picture  of  the  effects  visible  after  a  tournament, 
by  the  eagerness  with  which  the  fair  spectators 
had  encouraged  the  knights.  "  At  the  close  of 
the  tournament,"  says  the  writer,  "  the  ladies 
were  so  stripped  of  their  ornaments,  that  the 
greater  part  of  them  were  bareheaded.  Thus 
they  went  their  ways  with  their  hair  floating 
on  their  shoulders  more  glossy  than  fine  gold : 
and  with  their  robes  without  the  sleeves,  for 
they  had  given  to  the  knights  to  decorate  them- 
selves, wimples  and  hoods,  mantles  and  shifts, 
sleeves  and  bodies.  When  they  found  them- 
selves undressed  to  such  a  pitch,  they  were  at 
first  quite  ashamed ;  but  as  soon  as  they  saw 
every  one  was  in  the  same  slate,  they  began  to 
laugh  at  the  whole  adventure,  for  they  had  all 
bestowed  their  jewels  and  their  clothes  upon 
the  knights  with  so  good  a  will,  that  they  had 
not  perceived  that  they  uncovered  themselves." 

This  is  probably  an  exaggerated  account  of 
the  enthusiasm  which  the  events  of  a  tourna- 
ment excited  in  the  bosom  of  the  fair  ladies  of 
that  day  ;  but  still,  no  doubt  can  be  entertained, 
that  they  not  only  decorated  their  knights  be- 
fore the  tournament  with  some  token  of  their 
approbation,  but  in  the  case  of  its  loss,  often 
sent  him  even  a  part  of  their  dress  in  the  midst 
of  the  conflict. 

The  other  spectators,  also,  though  animated 
by  less  thrilling  interests,  took  no  small  share 
in  tlie  feelings  and  hopes  of  the  different  parties. 
Each  blow  of  the  lance  or  sword,  struck  well 
and  home,  was  greeted  with  loud  acclamations; 
and  valor  met  both  its  incitement  and  its  reward. 
in  liie  expecting  silence  and  tlie  thundering 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TOU 


573 


TOU 


plaudits  with  with  each  good  champion's  move- 
ments were  waited  for  and  seen. 

In  the  mean  while,  without  giving  encour- 
agement to  any  particular  knight,  the  heralds 
strove  to  animate  all  by  various  quaint  and 
characteristic  exclamations,  such  as  "  The  love 
of  ladies!"  "  Death  to  the  horses  !"  "Honor 
to  the  brave!"  "Glory  to  be  won  by  blood 
and  sweat !"  "  Praise  to  the  sons  of  the  brave  !" 

It  would  occupy  too  much  space  to  enter  into 
all  the  details  of  the  tournament,  or  to  notice 
all  the  laws  by  which  it  was  governed.  Every 
care  was  taken  that  the  various  knights  should 
meet  upon  equal  terms,  and  many  a  precaution 
was  made  use  of  to  prevent  accidents,  and  to 
render  the  sport  both  innocent  and  useful.  '  But 
no  regulations  could  be  found  sufficient  to  guard 
against  the  dangerous  consequences  of  such  fu- 
rious amusements  ;  and  Ducange  gives  a  long 
list  of  princes  and  nobles  who  lost  their  lives 
in  these  fatal  exercises.  The  church  often  in- 
terfered, though  in  vain,  to  put  them  down; 
and  many  monarchs  forbade  them  in  their  do- 
minions ;  but  the  pomp  with  which  they  were 
accompanied,  and  the  excitement  they  afforded 
to  a  people  fond  of  every  mental  stimulus,  ren- 
dered them  far  more  permanent  than  might 
have  been  expected. 

The  weapons  in  tournaments  were,  in  almost 
all  cases,  restrained  to  blunted  swords  and  head- 
less spears,  daggers  and  battle-axes;  but,  as 
may  well  be  imagined,  these  were  not  to  be  used 
without  danger ;  so  that  even  those  festivals  that 
passed  by  without  the  absolute  death  of  any  of 
the  champions,  left,  nevertheless,  many  to  drag 
out  a  maimed  and  miserable  existence,  or  to 
die  after  a  )f>ng  and  weary  sickness.  And  yet 
the  very  peril  of  the  sport  gave  to  it  an  all-pow- 
erful interest,  which  we  can  best  conceive,  at 
present,  from  our  feelings  at  some  deep  and 
thrilling  tragedy. 

After  the  excitement,  and  the  expectation, 
and  the  suspense,  and  the  eagerness,  came  the 
triumph  and  the  prize — and  the  chosen  queen 
of  the  field  bestowed  upon  the  champion  whose 
feats  were  counted  best,  that  reward,  the  value 
of  which  consisted  more  in  the  honor  than  the 
thing  itself.  Sometimes  it  was  a  jewel,  some- 
times a  coronet  of  flowers  or  of  laurel ;  but  in 
all  cases  the  award  implied  a  risrht  to  one  kiss 
from  the  lips  of  the  lady  appointed  to  bestow 
the  prize.  It  seems  to  have  been  as  frequent 
a  practice  to  assign  this  prize  on  the  field,  as  in 
the  chateau  or  palace  whither  the  court  retired 
after  the  sports  were  concluded  ;  and  we  often 
find  that  the  female  part  of  the  spectators  were 


called  to  decide  upon  the  merits  of  the  several 
champions,  and  to  declare  the  victor  as  well  as 
confer  the  reward.  Mirth  and  festivity  ever 
closed  the  clay  of  the  tournament,  and  song  and 
sports  brought  in  the  night. 

Every  thing  that  could  interest  or  amuse  a 
barbarous  age  was  collected  on  the  spot  where 
one  of  these  meetings  was  held.  The  minstrel 
or  menestricr,  the  juggler,  the  saltimbank,  the 
story-teller,  were  present  in  the  hall  to  soothe 
or  to  entertain ;  but  stiH  the  foundation  of  tale 
and  song  was  chivalry ; — the  objects  of  all  praise 
were  noble  deeds  and  heroic  actions ;  and  the 
very  voice  of  love  and  tenderness,  instead  of 
seducing  to  sloth  and  effeminacy,  was  heard 
prompting  to  activity,  to  enterprise,  and  to 
honor — to  the  defence  of  virtue,  and  the  search 
for  glory. 

It  may  be  here  necessary  to  remark,  that 
there  were  several  sorts  of  tournaments,  which 
differed  essentially  from  each  other  ;  but  I  shall 
not  pause  upon  these  any  longer  than  merely 
to  point  out  the  particular  differences  between 
them.  The  joust,  which  was  certainly  a  kind 
of  tournament,  was  always  confined  to  two  per- 
sons, though  these  persons  encountered  each 
other  with  blunted  arms. 

The  combat  at  outrance  was,  in  fact,  a  duel, 
and  only  differed  from  the  trial  by  battle  in 
being  voluntary,  while  the  other  was  enforced 
by  law.  This  contest  was  often  the  event  of 
private  quarrels,  but  was,  by  no  means,  always 
so;  and,  to  use  the  language  of  Ducange, 
"  though  mortal,  it  took  place  ordinarily  between 
two  persons  who  most  frequently  did  not  know 
each  other,  or,  at  least,  had  no  particular  mis- 
understanding, but  who  sought  alone  to  show 
forth  their  courage,  generosity,  and  skill  in 
arms."  Sometimes,  however,  the  combat  at 
outrance  was  undertaken  by  a  number  of  knights 
together,  and  often  much  blood  was  thus  shed, 
without  cause. 

The  pas  d'armes,  or  passage  of  arms,  differed 
from  general  tournaments,  inasmuch  as  a  cer- 
tain number  of  knights  fixed  their  shields  and 
tents  in  a  particular  pass,  or  spot  of  ground, 
which  they  declared  their  intention  to  defend 
against  all  comers.  The  space  before  their 
tents  was  generally  listed  in,  as  for  a  tourna- 
ment ;  and  during  the  time  fixed  for  the  defence 
of  the  passage,  the  same  concourse  of  spectators, 
heralds,  and  minstrels  was  assembled. 

The  round  table  was  another  distinct  sort  of 
tournament,  held  in  a  circular  amphitheatre, 
wherein  the  knights  invited  jousted  against 
each  other.  The  origin  of  this  festival,  which 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


TRA 


574 


TRA 


was  held,  I  believe,  for  the  last  time  by  Edward 
III,  is  iittributed  to  Roger  Mortimer,  who, 
on  receiving  knighthood,  feasted  a  hundred 
knights  and  a  hundred  ladies  at  a  round  table. 
The  mornings  were  spent  iu  chivalrous  games, 
the  prize  of  which  was  u  golden  lion,  and  the 
evenings  in  banquets  and  festivities.  This  course 
of  entertainments  continued  three  days,  with 
the  most  princely  splendor ;  after  which  Mor- 
timer, having  won  the  prize  himself,  conducted 
liis  guesU  to  Warwick,  and  dismissed  them. 

From  this  account,  taken  from  the  history  of 
the  Priory  of  Wigmore,  Monestrier  deduces 
that  those  exercises  called  "  round  tables"  were 
only  tournaments,  during  which  the  lord  or 
tiovereign  giving  the  festival,  entertained  his 
guesU  at  a  table  which,  to  prevent  all  ceremony 
in  respect  to  precedence,  was  in  the  form  of  a 
circle.  Perhaps,  however,  this  institution  may 
have  had  a  different  and  an  earlier  origin,  though 
1  find  it  mentioned  in  no  author  previous  to  the 
year  1271). 

Chivalry,  which,  in  its  pristine  purity,  knew 
no  reward  but  honor,  soon — as  it  became  com- 
bined with  power — appropriated  to  itself  various 
privileges,  which,  injuring  its  simplicity,  in  the 
end  brought  about  its  fall.  In  the  first  place. 
the  knight  was,  by  the  fact  of  his  chivalry,  the 
judge  of  all  his  equals,  and  consequently  of  ill) 
his  inferiors.  He  was  also,  in  most  cases,  the 
executor  of  his  own  decree,  and  it  would  indeed 
have  required  u  different  nature  from  humanity 
to  secure  such  a  jurisdiction  from  frequent  per- 
version. The  knight  also  took  precedence  of 
all  persons  who  had  not  received  chivalry,  a. 
distinction  well  calculated  to  do  away  with  that 
humility  which  was  one  of  knighthood's  strict- 
est laws.  Added  to  this  was  the  right  of  wear- 
ing particular  dresses  and  colors,  gold  and  jew- 
els, which  were  restrained  to  the  knightly  class, 
by  very  severe  ordinances.  Scarlet  aid  green 
were  particularly  reserved  for  the  order  of 
knighthood,  as  well  as  ermine,  minever,  and 
some  other  furs.  Knights  also  possessed  what 
was  called  privilege  of  clergy,  that  is  to  say,  in 
cr.ie  of  accusation,  they  could  claim  to  be  tried 
before  the  ecclesiastical  judge.  Their  arms 
were  legally  forbidden  to  all  other  classes,  and 
the  title  of  Sire,  Monseigneur,  Sir,  Don,  &c. 
were  applied  to  them  alone,  till  the  distinction 
-was  lost  in  the  course  of  lime. 

TRAFALGAR,  battle  of,  between  the  Brit- 
ish fleet,  under  lord  Nelson,  and  the  combined 
fleet  of  France  and  Spain,  on  the  21st  of  Octo- 
ber, ln!)."i.  On  the  I'.tth,  it  was  communicated 
to  his  lordship  that  this  fleet  had  put  to  sea,  and 


as  he  concluded  that  their  destination  was  the 
Mediterranean,  he  immediately  made  all  sail  for 
the  entrance  of  the  Straits  with  the  British 
squadron  consisting  of  twenty-seven  ships,  three 
of  them  sixty-fours.  On  Monday,  the  21st,  at 
day-light,  the  enemy  was  discovered  oft'  Cape 
Trafalgar.  The  commander-in-chief  immedi- 
ately made  the  signal  for  the  fleet  to  bear  up  in 
two  columns,  as  they  formed  in  order  of  sail- 
ing; a  mode  of  attack  which  he  had  previously 
directed,  to  avoid  the  inconvenience  and  delay, 
in  forming  a  line  of  battle  in  the  usual  manner, 
while  he  gave  out,  as  tlie  signal,  "  England  ex- 
pects every  man  to  do  his  duty."  Never  was 
expectation  more  amply  fulfilled,  nor  orders 
obeyed  with  more  perfect  regularity  and  effect. 
The  enemy's  line  consisted  of  thirty-three  ships, 
of  which  eighteen  were  French  and  fifteen  Span- 
ish ;  the  French  under  admiral  Villeneuve,  who 
was  also  commander-in-cliiof,  and  the  Spaniards 
under  admiral  Gravina.  The  action  began  at 
twelve  o'clock,  by  the  leading  ships  of  the  col- 
umns breaking  through  the  enemy's  line  ;  the 
Commander-in-chief  about  tlie  tenth  ship  from 
the  van,  and  admiral  Collin<jwood  about  the 
twelfth  from  the  rear,  leaving  the  van  of  tho 
enemy  unoccupied,  the  succeeding  ships  break- 
ing through,  in  all  parts,  astern  of  their  leaders. 
and  engaging  the  enemy  at  the  muzzles  of  their 
guus.  The  conflict  was  severe,  and  the  enemy 
fought  witii  acknowledged  bravery,  but  the  ini- 

Eulse  of  British  skill  and  courage  was  irresisti- 
le.  About  three  iu  the  afternoon,  many  of  the 
French  and  Spanish  ships  having  struck  their 
colors,  their  line  gave  way.  Admiral  Gravina, 
with  ten  ships,  joining  thfir  frigates  to  leeward, 
stood  towards  Cadiz.  The  five  headmost  ships 
in  their  van  tacked,  and  standing  to  the  south- 
ward, to  windward  of  the  British  line,  were  en- 
gnged,  and  the  sterumost  of  them  taken ;  the 
others  went  off,  leaving  to  the  English  nineteen 
ships  of  the  line,  of  which  two  were  first  rates, 
with  Villeneuve,  commander-in-chicf,  and  two 
other  flag  officers.  Such  a  battle  could  not 
have  been  fought  without  sustaining  great  loss 
of  men.  The  number  of  killed,  however,  dirt 
not  exceed  four  hundred  and  twenty-three,  nor 
that  of  the  wounded  eleven  hundred  and  sixty- 
•  four.  The  gallant  Nelson,  however,  already 
immortalized  by  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  fell  in 
the  arms  of  victory,  just  as  he  had  achieved  the 
present  more  extensive  and  memorable  defeat 
of  the  enemy.  About  the  middle  of  the  action, 
his  lordship  received  a  musket-ball  in  his  left 
breast,  which  was  aimed  at  him/rom  the  top 
of  the  ship  with  which  he  was  engaged.  On 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 

, 


TRA 


575 


TRI 


his  being  carried  below.  Ji£  complained  of  acute 
pain  in  the  breast,  and  of  privation  of  sense  and 
motion  of  the  bodv  and  inferior  extremities: 
his  respiration  became  short  and  difficult ;  his 
pulse  small,  weak,  and  irregular:  he  frequently 
declared  that  his  back  seemed  shot  through; 
that  he  felt  every  instant  a  gush  of  blood  within 
his  breast,  and  "that  he  had  sensations  which 
indicated  to  him  the  approach  of  death.  In  the 
course  of  an  hour  his  pulse  became  indistinct, 
hia  extremities  and  forehead  cold,  but  he  retain- 
ed his  wonted  energy  of  mind,  and  exercise 
of  his  faculties,  to  the  latest  moment  of  his 
existence  :  and  when  victory,  as  signal  as  de- 
cisive, was  announced  to  him,  he  expressed  his 
heart-felt  satisfaction  at  the  glorious  event,  in 
the  most  emphatic  language.  He  delivered  his 
last  orders  with  his  usual  precision,  and  in  a 
few  minutes  after  expired  without  a  struggle. 

TRAJAN.  Marcus  Ulpius,  a  Roman  emperor, 
born  at  Italica,  in  Spain.  Alter  Nerva  died,  the 
election  of  Trajan  to  the  vacant  throne  was  con.- 
firmed  by  the  unanimous  rejoicings  of  the  peo- 
ple, and" the  free  concurrence  of  the  armies  on 
the  confines  of  Germany  and  the  banks  of  the 
Danube.  The  barbarians  continued  quiet,  and 
the  hostilities  which  they  generally  displayed  at 
the  election  of  a  new  emperor  whose  military 
abilities  they  distrusted,  were  now  few.  Trajan, 
however,  could  not  behold  with  satisfaction  and 
unconcern  the  insolence  of  the  Dacians,  who 
claimed  from  the  Roman  people  a  tribute  which 
the  cowardice  of  Domitian  had  offered.  Dece- 
balus,  their  warlike  monarch,  soon  began  hosti- 
lities, by  violating  the  treaty.  The  emperor 
entered  the  eneiiiy's  country,  by  throwing  a 
bridge  across  the  rapid  stream  of  the  Danube, 
and  a  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  slaughter 
was  so  great,  that  in  the  Roman  camp,  linen 
was  wanted  to  dress  the  wounds  of  the  soldiers. 
Trajan  obtained  the  victory;  Decebalus,  de- 
spairing of  success,  destroyed  himself,  and 
Dacia  became  a  province  of  Rome.  An  expe- 
dition was  now  undertaken  into  the  east,  and 
Parthia  threatened  with  immediate  war.  Tra- 
jan passed  through  the  submissive  kingdom  of 
Armenia,  and  by  his  well  directed  operations, 
made  himself  master  of  the  provinces  of  Assy- 
ria and  Mesopotamia.  He  extended  his  con- 
quests in  the  east,  obtained  victories  over  un- 
known nations;  and  when  on  the  extremity  of 
India,  he  lamented  that  he  possessed  not  the 
vigor  and  youth  of  an  Alexander,  that  he 
might  add  unexplored  provinces  and  kingdoms 
to  the  Roman  empire.  Trajan  had  no  sooner 
signified  his  intentions  of  returning  to  Italy, 
49 


than  the  conquered  barbarians  appeared  again 
in  arms,  and  the  Roman  empire  did  not  acquire 
one  single  acre  of  territory  from  the  conquests 
of  her  sovereign  in  the  east.  1V.e  return  of 
the  emperor  towards  Rome  was  hastened  by 
indisposition.  He  expired  in  the  beginning  of 
August,  A.  D.  117,  after  a  reign  of  nineteen 
years,  six  months,  and  fifteen  days,  in  the  sixty- 
fourth  year  of  his  age.  Under  this  emperor 
the  Romans  enjoyed  tranquillity,  and  for  a 
short  time  supposed  that  their  prosperity  was 
complete  under  a  good  and  virtuous  sovereign. 

TRENCK,  Frederic,  baron  von  der,  a  Prus- 
sian oflicer,  born  at  Koningsberg.  in  1726. 
aide-de-camp  of  Frederic  the  Great,  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Seven  Years'  War; 
but,  in  consequence  of  an  intrigue  with  the 
sister  of  Fiederic,  was  imprisoned  in  the  for- 
tress of  Glatz  from  which  he  contrived  to  make 
his  escape,  entering  the  Austrian  service.  In 
175S,  having  gone  to  Dantzic  for  the  purpose  of 
arranging  the  disposition  of  his  mother's  prop- 
erty, he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  the 
fortress  of  Magdeburg,  from  which  he  was 
freed  in  17G3  by  the  interference  of  the  prin- 
cess Amelia.  He  next  went  to  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle,  where  he  married  the  daughter  of  a 
burgomaster  of  the  city  in  1765.  Here  he 
engaged  in  literature,  politics,  and  commerce. 
On  the  failure  of  his  wine-trade  he  returned  to 
Germany,  where  he  was  received  with  favor 
and  employed  in  various  missions.  In  1787. 
he  revisited  his  native  conntry  and  was  favor- 
ably received  by  the  successor  of  Frederic  and 
the  princess  Amelia.  In  1791,  he  went  to 
France,  but  falling  under  suspicion,  was  guillo- 
tined, July  25,  1794. 

TRENTON,  the  metropolis  of  ZVew  Jersey, 
in  Hunterdon  county,  on  the  eastern  bank  of 
the  Delaware  river,  30  miles  N.  E.  of  Philadel- 
phia, contains  4,035  inhabitants.  Here  was 
fought  a  memorable  battle  on  the  26th  of  De- 
cember, 177G.  On  the  night  of  the  25th,  the 
American  army,  under  the  command  of  general 
Washington,  crossed  the  Delaware, during  the 
fury  of  a  winter  storm,  and  attacked  the  enemy, 
defeating  them  completely.  Of  the  British,  20 
men  were  killed, and  1,000  taken  prisoners;  of 
the  Americans,  2  were  killed,  2  frozen  to  death, 
and  5  wounded. 

TRIPOLI,  the  most  easterly  of  the  Barbary 
States,  is  bounded  north  by  the  Mediterranean, 
east  by  Barca,  south  by  Fezzan  and  the  Desert, 
and  west  by  Tripoli.  It  contains  230,000  square 
miles,  and  800,000  inhabitants.  The  pacha  is 
only  nominally  dependent  on  the  Porte,  exer 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 

TRt 


TRI 


576 


cising  in  himself  a  despotic  authority.  After  upon  his  head,  a  branch  of  laurel  in  Bright 
the  Vandals,  Tripoli  was  under  the  dominion  of 
kings,  natives  of  the  country,  but  afterwards 
fell  int'j  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  who  came 
from  Egypt,  and  who  carried  away  a  great 
number  of  slaves,  both  from  the  kingdom  and 
the  capital.  The  sceptre  was  then  assumed  by 
pirates  or  adventurers,  from. whom  it  was  wrest- 
ed by  the  Spaniards.  The  latter  resigned  it  to 
the  kmghtj  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  who 
were  obliged  to  yield  it  to  three  famous  cor- 
sairs, Salha  Rais,  Sinan  Dassat,  and  Dragnt, 
who  were  assisted  with  troops  furnished  by  the 
grand  seignior,  for  this  purpose,  and  who  fully 
.  .1  the  authority  of  the  Turks.  How- 
ever, the  oppressive  and  intolerant  conduct,  of 
the  Turks,  occasioned  several  revolts,  which 
gave  rise  to  the  mixed  form  of  government  that 
still  apparently  exists;  for  it  is  really  absolute 
and  despotic.  Though  the  bey  is  chosen  by  the 
militia,  and  seems  to  be  the  chief  of  a  body  of 
republicans,  he  is  entirely  arbitrary,  and  never 
has  recourse  to  the  divan,  except  on  difficult 
occasions. 

TRIUMPH.  The  triumphal  military  pro- 
cession of  a  victorious  Roman  general  was  a 
spectacle  of  great  splendor  and  interest.  When 
a  general  gained  a  considerable  victory,  he  de- 
manded a  triumph  of  the  senate.  It  was  the 
highest  military  honor  which  could  be  obtained 
in  the  Roman  state  ;  and  was  reserved  for  those 
generals  who,  by  hard-earned  victories  and  glo- 
rious achievements,  had  adi! ••(!  to  the  territories 
of  the  commonwealth,  or  delivered  the  state 
from  threatened  danger.  The  triumphal  pro- 
cession began  from  the  Campus  Martius,  wit!: 


out  the  city,  and  pissed  through  the  most  public 
places  of  the  city  to  the  capitol ;  the  streets  being 
strewed  with  flowers,  and  the  altars  smoking 
with  incense.  First  went  musicians  of  various 
kinds;  the  oxen  destined  for  the  sacrifice  next 
followed,  having  their  horns  gilt,  and  their 
heads  adorned  with  garlands ;  then  in  carriers 
were  brought  the  spoils  taken  from  the  enemy, 
statues,  pictures,  plate,  armor,  &c.  with  the 
Be  Vanquished  nations,  and  their  im- 
;  ••presentation.  The  spoils  were  suc- 
ly  the  captive  kings  or  leaders,  with 
their  children  and  Jitteiuhmts ;  aft;  r  the  captives 
came  the  lictors,  having  their  ///.srr.v  wreathed 
with  hum  1,  followed  by  a  great,  company  of 
musicians  and  dancers,  drened  like  satyrs,  and 
v.-e  inn,'  golden  crowns;  and  next  carne  a  long 
train  of  persons  carrying  perfumes.  After  these 
came  the  triumphant  general,  dressed  in  purple 
embroidered  with  gold,  with  a  crown  of  laurel 


hand,  and  in  his  left  an  ivory  sceptre  with  an 
ea<r!e  on  the  top ;  the  general's  face  was  painted 
with  vermilion,  arid  a  gold  ball  hung  from  his 
neck  on  his  breast.  The  chariot  in  'which  the 
triumphant  general  stood  was  gilt,  adorned  with 
ivory,  and  drawn  by  four  white  horses  abreast, 
Of  sometimes  by  elephants ;  that  he  might  not 
be  too  much  elated,  a  slave  stood  behind  him, 
who  frequently  whispered  in  his  ear — Remember 
that  thoti  art  a  man.  The  general  was  attended 
by  his  relations  and  a  great  crowd  of  citizens 
all  in  white ;  after  his  car  followed  the  consuls 
and  senators ;  and  last  came  the  victorious 
army  crowned  with  laurel,  decorated  with  the 
gifts  which  they  had  received  for  their  valor, 
and  singing  the  general's  praises,  in  which  the 
citizens  as  they  passed  along  also  joined. 

TRIUMVIRI,  were  three  magistrates  ap- 
pointed equally  to  govern  the  Roman  state 
with  absolute  power.  The  first  triumvirate, 
B.  C.  GO.  was  in  the  hands  of  Julius  Caesar. 
-Pompsy,  and  Crassus,  who,  at  the  expiration 
of  their  office,  kindled  a  civil  war.  The  second 
and  last  triumvirate,  B.  C.  43,  w:ia  under  Au- 
gustus, M.  Antony,  and  Lepidus.  and  through 
them  tlie  Romans  totally  lost  their  liberty.  The 
triumvirate  was  in  full  force  at  Rome  for  the 
space  of  about  twelve  years.  There  were  also 
officers  who  were  called  triumviri  capitales, 
created  A.  U.  C.  4(5<J.  They  took  cognizance 
of  murders  and  robberies,  and  every  tiling  in 
which  slaves  were  concerned.  Criminals  un- 
der sentence  of  death  were  entrusted  to  their 
care,  and  they  had  them  executed  according  to 
the  commands  of  the  prretors.  The  triumviri 
nocturni  watched  over  the  safety  of  Rome  in 
the  night  time,  and  in  case  of  fire,  were  ever 
ready  to  take  the  most  effectual  measures  to 
extinguish  it.  The  triumviri  agrarii,  had  the 
care  of  colonies,  that  were  sent  to  settle  in 
different  parts  of  the  empire.  They  made  a 
fair  division  of  the  lands  among  the  citizens, 
and  exercised  over  the  new  colony,  all  the 
power  which  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
consuls  at  Rome.  The  triumviri  monetales. 
were  masters  of  tho  mint,  and  had  the  care  of 
the  coin,  hence  their  office  was  generally  inti- 
mated by  the  following  letters  often  seen  on 
ancient  coins  and  medals:  —  1IIVIR.  A.  A.  A. 
F.  F.  i.  e.  Triumviri  auro,  argento,  acre  flando, 
feriendo.  The  triumviri  valetudinis,  were 
chosen  when  Rome  was  visited  by  a  plague  or 
some  pestiferous  distemper,  and  they  took  par- 
ticular care  of  the  temples  of  health  and  virtue. 
The  triumviri  senatus  legcndi,  were  appointed 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


TRO 


577 


TUN 


to  name  those  that  were  most  worthy  to  be 
made  senators  from  among  the  plebeians.  The 
triumviri  mensarii,  were  chosen  in  the  second 
Punic  war,  to  take  care  of  the  coin  and  prices 
of  exchange. 

TROMP,  Martin  Harpertzoon,a  Dutch  naval 
commander,  was  born  at  the  Brill,  in  Holland, 
in  1579.  He  rose  from  the  lowest  station  to 
the  rank  of  admiral ;  and  in  1030  defeated  a 
large  Spanish  fleet.  When  the  war  broke  out 
between  England  and  the  United  Provinces, 
Van  Tromp  fought  five  desperate  engagements, 
in  the  last  of  which,  July  29,  1G53,  he  was  killed 
by  a  musket  shot.  The  states-general  struck 
medals  to  his  honor;  but  his  biographers,  in 
celebrating  his  modesty,  have  passed  over  the 
circumstance  of  his  carrying  a  broorn  at  the 
mast-head,  to  imply  that  he  would  sweep  the 
seas  of  all  opponents. 

TROY,  a  city,  the  capital  of  Troas,  or  ac- 
cording to  others,  a  country  of  which  Ilium 
was  the  capital.  Of  all  the  wars  which  have 
been  carried  on  among  the  ancients,  that  of 
Troy  is  the  most  famous.  The  Trojan  war 
was  undertaken  by  the  Greeks,  to  recover 
Helen,  whom  Paris,  the  son  of  Priam,  king  of 
Troy,  had  carried  away  from  the  house  of  Mene- 
laus.  The  armament  of  the  Greeks  amounted 
to  1000  ships.  Aaramemnon  was  chosen  general 
of  all  the  forces  •"  but  the  princes  and  kings  of 
Greece  were  admitted  among  his  counsellors, 
and  by  them  all  the  operations  of  the  war  were 
directed.  The  Grecian  army  was  opposed  by  a 
more  numerous  force.  The  king  of  Troy  re- 
ceived assistance  from  the  neighboring  princes 
in  Asia  Minor,  and  reckoned  among  his  most 
active  generals,  Rhesus,  king  of  Thrace,  and 
Memnon,  who  entered  the  field  with  '20,000 
Assyrians  and  ^Ethiopians.  The  army  of  the 
Greeks  was  visited  by  a  plague,  and  the  opera- 
tions were  not  less  retarded  by  the  quarrel  of 
Agamemnon  and  Achilles.  After  the  siege 
had  been  carried  on  for  ten  years,  some  of  the 
Trojans,  among  whom  were  ^Eneas  and  Ante- 
nor,  betrayed  the  city  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  and  Troy  was  reduced  to  ashes.  The 
poets,  however,  maintain,  that  the  Greeks  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  place  by  artifice. 
The  greatest  part  of  the  inhabitants  were  put 
to  the  sword,  and  the  others  carried  away  by 
the  conquerors.  This  happened,  according  to 
the  Arundelian  marbles,  about  1 134  years  before 
the  Christian  era.  Some  time  after,  a  new  city 
was  raised,  about  30  stadia  from  the  ruins  of 
the  old  Troy  :  but  though  it  bore  the  ancient 
name,  and  received  ample  donations  from  Alex- 


ander the  Great,  when  he  visited  it  in  his  Asiatic 
expedition,  yet  it  continued  to  be  small,  and  in 
the  age  of  Btrabo  it  was  nearly  in  ruins. 

TRUMBULL,  John,  was  born  in  Water- 
town,  Connecticut  in  1750,  and  educated  at 
Yale  college  of  which  he  became  a  tutor  in 
1770.  He  subsequently  studied  law  in  the 
office  of  John  Adams,  in  Boston,  and  became 
acquainted  with  the  leading  patriots  of  Massa- 
chusetts. In  1775  was  published  the  first  Part 
of  Me'  Fingal,  a  political  satirical  poem  in  the 
style  of  Hudibras,  which  passed  through  thirty 
editions.  For  many  years  Mr.  Trumbull  was 
a  member  of  the  legislature  of  Connecticut,  and 
was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  in 
1801,  and  afterwards  of  the  Court  of  Errors. 
In  1S25  he  removed  to  Detroit,  Michigan, 
where  he  died  Mav  12, 1831. 

TRUXTON,  Thomas,  a  captain  in  the  United 
States'  navy,  was  born  on  Long  island,  New 
York.  Feb.  17.  1755.  Being  impressed,  he 
served  a  short  time  on  board  the  President,  a 
British  G4.  In  1775  he  brought  some  powder 
to  the  colonies,  and  was  afterwards  captured, 
but  escaped.  He  was  then  appointed  lieutenant 
on  board  the  Congress,  a  private  armed  ship, 
and,  sailing  in  company  with  another  vessel  in 
177G,  took  several  valuable  prizes.  While  in 
command  of  the  St.  James  of  20  guns  he  beat 
off  a  British  vessel  of  32  guns.  In  the  xvar  with 
France  he  commanded  the  frigate  Constellation, 
and  captured  the  French  frigate  L'  Insurgente 
of  54  guns.  In  1800  he  retired  from  the  service. 
In  181ti  he  was  elected  high  sheriff  of  Phila- 
delphia. He  died  May  5, 1822,  in  his  G7th  year. 
TUNIS,  one  of  the  Barbary  states,  consists 
chiefly  of  a  lar^e  peninsula,  stretching  into  the 
Mediterranean  in  a  north-easterly  direction.  It 
contains  about  53,000  square  miles,  and  a  popu- 
lation of  1,500.000,  of  which  100,000  are  said 
to  be  Jews.  The  eastern  part  of  the  country 
possesses  the  most  luxuriant  fertility,  but  the 
western  part  is  less  favored  by  nature  and 
contains  a  scanty  population.  Rich  in  mines  of 
silver,  lead,  and  copper,  the  Tunisian  mountains 
have  never  been  properly  explored.  The  prin- 
cipal articles  of  export  are  grain,  olive  oil,  wool, 
soap,  sponge,  orchilla  weed;  gold  dust,  ivory, 
and  ostrich  feathers.  Tunis,  the  capital,  an 
irregularly  built  city,  about  10  miles  south-west 
of  the  site  .of  ancient  Carthage,  contains  from 
100.000,  to  150,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  about 
30,000  are  Jews.  It  is  strongly  fortified. 

The  city  which  the  Romans  erected  on  the 
site  of  ancient  Carthage,  was  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  when  the  Saracens  conquered  and 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


TUR 


578 


TUS 


destroyed  it ;  and  Tunis  arose  with  considerable 
magnificence.  The  Normans  of  Sicily  con- 
quered the  Tunisians,  but  were  forced  to  give 
way,  in  turn,  to  Abdahnarnurn  of  Morocco.  In 
1530  Charles  V.  invaded  Africa,  and  defeated 
the  Turks  who,  under  Barbarossa  had  gained 
possession  of  Tunis.  In  1574  the  Algerine 
Turks  seized  upon  it,  and  established  a  govern- 
ment at  the  head  of  which  was  a  pacha,  subject 
to  the  grand  seignior.  The  head  of  the  govern- 
ment is  now  styled  ley,  and  pays  an  annual 
tribute  to  the  grand  seignior  of  whom  he  is 
otherwise  independent. 

TURENNE,  Henri  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne, 
viscornte  de,  a  famous  general,  was  the  second 
son  of  Henry  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,  duke  de 
Bouillon,  and  was  born  at  Sedan  in  1611.  He 
first  served  under  his  uncles,  the  princes  Mau- 
rice and  Henry  of  Nassau;  and  in  1G34  was 
made  major-general.  In  H!44  he  became  mnre- 
chal  of  France  ;  and  though  he  lost  the  battle 
of  Mariendal,  in  1645,  he  soon  after  gained  that 
of  Nordlingen,  which  restored  the  elector  of 
Treves  to  his  dominions ;  and  the  next  year  he 
formed  a  junction  with  the  Swedish  army, 
which  compelled  the  duke  of  Bavaria  to  sue 
for  peace.  But  the  same  prince  soon  afterwards 
broke  the  treaty,  on  whicli  Turenne  made  him- 
self master  of  his  territories.  In  the  civil  wars 
of  France,  he  joined  the  discontented  party ; 
but  was  shortly  after  brought  over  to  the  king's 
side.  In  1654  he  compelled  the  Spaniards  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Arras;  and  in  1655.  lie  took 
Conde,  and  gained  the  battle  of  the  Downs, 
which  produced  the  subjugation  of  Flanders. 
In  1667  Turenne  renounced  the  Protestant  reli- 
gion ;  which  measure  is  rather  supposed  to  have 
proceeded  from  ambitious  than  pious  motives. 
On  the  renewal  of  the  war  with  Holland,  in 
1672,  he  took  forty  towns  in  less  than  a  month  ; 
drove  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  to  Berlin,  and 
compelled  the  imperial  army  to  re-cross  the 
Rhine.  In  the  midst  of  this  career  of  victory. 
he  was  killed  by  a  cannon  ball,  near  Acherenj 
July  27,  1675. 

TURGOT,  M.  prime  minister  of  Louis 
XVI.,  whose  first  measure  was  t;i  re-establish 
the  unrestrained  commerce  of  corn  in  the  inte- 
rior of  France.  This  mcasme  gnve  rise  to  vio- 
lent tumults,  which  obliged  the  kin"  to  hold  a 
bed  of  justice  at  Versailles.  Died  17tfl,  acred  40 

TURKESTAN,  or  Tiirkistan  answers  to 
the  Independent  Tartnry  of  geographers.  It 
is  divided  into  Turcornania,  Turkistan,  Osbek- 
istan,  or  Bucharia,  and  the  country  of  the  Kir"- 
hises.  It  is  extremely  fertile. 


TURKEY.  Prior  to  its  recent  losses  of  ter- 
ritory this  empire  contained  900,000  squate 
miles,  and  22,806,000  inhabitants.  Its  history 
has  been  narrated  under  the  head  of  Ottoman 
empire.  The  Turks  themselves,  masters  of 
the  lichest  portions  of  the  globe  despise  agri- 
culture, and  neglect  mining.  They  are  proud, 
indolent,  brave,  and  sensual. 

TUSCANY,  a  grand  duchy  of  central  Italy, 
bounded  north  by  Modena,  and  the  States  of  the 
Church,  east  by  the  States  of  the  Church,  and 
south  west  by'the  Tuscan  Sea,  a  part  of  the 
Mediterranean.  It  includes  Elba  and  a  few 
smaller  islands,  and  is  divided  into  Florence, 
Pisa,  and  Sienna,  containing  D.500  square  miles, 
and  1.300.530  inhabitants.  The  face  of  the 
countrv  is  agreeably  diversified,  and  the  well- 
watere'd  soil  produces  wheat,  maize,  beans,  peas, 
clover,  vines,  mulberries,  olives,  oranges,  lem- 
ons, figs,  and  rice.  The  minerals  are  copper, 
lead,  quicksilver,  marble,  &c.  The  Tuscan  dia- 
lect is  considered  the  purest  Italian.  The  great 
duchy  of  Tuscany  belonged  to  the  emperors  of 
Germany,  who  governed  it  by  deputies  till  the 
year  1240,  when  the  famous  distinctions  of  the 
Guelphs,  who  wore  the  partisans  of  the  pope, 
and  the  Ghibellines,  who  were  in  the  emperor's 
interest,  took  place.  The  popes  then  persuaded 
the  imperial  governors  in  Tuscany,  to  put  them- 
selves under  the  protection  of  the  church  ;  but 
the  Florentines,  in  a  short  time,  formed  them 
selves  into  a  free  commonwealth,  and  bravely 
defended  their  liberties  against  both  parties  by 
turns.  Faction  at  last  shook  their  freedom ;  and 
the  family  of  Medici,  lon<r  before  they  were  de- 
clared either  princes  or  dukes,  in  fact  governed 
Florence,  though  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
the  people  seemed  still  to  exist.  The  Medici, 
particularly  Cosmo,  who  was  deservedly  called 
the  Father  of  his  Country,  being  in  the  secret, 
shared  with  the  Venetians  in  the  immense 
profits  of  the  East  India  trade,  before  the  dis- 
coveries made  by  the  Portuguese.  His  reve- 
nue, in  ready  money,  which  exceeded  that  of 
any  sovereign  prince  in  Europe,  enabled  his 
successors  to  rise  to  sovereign  power  ;  and  pope 
Pius  V  gave  one  of  his  descendants,  Cosmo, 
(the  great  patron  of  the  arts),  the  title  of  great 
duke  of  Tuscany,  in  1570,  which  continued  in 
his  .'iiniily  to  the  death  of  Gaston  de  Medicis, 
in  1737.  without  issue.  The  great  duchy  was 
then  claimed  by  the  emperor  Charles  VI  as  a 
fief  of  the  empire,  and  given  to  his  son-in-law, 
the  duke  of  Lorrain,  in  lieu  of  the  duchy  of 
Lorrain,  which  was  ceded  to  France  by  treaty. 
Leopold,  his  second  son,  became  grand  duke, 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TYR 


579 


Ti'R 


from  whom  the  government  of  Tuscany  de- 
scended to  the  grand  duke  Ferdinand,  brother 
of  Francis  II,  emperor  of  Austria.  By  the 
treaty  of  Luneville,  (February,  .1801),  the  grand 
duchy  of'Tuscany  received  the  title  of  kingdom 
of  Etruria,  and  was  transferred  to  the  hereditary 
prince  of  Parma.  In  the  subsequent  incorpora- 
tions of  Bonaparte,  it  was  declared  an  integral 
part  of  the  French  empire;  but  on  his  dovvn- 
lal,  in  1814,  it  was  restored  to  the  archduke 
Ferdinand,  and  resumed  its  proper  designation 
of  grand  duchy. 

TYLER,  Wat,  a  celebrated  insurgent,  by 
trade  a  blacksmith,  who  was  the  6rst  to  resist  the 
imposition  of  the  poll  tax,  in  the  commencement 
of  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  He  led  his  men 
into  Smithfield,  where  he  was  met  by  the  king, 
who  invited  him  to  declare  his  grievances. 
Tyler  ordered  his  companions  to  retire,  till  he 
should  give  them  a  signal,  boldly  ventured  to 
meet  the  king  in  the  midst  of  his  retinue,  and 
accordingly  began  the  conference.  He  required 
that  all  slaves  should  be  set  free  ;  that  all  com- 
monages should  be  open  to.  the  poor  as  well  as 
rich  ;  and  that  a  general  pnrdon  should  be  passed 
for  the  late  outrages.  Whilst  he  made  these 
demands,  he  occasionally  lifted  up  his  sword  in 
a  menacing  manner ;  which  insolence  so  raised 
the  indignation  of  William  Walworta,  then 
mayor  of  London,  attending  on  the  king,  that 
he  stunned  Tyler  with  a  blow  of  his  mace, 
while  one  of  the  king's  knights,  riding  up,  des- 
patched him  with  his  sword. 

TYRANTS,  Thirty,  an  aristocratical  coun- 
cil, who  usurped  and  conquered  the  government 
of  the  Athenians,  B.  C.  404.  Critias  was  at 
the  head  of  this  council,  who  condemned  t> 
death  Nicerattis,  the  son  of  Nicias,  Leon,  a^id 
Antiphon,  and  banished  Thrasybulus  and  Any- 
tus.  After  committing  innumerable  atrocities, 
they  were  deposed  by  the  people,  and  ten  de- 
cejnvirs  elected  in  their  stead. 

.TYRE,  a  city  of  Phoenicia,  the  site  of  which 
is  now  occupied  bv  the  insisnificant  village  of 
Tour,  18  miles  S.  W.  of  Sidon.  This  city  was 
built  in  1048,  B.  C.  by  the  Sidonians,  who  fled 
from  the  Edomites  when  they  conquered  Sidon, 
after  having  been  expelled  from  their  own 
country  by  David.  It  was  taken  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar in  572,  after  a  siege  of  thirteen  years. 
In  538  it  came  under  the  power  of  the  Persians. 
In  332  it  was  taken,  after  a  siege  of  six  months, 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  continued  subject 
to  the  Seleucidoe,  the  Macedonian  kings  of 
Syria,  till  the  Romans  took  possession  of  it  in 
the  year  65,  B.  C.  After  this  it  underwent  the 
49* 


revolutions  of  Syria  tijl  1090,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  Franks.  In  1123,  the  sultan 
of  Egypt  took  it  from  them,  but  they  soon  re- 
covered it,  and  kept  it  till  1259,  when  the  Tar- 
tars, under  Hulaku,  took  it,  together  with  the 
rest  of  Syria  ;  but  not  keeping  it  long,  it  re- 
turned to  the  dominion  of  Egypt,  till  it  was  re- 
covered by  the  Christians,  in  1263 ;  but  in  1292 
it  was  finally  conquered  by  the  sultans  of  Egypt, 
with  the  fate  of  which  it  has  since  been  con- 
nected. 

TYROL  or  TIROL  an  Austrian  province 
bordering  on  Bavaria,  lllyria,  Austria,  the  Lom- 
bardo- Venetian  kingdom,  Switzerland  and  lake 
Constance,  containing  1,650  square  miles,  and 
774,457  inhabitants.  It  is  mountainous,  and,  in 
most  respects,  resembles  Switzerland.  The  in- 
habitants have  the  same  invincible  attachment 
to  their  country,  sterile  as  it  is,  and  though 
many  of  them  gain  their  little  wealth  in  foreign 
countries,  they  return  to  get  rid  of  it  at  home. 
They  are  hardy,  brave,  honest,  and  cheerful. 
This  country  was  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
from  whose  hands  it  passed  into  those  of  the 
Franks,  and  afterwards  belonged  to  the  dukes 
of  Bavaria.  In  1359  it  was  attached  to  Austria, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  the  period  from  1805 
to  1814,  has  remained  in  her  possession. 

TYRONE,  earl  of,  a  celebrated  leader  in  the 
Irish  rebellion,  \yho,  in  159G  assumed  the  title 
of  King  of  Ulster,  and  entered  into  a  corres- 
pondence with  Spain,  whence  he  received  a 
supply  of  arms  and  ammunition.  During  the 
violent  contentions  between  Tyrone  and  the 
forces  of  the  earl  of  Essex,  then  deputy  of  Ire- 
land, every  enormity  was  committed  by  both 
parties  ;  but  at  length,  in  1603,  Tyrone's  fol- 
lowers being  reduced,  he  surrendered  himself 
to  the  royal  power.  Thus  the  rebellion  closed ; 
but  the  reduction  of  Ireland,  through  the  gloomy 
tracks  of  famine,  pestilence,  and  blood,  cost 
England  no  less  a  sum  than  1,198,717  £. 

TYRREL,  Walter,  a  French  gentleman, 
who,  when  hunting  in  the  New  Forest  with 
William  Rufus,  let  fly  an  arrow,  which,  glanc- 
ing from  a  tree,  struck  the  king  in  the  breast, 
and  instantly  killed  him.  Tyrrel,  fearful  of 
suspicions,  gained  the  sea  shore,  embarked  for 
France  and  joined  the  crusade,  as  a  penance  for 
his  involuntarv  crime. 

TYRREL,  Sir  James,  employed  by  Richard, 
duke  of  Gloucester,  to  murder  his  two  nephews 
in  the  Tower.  Tyrrel  chose  three  associates, 
who,  finding  the  young  princes  in  bed,  in  a 
profound  sleep,  suffocated  them  with  the  bolster 
and  pillows,  and  showed  their  naked  bodies  to 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


580 


UNI 


Tvrrel,  who  ordered  them  to  be  buried  at  the 
foot  of  the  stairs,  under  a  heap  of  stones.  In 
the  reign  of  Charles  II  the  bones  of  two  per- 
sons were  found  in  the  place  indicated,  which 
corresponded,  by  their  'size,  to  the  ages  of  Ed- 
ward V  and  his" brother ;  and  being  judged  the 
undoubted  remains  of  these  unhappy  princes, 
were  deposited  in  Westminster  Abbey,  under  a 
marble  tomb. 

U. 

UKRAINE,  i.  e.  the  Frontier  of  an  extensive 
country  in  the  southern  part  of  Russia,  now 
forming  the  governments  of  Kiev,  Podolia. 
Charkow,  and  Poltava.  The  surface  is  level 
and  it  is  extremely  fertile. 

ULM,  formerly  a  free  imperial  city,  is  situat- 
ed at  the  confluence  of  the  Danube  with  the 
Iller  and  Blau,  and  contains  11,888  inhabitants. 
After  the  battle  of  Blenheim,  (in  1704),  it  sus- 
tained a  siege.  In  1600,  it  was  the  scene  of 
military  manccuvres,  conducted,  on  the  part  of 
M-trc-iii,  with  great  skill;  and  it^was  here  that 
in  !••(>">.  tho  errors  of  M«ck,  and  the  combina- 
tions of  Bonaparte,  led  to  the  surrender  of  an 
Austrian  army.  In  1810,  it  was  transferred 
from  Bavaria  to  Wirtemberg,  to  which  govern- 
ment it  continues  subject. 

UNITED  STATES  OF  NORTH  AME- 
RICA, The.  originally  colonies  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, declared  themselves  independent  in  1776. 
Brief  historical  notices  of  the  different  states 
have  been  given  under  separate  heads,  but  a 
more  extended  historical  view  is  requisite  in 
the  present  article. 

The  following  dates  of  the  settlement  of  the 
colonies,  are  given  for  reference. 
Virginia,  1607. 
New  York,  by  the  Dutch,  1614  ;  occupied  by 

the  En-rli-h,  ICM. 

Plymouth,  1620;  incorporated  with  Massachu- 
setts in  Iti'.'-J. 
nsctts,  1623. 
•npshirc,  1623. 
New  Jer.«ey,  by  the  Dutch,  162-1 ;  occupied  by 

tin-  English  in  1064. 
Dehwar.-.  by  the  Dutch,  1627,  occupied  by  the 

English  in  ICHhl. 

M  iiii",  I63l>;  united  with  Massachusetts  in  1677 
Maryland.  1633. 

('.iIlll'-'-ti'-Ml.     ;' 

',7  ;  united  with  Connecticut  in 


Providence,    1635;       )        ..    ,  ,,,.. 
1,  1038;   5  unitcd  1644' 


Rhode  Island, 


N.  Carolina,  1630. 
Ji  Carolina,  1670. 
Pennsylvania,  1682. 
Georgia,  1733 

The  English  settlers  in  the  northern  parts  of 
America,  were  influenced  by  different  motives 
from  those  which  actuated  the  tip:tiiiards  who 
quitted  their  native  country  for  the  shores  of 
the  New  World.  The  latter  were  urged  on- 
ward by  a  reckless  spirit  of  adventure,  by  the 
promptings  of  heated  imaginations,  and  by  the 
most  insatiable  cupidity.  The  former  were  im- 
pelled by  far  worthier  motives.  Many  causes 
operated  together  in  the  mother  country,  to 
favor  emigration  among  the  resolute  and  hardy 

The  people  of  England  had  been  led  to 
examine  into  the  nature  of  the  power  to  which 
they  were  subjected,  and  the  monstrous  doc- 
trines of  prerogative  and  religious  intolerance, 
were  denounced  by  many  who  had  courage  to 
think  and  speak  for  themselves  upon  UuTsub- 
jects.  The  friends  of  republican  institutions 
multiplied  with  great  rapidity,  the  natural  result 
of'  the  progress  of  literature,  and  the  increase 
of  wealth  with  the  commons.  In  162d  the 
wealth  of  the  house  of  commons  far  exceed- 
ed that  of  the  house  of  lords.  At  the  same 
time,  the  reformation  which  had  been  carried 
into  effect  by  Henry  VIII,  while  it  had  purged 
the  country  of  the  abuses  of  the  Romish  church, 
had  established  a  form  of  worship  which  was 
regarded  by  many  as  little  better  than  that 
which  had  given  way  before  it.  Those  who 
refused  to  conform  to  the  established  form, 
contemptuously  termed  Puritans  by  their  op- 
ponents, anxiously  sought  scope  for  the  exercise 
of  religious  rights,  and.  since  the  immunities 
they  demanded  were  not  granted  them  at  home, 
determined  to  seek  refuge  from  persecution  in 
a  remote  quarter  of  the  globe. 

King  James  granted,  in  1606,  letters  patent 
to  two  companies,  called  the  London  and 
Plymouth  companies,  by  which  possession  was 
given  them  of  the  territories  lying  between  the 
:i4th  and  45th  degrees  of  N.  latitude  ;  the  S.  part 
to  the  London,  and  the  Northern  part  to  the 
Plymouth  company :  the  king  himself  having 
undertaken  to  frame  for  them  a  code  of  laws. 
Three  ships  were  provided  by  the  London  com- 
pany, on  board  of  which  were  105  persons,  who 
were  expected  to  remain  at  Roanoke,  which 
was  the  place  of  their  destination.  The  com- 
mand ot  this  squadron  was  given  to  cuptain 
Christopher  Newport,  who  sailed  from  London 
on  the  20th  of  December,  1606 ;  and  after  a 
tedious  and  disastrous  passage  of  four  months, 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


UNI 


581 


UNI 


by  the  circuitous  route  of  the  West  Indies,  on 
the  26th  of  April,  discovered  Cape  Henry,  the 
southern  cape  of  the  Chesapeake,  a  storm  having 
driven  him  in  a  northerly  direction  from  his 
place  of  destination.  He  soon  after  discovered 
nape  Charles,  and  entered  Chesapeake  bay. 
Charmed  with  the  appearance  of  the  country, 
the  company  determined  to  commence  a  settle- 
ment, and  soon  explored  the  neighborhood. 
Passing  above  Old  Point  Comfort,  a  party  pro- 
ceeded up  a  beautiful  river,  called  by  the  Indians 
Powhatan,  and  bv  the  colonists,  in  honor  of 
James  I.  James  river.  They  made  a  settlement 
on  a  peninsula,  and  called  it  Jamestown.  This 
was  the  first  permanent  settlement  made  by  the 
English  in  Virginia. 

Shortly  after,  the  company  received  supplies 
from  England,  and  an  accession  to  their  num- 
bers, swelling  the  amount  to  200.  Two  vessels 
were  freighted  for  England  ;  one  loaded  with  a 
yellow  and  brilliant  sand,  common  in  many 
places  in  the  vicinity,  but  supposed  by  the  colo- 
nists to  contain  a  large  proportion  of  gold  :  the 
other  vessel  was  loaded  with  tobacco.  The 
most  efficient  member  of  the  council  was  cap- 
tain Smith  (see  Smltii)  who  was  taken  by  the 
Indians  while  on  an  exploring  expedition.  He 
was  led  to  the  place  of  execution,  and  his  head 
placed  upon  a  stone,  while  Powhatan,  the  In- 
dian chieftain,  stood  over  him  with  uplifted 
club,  regardless  of  the  earnest  solicitations  of 
his  daughter  Pocahontas.  then  about  13  years 
of  age.  The  princess,  finding  her  entreaties 
unavailing,  fell  upon  Smith,  folded  him  in  her 
arms,  and  laid  her  face  upon  his,  determined  to 
meet  death  with  him  she  could  not  save.  Moved 
by  this  touching  devotion,  Powhatan  relented, 
and,  two  days  afterwards,  sent  Smith  to  James- 
town. 

In  1G09,  the  destruction  of  the  whole  colony 
was  planned  by  the  Indians,  but  their  plans 
were  defeated  by  the  exertions  of  the  princess 
Pocahontas,  who,  in  a  dark  night,  went  to 
Jtimestuwn,  and  put  the  president  upon  his 
guard.  Pocahontas  married  an  English  gentle- 
man by  the  name  of  Rolfe,  embraced  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  and  was  baptized  bv  the  name  of 
Rebecca.  She  died  four  years  after  at  Graves- 
end,  on  her  return  with  her  husband  from  Eng- 
land. In  1619,  150  young  women.  "  handsome 
and  uncorrupt,"  were  sent  to  Virginia  and 
sold  to  the  planters  for  100,  and  150  pounds  of 
tobacco  each  ;  tobacco  being  then  valued  at 
about  three  shillings  the  pound.  At  the  same 
time  20  negroes  were  brought  to  Virginia  in  a 
Dutch  vessel,  and  sold  to  the  colonists,  whence 


one  may  date  the  commencement  of  the  slave- 
holding  system. 

In  1614  captain  Smith  was  sent  from  England 
to  explore  North  Virginia.  He  ranged  the  coast 
from  Penobscot  to  Cape  Cod,  making  observa- 
tions on  the  shores,  harbors,  islands,  and  head- 
lands ;  and  made  a  map  of  the  country,  which 
on  his  return  to  England,  he  showed  to  prince 
Charles  (afterwards  Charles  I),  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  New  England.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Robin- 
son with  his  flock,  of  the  reformed  church  of 
the  north  of  England,  removed  to  Amsterdam 
in  16dfi,  and  soon  after  to  Leyden.  A  variety  of 
motives  led  his  congregation  to  turn  their  atten- 
tion to  the  New  World  :  the  principal  were,  the 
enjoyment  of  perfect  liberty  of  conscience ;  "  the 
preservation  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  distinct  from 
those  of  the  state ;  "  and  a  hope  of  laying  the 
foundation  of  an  extensive  empire,  that  should 
be  purged  from  all  religious  impurities.  Having 
made  an  arrangement  with  the  Virginia  com- 
pany, they  sailed  from  Plymouth,  Eng.,  on  the 
6th  of  September  16'20,  and  on  the  10th  of 
November,  anchored  in  Cape  Cod  harbor. 
Perceiving  that  they  were  so  far  north  as  to  be 
without  the  territory  of  the  south  Virginia  com- 
pany, some  hesitation  arose  :  but  the  winter 
was  at  hand,  and  it  was  now  too  late  to  go  in 
search  of  a  settlement  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  that  company.  Previous  to  their  landing, 
after  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  they  formed 
themselves  into  a  body  politic,  binding  them- 
selves by  a  written  covenant  to  be  governed  by 
the  decisions  of  a  majority.  This  instrument, 
was  subscribed  by  4 1  persons,  who  with  their 
children  and  domestics,  composed  a  company 
of  101  persons.  Mr.  John  Carver  was  chosen, 
without  one  dissentient  voice,  governor  for  one 
year. 

Parties  were  sent  on  shore  to  make  discove- 
ries. Some  Indians  were  seen  but  could  not  be 
overtaken.  A  considerable  quantity  of  corn 
was  found  in  heaps  of  sand,  secured  in  baskets, 
which  served  for  seed  the  ensuing  spring,  and 
tended  to  save  the  adventurers  from  famine. 
On  the  Cth  of  December,  Carver.  Standish, 
Winslow,  Bradford,  and  others,  sailed  to  various 
places,  to  discover  a  suitable  situation  for  a  set- 
tlement. Monday,  Dec.-  11,  O.  S.  they  landed 
at  what  was  afterwards  called  Plymouth,  and 
from  the  excellence  of  the  harbour,  and  the 
favorable  appearance  of  the  land,  resolved  to 
commence  a  settlement  here.  In  1628  the 
council  for  New  England,  sold  to  Roswell 
Youn<r  and  others,  a  patent  for  all  that  part  of 
New  England,  lying  between  3  miles  N.  of  the 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


UNI  582 

Mcrrimac,  and  3  miles  S.  of  Charley  river.  In 
HW3  king  Charles  incorporated  "  the  governor 
and  company  of  Massachusetts  bay  in  New 
England." 

In  1G37  the  troops  of  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut  had  several  engagements  with  the 
Pequot  Indians,  and  finally  subdued  them. 
This  year  was  made  famous  by  a  great  theolo- 
gical disturbance  caused  by  Ann  Ilutchinson, 
a  woman  of  considerable  talents,  who  was  ac- 
cused of  maintaining  heresies,  and  supporting 
them  by  lectures  frequently  given  to  large 
audiences.  The  result  was  a  synod  of  the 
ministers,  elders,  and  messengers  of  the  church- 
es, who,  after  three  weeks  deliberation,  con- 
demned as  heretical  eighty-two  opinions  which 
had  been  disseminated  in  Nesv  England,  and 
some  banishments  took  place,  among  which 
was  that  of  Mrs.  Ilutchinson.  her  husband  and 
children,  who  removed  to  Rhode  Island.  In 
1G40,  one  hundred  laws,  entitled  "  The  Body 
of  Liberties  "  were  established  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  colony. 

In  J750,  a  number  of  noblemen,  merchants, 
and  others  of  London,  together  with  some  in- 
fluential Virginia  planters,  formed  a  society 
under  the  name  of  the  Ohio  company,  and  ob- 
tained from  the  crown  a  charter  grant  of  six 
hundred  thousand  acres,  on  and  near  the  river 
Ohio ;  and  soon  after  made  preparations  for 
commencing  establishments  on  the  Ohio,  for 
the  purpose  of  commerce  with  the  Indians,  as 
well  as  with  a  view  to  the  settlement  of  the 
country.  Information  of  their  proceeding  soon 
reached  the  French  governor  in  Canada,  who 
immediately  apprehended  that,  if  the  company 
could  not  be  interrupted  in  their  plan,  a  great 
part  of  their  valuable  fur  trade  of  the  French 
would  be  destroyed,  and  all  communication  cut 
off  between  Canada  and  Louisiana.  France 
laid  claim,  by  right  of  discovering  the  Missis- 
sippi, to  all  the  territory  bordering  on  that  river, 
and  on  its  tributary  streams.  The  possessions 
of  the  Ohio  company  were  infringed  upon  by 
the  French  governor  of  Canada,  and  their  trade 
menaced  with  annihilation.  They  therefore  laid 
their  grievances  before  Dinwiddie,  lieutenant- 
governor  of  Virginia. 

Dinwiddie,  laid  the  subject  before  the  assem- 
bly, who  detonnined  to  demand,  in  the  name 
of  the  king,  that  the  French  should  desist. 
GEORGE  WASHINGTON,  then  in  his 22d year,  was 
despatched  to  the  French  commandant  on  the 
Ohio,  who  assured  him  that  he  had  acted  ac- 
cording to  orders.  After  his  return  the  British 
determined  to  attack  Fort  du  Quesne  (now 


UNI 


Pittsburg),  and  Washington,  now  raised  to  the 
rank  of  colonel,  commanded.  The  conduct,  of 
the  expedition,  although  it  was  unsuccessful  re- 
flected great  credit  upon  the  commander. 

On  the  arrival  of  Braddock,  in  the  spring  of 
1775,  various  military  operations  were  planned. 
An  expedition  against  Canada  was  successful, 
but  the  conquered  territory  was  speedily  relin- 
quished by  the  victors.  General  Braddock's 
expedition  against  Fort  du  Quesne  was  disas- 
trous in  the  extreme.  Heedless  of  the  advice 
of  Washington,  who  cautioned  him  against  an 
ambush,  he  pressed  forward,  and  was  surprised 
by  the  Indians.  Instead  of  retreating  or  scour- 
ing the  woods,  Braddock  vainly  endeavored  to 
form  his  men  ;  and  continued  with  wanton  bra- 
very on  the  spot  where  he  was  first  attacked, 
till  three  horses  were  shot  under  him  ;  when  he 
received  ashot  through  the  lungs  and  fell.  The 
remains  of  the  army  immediately  fled,  bearing 
away  the  body  of  their  rash  and  unfortunate  com- 
mander. Every  mounted  officer  except  Wash- 
ington, was  either  killed  or  wounded,  and  he 
was  providentially  preserved,  for  an  Indian  had 
marked  him  as  a  victim,  and  ihrd  at  him  several 
times  with  a  rifle  that  Irid  never  before  deceived 
him.  G4  out  of  85  officers,  and  half  the  privates 
were  killed.  But  Washington  bore  oft'  the 
wreck  of  the  forces  with  consummate  skill  and 
undaunted  courage.  The  war  was  continued 
until  17(x>.  and,  although  the  military  operations 
were  occasionally  unsuccessful,  the  bravery  of 
the  British  and  provincial  troops  prevailed,  arid 
the  fall  of  Quebec  gave  a  death  blow  to  the 
hopes  of  the  French. 

We  now  come  to  the  commencement  of  these 
acts  which  created  that  patriotic  feeling  in  the 
colonies,  which  resulted  in  the  Declaration  of 
their  iNnr.pKSDKNCF. 

In  1674  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain  pass- 
ed an  act,  the  preamble  to  which  ran  thus : 
"Whereas  it  is  just  and  necessary  that  a  revenue 
be  raised  in  America,  for  defraying  the  ejffci  . 
penscs  of  defending,  protecting,  and  securing 
the  same,  &c."  The  act  then  proceeds  to  lay  a, 
duty  on  clayed  sugar,  indigo,  coffee,  silk,  mo- 
lasses, calicoes,  &c.,  being  the  produce  of  a 
colony  not  under  the  dominion  of  his  majesty. 
To  this  the  colonists  submitted ;  though  not  with- 
out complaint  and  remonstrance.  Before  this 
the  subject  of  taxing  the  American  colonies  had 
been  in  agitation.  "  There  is  something  curi- 
ous," says  Fox.  "  in  discovering  that  even  at 
this  early  period  (1(^5)  a  question  relative  to 
North  American  liberty,  and  even  to  North 
American  tazation,  was  considered  as  the  test 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


UNI 


583 


UNI 


of  principles  friendly  or  adverse  to  arbitrary 
power  at  home.  But  the  truth  is,  that,  among 
the  several  controversies  which  have  arisen, 
there  is  no  other  where  the  natural  rights  of 
man.  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  authority  of  ar- 
tificial institutions,  on  the  other,  as  applied  res- 
pectively by  the  whigs  and  tories  to  the  English 
constitution,  are  so  fairly  put  in  issue,  nor  by 
which  the  line  of  separation  between  the  two 
parties  is  so  strongly  and  distinctly  marked." 

When  a  scheme  for  taxing  the  colonies  was 
proposed  to  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  he  replied  :  "  I 
will  leave  that  for  some  of  my  successors  who 
may  have  more  courage  than  I  have,  and  be 
less  a  friend  to  commerce  than  I  am.  It  has 
been  a  maxim  with  me,  during  my  administra- 
tion, to  encourage  the  trade  of  the  American 
colonies  in  the  utmost  latitude.  Nay,  it  has 
been  necessary  to  pass  over  some  irregularities 
in  their  trade  with  Europe ;  for,  by  encouraging 
them  to  an  extensive,  growing  foreign  com- 
merce, if  they  gain  £500,000, 1  arn  convinced 
that,  in  two  years  afterwards,  full  £  250,000  of 
their  gains  will  be  in  his  majesty's  exchequer, 
by  the  labor  and  product  of  this  kingdom. 
This  is  taxing  them  more  agreeably  to  their 
constitution  and  ours." 

Instead  of  a  repeal  of  the  act  imposing  the 
first  tax,  parliament,  the  next  year,  imposed  a 
duty  on  stamps.  Resolutions  were  passed  by 
the  popular  branches  of  most  of  the  colonial 
legislatures,  against  this  duty.  Massachusetts 
recommended  a  colonial  congress,  to  consult  for 
the  general  welfare.  A  congress  from  most  of 
the  colonies,  consisting  of  twenty-eight  mem- 
bers, met  at  New  York  ;  remonstrated  against 
the  act  of  parliament ;  petitioned  for  its  repeal  ; 
and  made  a  declaration  of  the  rights  of  the  colo- 
nies ;  declaring  that  taxation  and  representation 
were  inseparable ;  and  that  parliament  had  no 
right  to  take  their  money  without  their  consent. 

Disturbances  arose  throughout  the  country. 
Business  was  conducted  without  stamped  paper, 
and  the  validity  of  obligations  was  established 
by  the  courts.  Meanwhile  the  colonists  enter- 
ed into  associations,  to  prevent  the  importation 
of  British  goods,  till  the  stamp  act  should  be  re- 
pealed. 

When  information  of  the  almost  universal 
opposition  of  the  Americans  to  the  stamp  act, 
reached  the  ears  of  parliament,  great  agitation 
arose.  Mr.  Pitt  said,  "  You  have  no  right  to 
tax  America.  I  rejoice  that  America  has  resist- 
ed. Three  millions  of  our  fellow  subjects  so 
lost  to  every  sense  of  virtue,  as  tamely  to  give 
up  their  liberties,  would  be  fit  instruments  to 


make  slaves  of  the  rest."  The  act  was  repealed, 
.but  the  repeating  act  had  this  sweeping  sen- 
tence, "  that  the  parliament  had,  and  of  right 
ought  krhave  power  to  bind  the  colonies  in~all 
cases  whatsoever.'' 

In  1767,  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
brought  into  parliament  a  bill  for  imposing  a 
duty  to  be  collected  in  the  colonies  on  glass, 
paper,  painter's  colors  and  tea.  The  bill  having 
passed,  was,  the  next  year,  sent  to  the  colonies. 
A  bill  was  also  passed  for  establishing  at  Boston 
a  board  of  commissioners,  to  manage  the  reve- 
nue arising  from  the  duties.  An  act  was  also 
passed  to  compel  the  colonies  to  provide  for  the 
British  troops  and  support  them  at  their  own 
expense.  These  various  acts  of  parliament  re- 
suscitated the  flames  of  resentment  and  oppo- 
sition, which  had  been  almost  extinguished. 
The  most  spirited  resolutions  were  passed  by 
the  colonies,  among  which  the  non-importation 
resolutions  were  the  most  important. 

On  the  5th  of  March  1770,  some  British  sol- 
diers, being  insulted  and  pressed  upon  by  a 
mob  in  King's  now  State  street,  Boston,  fired 
upon  the  populace,  killed  three,  and  wounded 
six.  Captain  Preston,  who  commanded  the 
party,  and  his  men,  were  tried  and  acquitted 
with  the  exception  of  two  who  were  brought  in 
guilty  of  manslaughter.  In  1773,  but  little  tea 
having  been  imported  into  America,  parliament 
enjoyed  her  supposed  right  without  benefit,  and 
the  Americans  denied  it  without  injury.  Affairs 
therefore  remained  in  the  same  state,  till  the 
East  India  company,  who  had  on  hand  about 
seventeen  million  pounds  of  tea,  were  allowed 
by  parliament  to  export  their  tea  into  any  part 
of  the  world,  free  of  duty :  hence  to  the  colo- 
nists, lea,  though  with  a  duty  of  three  pence, 
would  be  cheaper  than  before. 

The  colonists  were  again  violently  excited 
The  corresponding  committees,  which  had  been 
forming  throughout  the  colonies  for  the  last  two 
years,  excited  resistance,  declaring  such  as  aided 
directly  or  indirectly  in  these  violations  of  liber- 
ty, enemies  to  their  country.  The  consequence 
was  that  the  cargoes  of  tea,  sent  to  New  York 
and  Philadelphia,  were  sent  back  :  and  those  sent 
to  Charleston,  stored,  but  not  offered  for  sale. 
The  tea  ships,  intended  for  the  supply  of  Boston, 
after  the  inhabitants  had  tried  in  vain  to  have 
them  returned,  they  being  consigned  to  the  re- 
lations of  governor  Hutchinson,  were  entered 
by  about  17  persons  in  the  disguise  of  Indians, 
and  three  hundred  and  forty-two  chests  of  tea 
were  thrown  into  ih?  dock,  no  other  damage 
being  done. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


UNI 


584 


UNI 


In  1774,  parliament,  receiving  information  of 
the  treatment  of  the  East  Indian  company  with 
respect  to  their  tea,  were  much  exasperated. 
Though  the  opposition  was  general,  the  pro- 
vince of  Massachusetts,  and  especially  the  town 
of  Boston,  were  considered  the  fomenters  of  dis- 
obedience to  their  authority.  Boston  was  there- 
fore selected  as  the  mark  against  which  to  direct 
their  vengeance.  Hence  a  bill  was  passed,  by 
which  the  port  of  Boston  was  precluded  from 
the  privilege  of  landing  and  discharging,  or  of 
lading  and  shipping,  wares  and  merchandise. 
Another  bill  was  also  passed,  essentially  alter- 
ing the  charter  of  the  province,  making  the 
appointment  of  the  council,  justices,  judges, 
sheriff:),  &c.  dependent  on  the  crown,  or  its 
immediate  agent.  Another  act  directed  the 
governor  to  send  to  another  colony  or  to  Great 
Britain  for  trial,  any  person  indicted  for  murder 
or  any  other  capital  offence.  When  these  acts 
arrived  in  America,  they  were  circulated  with 
rapidity  throughout  the  continent.  But  one  sen- 
timent of  indignation  and  opposition  governed 
the  people.  1  he  town  of  Boston  recommended 
an  universal  association  to  stop  importations. 

The  house  of  burgesses  in  Virginia,  which 
colony  had  ever  been  forward  in  seconding  the 
spirit  and  measures  of  Massachusetts,  ordered 
that  the  day  on  which  the  Boston  port  bill 
was  to  go  into  operation  should  be  kept  as  a 
day  of  fasting  and  prayer.  Pamphlets,  news- 
paper discussions,  addresses  and  essays,  were 
multiplied  without  number,  proving  the  wick- 
edness of  the  acts  of  parliament,  and  urging  an 
union  of  the  colonies  for  resistance.  Massa- 
chusetts recommended  a  meeting  of  delegates 
from  all  the  colonies,  the  assembly  electing  five 
for  that  purpose.  On  the  fourth  of  September, 
the  deputies  of  eleven  colonies  appeared  at 
Philadelphia,  organised  themselves  In-  choosing 
Peyton  tUndolph  president,  and  diaries  Thomp- 
son secretary,  and  agreed  to  vote  by  st:i!..-s.  A 
non-importation,  and  non-consumption  ;i<Tre- 
mfiit  were  made;  an  address  to  the  king,  a 
memorial  t-,  tl,  •  inhabitants  of  British  America, 
and  an  ad<!re-,,  t  >  la-  |K-ople  of  Great  Bril.iin 
were  also  made.  After  a  few  weeks  they  dis- 
solved ;  recommending  the  10th  oft': 

May,  if  their  grievances  should  remain  im- 


ressed,  for  auwthcr 


ing 

red 
Oct.  5,  .        !,tiM  governor  of  Maw 

chunelU,  a*  well  as  Commander-in-chief  ..f  ;,il 
the  roy.il  fi.ro-s  m  .North  America,  issued  writs 
for  holding  a  general  assembly  in  Salem.  He 
afterward*  countermanded  the  writs.  Ninety 
members  met,  formed  themselves  into  a  provin- 
cial congress,  adjourned  to  Concord,  and  chose 


John  Hancock  president.  They  afterwards  ad- 
journed to  Cambridge,  and  drew  up  a  plan  for 
placing  the  province  in  a  posture  of  defence,  by 
enlisting  men.  choosing  general  officers,  &c. 

In  January,  1775,  the  earl  of  Chatham  brought 
forward  a  conciliatory  bill  in  the  house  of  peers, 
which  was  rejected,  two  to  one.  Lord  North,  the 
prime  minister,  introduced  a  bill  for  restraining 
the  trade  of  the  New  England  colonies.  Receiv- 
ing information  of  the  general  opposition  in  the 
southern  colonies,  he  introduced  another  bill, 
equally  restraining  their  trade,  but  excepting 
North  Carolina,  Delaware,  and  New  York. 
The  time  had  now  come  for  testing  the  nerve 
of  the  colonists.  An  attempt  was  made  by  the 
British  troops  to  seize  the  military  stores  at 
Concord,  April  19,  but  they  had  to  encounter 
the  armed  opposition  of  the  militia  at  Concord 
and  Lexington.  Boston,  was  now  blockaded. 
Ticonderogaand  Crown  Point  were  taken.  The 
battle  of  Banker's  Hill  followed,  and  an  unsuc- 
cessful expedition  against  Canada  preceded  the 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

On  May  10th,  1775,  the  continental  congress 
met  at  Philadelphia,  and  on  the  15th  of  June 
unaninAously  elected  George  Washington,  then 
a  member  from  Virginia,  commander-in-chief 
of  the  forces  raised,  and  to  be  raised,  for  the 
defence  of  the  colonies.  June  7,  177C>,  Richard 
Henry  Lee  of  Virginia,  made  a  motion  in  con- 
gress, for  declaring  the  colonies  free  and  inde- 
pendent. After  much  debate,  on  the  FOURTH 
OF  JULY,  the  thirteen  colonies  were  declared 
FRKE  AND  INDEPENDENT,  under  the  title  of 
THE  UMTED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

An  attempt  was  made  in  June  and  July,  with 
3000  British  troops,  under  the  command  of 
general  Clinton  and  sir  Peter  Parker,  to  destroy 
the  fort  on  Sullivan's  island,  near  Charleston 
(8.  C.)  The  fort  was  defended  by  col.  Moultrie, 
with  about  400  men.  After  an  action  of  10 
hours,  the  British  were  forced  to  retire  with  a 
loss  of  about  '200  men.  10  Americans  were 
killed,  and  20  wounded. 

Soon  after  the  evacuation  of  Boston  by  the 
British  troops  (March  17),  Washington  made 
his  head  quarters  at  the  city  of  New  York,  with 
I  he  principal  part  of  his  army.  British  troops, 
t'>  the  amount  of  2-1,000  men'under  lord  Howe, 
;ind  iiis  brother,  sir  Win.  Howe,  landed  ^ Ai:u'i:st, 
~2)  on  Long  Island,  near  the  Narrows,  about 
nine  miles  from  the  city.  The  American  fciv.es, 
fit  this  time,  amounted  to  upwards  of  17,000 
men,  and  those  principally  raw  recruits.  A 
battle  was  fought  on  Long  Island  (Au<r.  127)  in 
which  the  Americans  were  defeated.  The  bat- 
tle of  White  Plains  took  place  on  the  2sth  of 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


UNI 


585 


UNI 


October.  The  retreat  of  the  American  forces 
through  the  Jerseys  and  across  the  Delaware 
followed  ;  the  battles  of  Trenton  (Dec.  2(5)  and 
Princeton  (Jan.  3,  1/77)  were  also  among  the 
events  of  this  period- 

The  campaign  of  1777  closed  under  better  cir- 
cumstances. General  I'urgoyne  surrendered  at 
Saratoga,  Oct.  17.  In  1778  a  treaty  of  commerce 
and  allian.ce  was  made  between  Louis  XVI  and 
the  commissioners  of  the  U.  Stales,  on  the  (ith 
of  February.  French  troops  uoon  after  arrived. 
Various  military  operations  ensued.  In  the 
southern  states,  where  there  was  no  regular 
American  army,  the  partisan  warfare  kept  u;;  by 
Marion.  Suniter,  Morgan,  and  Greene,  thinned 
the  ranks  of  their  enemies.  On  the  19th  of  Oc- 
tober, ]781,  Cornwallis  surrendered  at  York- 
town'.  The  fall  of  this  large  British  army  may 
be  considered  as  the  closing  of  the  war.  Gen. 
Washington  ordered  divine  service  in  the  diffe- 
rent divisions  and  brigades.  '  Congress  went  in 
solemn  procession  (o  use  Dutch  Lutheran  church 
in  Philadelphia,  returned  thanks  to  Almigh- 
ty Gpd  for  the  success  of  the  combined  armies, 
and  recommended  a  day  of  general  thanksgiv- 
ing' a:;d  prayer  throughout  the  United  States. 

Savannah  w;:s  evacuated  in  Julv  (17^'J)  and 
Chcrletton  in  December.  Great  Britain  ac- 
knowledged our  independence  Nov.  iSO,  JT^ii. 
Holland  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the 
United  States  in  April;  S\v<-di-n  in  I'<  i:n;niy, 
17S:};  Denmark  in  the  same  month;  Spaip  in 
March;  Russia  in  .Inly. 

The  debt  oi'  the  U.  'States,  at.  Hie  close  of  the 
war.  v.-;:s  about  40  millions  of  dollar:?.  Congress 
had  power  to  make  war,  end  to  create  debts, 
but  no  power  to  carry  on  the  war,  nor  ability  to 
pay  debts,  but  by  appeals  or  recommendations 
to  thirteen  independent  sovereignties,  whose 
unanimity  alone,  seldom  to  be  expected,  could 
support  public  credit,  or  give  efficacy  to  the 
proceedings  of  congress.  For  the  payment  of 
the  public  debt,  a  proposal  was  umde  by  con- 
gress to  the  several  states  to  lay  a  duty  oi'  livn 
per  cent.,  on  :;11  goods  imported  from"  foreign 
countries,  till  the  national  debt  should  be  paid. 
This  plan  failed  :  some  states  adopting  it  alto- 
gether, some  agreeing  to  it  in  part,  and  some 
totally  rejecting  it.  Thr.p,  no  elik'ieiU  funds 
being  provided,  the  evidences  of  the  public  debt 
began  to  decrease  in  value,  till  they  v  • 
length  for  two  shillings  in  the  pound. 

The  new  Federal  government  was  • 
in  1789.     Washington  was  unanimoi..-, 
the  first  president,  and  J:>hn  A  chins  vioe-presi- 
d'jrii.     Mr.  Jeiferson   was  selected  fcr  tin?  iie- 


partment  of  state  ;  col.  Hamilton  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the1  treasury;  Gen.  Knox  secreta- 
ry of  war.  and  Mr.  Edmund  Randolph  attorney- 
general  of  the  United  States.  John  Jay  was 
made  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
U.  States ;  John  Rutledge,  James  Wilson. 
W;illiam  Gushing,  Robert  Harrison-  r.nd  John 
Blair  were  named  associate  judges.  The  Indi- 
an war  and  an  insurrection  in  tne  western  part 
of  Pennsylvania,  on  account  of  the  tax  on  do- 
mestic spirits  were  favorably  terrnirinted.  Tin: 
insults  and  maritime  depredations  committed 
by  ihe  French,  induced  America  to  take  up 
arms  in  defence  of  her  rights,  but  a  change  of 
rulers  in  France  prevented  the  effusion  of  blood. 
On  the  retirement  of  Washington.  John  Adams 
was  elected  to  succeed  him,  and  in  ]<-(;!.  Tho- 
mas Jefferson  was  chcsen  the  third  president  of 
the  U.  States.  The  claim  of  searching  Ameri- 
can vessels,  ;md  impressing  from  thtni  British 
seamen,  and  the  British  orders  in  council  prohi- 
biting the  exportation  of  the  U.  'states,  together 
with  other  outrages  committed  by  the  British, 
produced  a  declaration  of  war  against  Gieat 
Britain  in  June.  1812.  The  successes  of  the 
British  were  LOT  few  and  trifling,  while  the 
American  navy  triumphed  in  a  series  of  bril- 
liant exploits,  and  the  gallant  defence  of  JV'ew 
Grleans  by  general  Andnw  Jackson,  downed 
the  American  arms  with  laurels.  Peace  was 
concluded  at  Ghent,  Dec.  24,  1314,  The  bat- 
tle of  .NYvv  Orleans  was  fought  the  fUh  of  Jan. 
1815.  before  the  news  o!'  pi-ace  readied  tiie  Uni- 
ted States.  Gen  Andrew  Jackson  commanded 
the  Amer.can,  and  Sir  Edward  Packenham  the 
British  troops.  The  latter  fell  in  the  engage- 
ment, \\hicii  ended  in  the  entire  defeat  of  the  in- 
vaders. Since  that  period  the  country  has  en- 
joyed peace  with  all  foreign  power.?.  Difficul- 
ties with  sevenil  Indian  tribes  have  arisen,  in 
consequence  of  their  being  compelled  to  retire 
beyond  the  Mississippi,  and  the  Seminoles  of 
Florida,  have  resisted  with  more  or.: 
any  other.  Though  their  master  spirit,  Osceola, 
lived  Int  a  short  time  after  his  capture,  his  pro- 
phecy his  been  fulfilled,  that  "  the  Serninole: 
would  keep  the  United  States  at  bay  for  six 
years.  During  those  years,  Florida  has  been  the 
cemetery  of  our  small,  but  brave  airay. 

The   Presidents  of  the    United    States  have 

been  George  Washington;  John  Adams;  Thomas 

i;  James  Madison;  James  Monroe;   John 

Q.  Adams;  Andrew  Jackson;  Martin  Van  liuren; 

William  Henrv  ILirri^a;    svlio  siirvivua  his  i:>- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


UNI 


586 


UNI 


atijriniiou  but  one  month;  and  John  Tyler; 
chosen  Vice  President;  hut  (:>v  t!ie  Constitution;) 
President;  in  consequence  of  Gen.  Harrison's 
death. 

"I  appeal  to  History!"  says  Philips.  "Tell  me, 
thou  reverend  chronicler  of  the  grave,  can  all 
the  illusions  of  ambition  realized,  can  all  the 
wealth  of  a  universal  commerce,  can  all  the 
achievements  of  successful  heroism,  or  all  the 
establishments  of  this  world's  wisdom,  secure 
to  empire  the  permanency  of  its  possessions? 
Alas !  Troy  thought  so  once ;  yet  the  land  of 
Priam  lives  only  in  song!  Thebes  thought  so 
once;  yet  her  hundred  gates  have  crumbled, 
and  her  very  tombs  are  but  as  the  dust  they 
were  vainly  intended  to  commemorate  !  So 
thought  Palmyra  —  where  is  she?  So  thought 
the  countries  of  Demosthenes  and  the  Spartan  ; 
yet  Leonidid  is  trampled  by  the  timid  slave,  and 
Athens  insulted  by  the  servile,  mindless,  and 
enervate  Ottoman  !  In  his  hurried  march,  Time 
has  but  looked  at  their  imagined  immortality  ; 
and  all  its  vanities,  from  the  palace  to  the  tomb, 
have,  with  their  ruins,  erased  the  very  impres- 
sion of  his  footsteps !  The  days  of  their  glory 
are  as  if  they  had  never  been  ;  and  the  island, 
that  was  then  a  speck,  rude  and  neglected  in 
the  barren  ocean,  now  rivals  the  ubiquity  of 
their  commerce,  the  glory  of  their  arms,  the 
fame  of  their  philosophy,  the  eloquence  of  their 
senate,  and  the  inspiration  of  their  bards !  Who 
shall  say,  then,  contemplating  the  past,  that 
England,  proud  and  potent  as  she  appears,  may 
not,  one  day,  be  what  Athens  is,  and  the  young 
America  yet  soar  to  be  what  Athens  was  !  Who 
shall  say,  that,  when  the  European  column  shall 
have  mouldered,  and  the  night  of  barbarism 
obscured  its  very  ruins,  that  mighty  continent 
may  not  emerge  from  the  horizon,  to  rule,  for 
its  time,  sovereign  of  the  ascendant! 

"There  lives  in  the  bosom  a  feeling  sublime, 

Of  all,  'tis  the  strongest  tie ; 
Unvarying  through  every  change  of  lime, 

And  only  with  life  does  it  die. 
•T  i<  the  love  that  is  borne  for  that  lovely  land, 

That  smiled  at  the  hour  of  our  birth  ; 
•T  is  Uie  love,  thai  Is  planted  by  nature's  hand, 

For  our  sacred  native  earth. 
'T  wan  this  that  the  patriot  victor  inspired, 

U  a-  -.truii;  Hi  llir  *trrni!lh  of  his  arm 
With  tin-  lii.lipxt  zenl  his  brave  bosom  tired. 

And  to  danger  and  death  gave  a  <  harm. 
'T  was  thin  that  Hie  ihing  hero  blest, 

And  hallowed  lln-  hour  W!H-II  he  fell, 
That  thrubl.nl  in  (he  tina!  throb  of  his  breast, 

Ami  hcavi-d  in  his  bosom's  last  su.-ll. 

When  a  thousand  swords,  In  a  thousand  hands 
To  the  sunbeam*  of  heaven  shone  blight , 


When  the  glowing  hearts  of  Columbia's  bands, 

Were  firm  in  Columbia's  riplit : 
When  the  blood  of  the  West  in  the  battle  was  poured, 

In  defence  of  the  n«hts  of  th»  West ; 
When  the  blood  of  the  East,  stained  the  point  of  the 
sword, 

At  the  Eastern  king's  behest: 
Till  the  angel  form  of  returning  peace, 

O'er  (he  plain  and  the  mountain  smiled  — 
Bade  the  rude  blast  of  war  from  its  ravage  to  cease, 

And  the  sweet  gale  of  plenty  breathe  mild. 
She  smiled  — and  the  nation's  mighty  woes 

Ceased  to  stream  from  the  nation's  eyes  : 
She  smiled  —and  a  fabric  of  wisdom  arose, 

And  exalted  its  fame  to  the  skies. 

Then  firm  be  ks  base  as  the  giant  rock 

'  Midst  the  ocean  waves  alone, 
That  the  beating  rain  and  the  tempest  shock 

For  numberless  years  has  borne. 
And  blasted  the  parricide  arm  that  shall  plan 

ThaUglonous  structure's  fall, 
But  still  may  it  sanction  the  rights  of  man  ; 

And  liberty,  guardian  to  all. 
Then  sweet  'lie  the  song  that  the  minstrel  should  raise 

To  the  patriot  victor's  fame, 
And  lively  the  tones  of  the  hrart-gendered  praise, 

That  should  wake  from  the  harp  at  his  name. 
Then  holy  the  dirge  that  the  minstrel  should  pour, 

O'er  the  fallen  hero's  grave, 
Whuse  hand  wields  the  sword  for  his  country  no  more, 

Who  has  died  the  death  of  the  brave." 

UNITED  STATES,  (or  Provinces)  of  tha 
Plata;  or  the  Argentine  Republic.  Buenos 
Ayres,  or  the  confederacy  of  the  Plata,  is  bound- 
ed north  by  Bolivia, east  by  Paraguay.  Uruguay, 
and  the  A  tlantic  <  ••  by  Patagonia,  a iul 

west  bv  Chili  and  Bolitftjtt  It  extends  from  ^()° 
to  41°  S.  Lat..  and  fromW3  to  70°  W.  Lon.,  hav- 
ing an  area  of  !JOO,000  square  miles,  with  about 
80i),OOU  inhabitants,  a  large  proportion  of  whom 
are  Indians.  The  territories  lying  within  the 
limits  above  described,  formerly  composed  a  part 
of  the  Spanish  vice-royalty  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
to  which  Bolivia,  Paraguay,  and  Uruguay  also 
belonged.  In  1810  the  intendancy  of  Buenos 
Ayres  broke  out  into  an  insurrection,  and  its 
example  was  followed  by  the  other  intendancies 
of  the  vice-ioyalty.  In  1817,  they  declared 
themselves  independent,  under  the"  name  of 
the  United  States  of  South  America,  which 
was  afterwards  changed  into  that  of  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic  or  X'nited  Provinces  of  the 
Plata.  This  republic  consisted  of  14  states  or 
provinces.  (.SVr  /;,/,  .;<>.-•  .  /.y/v.v). 

UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO,  or  United 
Mexican  States.  The  Mexican  confederacy,  or, 
as  it  is  generally  called,  Mexico,  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  United  Slates;  east  by  the  Uni- 
ted States  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  south  by  the 
Republic  of  Central  America,  and  west  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  It  extends  from  Lat.  16°  to  42° 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


UNI 


587 


UTR 


N.  and  from  Lon.  87°  to  124°  W.  being  about 
2,000  miles  in  length  from  N.  to  S.,  and  from 
150  to  1,200  in  breadth,  with  an  area  estimated 
at  about  1,600,000  square  miles.  This  confed- 
eracy consists  of  19  states  5  territories  and  the 
federal  district  which  contains  the  capital.  The 
states  are  subdivided  into  districts  as  follows  :  — 


Stotet  If  Territories 

Pop. 

Capilalt. 

Pop. 

Chiapas 
Yucatan 

93,750 

500,000 

Chiapas 
Mt-rida 

3,000 
10,000 

Tabasco. 

75,000 

Tabasco  or  II< 
mosa 

5r-  j  5,000 

Oaxaca 

600,000 

Oaxaca 

40,000 

Vera  Cruz 

233,700 

Vera  Cruz 

30,000 

Puebla 

680,000 

Puebla 

70,000 

Mexico 

1,000,000 

Tlalpan 

.     6,000 

Mechoacan 
dueretaro 

450,000 
2:)0,000 

Valladolid     •> 
dueretaro 

25,000 
40,000 

Guanaxuato 

450,000 

Guanaxuato 

eo,ooo 

Xalisco 

800,000 

Guadalaxara 

00,000 

Zacatecas 

272,900 

Zacatecas 

25,000 

San  Luis  Potosi 

250,000 

San  Luis  Potos 

i      40,000 

New  Leon 

100,000 

Monterey 

15,000 

Tamaulipas 

150,000 

Aguayo 

6,000 

Cohahuila 

125,000 

Monclova 

3,000 

Chihuahua 

112,694 

Chihuahua 

30,000 

Durango 

175,000 

Durango 

25,000 

Sonora  and  ) 
Cinaloa    \ 

180,000 

Villa  Fuerte 

4,000 

Federal  District 

Mexico 

180,000 

Territory  of  j 
Tlascala    \ 

Tlascala 

small  town 

of  New  Mex- 
ico 

|  150,000 

Santa  Fe 

3,500 

of  Colima 

150,000 

Colima 

small  town 

of  Upper  Cali- 
fornia 

j    25,000 

Monterey 

2,500 

of  Lo  we  r  Cali- 
fornia 

j    15,000 

Loreto 

This  part  of  North  America  was  discovered 
by  Fernando  Cortez,  a  Spaniard,  in  1519.  He 
soon  conquered  the  Aztecs,  who  were  ignorant 
of  the  use  of  fire-arms,  and  the  country  became 
a  Spanish  province  under  the  name  of  New 
Spain.  Jt  continued  to  be  governed  by  a  Span- 
ish viceroy  until  1810,  when  the  revolution 
began  ;  in  1813  the  Mexican  provinces  declared 
themselves  independent.  The  war  continued 
with  some  interruptions  and  various  success, 
until  1815),  when  the  insurgents  were  complete- 
ly reduced.  The  struggle  was  renewed  a  few 
years  afterwards,  and  "Iturbide,  a  Creole,  who 
had  been  in  the  Spanish  or  royal  interest,  join- 
ing the  patriots,  the  latter  proved  successful. 
In  1822  Iturbide  caused  himself  to  be  proclaim- 
ed emperor,  but  he  was  soon  after  dethroned 
and  banished,  and  in  1824,  a  constitution  was 
adopted  on  the  plan  of  that  of  the  United  States. 
The  states  of  the  confederacy,  have  each  a 
50 


separate  government,  which  manages  its  in- 
ternal concerns.  The  general  government  is 
administered  by  a  president,  chosen  for  four 
years  by  the  legislatures  of  the  states,  and  a 
congress,  which  is  composed  of  a  senate  and  a 
house  of  deputies,  the  former  elected  by  the 
state  legislatures,  and  the  latter  by  the  people, 
as  in  the  United  States.  The  official  style  of  the 
republic  is  the  United  Mexican  States  (Estados 
Unidos  Mexicanos).  (See  Mexico  and  Cortez). 
United  States  of  Central  America.  (See  Cen- 
tral America). 

URUGUAY.  The  republic  of  the  Uruguay 
is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  Brazil; 
south  by  the  Atlantic,  and  west  by  the  Uru- 
guay, which  divides  it  from  the  states  of  Corri- 
entes  and  Entre  Rios.  It  has  an  area  of  80,000 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  70,000  souls. 
This  territory  formerly  belonged  to  the  Spanish 
vice-royalty  of  the  Plata,  and  was  called  the 
Banda  Oriental  (Eastern  Frontier)  from  its  geo- 
graphical position.  It  was  afterwards  claimed 
by  Brazil,  but  in  1828,  after  a  bloody  war  be- 
tween the  Brazilians  and  Buenos  Ayreans,  the 
two  parties  agreed  to  its  being  erected  into  an 
independent  state. 

Monte  Video,  the  capital  of  the  republic,  is 
situated  on  the  Plata,  and  is  regularly  built,  but 
the  houses  are  low  and  the  streets  are  not  paved. 
It  has  a  good  harbor,  and  formerly  enjoyed  an 
extensive  commerce.  The  prosperity  of  the 
city  has  been  much  affected  by  the  wars  be- 
tween the  neighboring  states,  and  its  population 
has  much  diminished.  It  now  contains  about 
10,000  inhabitants. 

Maldonado  and  Colonia,  are  small  towns  on 
the  Plata,  with  good  harbors. 

UTRECHT,  a  city  of  the  Netherlands, 
capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  con- 
taining 30,000  inhabitants.  The  treaty  of 
Utrecht  was  concluded  in  1713,  between  the 
allies  and  the  French.  The  first  stipulation  of 
this  famous  treaty  was,  that  Philip,  acknow- 
ledged king  of  Spain,  should  renounce  all  right 
to  the  crown  of  France,  the  union  of  two  such 
powerful  kingdoms  being  thought  dangerous  to 
the  liberties  of  Europe.  It  was  agreed  that  the 
duke  of  Berry,  Philip's  brother,  and  after  him 
in  succession,  should  also  renounce  his  right  to 
the  crown  of  Spain,  in  case  he  became  king  of 
France.  It  was  stipulated,  that  the  duke  of 
Savoy  should  possess  the  island  of  Sicily,  with 
the  title  of  king,  together  with  Fenestrelles,  and 
other  places  on  the  continent,  which  increase 
of  dominion  was  in  some  measure  made  out  of 
the  spoils  of  the  French  monarchy.  The 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


VAL 


588 


VAL 


Dutch  had  that  barrier  granted  them,  which 
they  so  long  sought  after ;  and  if  the  crown  of 
France  was  deprived  of  some  dominions  to  en- 
rich the  duke  of  Savoy,  on  the  other  hand  the 
house  of  Austria  was  taxed  to  supply  the  wants 
of  the  Hollanders,  who  were  put  in  possession 
of  the  stronjfest  towns  in  Flanders.  With  regard 
to  England,  its  glory  and  its  interests  were  se- 
cured. The  fortifications  of  Dunkirk,  a  harbor 
that  might  be  dangerous  to  their  trade  in  time 
of  war,  were  ordered  to  be  demolished,  and  its 
port  destroyed.  Spain  gave  up  all  right  to 
Gibraltar,  and  the  island  of  Minorca.  France 
resigned  her  pretensions  to  Hudson's  bay,  Nova 
Scotia,  *nd  Newfoundland  :  but  was  left  in  pos- 
session of  Cape  Breton,  and  the  liberty  of  dry- 
ing fish  upon  the  shore.  Among  these  articles, 
glorious  to  the  English  nation,  their  setting  free 
the  French  Protestants  confined  in  the  pri- 
sons and  galleys  for  their  religion,  was  not  the 
least  meritorious.  For  the  emperor,  it  was 
stipulated,  that  he  should  possess  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  the  duchy  of  Milan,  and  the  Spanish 
Netherlands.  The  king  of  Prussia  was  to  have 
Upper  Guelders;  and  a  time  was  fixed  for  the 
emperor's  acceding  to  those  articles,  as  he  had 
for  some  time  obstinately  refused  to  assist  at  the 
negotiation. 

V. 

VALENCIENNES,  a  fortified  city  of  France, 
on  the  Scheldt,  containing  16,918  inhabitants. 
In  1793,  this  town  formed  one  of  the  first  ob- 
jects of  attack  by  the  allies,  after  the  defeat  of 
Duraourier.  The  siege  conducted  under  the 
command  of  the  duke  of  York,  was  long  and 
obstinate,  and  part  of  the  town  was  laid  in  ashes 
before  the  capitulation.  It  was  retaken  by  the 
French  in  1794,  escaped  attack  in  the  invasion 
by  the  allied  powers  in  1914  and  1815,  and  was 
definitively  confirmed  to  France  by  the  treaties 
of  these  years. 

VALENS,  Flavius,  a  son  of  Gratian,  born 
in  Pannonia.  His  brother  Valentinian,  took 
him  as  his  colleague  on  the  throne,  and  ap- 
pointed him  over  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Roman 
empire.  By  perseverance,  Valens  was  enabled 
to  distinguish  himself  in  his  wars  against  th- 
northern  barbarians.  But  his  lenil^  to  these 
savage  intruders,  proved  fatal  to  the  Roman 
power;  and  by  permitting  some  of  the  Goths 
to  settle  in  the  provinces  of  Thrace,  and  to 
have  free  access  to  every  part  of  the  country, 
Valens  encouraged  them  to  make  depredations 
on  his  subjects,  and  to  disturb  their  tranquillity. 


His  eyes  were  opened  too  late ;  he  attempted  to 
repel  them,  but  he  failed  in  the  attempt.  A 
bloody  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  barbarians 
obtained  some  advantage,  and  Valens  was  hur- 
ried away  into  a  lonely  house,  which  the  Goths 
set  on  fire.  Valens,  unable  to  make  his  escape, 
was  burnt  alive  in  the  50th  year  of  his  age,  after 
a  reign  of  13  years,  A.  D.  378. 

VALENTINIAN  I,  a  son  of  Gratian,  raised 
to  the  imperial  throne  by  his  merit  and  valor. 
He  kept  the  western  part  of  the  empire  for 
himself,  and  appointed  over  the  east,  his  brother 
Valens.  He  gave  the  most  convincing  proof 
of  his  military  valor  in  the  victories  which  he 
obtained  over  the  barbarians  iu  the  provinces  of 
Gaul,  the  deserts  of  Africa,  and  on  the  banks 
of  the  Rhine  and  Danube.  The  insolence  of 
the  Quadi  he  punished  with  great  severity ;  and 
when  these  desrterate  nnd  indigent  barbarians 
had  deprecated  the  conqueror's  vengeance,  Va- 
lentinian treated  thorn  with  contempt,  and  up- 
braided them  with  every  mark  of  resentment. 
While  he  spoke  with  such  warmth,  he  broke  a 
blood-vessel,  and  fell  lifeless  on  the  ground.  He 
was  conveyed  into  his  palace  by  his  attendants, 
and  soon  after  died,  after  suffering  the  greatest 
agonies,  from  violent  fits  and  contortions  of  his 
limbs,  on  the  17th  of  November,  A.  D.  375.  He 
was  then  in  the  55l.h  year  of  his  age,  and  had 
reigned  twelve  years. 

VALENTINIAN  II.  About  six  days  after 
the  death  of  Valenlinian.  his  second  son,  Valen- 
tinian II.  was  proclaimed  emperor,  though  only 
five  years  old.  He  succeeded  his  brother,  Gra- 
tian, A.  D.  3^3.  but  his  youth  seemed  to  favor 
dissension,  and  the  attempts  and  the  usurpations 
of  rebels.  He  was  robbed  of  his  throne  by  Max- 
iinus,  four  years  after  the  death  of  Gratian  ;  and 
in  this  helpless  situation  he  had  recourse  to  Theo- 
dosius,  who  was  then  emperor  of  the  east.  He 
was  successful  in  his  applications  ;  Maxitnus 
was  conquered  by  Theodosius.  and  Valentinian 
entered  Rome  in  triumph,  accompanied  by  his 
benefactor.  He  was  some  time  after  strangled 
by  one  of  his  officers,  a  native  of  Gaul,  called 
Arbogastes.  Valentinian  reigned  nine  years. 
He  was  fond  of  imitating  the  virtues  and  exem- 
plary life  of  his  friend  and  patron  Theodosius, 
and  if  he  had  lived  longer,  the  Romans  might 
have  enjoyed  peace  and  security. 

VALENTINIAN  III,  was  son  of  Constan- 
tius  and  Placidia,  the  daughter  of  Theodosius 
the  Great,  and  therefore,  as  related  to  the  impe- 
rial family,  he  was  saluted  emperor  in  his  youth, 
and  publicly  acknowledged  as  such,  at  Rome, 
the  3d  of  October,  A.  D.  423,  about  the  Gth  year 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


VAL 


539 


VAN 


of  his  age.  He  was  at  first  governed  by  his 
mother,  and  the  intrigues  of  his  generals  and 
courtiers  ;  and  when  ne  came  to  years  of  dis- 
cretion, he  disgraced  himself  by  violence,  op- 
pression, and  incontinence.  He  was  murdered 
in  the  midst  of  Rome,  A.  D.  454,  in  the  3Gth 
year  of  his  age,  and  thirty-first  of  his  reign,  by 
Petronius  Maximus,  to  whose  wife  he  had 
offered  violence. 

VALERIANUS,  Publius  Licinius,  a  Roman. 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the  armies  in  Rhaetia, 
A.  D.  254.  He  took  his  son  Gallienus,  as  his 
colleague  in  the  empire,  and  showed  the  malevo- 
lence of  his  heart  by  persecuting  the  Christians 
whom  he  had  for  a  while  tolerated.  He  also 
made  war  against  the  Goths  and  Scythians  ;  but 
in  an  expedition  which  he  undertook  against 
Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  his  arms  were  attended 
with  ill  success.  He  was  conquered  in  Meso- 
potamia, and  when  he  wished  to  have  a  private 
conference  with  Sapor,  the  conqueror  seized  his 
person,  carried  him  in  triumph  to  his  capital, 
and  exposed  him  in  all  the  cities  of  his  empire, 
to  the  ridicule  and  insolence  of  his  subjects. 
When  the  Persian  monarch  mounted  on  horse- 
back, Valerian  served  as  a  footstool,  and  the 
many  other  insults  which  he  suffered,  excited 
indignation  even  among  the  courtiers  of  Sapor. 
The  monarch,  at  last,  ordered  him  to  be  flayed 
alive,  and  salt  to  be  thrown  over  his  mangled 
body,  so  that  he  died  in  the  greatest  torments. 
His  skin  was  tanned,  and  painted  in  red;  and 
that  the  ignominy  of  the  Roman  empire  might 
be  lasting,  it  was  nailed  in  one  of  the  temples 
of  Persia.  Valerian  died  in  the  71st  year  of 
his  age,  A.  I).  260,  after  a  reign  of  seven  years. 

VALERIUS,  Publius,  a  celebrated  Roman, 
surnamed  Poplicola,  from  his  popularity.  He 
was  very  active  in  assisting  Brutus  to  expel  the 
Tarquins,  and  he  was  the  first  that  took  an  oath 
to  support  the  liberty  and  independence  of  his 
country.  He  was  honored  with  the  consul- 
ship, on  the  expulsion  of  Collatinus,  and  he 
triumphed  over  the  Etrurians,  after  he  had 
gained  the  victory  in  the  battle  in  which  Brutus 
and  the  sons  of  Tarquin  had  fallen.  Valerius 
died  after  he  had  been  four  times  consul,  and 
enjoyed  the  popularity,  and  received  the  thanks 
and  the  gratitude,  which  people  redeemed  from 


slavery  and  oppression  usually  pay  to  their  de- 
liverers. To  do  him  honor,  his  body  was  buried 
at  the  public  expense.  The  Roman  matrons 
mourned  his  death  a  whole  year. 

VALERIUS,  Corvinus,  a  tribune  of  the  sol- 
diers under  Camillas.  When  the  Roman  army 
was  challenged  by  one  of  the  Senones,  re- 


markable for  his  strength  and  stature,  Valerius 
undertook  to  engage  him,  and  obtained  an  easy 
victory,  by  means  of  a  crow  that  assisted  him, 
and  attacked  the  face  of  the  Gaul, — whence  his 
surname  of  Corvinus.  Valerius  triumphed  over 
the  Etrurians,  and  the  neighboring  states  that 
made  war  against  Rome,  and  was  six  times  hon- 
ored with  the  consulship.  He  died  in  the  100th 
year  of  his  age,  admired  and  regretted  for  many 
public  and  private  virtues. 

VALETTE,  John  Parisot,  the  48th  grand 
Master  of  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 
During  his  reign  the  knight's  galleys  took  above 
fifty  Turkish  ships  in  less  than  five  years,  which 
so  enraged  Soliman  II,  that  he  resolved  to  lay 
siege  to  Malta,  and  drive  the  knights  thence. 
He  appointed  Mustapha  Bassa,  general  of  the 
land,  and  Piali  Bassa,  commander  of  the  sea 
forces,  which  set  out  from  Constantinople  in 
April,  1565,  and  arrived  at  Navarin,  the  llth 
of  May.  The  fleet  consisted  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  galleys,  nine  men  of  war,  &c.  On  the 
20th  of  May,  the  Turks  built  two  forts  at  the 
mouth  of  the  port  of  Malta,  and  placed  fourteen 
pieces  of  cannon  in  them.  After  a  few  skir- 
mishes, they  were  forced  to  retire  to  la  Marte, 
where  they  encamped  the  27th  of  May ;  the 
Bassa  battered  the  fort  of  St.  Elme,  and  after 
five  assaults,  took  the  castle  on  the  23d  of  June, 
but  with  the  loss  of  4000  of  his  best  men.  On 
the  28th,  Mustapha  laid  siege  to  the  isle  of  St. 
Michel,  or  city  of  Sengle,  and  the  next  day 
raised  his  batteries  against  the  borough,  which 
the  grand  Master  had  reinforced 'with  600  men. 
The  Turks  continued  their  batteries,  and  made 
a  general  assault  the  21st  of  August,  gained  the 
walls,  and  planted  seven  standards  over  the  gate 
de  Bonne  Enseigne :  but  the  knights  defeated 
them  with  great"  slaughter.  Mustapha  made 
several  other  efforts,  until  the  13th  of  Septem- 
ber, when  forty-nine  Christian  galleys  arrived 
with,  succor,  and  he  then  embarked  with  great 
precipitation  and  escaped  by  night.  During  the 
siege,  most  of  the  fortifications  were  ruined. 
The  Turks  lost  20,000  men,  and  about  9000 
Christians  died  of  their  wounds.  Valette  re- 
built the  city,  which  he  called  by  his  own  name. 
He  died  in  15G8. 

VALMY,  a  village  in  the  north-east  of 
France,  department  of  the  Marne.  An  action 
was  fought  here  in  September,  1792,  between 
the  Frencli  and  Prussians.  Kel'.erman  con- 
ducted it  on  the  part  of  the  French,  and  re- 
ceived from  it,  at  a  future  date,  the  title  of 
duke  of  Valmy. 

VANDALS,  The,  according    to  the    most 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


YEN 


590 


YEN 


credible  historians,  were  originally  a  Gothic 
nation,  who  came  out  of  Scandinavia  with  the 
other  Goths,  and  settled  in  the  countries  now 
known  by  the  names  of  Mecklenburg  and  Bran- 
denburg. Afterwards,  another  colony  fixed 
their  habitations  in  Pomerania ;  and,  in  process 
of  time,  they  extended  themselves  into  Dal- 
matia,  Illyricum,  and  Dacia.  They  attacked 
Greece,  whence  they  went  even  to  Spain ;  and 
from  that  country,  under  the  famous  Genseric, 
passed  over  into  Africa,  where,  for  some  time, 
they  fixed  the  throne  of  their  power.  This 
prince  reduced  Carthage,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  and 
all  the  islands  between  Italy  and  Africa.  In 
473,  Genseric  concluded  a  peace  with  the  em- 
peror Zeno,  whom  he  compelled  to  renounce  all 
claim  to  the  provinces  of  Africa.  Justinian 
afterwards  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the 
Vandals,  and  re-united  the  provinces  of  Africa 
to  the  Greek  empire. 

VANE,  Sir  Henry,  a  statesman,  was  born  in 
Kent,  in  1583.  In  1039,  he  was  made  treasurer 
of  the  house-hold,  and  scon  after,  principal 
secretary  of  state ;  but,  on  joining  in  the  prose- 
cution of  the  earl  of  Strafford,  he  was  removed 
from  all  his  places.  He  died  in  1GT>4. 

VANE,  Sir  Henry,  eldest  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  born  in  1612.  He  became  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  but  his  conduct  was  so  fanatical, 
that  the  settlement  would  have  been  ruined  had 
he  not  been  compelled  to  quit  the  country.  In 
1640  he  was  elected  into  parliament,  where  he 
was  the  principal  mover  of  the  solemn  league 
and  covenant,  and  also  of  the  self-denying  ordi- 
nance; but  he  took  no  part  in  the  king's  trial, 
and  he  resisted  Cromwell  to  such  a  degree,  that 
the  usurper  sent  him  to  Carisbrooke  castle.  On 
the  death  of  Oliver,  he  labored  to  institute  a 
perfect  commonwealth,  but  the  nation  had  al- 
ready suffered  too  much  by  such  speculations, 
and  the  ancient  order  being  restored,  he  was 
brought  to  trial  for  treason,  and  condemned  to 
be  beheaded,  which  was  put  in  execution  oa 
Tower-hill,  June  14,  IGoU 

VARUS,  Quinlilius,  a  Roman  pro-consul, 
descended  from  an  illustrious  family.  He  was 
appointed  governor  of  Syria,  and  afterwards 
made  commander  of  the  armies  in  Germany. 
He  was  surprised  bv  the  enemy,  under  Anni- 
nius,  a  crafty  and  dissimulating  chief,  and  his 
army  was  cut  to  pieces.  When  he  saw  that 
every  thing  was  lost,  he  killed  himself,  A.  I). 
10,  and  his  example  was  followed  by  some  of 
his  officers. 

VEMDEE,  a  department  in  the  west  of 
France.  It  will  be  for  ever  memorable  in  the 


history  of  the  French  revolution,  for  the  re- 
sistance made  to  the  republican  army  in  179?, 
1794,  and  1795.  It  was  attended  for  a  time  with 
great  success,  though  commenced  without  any 
concert  with  the  other  royalists  of  France,  and 
carried  on  for  a  season  with  very  limited  support 
from  England.  La  Vendee  was  also  the  scene- 
of  some  sharp  fighting  in  1815. 

VENEZUELA,  a  new  republic  of  South 
America,  bounded  north  and  east  by  the  Carib- 
bean sea  and  the  Atlantic  ocean,  south  by  Brazil, 
and  west  by  New  Granada.  The  northern  part 
is  mountainous,  and  the  climate  of  the  plains  hot. 
The  soil  produces  sugar,  cofiee,  indigo,  cotton 
and  tobacco.  It  was  formerly  a  part  of  Colombia. 

VENICE,  capital  of  the  government  of 
Venice,  in  the  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom,  is 
built  on  small  islands,  intersected  with  canals, 
on  which  the  long,  black  gondolas  are  propelled 
by  an  oar  in  the  stern.  Its  public  buildings 
are  numerous  and  splendid,  but  decayed.  The 
number  of  inhabitants  is  110,000 ;  but  the  former 
spirit  of  the  place  is  gone.  With  respect  to* 
the  first  establishment  of  the  Venetian  govern- 
ment, A.  D.  42J,  it  is  said,  that  this  multitude 
of  people  might  have  been  thought  a  numerous 
seminary  of  philosophers;  cultivating  the  duties 
of  religion  and  virtue,  and  enjoying  a  perfect 
tranquillity.  At  this  period  the  government 
seems  to  have  been  consular.  It  was  afterwards 
changed  into  the  tribunitian  form,  in  097,  in 
which  it  continued  for  nearly  three  hundred 
years :  but  the  tribunes,  abusing  their  power, 
the  ducal  government  was  established.  The 
first  doge  was  Paulatis,  who  made  the  nation 
happv,  powerful,  and  wealthy,  and  who  was 
succeeded  by  Marcello,  Hypato,  Theodato, 
Galla,  Domesco,  Mouegaria,  and  Maurilio  Gal- 
baio.  During  the  dogeship  of  Mauritio,  the 
Venetians  declared  themselves  a  free  and  inde- 
pendent people,  acknowledging  neither  the 
eastern  nor  the  western  empire.  To  him  suc- 
ceeded Giovanni  and  Obelerio,  the  ninth  doge, 
under  whom  Venice  was  besieged  and  attacked 
by  Pepiu,  in  7d4,  who,  struck  with  the  intrepid- 
ity of  the  Venetians,  raised  the  siege,  abandoned 
the  enterprise,  and  concluded  a  peace  with  the 
republic.  Under  Pietro  Tiibnno,  the  seven- 
teenth doge,  in  !>03,  the  Huns  having  defeated 
Berengarius,  entered  Italy,  and,  induced  by  the 
wealth  of  the  Venetian  republic,  resolved  to 
sack  and  pillage  the  city.  However,  the  doge 
was  so  bravely  seconded  by  his  troops,  that  the 
barbaiians  were  completely  broken  and  defeated, 
and  the  reputation  of  Venice  for  arms  became 
famous  over  the  world.  Under  the  government 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


VEN 


591 


VEN 


of  Ordelapho,  the  thirty-fourth  doge,  the  Vene- 
tians subdued  Croatia,  in  consequence  of  which, 
the  republic  assumed  the  title  of  lords  of  Croatia; 
but  the  Hungarians  entering  Dalmatia,  in  1089, 
attacked  and  defeated  the  Venetians,  and  cruelly 
butchered  their  wounded  and  prisoners.  Ziani, 
the  thirty-ninth  doge,  was  no  sooner  elected, 
than  the  republic  was  involved  in  a  war  with 
Frederic  Barbarossa,  from  whose  persecution 
the  pope  Alexander  had  retired  to  Venice. 
However,  the  doge  engaged  the  enemy  at  sea, 
in  1173,  and  took,  sunk,  and  destroyed,  forty- 
eight  of  their  ships,  and  returned  in  triumph  to 
Venice.  Under  the  doge-ship  of  Pietro  Grado- 
nico,  the  forty-ninth  of  the  Venetian  princes,  a 
war  took  place  with  the  Genoese,  in  1291,  who 
defeated  the  Venetian  fleet  at  sea,  and  took 
Dandolo,  the  commander,  prisoner ;  who,  in 
the  agony  of  despair,  dashed  out  his  brains 
against  the  side  of  the  cabin  where  he  was 
confined.  After  Bartolomeo  Gradonico,  the 
fifty-third  •  Venetian  prince,  Andrea  Dandolo 
next  succeeded  to  the  ducal  chair,  and  war 
commenced  with  Genoa.  The  two  hostile  fleets 
met  and  engaged  on  the  Sardinian  coast,  in 
1347,  and  the  whole  Genoese  armament  was 
taken  or  destroyed,  with  the  exception  «of  the 
admiral's  ship  alone.  This  defeat  caused  the 
utmost  consternation  at  Genoa ;  and  the  Geno- 
ese, in  their  despair,  requested  that  the  duke  of 
Milan  would  accept  of  the  sovereignty  of  their 
dominions.  Marino  Faliero.  the  fifty-fifth  doge, 
in  1353,  formed  the  project  of  restoring  the 
power  to  the  people,  through  hatred  of  the 
nobles;  but  his  design  being  discovered,  he 
was  tried  in  due  form,  and  after  acknowledging 
his  crime,  was  beheaded  in  the  hall  of  the  great 
council.  Thus  the  aristocracy  of  Venice  was 
continued.  During  the  sovereignty  of  Andrea 
Contarini,  the  sixtieth  doge,  war  again  occurred 
with  Genoa,  in  1373,  and  an  obstinate  naval 
engagement  ensued,  in  which  the  Genoese 
were  obliged  to  yield  to  the  bravery  of  the 
Venetians,  who  captured  the  whole  of  their 
fleet.  Andrea  Contarini  was  succeeded  by 
Michael  Morosini,  and.  from  this  period,  the 
meridian  power  and  prosperity  of  Venice  may 
be  dated.  During  the  government  of  Michael 
Steno,  war  was  declared  against  Genoa,  in  1403, 
and  a  dreadful  battle  took  place  between  the 
hostile  fleets,  in  which  the  Genoese  lost  seven 
ships,  and  nearly  three  thousand  men.  Under 
the  government  of  Thomaso  Moncenigo,  the 
Venetians  successfully  exerted  themselves 
against  the  Turks  in  the  Morea,  and  against 
several  petty  sovereigns  whose  states  they  in- 
50* 


vaded  in  Dalmatia  and  Friuli.  They  also 
bought  Corinth,  in  addition  to  Patras  and  Zara, 
which  they  had  already  purchased.  Under 
Francisco  Foscari,  the  sixty-fifth  duke  of 
Venice,  in  1423,  the  Venetians  waged  war 
against  Milan,  Florence,  Genoa,  or  rather 
against  all  Italy ;  and  their  general,  Carmag- 
nola,  being  convicted  of  a  treasonable  corres- 
pondence with  the  enemy,  was  beheaded. 
Foscari  ruled  the  state  iu  peace,  and  even 
with  applause,  during  thirty -four  years ;  but, 
at  the  expiration  of  that  period,  his  son  hap- 
pening to  die  in  exile,  he  became  extremely 
melancholy,  and  unfit  for  the  discharge  of  busi- 
ness. It  was  therefore  determined,  by  a  giunta 
of  twenty-seven  senators,  that  he  should  vacate 
the  ducal  chair,  that  a  new  doge  should  be 
elected  to  succeed  him,  and  that  a  pension  and 
certain  honors  should  be  allowed  him  in  his 
retreat.  Foscari  died  soon  after  of  a  broken 
heart,  in  consequence  of  this  ungrateful  treat- 
ment. He  was  succeeded  by  Pasquil  Malipiero, 
in  1462,  and  Christophoro  Mora,  under  Whose 
government  hostilities  were  carried  on  against 
the  Turks  in  the  Morea;  but,  though  the  Vene- 
tians were  assisted  by  an  army  of  crusaders,  the 
war  proved  unsuccessful.  Mora  was  succeed- 
ed by  Nicolao  Trono,  Nicola  Marcello,  Pietro 
Moncenigo,  Andrea  Vendramino,  and  Giovanni 
Moncenigo,  during  all  of  whose  reigns  a  vigor- 
ous war  was  carried  on  with  the  Turks.  After 
Marco  Barbarico,  his  brother  Agostino  succeed- 
ed to  the  ducal  chair,  in  I486,  during  whose 
sovereignty,  Cyprus  was  annexed  to  the  repub- 
lic, and  the  wealth,  grandeur,  and  power  of 
Venice,  continued  to  increase.  A  league  was 
now  formed  between  the  emperor.  Spain,  the 
pope,  the  Venetians,  and  the  duke  of  Milan, 
against  the  king  of  Fiance.  Under  the  doge- 
ship  of  Leonardo  Loretano,  the  league  of  Cam- 
bray  was  formed,  in  which  the  pope,  king  of 
France,  as  duke  of  Milan,  the  king  of  Arragon 
and  Naples,  the  republic  of  Florence,  and  the 
dukes  of  Ferrara  and  Savoy,  agreed  to  a  parti- 
tion of  the  Venetian  states.  At  length,  war 
was  declared  by  France  against  Venice,  in 
1508 ;  the  progress  of  the  confederates  was 
rapid,  and  the  republic  was  plunged  into  the 
deepest  distress.  However,  in  1511,  the  siege 
of  Padua  was  raised ;  and  after  some  time,  a 
treaty  was  entered  into  between  the  pope  and 
the  Venetians,  and  the  league  was  broken.  The 
next  year,  the  Venetians  also  took  Cremona 
Bastia.  and  Brescia;  the  emperor  now  secretly 
signed  the  treaty  with  them,  and  Louis  offered 
terms  of  peace.  Upon  the  death  of  Louis,  in 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


VEN 


592 


VER 


1513,  Francis  I  renewed  the  treaty  with  the 
Venetians ;  and  the  emperor,  the  pope,  Ferdi- 
nand king  of  Arragon,  the  Swiss,  and  Sforza, 
entered  into  another.  However,  after  some 
advantages  gained  on  each  side,  peace  was  re- 
established. Lorctano  was  succeeded  by  An- 
tonio Grimani,  Andrea  Gritti,  Pietro  Lando, 
Francisco  Donato,  Marco  Antonio  Trevisiano, 
Francisco  Veniero,  Lorenzo  Priuli,  Jeronimo 
Priuli,  and  Pietro  Loretano,  during  whose 
government,  in  1560,  Selim,  emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople, formed  designs  upon  Cyprus.  A 
treaty  was  soon  after  formed  between  Spain, 
the  Pope,  and  the  Venetians.  On  the  death 
of  Loretano,  Ludovico  Moncenigo,  the  eighty- 
fifth  doge,  succeeded  to  the  government,  in 
1570.  In  the  following  August,  the  Turkish 
troops  landed  without  resistance  at  Port  Salina, 
in  Cyprus,  of  which  they  at  length  made  them- 
selves masters.  A  treaty  was  set  on  foot,  host- 
ages  were  exchanged,  and  a  capitulation  was 
elected  on  honorable  terms.  Bragadino,  the 
Venetian  commander,  after  having  his  ears, 
nose,  and  lips  cut  off,  was  flayed  alive,  by 
order  of  Mustapha,  the  Turkish  general.  The 
republic  of  Venice  had  enjoyed  but  a  short 
respite  from  the  horrors  of  war,  when  it  was 
visited  by  the  pestilence,  in  1576,  which  cut 
off  twenty-two  thousand  men,  thirty  thousand 
women,  and  eleven  thousand  children.  Mon- 
cenigo was  succeeded  by  Sebastiano  Veniero, 
Nicola  da  Ponti,  Pasquali  Cicogna,  Marino 
Grimani,  and  Leonardo  Denato,  during  whose 
government  a  rupture,  and  consequent  paci- 
fication, with  the  pope  took  place.  Leonardo 
Donato  was  succeeded  by  Marcantonio  Munio, 
Giovanni  Bembo.  Nicolo  Donato,  and  Antonio 
Priuli,  the  ninety-fourth  doge.  Antonio  Priuli 
was  succeeded  by  Francesco  Contarinn,  Giovan- 
ni Cornaro,  Francesco  Erizzo,  and  Francesco 
Molino,  the  ninety-ninth  doge,  during  whose 
government  the  first  siege  of  Candia  took 
place,  and  the  Venetians  gained  several  naval 
victories.  This  was  likewise  the  case  during 
the  dogeships  of  Carlo  Contarino,  Francesco 
Cornaro,  Bertuccio  Valiero,  Giovanni  Pesaro, 
and  Dominico  Contarino,  the  hundred  and 
fourth  doge,  during  whose  government  the 
memorable  siege  and  capture  of  Candia  took 
place.  His  successors  were  Nicolo  Secredo, 
Luigi  Contarino,  and  Marcunliniano'Guistini- 
anio,  the  hundred  and  seventh  doge,  durin<r 
whose  government  the  Morea  was  subdued  by 
the  Venetians,  in  1G87.  Giustinianio  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Francesco  Morosino,  and  Sylvestro 
Valiero,  the  hundred  and  ninth  doge,  m  1698, 
during  whose  sovereignty-  the  porte  concluded 


peace  with  Venice,  and  left  the  republic  in  full 
possession  of  all  her  conquests.    Under  his  suc- 
cessor, Giovanni  Cornaro,  war  broke  out  be- 
tween the  republic  and   the   Turks,  and  was 
brought  to  a  conclusion  by  Sebastiano  Monce- 
nigo, who,  after  the  death  of  Cornaro,  in  17'<i5, 
was  rewarded  with  the  ducal  crown.     He  wao 
succeeded  by  Carlo  Razzini,  whose  successors 
were  Luigi  Pisani,  Pietro  Grimaldi,  Francesco 
Loretano,  Marco  Foscarini,and  Alvisio  Monce- 
nigo.   Under  the  government  of  Paulo  Riniero, 
the  republic  engaged  in  an  expensive  and  un- 
profitable war  with  the  regency  of  Tunis,  hi 
1789.      Riniero  was  succeeded   in    the   ducal 
ehair  by  Luigo  Manino,  the  last  doge,  during 
whose  government  nothing  important  occurred, 
till  the  invasion  of  Italy  t*y  the  French.     The 
Venetians,  in  order  to  check  the   progress  of 
the  republican  forces,  put  Peschiera  into  the 
hands  of  the  imperialists,  in  17'JiJ;  but  Bona- 
parte   quickly  becoming   master   of  ail   Italy, 
they   endeavored,  to   conciliate    the   lavor   of 
France,  by  warning  out  ol  their  territories  the 
unfortunate  brother  of  the    late    king,   whom 
they  treated    with   indignity  and   insult.      At 
length,  the  hatred  of  the  Venetians  burst  forth 
in  the* most  outrageous  manner.     On  the  roads 
from  Mantua  to  Legnano,  and  from  Cassano  to 
Verona,  upwards  ol  two  hundred  French  were 
assassinated ;  and  at  Verona  ail  the  French  in 
that   city  were   murdered.      'Ihcse   and   oliifi- 
outrages,  of  a  similar   iiatiuv,  induced  Bona- 
parte to  issue  a  proclamation,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  French  troops  over-ran  mid  sub 
jugaled,  in  a  few  days,  all  the  Venetian  domin- 
ions ;    and    the    senate   formally   submitted    to 
the  French  eornmauder,  in  17W,  and  consented 
t<)  deliver  up  those  persons  who  had  been  instru- 
mental in  the  late  atrocities.     On  the  10th  of 
May,  the  French  took  possession  of  the  city  of 
Venice,  and  established  a  provincial  govern- 
ment on  the  republican  plan.    By  the  treaty  of 
Campo  Forrnio,  Venice,  with  most  of  its  depen- 
dencies, was  ceded  to  the  emperor  of  Germany; 
and  the  treaty  of  Presburg  united  it  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy.     After  the  abdication  by  Bona- 
parte of  the  thrones  of  France  and  Italy,  Venice 
w;is  united  by  the  congress  of  Vienna  to  the 
territories  of  the  house  of  Austria.     Thus  the 
ancient  republic  of  Venice,  so  long  mistress  of 
the  Adriatic,  finally  terminated  in  a  complete 
dependency  of  Austria,  in  1814. 

VER  A  CRUZ,  a  state  of  the  Mexican  Con- 
federacy, bounded  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
north  by  the  state  of  Tamaulipas,  and  west  by 
Puebla.  and  Mexico.  The  soil  is  fertile  but  the 
State  is  thinly  peopled,  containing  but  233,000 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


VER 


593 


VER 


souls.  The  climate  is  unhealthy.  The  chief 
productions  are  tobacco,  coffee,  cotton,  &c. 

VERE,  Francis,  an  English  general,  was  the 
grandson  of  John  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford,  and  was 
born  in  1554.  He  served  first  in  the  Nether- 
lands, under  the  earl  of  Leicester,  and  next  un- 
der lord  Willoughby,  who,  for  his  conduct  in 
the  defence  of  Bergen-op-Zoom,  conferred  on 
him  the  honor  of  knighthood.  After  this  he 
throw  supplies  into  the  town  of  Berg,  on  the 
Rhine,  in  which  hazardous  service  he  received 
many  wounds.  In  1591  he  took  a  fort  near 
Zutphen  by  stratagem,  and  was  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  the  capture  of  Deventer.  In  1590  he 
was  recalled  from  the  Netherlands,  and  em- 
ployed in  the  expedition  against  Cadiz,  with  the 
title  of  lord  marshal.  The  last  great  action  of 
this  galldtit  commander  was  the  defence  of  Os- 
tend.  where  he  succeeded  in  repelling,  with  a 
small  garrison  of  twelve  hundred  men,  an  army 
of  ten  thousand.  Sir  Francis  died  Aug.  2d, 
KJOd,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey. 

VER£,  Sir  Horace,  Baron  of  Tilbury,  young- 
er brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Kirby- 
hall  in  Essex,  in  15li5.  He  served  with  his 
brother  in  the  Netherlands,  and  had  a  consid- 
erable share  in  the  victory  near  Nieuport ;  as  he 
afterwards  had  in  the  defence  of  Ostend.  In 
the  reign  of  James  i,  he  commanded  the  forces 
sent  to'the  assistance  of  the  elector  Palatine; 
on  which  occasion  he  effected  a  memorable  re- 
treat from  Spinola,  the  Spanish  general.  He 
was  the  first  person  raised  to  the  peerage  by 
Charles  f.  He  died  in  1035. 

VERGENNES,  Charles  Gravier.  count  de, 
an  eminent  statesman,  was  born  at  Dijon  in 
1717.  On  the  accession  of  Louis  XVI  to  the 
throne  he  was  made  secretary  of  state  for  for- 
eign affairs.  In  this  situation,  he  distinguished 
himself  by  what  he,  no  doubt,  considered  a  mas- 
ter-stroke of  policy,  that  of  separating  England 
and  her  colonies  ;  but  in  this  lie  only  accelera- 
ted a  more  fatal  blow  to  his  own  country.  He 
died  at  Versailles,  Feb.  13,  1787. 

VERMONT,  one  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  bounded  N.  by  Lower  Canada,  E.  by 
Connecticut  river,  separating  it  from  New 
Hampshire,  S.  by  Massachusetts,  and  W.  by 
New  York.  It  is  157  miles  in  length,  and  the 
greatest  breadth  is  90  miles.  Pop.  291,948. 

COUNTIES.  Addison,  Bennington.  Caledo- 
nia, Chittenden,  Essex,  Franklin,  Grand  Isle, 
Orange,  Orleans,  Rutland,  Washington,  Wind- 
ham,  Windsor. 

The  piincipal  rivers  are  the  Connecticut,  La- 
moile,  Onion,  Otter  Creek.  Missisque,  Deerfield, 


&c.  The  Green  Mountains  extend  through  this 
state,  The  chief  towns  are  Montpelier,  the  seat 
of  government,  Burlington,  Windsor,  Brattlebo- 
rough,  Middlebury  and  Bennington.  Vermont 
university  at  Burlington,  the  college  at  Middle- 
bury,  and  a  literary,  scientific,  and  military  aca- 
demy at  Norwich,  are  flourishing  institutions. 

Fort  Dummer  was  built  by  Massachusetts  on 
Connecticut  river  in  1724,  and  in  1731  a  fort 
was  built  at  Crown  Point  by  the  French  from 
Canada,  within  the  present  limits  of  Vermont. 
In  1741  a  boundary  line  was  run  between  Mas- 
sachusetts and  New  Hampshire.  In  1749,  Ben- 
ning  Wentworth,  governor  of  New  Hampshire, 
concluding  that  the  boundary  of  that  colony  ex- 
tended as  far  west  as  that  of  Massachusetts, 
that  is,  to  within  20  miles  of  the  Hudson,  made 
a  grant  of  a  township  of  land,  six  miles  square, 
which  from  his  own  first  name  was  called  Ben- 
nington. Other  grants  were  subsequently  made, 
and  several  towns  planted  on  the  west  side  of 
Connecticut  river.  In  the  year  17C4  the  king 
annexed  the  territory  west  of  the  Connecticut 
river^o  the  colony  of  New  York  ;  the  govern- 
ment of  which  demanded  new  grants  from  tho 
settlers.  This  was  refused  :  and  the  next  year 
several  of  the  officers  in  attempting  to  exe- 
cute the  judgments  of  the  courts  of  New  York, 
were  resisted  and  wounded.  At  the  head  of 
this  opposition  were  Ethan  Allen  and  Col.  War- 
ner, men  of  coolness,  and  resolution. 

In  1774  the  government  of  New  York  passed 
a  law  demanding  the  surrender  of  all  offenders 
under  severe  penalties,  and  offering  a  bounty 
of  £50  per  head,  on  the  apprehension  of  eight 
of  the  most  obnoxious  settlers.  While  prepar- 
ing for  civil  war,  the  revolution  commenced, 
the  importance  of  which  absorbed  all  minor  con- 
siderations. In  1777  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence having  left  the  settlers  in  a  critical 
situation,  a  convention  of  representatives  from 
the  towns  on  both  sides  of  the  mountains,  was 
held  at  Westminster,  and  the  District  was  de- 
clared a  free  and  independent  state.  It  received 
its  name  from  the  French  words  Vcrd  mont,  cr 
green  mountain,  which  name  had  been  conferred 
by  Ethan  A  lien,  on  the  mountains,  and  was  af- 
terwards transferred  to  the  state.  In  1790  the 
dispute  between  New  York  and  Vermont  was 
adjusted,  the  latter  giving  20,000  dollars  for  the 
quit  claim  of  the  former.  The  next  year  Ver- 
mont was  admitted  into  the  union.  The  pres- 
ent constitution  was  adopted  in  1793. 

VERNON,  Edward,  an  English  admiral,  was 
borti  in  Westminster,  of  a  Staffordshire  family, 
Nov.  12,  1684.  His  father  was  secretary  of 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


VER 


594 


VIE 


state  to  king  William,  and  reluctantly  suffered 
iim  to  enter  into  the  sea  service  under  admiral 
Hopson.  In  1704  he  was  with  sir  George 
Rooke ,  at  the  battle  of  Malaga.  After  a  variety 
of  service  under  different  commanders,  he  was 
made  vice-admiral  of  the  blue  in  1739,  and  sent 
with  a  squadron  to  Spanish  America,  where  he 
took  Porto  Bello,  and  destroyed  the  fortifica- 
tions ;  but  in  1741,  he  proved  unsuccessful  in 
an  attack  upon  Carthagena.  On  his  return 
home,  he  was  employed  in  guarding  the  coasts 
of  Kent  and  Sussex  during  the  rebellion  ;  but 
soon  after  he  was  superseded,  and  even  struck 
off  the  list  of  admirals  for  acting  in  opposition  to 
the  ministry.  He  died  Oct.  29, 1757. 

VEllON A,  an  ancient  European  city,  former- 
ly belonging  to  Venice,  now  to  the  Austrian 
Lombardo  Venetian  kingdom,  situated  on  the 
Adige,  60  miles  west  of  Venice.  Population 
55,000.  Its  splendid  antique  monuments  ren- 
dered it  attractive  to  every  scholar.  It  was 
taken  by  Charlemagne  in  774  ;  became  subse- 
quently a  free  town ;  fell,  in  the  course  of  time, 
under  the  sway  of  leading  families ;  and  in  1405, 
was  united  to  the  territorial  possessions  of  Ven- 
ice. It  enjoyed  peace  and  tranquillity  till  the 
year  J79U,  when  Italy  was  invaded  by  the 
French.  It  was  then  added  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy.  In  1814,  it  again  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Austria. 

VERRES,  Caius  Licinius,  a  Roman  who  gov- 
erned the  province  of  Sicily  as  prastor.  The  op- 
pression and  rapine  of  which  he  was  guilty, 
while  in  office,  so  offended  the  Sicilians,  that 
they  brought  an  accusation  against  him  before 
the  Roman  senate.  Cicero  undertook  the  cause 
of  the  Sicilians.  Verres  was  defended  by  Hor- 
tensius,  but  as  he  despaired  of  the  success  of 
his  defence,  he  left  Rome  without  waiting  for 
his  sentence,  and  lived  in  great  affluence  in  one 
of  the  provinces.  He  was  at  last  killed  by  the 
soldiers  of  Antony  the  triumvir,  about  20  years 
afuT  his  voluntary  exile  from  the  capital. 

VERULAM,  an  ancient  Roman  city  and 
colony  in  Hertfordshire,  the  royal  city  of  Cas- 
sibellanus.  It  was  taken  by  Julius  Ctcsar,  52 
years.  B.  C.  in  his  second  expedition  into  Bri- 
tain, and  under  Dioclesian  had  one  famous 
martyr  called  Albanus.  In  429  a  British  synod 
was  held  here  by  St.  German,  bishop  of  Auxerre 
in  France,  against  the  Pelagians.  Soon  after 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Saxons  about  465, 
but  was  re-taken  by  Uther  Pendragon,  who  be- 
gan his  reign  in  498,  and  reigned  18  years.  It 
was  re-taken  by  the  Saxons,  and  entirely  ruined. 
In  JJ75,  Ofla,  a  king  of  the  Mercians,  built  on 


the  other  side  of  the  little  river  which  washed 
the  walls  of  it,  a  monastery  in  honor  of  St.  Al- 
ban.  It  became  a  great  town,  and  is  now  called 
St.  Albans.  King  James  I  revived  the  memory 
of  this  place,  when  he  made  sir  Francis  Bacon, 
then  lord  chancellor  of  England,  lord  Verulam 
in  1620.  The  venerable  abbey  is  esteemed  by 
antiquarians  as  one  of  the  finest  in  England. 
Part  of  it  is,  however,  in  a  dilapidated  stale, 
owing  to  the  want  of  funds  for  repairs. 

VESPASIANUS,  Titus  Flavius,  a  Roman 
emperor,  descended  from  an  obscure  family  at 
Reate.  He  was  honored  wifh  the  consulship, 
not  so  much  by  the  influence  of  the  imperial 
courtiers,  as  by  his  own  private  merit,  and  his 
public  services.  He  accompanied  Nero  into 
Greece,  but  he  offended  the  prince  by  falling 
asleep  while  he  repeated  one  of  his  poetical 
compositions.  This  momentary  resentment  of 
the  emperor  did  not  prevent  Vespasian  from 
being  sent  to  carry  on  a  war  against  the  Jews. 
His  operations  were  crowned  with  success; 
many  of  the  cities  of  Palestine  surrendered,  and 
Vespasian  began  the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  This 
was,  however,  achieved  by  the  hands  of  his  son 
Titus.  After  the  death  of  Otho,  he  was  induced 
by  his  army  to  become  emperor ;  and  he  easily 
overcame  Vitelliiw.  The  choice  of  the  army 
was  approved  by  every  province  of  the  empire  ; 
but  Vespasian  did  not  betray  any  signs  of  pride 
at  so  sudden  and  so  unexpected  an  exaltation, 
and  he  behaved,  when  invested  with  the  impe- 
rial purple,  with  all  the  dignity  and  greatness 
which  became  a  successor  of  Augustus.  In 
the  beginning  of  his  reign,  Vespasian  attempted 
to  reform  the  manners  of  the  Romans,  and  he 
took  away  an  appointment  which  he  had  a  few 
days  before  granted  to  a  young  nobleman  who 
approached  him  to  return  him  thanks,  all  smell- 
ing of  perfumes,  and  covered  with  ointment ; 
adding,  I  had  rather  you  had  smelt  of  garlic. 
After  he  had  reigned  with  great  popularity  for 
ten  years,  Vespasian  died  of  a  complaint  in  his 
bowels,  A.  D.  79,  in  the  70th  year  of  his  age,  to 
the  great  grief  of  all  the  empire.  He  was  the 
first  of  the  Roman  emperors  who  was  succeeded 
by  his  own  son  on  the  throne.  Vespasian  has 
been  admired  for  his  great  virtues. 

VIENNA,  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Germa- 
ny, the  capital  of  the  Austrian  monarch}7,  situ- 
ated on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube,  and  con- 
taining 300,000  inhabitants.  Its  palaces,  church- 
ea,  charitable  and  literary  institutions,  as  well 
as  the  gayety  of  its  society  make  it  one  of  the 
most  noted  of  European  cities.  Vienna  was 
captured  in  1484,  by  the  Hungarians,  but  after 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


VIL 


595 


VIL 


the  death  of  their  king  was  restored  to  Austria. 
In  1529,  the  Turks  destroyed  its  suburbs.  In 
1619,  the  Bohemian  insurgents,  supported  by  a 
party  in  Austria,  penetrated  into  the  city.  But 
the  attack  most  generally  known  to  the  readers 
of  history  was  that  of  1683,  made  by  a  Turkish 
army,  supported  by  disaffected  chiefs  in  Hun- 
gary, but  repulsed  by  Sobieski,  king  of  1'oland. 
In  the  present  age  it  was  threatened  by  Bona- 
parte in  1797,  and  occupied  by  hirn  in  1805  and 
1809.  On  both  occasions  proper  discipline  was 
observed  by  the  invaders,  and  little  injury  was 
done. 

VIENNA,  Treaty  of,  between  Austria  and 
France,  in  1809.  The  decisive  battle  of  Wa- 
gram  led  to  an  armistice,  which  the  emperor  of 
Germany  was  compelled  to  sue  for,  and  which, 
after  a  protracted  negotiation,  was  followed  by 
a  treaty  of  peace.  According  to  the  terms  of 
this  treaty  Austria  ceded  a  great  portion  of  her 
territory  ;  agreed  to  a  contribution  to  indemnify 
France  for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and  acknow- 
ledged Joseph  Bonaparte  king  of  Spain.  To  the 
king  of  Bavaria  she  gave  up  Saltzburg,  and  a 
tract  of  country  along  the  banks  of  the  Danube, 
from  Passau  to  Lintz.  To  the  king  of  Saxony 
she  yielded  the  whole  of  western  Gallicia.  To 
Russia  so  much  of  the  eastern  part  of  that  pro- 
vince as  contained  a  population  of  40.000  souls. 
To  France  she  ceded  Fiume  and  Trieste,  with 
the  whole  of  the  country  south  of  the  Saave,  to 
where  that  river  enters  Bosnia.  She  also  gave 
up  the  inhabitants  of  the  Tyrol,  on  condition  of 
their  receiving  from  Bonaparte  a  full  and  free 
pardon.  Such  was  the  fatal  effects  of  the  battle 
of  Wagrani,  of  which  the  Austrians  gave  so  fa- 
vorable an  account,  and  which  they  claimed  as 
a  victory. 

VILLARS,  Louis  Hector,  duke  of,  a  French 
general,  was  born  at  Moulina,  in  1653.  After  a 
variety  of  services,  he  gained  the  battle  of  Frie- 
dlingen  in  1762 ;  for  which  he  was  made  mar- 
shal of  France.  The  following  year  he  took 
the  fortress  of  Kehl,  and  put  an  end  to  the  in- 
surrection in  the  Cevennes,  for  which  he  was 
created  duke  of  Villars.  In  1707  he  forced  the 
lines  at  Stolhoffen  ;  but  in  1709  he  lost  the  bat- 
tle of  Malplaquet,  and  was  wounded.  In  1712 
lie  acquired  glory  by  forcing  the  intrenchments 
of  Denain  on  the  Scheldt,  which  exploit  was 
succeeded  by  the  capture  of  Marchiennes, 
Douay,  Bouchain,  Landau,  and  Friburg.  The 
peace  of  Rastadt  followed ;  after  which  marshal 
Villars  was  made  president  of  the  council  of 
war,  and  minister  of  state.  In  1733  he  com- 
manded in  Italy,  with  the  title  of  marshal-gen- 


eral of  the  French  camps  and  armies.     He  died 
at  Turin,  June  17,1734. 

V1LLIERS,  George,  duke  of  Buckingham, 
was  the  son  of  sir  George  Villiers,  of  Brookes- 

Sin  Leicestershire,  and  was  born  there  in  1592. 
5  attracted  the  notice  of  James  I  at  the  per- 
formance of  the  play  of  Ignoramus,  in  1615; 
soon  after  which  he  was  successively  appointed 
cup-bearer  to  the  king,  gentleman  of  the  bed- 
chamber, and  knight  of  the  garter.  He  also 
rose  to  the  rank  of  marquis,  and  became  lord  ad- 
miral of  England,  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports, 
and  master  of  the  horse.  But  in  1623  he  lost 
the  royal  favor,  in  a  great  degree,  by  persuading 
prince  Charles  to  visit  the  court  of  Spain,  for 
the  purpose  of  paying  his  addresses  in  person  to 
the  Infanta.  Though  Buckingham  was  created 
a  duke  in  his  absence,  it  was  supposed  that  if 
the  king  had  lived,  his  fall  would  have  been  as 
rapid  as  his  rise.  The  accession  of  Charles  in 
1625  increased  the  power  of  the  favorite,  but  it 
also  multiplied  his  enemies  and  injured  his  mas- 
ter. The  nation  hated  Buckingham,  and  two 
parliaments,  for  impeaching  him ,  were  dissolved. 
At  this  period  the  duke  involved  the  kingdom 
in  a  disgraceful  war  with  France,  and  went 
himself  on  an  expedition  to  the  Isle  of  Rhe, 
where  he  lost  the  flower  of  his  army.  He  then 
returned  to  repair  his  fleet,  and  was  about  to 
sail  for  Rochelle,  when  he  was  assassinated,  at 
Portsmouth,  by  Felton,  a  fanatical  lieutenant, 
August  23,  1623. 

VILLIERS,  George,  the  second  duke  of 
Buckingham,  was  the  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
was  born  in  1627.  After  studying  at  Cambridge, 
he  went  abroad,  and  on  his  return  entered  into 
the  royal  army,  for  which  he  was  deprived  of 
his  estate  by  the  parliament,  but  recovered  a 
great  part  of  it  in  1657,  by  marrying  the  daugh- 
ter of  lord  Fairfax.  At  the  restoration  he  was 
made  one  of  the  lords  of  the  bed-chamber,  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Yorkshire,  and  master  of  the  horse. 
Of  these  honors,  however,  he  was  deprived  in 
161)6,  for  being  concerned  in  a  plot  to  effect  a 
change  of  government.  Notwithstanding  this, 
he  recovered  the  royal  favor,  and  retained  it,  af- 
ter perpetrating  some  shocking  crimes ;  one  of 
which  was  the  killing  lord  Shrewsbury  in  a 
duel,  and  debauching  his  countess ;  and  ano- 
ther, the  hiring  of  Blood  to  seize  the  duke  of 
Ormond  in  his  coach.  In  1676,  the  duke,  with 
the  earls  of  Shaftesbury  and  Salisbury,  and  lord 
Wharton,  were  sent  to  the  Tower,  by  order  of 
the  house  of  peers,  for  contempt.  On  a  petition 
to  the  king,  however,  they  were  all  released. 
This  profligate  nobleman  died  at  an  obscure 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


VIR 


596 


VIT 


house  at  Kirkby  Moorside,  of  a  fever,  April  16, 
1»>88. 

VlMEIRA,avillage  of  Portuguese  Estrema- 
dura,  3  miles  from  Torres  Vedras,  and  23  miles 
N .  VV.  of  Lisbon.  It  is  remarkable  for  a  battle  be- 
tween the  British,  under  sir  Arthur  Wellesley, 
and  the  French,  under  Junot,  21st  August,  1808. 
The  French  commenced  the  attack  on  various 
points  with  their  usual  impetuosity,  and  met 
with  a  resistance  to  which  they  had  long  been 
unaccustomed.  The  flower  of  their  troops  made 
a  charge  against  general  Ferguson's  division, 
who  received  them  with  a  tremendous  volley, 
which  brought  them  to  the  bayonet,  and  in  one 
moment  their  front  rank  fell  like  grass  before 
the  mower's  scythe.  They  gave  way,  and 
abandoned  six  pieces  of  cannon  in  their  flight. 
Having  failed  in  their  other  attacks,  they  com- 
menced a  retreat,  after  sustaining  a  loss  of 
3000  men,  and  thirteen  pieces  of  cannon.  In 
this  decisive  victory  not  more  than  half  the 
British  army  was  engaged. 

VINCENT.Cape  St.,  the  south-west  point  of 
Portugal,  noted  for  the  naval  victory  gained  off 
it,  on  the  14th  February ,  1797,  by  sir  John  Jervis. 

VIRGINIA,  one  of  the  U.  States,  bounded 
N.  and  N.  E.by  Pennsylvania,  E.  by  Maryland 
and  the  Atlantic  ocean,  S.  by  North  Cfj-olina 
and  Tennessee,  and  W.  by  Kentucky  and  Ohio. 
It  contains  1,239,796  inhabitants,  of  whom 
240,987 are  slaves.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Potomac,  Shenandoah,  Rappahannock,  York, 
James,  Appomattox,  Elizabeth,  Staunton,  Ken- 
awha,  Ohio,  Sandy,  and  Monongahela.  The 
Blue  Ridge  extends  through  the  central  part  of 
the  State  from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.  There  are  other 
ranges  of  mountains  in  the  State.  Iron,  lime- 
stone, lead,  coal,  and  chalk  are  found  in  abun- 
dance. The  chief  towns  are  Richmond,  Nor- 
folk, Petersburg,  Lynchburg,  Fredericksburg, 
Winchester,  Portsmouth,  Williamsburg,  and 
Sheperdstown.  The  university  of  Virginia  is 
established  at  Charlottesville,  besides  which 
there  are  several  other  colleges. 

Of  the  earlier  occurrences  in  the  history  of 
Virginia  we  have  taken  notice  in  the  article 
United  States.  Though  Charles  the  Second 
was  highly  gratified  with  a  formal  act  of  the 
Virginia  assembly, declaring;  «  that  they  were 
born  under  monarchy,  and  would  never  degen- 
erate from  the  condition  of  their  births,  by  being 
subject  to  any  other  government;"  and  though 
he  had  given  the  fullest  assurance  that  their 
form  of  government  should  never  be  changed  ; 
none  of  the  colonies  suffered  more  than  'Vir- 
ginia from  the  despotism  of  a  royal  government. 


In  violation  of  chartered  rights,  the  colony  wag 
divided  into  parts,  and  conveyed  away  by  pro- 
prietary grants;  not  grants  of  uncultivated 
woodlands,  but  of  plantations  that  had  long  been 
cultivated  according  to  the  encouragement  and 
laws  of  kings  and  charters. 

Col.  Nathaniel  Bacon,  having  procured  forces 
under  pretext  of  chastising  the  hostile  Indians, 
commenced  a  civil  war,  in  the  course  of  which 
great  outrages  were  committed  and  Jamestown 
was  burned.  This  rebellion  forms  a  remarka- 
ble era  in  the  history  of  Virginia.  The  death 
of  Bacon  was  followed  by  the  dispersion  of  his 
followers.  In  1712  Virginia  was  divided  into 
49  parishes,  and  an  act  was  passed  determining 
the  salary  of  each  clergyman.  The  next  year, 
Col.  Alexander  Spottswood,  lieutenant  governor 
of  Virginia,  made  the  first  discovery  of  the  pas- 
sage over  the  Appalachian  mountains.  The 
constitution  of  Virginia  was  adopted  the  day 
after  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  but  was 
recently  revised  and  amended.  Four  presidents 
of  the  United  States  have  been  Virginians. 

VIRGINIA,  a  Roman  maiden,  whom  her 
father,  the  centurion  Virginius  slew,  when  he 
found  that  he  could  in  no  other  way,  preserve 
her  from  the  dishonorable  designs  of  the  decem- 
vir, Appius  Claudius.  The  Roman  people,  rous- 
ed by  the  injustice  of  the  decemvir,  abolished 
the  decemvirate  and  Appius  put  an  end  to  his 
own  life. 

VITELLIUS  Aulus,  a  Roman  raised  by  his 
vices  to  the  throne.  He  was  descended  from 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  families  of  Rome,  and 
as  such  he  gained  an  easy  admission  to  the  pal- 
ace of  the  emperors.  He  passed  through  all  the 
offices  of  the  state,  and  gained  over  the  soldiery 
by  donations  and  liberal  promises.  He  was  at 
the  head  of  the  Roman  legions  in  Germany 
when  Otho  was  proclaimed  emperor,  and  the 
exaltation  of  his  rival  was  no  sooner  heard  in 
the  camp,  than  he  was  likewise  invested  with 
the  purple  by  his  soldiers.  He  accepted  with 
pleasure  the  dangerous  office,  and  instantly 
marched  against  Otho.  Three  battles  were 
fought,  and  in  all  Vitellius  was  conquered.  A 
fourth,  however,  in  the  plains  between  Mantua 
and  Cremona,  left  him  master  of  the  field,  and 
of  the  Roman  empire.  He  feasted  his  eyes  in 
viewing  the  bodies  of  the  slain  and  the  ground 
covered  with  blood,  and  regardless  of  the  insa- 
lubtity  of  the  air,  proceeding  from  so  many  car- 
casses, he  told  his  attendants  that  the  smell  of  a 
dead  enemy  was  always  sweet.  His  first  care 
was  not  like  that  of  a  true  conqueror,  to  allevi- 
ate the  distresses  of  the  conquered,  or  patronise 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


VIT 


597 


VOR 


the  friends  of  the  dead,  but  it  was  to  insult  their 
misfortunes,  and  to  intoxicate  himself  with  the 
companions  of  his  debauchery  in  the  field  of 
battle.  Each  successive  day  exhibited  a  scene 
of  greater  extravagance,  which,  though  it  de- 
lighted his  favorites,  soon  raised  the  indignation 
of  the  people.  Vespasian  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror by  the  army,  and  his  minister  Primus  was 
sent  to  destroy  the  imperial  glutton.  Vitellius 
concealed  himself  under  the  bed  of  the  porter  of 
his  palace,  but  this  obscure  retreat  betrayed 
him,  he  was  dragged  naked  through  the  streets, 
his  hands  were  tied  behind  his  back,  and  a 
drawn  sword  was  placed  under  his  chin  to  make 
him  lift  his  head.  After  suffering  the  greatest 
insults  from  the  populace,  he  was  at  last  carried 
to  the  place  of  execution,  and  put  to  death  with 
repeated  blows.  His  head  was  cut  off  and  fixed 
to  a  pole,  and  his  mutilated  body  dragged  with 
a  hook  and  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  A.  I).  69,  af- 
ter a  reign  of  one  year,  except  twelve  days. 

VITTORIA,  battle  of.  was  fought  on  the  21st 
of  June,  1613,  between  the  army  of  lord  Well- 
ington,and  thatof  the  French  general  Jourdan, 
in  which  the  latter  was  defeated.  On  the  19th, 
the  French  rear-guard  was  driven  back  toward 
Vittoria  ;  and  on  the  21st  a  general  engagement 
took  place,  in  which  the  French  forces,  com- 
manded by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  having  marshal 
Jourdan  as  his  major-general,  were  so  com- 
pletely defeated,  that  they  were  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  abandoning  all  their  artillery,  ammu- 
nition, baggage,  and  cattle.  One  hundred  and 
fifty-one  pieces  of  cannon,  and  four  hundred 
and  fifteen  ammunition  wagons  were  taken  on 
the  field  ;  and  among  the  trophies  was  the  baton 
of  marshal  Jourdan.  The  loss  of  the  allies  was 
about  seven  hundred  killed,  and  four  thousand 
wounded,  but  thatof  the  French  was  considera- 
bly greater.  The  operations  commenced  with 
a  successful  movement  of  sir  Rowland  Hill,  to 
obtain  the  heights  of  Puebla,  which  the  enemy 
had  neglected  to  strengthen,  and  which  they 
made  strenuous  but  fruitless  efforts  to  retake. 
Under  cover  of  these  heights,  general  Hill  pass- 
ed the  Zadora  at  La  Puebla,  and  took  a  village 
in  front  of  the  enemy's  line.  The  fourth  and 
light  division  passed  the  Zadora  immediately 
after  general  Hill  had  occupied  the  village  Sa- 
bijana ;  and  almost  as  soon  as  these  divisions 
had  crossed,  the  earl  of  Dalhousie's  column  ar- 
rived at  Mendonza ;  and  the  third  division,  un- 
der sir  Thomas  Picton,  crossed  the  bridge  high- 
er up,  followed  by  the  7th  division.  These  four 
divisions,  forming  the  centre  of  the  army,  were 
destined  to  attack  the  right  of  the  enemy's  cen- 


tre,  while  general  Hill  moved  forward  to  attack 
the  left.  The  enemy  abandoned  his  position  in 
the  valley,  and  retreated  in  good  order  to  wards 
Vittoria,  but  was  soon  obliged  to  leave  the  whole 
artillery,  ammunition,  and  baggage  to  the  con- 
querors. 

VOLSCI,  or  Volci,  a  people  of  Latium,  whose 
territories  were  bounded  on  the  south  by  the 
Tyrrhene  sea,  north,  by  the  country  of  the  Her- 
nici  and  Marsi,  west,  by  the  Latins  and  Rutu- 
lians,  and  east,  by  Campania.  Their  chief 
cities  were  Antium,  Circeii,  Anxur,  Corioli, 
FregellfE,  Arpinum,  &c.  Ancus,  king  of 
Rome,  made  war  against  them;  and  in  the 
time  of  the  republic  they  became  formidable 
enemies,  till  they  were  at  last  conquered  with 
the  rest  of  the  Latins. 

VORTIGERN,  the  chief  of  Britain,  upon 
the  Romans  quitting  that  island,  about  447. 
The  Britons  being  threatened  with  an  invasion 
from  the  Scots  and  Picts,  they  addressed  him 
from  all  parts  for  relief,  and  at  last  made  him 
summon  a  general  council  of  the  nation,  to  pro- 
vide against  their  approaching  ruin.  King  Vor- 
tigern,  in  the  name  of  all  the  Britains,  sent  am- 
bassadors to  the  Saxons,  who.  having  first  con- 
sulted their  gods,  readily  complied  with  his  de- 
sire. All  things  being  fairly  agreed  on,  and 
the  isle  of  Thanetin  Kent  bestowed  upon  them, 
for  their  encouragement,  they  landed  in  the 
island  in  450,  under  the  command  of  Hengist 
and  Horsa,  who  shortly  after  encountered  the 
Picts,  then  advanced  as  far  as  Stamford  in  Lin- 
colnshire, and  put  them  to  flight.  Thus  the 


Britons,   under  king    Vortigern,  defeated   the 
help  of  the  Saxons.     They  soon 


Picts,  by  the 


quarrelled  with  the  Britons,  and  wars  ensued, 
which  ended  at  last  in  the  total  overthrow  and 
ruin  of  the  natives.  Vortigern  now  retired  into 
Wales,  and  built  a  strong  castle  in  Radnorshire. 
His  son  Vortimer  reigned  in  his  stead,  who  bore 
a  strong  hand  against  the  Saxons  ;  but  he  dying 
before  his  father,  Vortigern  resumed  the  gov- 
ernment. He  had  two  wives ;  one  of  them 
daughter  of  Hengist.  On  being  restored  to  the 
crown,  he  was  disposed  to  conclude  a  new  trea- 
ty with  his  father-in-law  ;  and  both  parties  met 
without  weapons.  But  Hengist's  design  being 
to  murder,  he  ordered  his  men  to  be  secretly 
armed,  and  gave  them  the  watchword  for  execu- 
tion ;  so  that  a  quarrel  being  designedly  raised, 
his  men,  upon  the  signal,  stabbed  each  his  next 
man ;  and .  no  less  than  300  perished  by  this 
treachery.  They  spared  the  life  of  Vortigern, 
but  they  kept  him  in  custody  till  he  granted 
Hengist,  for  his  ransom,  those  provinces  which 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


WAG 


598 


WAL 


were  afterwards   called    Essex,   Sussex,  and 
Middlesex. 

W. 

VVAGRAM,  battle  of,  fought  between  the 
French  and  Austrians,  in  Iti09.  By  the  4th 
of  July,  the  French  had  completed  the  new 
bridge  from  the  Isle  of  Lobau  across  a  branch 
of  the  Danube,  in  which  they  were  much  favor- 
ed both  by  the  ground  and  by  an  immense 
number  or  artillery.  The  Austrian  army  was 
drawn  up  on  the  eminence  behind  the  river 
Russ,  extending  its  right  wing  beyond  Susses- 
brunn  and  Kagrau,  and  its  left  beyond  Mark- 
grafen  Neusiedel.  The  centre  was  posted  near 
Wagram.  The  French,  in  the  night  between 
the  4th  and  5th,  crossed  over  to  the  left  bank 
of  the  Danube,  and  large  masses  appeared  very 
early  in  the  morning  in  the  plain.  Not  long 
before  noon  they  attacked  the  line  of  the  Aus- 
trian army  on  all  its  points ;  but  their  greatest 
exertions  were  directed  against  the  centre,  pro- 
bably with  a  view  of  forcing  it.  These  attacks, 
though  repeated  with  the  greatest  impetuosity, 
and  supported  by  an  immense  train  of  artil- 
lery, among  which  were  many  batteries  of  the 
heaviest  calibre,  proved  this  day  abortive.  The 
firing  ceased  at  ten  o'clock  at  nig^ht.  The  Aus- 
trian army  had,  on  the  whole  ot  its  line,  main- 
tained its  positions,  and  made  a  considerable 
number  of  prisoners,  among  whom  were  many 
Saxon,  Baderiese,  Italian,  and  Portuguese  sol- 
diers. On  the  6th,  in  the  morning,  at  four 
o'clock,  the  French  renewed  their  attacks  with 
still  larger  masses,  and  greater  impetuosity  than 
on  the  preceding  day.  Even  thus  their  efforts 
against  the  centre  and  the  right  winnr  were  at- 
tended with  so  little  success,  and  the  latter  had 
even  gained  such  advantages  as  to  justify  the 
expectation  of  the  completes!  victory,  when  the 
French,  with  fresh  divisions,  and  great  superi- 
ority, suddenly  penetrated  the  left  wing,  near 
Markgrafen  Neusiedel,  and  succeeded,  after  an 
obstinate  engagement,  in  compelling  it  to  re- 
treat. One  of  the  wings  of  the  Austrian  army 
being  thereby  exposed,  the  archduke  Charles 
directed  the  army  to  retreat  by  the  way  of 
Siainmersdorf  and  the  Bisamhill ;  in  conse- 
quence of  which,  the  army  now  occupied  a 
new  position,  covering  the  communication  with 
Bohemia.  This  retreat  was  made  in  good 
order,  and  without  material  loss.  In  the  cen- 
tre, as  well  as  in  the  right  wing,  the  French 
suffered  very  considerably,  6000  prisoners  were 
taken  from  them,  among  whom  were  three 


generals.  They  likewise  lost  twelve  cannon, 
with  ammunition,  and  were  in  every  respect 
so  much  weakened,  that  they  did  not  attempt 
to  pursue  the  A  ustrian  army  any  farther.  Gen- 
eral Lasalle  was  amongst  the  dead.  Though 
the  preceding  account  of  this  battle,  given  offi- 
cially by  the  Austrians,  may  appear  in  some 
degree  of  a  favorable  nature,  yet  the  results 
were  very  humiliating  to  Austria. 

WALCHEREN,  an  island  of  the  Nether- 
lands. With  a  view  to  occasion  a  diversion 
on  behalf  of  the  Austrians,  and  also  to  attempt 
the  capture  or  destruction  of  the  French  ves- 
sels lying  in  the  Scheldt,  a  British  army  of 
fifty  thousand  men  was  landed  in  1SOD,  on  the 
island  of  Walcheren ;  but  a  considerable  time 
having  elapsed  prior  to  the  reduction  of  Flush- 
ing, the  enemy  collected  a  numerous  force, 
raised  several  formidable  batteries,  and  convey- 
ed their  ships  up  the  river,  beyond  fort  Jjillo. 
Tiiat  part  of  the  country  also,  where  the  Eng- 
lish might  have  landed,  was  completely  inun- 
dated. Walcheren,  the  only  fruit  of  this  ex- 
pensive and  unfortunate  expedition,  was  to  have 
been  retained  by  the  conquerors,  for  the  purpose 
of  shutting  up  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt,  and  of 
facilitating  the  introduction  of  British  manufac- 
tures into  Holland.  This  design,  however,* 
was  rendered  abortive  by  the  unhealthiness  of 
the  climate ;  and  after  great  numbers  of  the 
troops  had  fallen  a  sacrifice,  the  British  army 
evacuated  the  island  on  the  9th  of  December, 
having  previously  destroyed  the  fortifications, 
arsenal,  docks,  and  basin.  Some  old  ships  filled 
with  stores  were  also  sunk  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Scheldt,  to  preclude  an  escape  of  the  French 
fleet  from  the  place  of  its  retreat. 

WALES,  a  principality  in  the  west  of  Great 
Britain  from  130  to  180  miles  long,  and  from  50 
to  £0  broad,  with  an  area  of  8125  square  miles, 
and  805,236  inhabitants.  It  is  very  mountain- 
ous. The  ancient  history  of  Wales  is  uncer- 
tain, on  account  of  the  number  of  petty  princes 
who  governed  it.  It  was  formerly  inhabited 
by  three  different  tribes  of  the  Britons;  the  Si- 
lures,  the  Dimetce,  and  the  Ordovices.  These 
people  do  not  appear  ever  to  have  been  entirely 
subdued  by  the  Romans ;  though  part  of  their 
country,  as  appears  from  the  ruins  of  castles, 
was  bridled  by  garrisons.  Though  the  Saxons 
conquered  the  counties  of  Monmouth  and  Here- 
ford, yet  they  never  penetrated  farther,  and  the 
Welsh  rema'ined  an  independent  people,  gov- 
erned by  their  own  princes  and  their  own  laws. 
About  the  year  870,  Roderic,  king  of  Wales, 
divided  his  dominions  among  his  three  sons; 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


WAL 


599 


WAL 


and  the  names  of  these  divisions  were,  Demetia, 
or  South  Wales ;  Povesia,  or  Powis-land  ;  and 
Venedotia,  or  North  Wales.  This  division 
gave  a  mortal  blow  to  the  independency  of 
Wales.  About  the  year  1112,  Henry  I  of  Eng- 
land planted  a  colony  of  Flemings  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Wales,  to  serve  as  a  barrier  to  England, 
none  of  the  Welsh  princes  being  powerful 
enough  to  oppose  them.  They  made,  however, 
many  vigorous  and  brave  attempts  against  the 
Norman  kings  of  England,  to  maintain  their 
liberties.  In  1237,  the  crown  of  England  was 
first  supplied  with  a  handle  for  the  future  con- 
quest of  Wales;  their  old  and  infirm  prince 
Llewellin,  having  put  himself  under  subjection 
and  homage  to  king  Henry  III.  But  no  capitu- 
lation could  satisfy  the  ambition  of  Edward  I, 
who  resolved  to  annex  Wales  to  the  crown  of 
England;  and  Llewellin,  prince  of  Wales,  dis- 
daining the  subjection  to  which  old  Llewellin 
had  submitted,  was  opposed  by  the  army  of 
Edward,  which  penetrated  as  far  as  Flint,  and 
taking  possession  of  the  isle  of  Anglesey,  drove 
the  Welsh  to  the  mountains  of  Snowdon,  and 
obliged  them  to  submit  to  pay  a  tribute.  The 
Welsh,  however,  made  several  efforts  under 
young  Llewellin ;  but  at  last,  in  1285,  he  was 
killed  in  battle.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  David,  the  last  independent  prince  of 
Wales,  who,  falling  into  Edward's  hands  through 
treachery,  was  by  him  most  barbarously  and 
unjustly  hanged  ;  and  Edward,  from  that  time, 
pretended  that  Wales  was  annexed  to  the  crown 
of  England.  It  was  about  this  time,  probably, 
that  Edward  perpetrated  the  inhuman  massacre 
of  the  Welsh  bards.  Perceiving  that  his  cru- 
elty was  not  sufficient  to  complete  his  conquest, 
he  sent  his  queen  to  be  delivered  in  Caernarvon 
castle,  that  the  Welsh,  having  a  prince  born 
among  themselves,  might  the  more  readily  re- 
cognise his  authority.  This  prince  was  the 
unhappy  Edward  II,  and  from  him  the  title  of 
prince  of  Wales  has  always  since  descended  to 
the  eldest  sons  of  the  English  kings. 

WALL  OF  CHINA.  One  of  the  greatest 
curiosities  of  the  artificial  kind  which  China 
affords,  and  which  may  be  reckoned  one  of  the 
most  astonishing  remains  of  antiquity  now  in 
the  world,  is  that  prodigious  wall  which  was 
built  by  the  Chinese,  to  prevent  the  frequent 
incursions  of  the  Tartars.  This  wall,  Du  Halde 
informs  us,  is  higher  and  broader  than  the  com- 
mon walls  of  the  cities  of  China,  being  about 
25  feet  in  height  and  broad  enough  for  six  horse- 
men to  ride  abreast  upon  the  top  of  it,  and  is 
fortified  all  along  with  strong  square  towers, 
51 


at  distances  of  about  200  paces,  to  the  number 
of  3000,  which,  in  the  time  of  the  Chinese  mon- 
archs,  before  the  Tartars  subdued  the  country, 
were  guarded  by  a  million  of  soldiers.  It  tra- 
verses high  mountains,  deep  valleys,  and,  by 
means  of  arches,  wide  rivers,  from  the  province 
of  Shen  Si  to  Wanghay  or  the  Yellow  sea,  a 
distance  of  1500  miles.  The  foundation  and 
corners  are  of  granite,  but  the  principal  part  is 
of  blue  bricks,  cemented  with  pure  white  mor- 
tar, and  although  it  has  now  stood  above  2000 
years,  exposed  to  all  winds  and  weathers,  it  is 
very  little  decayed,  and  the  terrace  on  the  top 
seems  still  as  firm  as  ever.  This  amazing  wall 
was  built  by  the  emperor  Chiholamt,  according 
to  some  authors,  above  200  years  before  the 
birth  of  our  Saviour  ;  and  though  of  such  stu- 
pendous length  and  bulk,  and  carried  over  moun- 
tains and  valleys,  it  was  completed  in  five  years, 
if  we  may  credit  the  Chinese  tradition. 

WALLACE,  Sir  William,  and  BRUCE, 
Robert,  were  two  distinguished  heroes  in  Scot- 
tish history ,  who  achieved  the  independence  of 
their  country  in  opposition  to  the  unprincipled 
invasion  of  Edward  I  and  II  of  England.  Sir 
William  Wallace  was  the  son  of  a  small  land- 
holder, who  possessed  the  estate  of  Ellerslie. 
near  Paisley.  It  is  probable  that  he  had  not 
greatly  exceeded  the  age  of  opening  manhood, 
at  the  time  when  his  country  was  subdued  by 
the  English.  Many  of  his  first  deeds  of  hero- 
ism, although  imperfectly  commemorated,  in 
the  rude  and  often  doubtful  tale  of  Henry,  the 
blind  minstrel,  have  unluckily  been  preserved 
by  no  records  upon  the  evidence  of  which  they 
might  be  received  into  the  pages  of  authentic 
history.  Within  less  than  a  year  after  the  con- 
quest of  Edward,  when  the  whole  country 
seemed  to  have  acquiesced  in  his  fate,  he  un- 
dertook the  desperate  enterprise  of  breaking 
her  fetters,  and  by  the  success  of  his  enterprises, 
made  himself  known  so  advantageously  to  his 
countrymen,  that  he  was  joined  by  many  who 
were  desirous  to  partake  of  his  renown ;  amongst 
the  rest,  by  sir  William  Douglas,  and  some 
others  of  considerable  rank.  In  May,  1297,  he 
led  his  followers  to  attack  Ormesby,the  English 
justiciary,  who  was  holding  his  court  at  Scone. 
Ormesby,  with  difficulty,  made  his  escape  into 
England,  and  the  other  officers  followed  his  ex- 
ample. From  the  north-east,  Wallace  passed 
into  the  west,  where  his  glory,  and  hatred  of 
the  English,  procured  him  many  adherents, 
amongst  others,  Robert  Bruce,  the  grandson  of 
him  who  had  been  competitor  with  Baliol  for 
the  crown.  King  Edward  was  then  abroad, 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


YVAL 


600 


m 


WAL 


carrying  on  war  in  Guienne :  but  Warrene, 
who  had  been  left  gove*»ir  of  Scotland,  col- 
lecting an  army  of  forty  thousand  men,  and 
determined  to  re-establish  his  authority,  sent 
them  forward,  under  the  command  of  sir  Henry 
Fiercy  and  sir  Robert  Clifford.  When  the 
English  army  came  up,  many  of  the  adherents 
of  Wallace  made  submissions ;  but  he  himself, 
with  his  chosen  followers,  retired  into  the  north. 
Finding  his  forces  increasing,  he  laid  siege  to 
Dundee,  which  he  relinquished  on  hearing  of 
the  approach  of  the  English  army  to  the  Forth, 
and  hastened  to  oppose  their  passage,  which 
they  attempted  at  the  bridge  of  Stirling.  The 
English,  under  Cressingham,  first  crossed  the 
river,  when  Wallace  attacked  them,  and  put 
them  to  the  sword  or  drove  them  into  the 
stream.  Those  on  the  other  side,  burning  their 
tents  and  leaving  their  baggage,  fled  to  Ber- 
wick. Wallace  having  gained  this  victory, 
hastened  back  to  Dundee,  which  now  surren- 
dered at  his  approach.  He  was  then  chosen 
regent  by  his  followers,  and  all  Scotland  was 
cleared  of  the  English.  King  Edsvard,  return- 
ing from  France,  led  a  powerful  army  into 
Scotland,  and  advanced  to  Falkirk.  Bruce  was 
now  serving  in  the  Scottish  army,  and  was  not, 
as  has  been  fabulously  stated,  in  the  army  of 
Edward.  Both  armies  engaged  at  Falkirk, 
July  22, 121)d,  and  the  English  gained  the  vic- 
tory, from  their  superiority  of  numbers  and  mil- 
itary skill,  and  the  dissensions  of  their  oppo- 
nents. Wallace,  seeing  all  hope  lost,  rallied 
the  broken  remnants  of  his  forces,  and  retreated 
beyond  the  Forth.  All  Scotland  submitted  to 
Edward ;  but  the  dauntless  spirit  of  Wallace 
never  would  surrender  his  country's  indepen- 
dence. Whether  he  went  abroad  for  a  short 
time  to  France,  or  wandered  in  the  fastnesses 
of  the  Highlands,  cannot  be  certainly  known  ; 
but  in  13IJ4,  he  was  in  Scotland,  and  Edward 
could  never  believe  he  had  secure  possession 
till  Wallace  was  in  his  power.  This  was  ef- 
fected by  the  treachery  *f  sir  John  Monteith  ; 
and  Wallace  was  conducted  to  London,  ar- 
raigned, and  tried  as  a  traitor,  and  condemned, 
as  guilty  of  high  treason  against  Edward,  al- 
though he  had  never  acknowledged  him  as  hU 
king,  nor  owed  him  allegiance.  Wallace,  still 
undaunted,  during  and  after  his  trial,  asserted 
the  rights  of  his  country,  and  bore  his  fate, 
which  was  inflicted  with  every  circumstance 
of  ignominy  and  cruelty,  with  the  magnanimity 
with  which  he  had  lived.  His  head  was  placed 
on  London-bridge,  and  his  mangled  limbs  were 
distributed  over  the  kingdom.  It  was  reserved 


for  Robert  Bruce  to  accomplish  what  Wallace 
had  so  nobly  attempted.  In  his  youth  he  had 
acted  upon  apparently  no  regular  plan ;  and 
although  he  had  at  times  served  against  Ed- 
ward, when  the  Scottish  forces  were  able  to 
make  a  successful  resistance,  he  soon  made 
submissions  after  their  defeat,  and  thus  avoided 
drawing  down  upon  himself  the  implacable  re- 
sentment of  Edward.  He  appeared  to  have 
stifled  his  pretensions  to  the  crown  ;  but  imme- 
diately after  the  death  of  Wallace  he  determin- 
ed at  once  to  asses!  his  own  rights  and  his 
country's  independence.  Arriving  at  Dum- 
fries, from  England,  in  February,  130(j,  he  had 
a  quarrel  with  Comyn,  of  Badenoch,  and  stabbed 
him  in  the  church  of  the  Minorites,  because  he 
opposed  his  views.  He  now  claimed  the  crown  ; 
and  resentment  of  the  treachery  of  Edward, 
and  of  the  death  of  Wallace,  procured  him  nu- 
merous followers.  He  was  accordingly  crowned 
king  of  Scotland,  at  Scone,  on  the  25th  of 
March,  the  same  year.  An  army,  sent  by  kinjf 
Edward,  soon  arrived  at  Perth  ;  and  in  a  battle 
fought  on  the  IDthof  June,  Bruce  was  defeated. 
He  took  refuge  at  Aberdeen,  and  afterwards 
went  towards  Argyle,  and  was  so  hard  pressed 
by  the  English  and  their  adherents,  that  he  re- 
tired to  the  island  of  Rachrin,  in  the  north  of1 
Ireland,  and  was  supposed  to  be  dead ;  but  early 
in  the  next  spring,  he  again  displayed  his  ban- 
ner in  the  west  of  Scotland,  and  gained  many 
advantages  over  the  English,  of  which,  the  vic- 
tory at  Loudon-hill  was  the  most  remarkable ; 
whilst  his  brother,  sir  Edward,  and  sir  James 
Douglas,  were  equally  active  and  successful. 
Bruce  came  north  in  the  end  of  the  same  year, 
and  on  account  of  the  unfavorable  state  of  his 
health,  which  had  been  injured  by  unceasing 
hardships  and  privations,  he  remained  some 
time  inactive.  On  the  $Sd  of  May,  1308,  he 
gained  the  battle  of  Inverary,  over  the  earl  of 
Buchan  and  sir  John  Mowbray,  which  was  the 
commencement  of  a  career  of  success,  which 
established  him  as  king/ of  Scotland.  The 
whole  of  the  fortresses  of  the  kingdom  were 
recovered,  excepting  Stirling,  which  was  be- 
leagured  by  his  brother  Edward,  who  entered 
into  a  treaty  with  the  governor,  by  which  it 
was  agreed  that  it  should  be  surrendered  if  not 
relieved  before  the  24th  of  June,  1314.  This 
led  to  the  attempt  of  Edward  II  to  relieve  it  by 
a  powerful  army,  and  brought  on  the  battle  of 
Bannockburn.  Bruce 's  army  consisted  of  thirty 
thousand  veterans,  distinguished  by  their  valor, 
the  skill  of  their  leaders,  and  animated  by  every 
motive  which  can  promote  heroic  enterprise. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 
WAL  601  WAR 


He  drew  them  up  with  a  hill  on  his  right  flank, 
and  a  morass  on  his  left,  to  preTent  being  sur- 
rounded by  the  numerous  army  of  Edward. 
Having  a  rivulet  in  front,  he  commanded  deep 
pits  to  be  dug  along  its  banks,  and  sharp  stakes 
to  be  planted  in  them,  and  caused  the  whole  to 
be  carefully  covered  with  turf.  The  English 
arrived  in  the  evening,  when  Bruce  was  riding 
in  the  front  of  his  army.  Sir  Henry  Bohun, 
who  rode  up  to  charge  him  with  his  spear,  was 
brought  to  the  ground  by  his  battleaxe.  Early 
next  morning  the  action  commenced.  Sir  Rob- 
ert Keith,  at  the  head  of  the  men-at-arms,  de- 
stroyed the  English  archers.  The  English 
horse,  under  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  rushing  on 
to  the  charge,  fell  into  the  pits  Bruce  had  pre- 
pared for  them.  Sir  James  Douglas,  who  com- 
manded the  Scottish  cavalry,  gave  them  no 
time  to  rally,  but  pushed  them  off  the  field. 
Whilst  the  infantry  continued  the  fight,  dis- 
couraged by  these  unfavorable  events,  they 
were  thrown  into  a  panic  by  the  appearance  of 
what  they  supposed  another  army  advancing  to 
surround  them.  This  was  a  number  of  wag- 
oners and  sumpter  boys,  whom  king  Robert 
had  collected  and  supplied  with  military  stand- 
ards, which  gave  them  the  appearance  of  an 
army  .at  a  distance.  The  stratagem  was  decis- 
ive, and  an  universal  rout  and  immense  slaugh- 
ter ensued.  This  great  and  decisive  battle  se- 
cured the  independence  of  Scotland,  and  fixed 
Bruce  on  the  throne.  He  afterwards  invaded 
England,  and  laid  waste  the  northern  counties. 
He  also  led  an  expedition  into  Ireland,  in  sup- 
port of  his  brother  Edward,  who  had  been 
crowned  king  of  that  country,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  gained  several  victories.  Peace  was 
at  last  concluded  between  England  and  Scot- 
land, at  Northampton,  in  132o?,  and  on  the  7th 
of  June,  13-29,  king  Robert  died,  in  the  fifty- 
fiflh  year  of  his  age,  and  was  buried  at  Dum- 
fenuline,  where  his  tomb  has  lately  been  dis- 
covered. His  heroic  enterprises  have  been  cel- 
ebrated by  Barbour,  who  wrote  his  poetical  his- 
tory in  1375,  and  have  recently  been  the  subject 
of  one  of  the  poems  of  sir  Waller  Scott.  His 
grand-daughter  was  the  wife  of  Robert  the  sec- 
ond, the  first  king  of  the  house  of  Stuart,  and 
from  the  issue  of  that  marriage  the  present  roy- 
al family  is  descended. 

WALPOLE.  Sir  Robert,  earl  of  Orford,  was 
born  in  1676.  In  1700  he  married  the  daughter 
of  sir  John  Shorter,  and  soon  after  became 
member  for  Castle  Rising;  but  in  1702  he  was 
chosen  for  King's  Lynn,  which  he  represented 
in  several  parliaments.  In  1708  he  was  made 


secretary  at  war,  and  the  year  following  trea- 
surer of  the  navy.  He  was  one  of  the  managers 
of  the  trial  of  Sacheverel ;  but  on  the  change 
of  ministry,  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  and 
expelled  the  house,  tor  breach  of  trust  and  cor- 
ruption. The  borough  of  Lynn,  however,  re- 
elected  him.  and  he  took  an  active  part  against 
ministers  during  the  remainder  of  queen  Ann's 
reign.  Early  in  that  of  George  I  lie  became 
prime  minister,  but  some  difference  arising  be- 
tween him  and  his  colleagues,  he  resigned,  and 
joined  the  opposition.  In  1720,  he  accepted 
the  paymastership  of  the  forces,  and  not  long 
after  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the  treasury, 
and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  In  1723,  he 
was  sworn  sole  secretary  of  state.  In  1725,  he 
received  the  Order  of  the  Bath  ;  arid  the  year 
following  that  of  the  Garter.  He  continued  in 
power,  though  assailed  by  powerful  enemies, 
till  1742,  when  he  resigned,  and  was  created 
earl  of  Orford.  He  died  in  1745.  His  brother, 
Horatio  Walpole,  lord  Walpole,  was  born  in 
167d.  He  filled  several  offices  under  govern- 
ment, and  in  1756,  was  created  a  peer,  but  died 
the  year  following. 

WALSINGHAM,  Sir  Francis,  a  statesman, 
was  born  in  1536,  at  Chiselhurst,  in  Kent.  In 
1573,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  secretaries 
of  state,  and  knighted.  In  15b3  he  went  on  an 
embassy  to  James,  king  of  Scotland,  and  three 
years  afterwards  sat  as  one  of  the  commissioners 
on  the  trial  of  that  monarch's  unfortunate  mo- 
ther. Sir  Francis  was  next  made  chancellor  of 
the  duchy  of  Lancaster ;  and  he  was  also  hon 
ored  with  the  Order  of  the  Garter.  But  with 
all  these  distinctions  and  services  he  died  poor, 
April  0,  15!M),  and  was  buried  in  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral. 

WALTON,  George,  a  signer  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  was  born  in  Frederic 
county.  Virginia,  about  the  year  1740.  He  re- 
moved to  Georgia,  studied  law,  and  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1774.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  affairs  of  the  revolution,  and  was 
wounded  in  the  defence  of  Savannah.  lie  was 
twice  chosen  governor  of  the  state,  held  a  seat 
in  the  senate  of  the  United  States,  and  filled  a 
judicial  station  for  several  years.  He  died  Feb. 
a.  1H04. 

WARBECK,  Perkin,  a  renegado  Jew  of 
Tournay,  who  was  persuaded  to  personate  the 
duke  of  York,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  His 
cause  was  warmly  espoused  by  several  men  of 
rank,  all  of  whom  were  arraigned  and  tried  for 
high  treason,  and  three  were  executed.  His 
followers,  at  one  period,  amounted  to  7000 ;  but 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


WAR 


602 


WAS 


after  a  series  of  disastrous  adventures,  he  was 
induced  by  Henry  to  surrender  himself,  and 
confess  the  whole  of  the  imposture,  on  promise 
of  pardon.  A  tier  attempting  once  or  twice  to 
escape  from  custody,  he  was  hanged  at  Tyburn, 
and  several  of  his  adherents  suffered  the  same 
ignominious  death. 

WARD,  Artemas,  a  major-general  in  the 
American  army,  who  commanded  at  Cambridge 
when  Washington  arrived.  In  17d(j  he  was 
speaker  of  the  house  of  representatives  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, and  was  afterwards  elected  to  Con- 
gress. He  died  Oct.  28,  1800. 

WARREN,  Joseph,  a  major-general  in  the 
American  army,  was  born  at  Roxbury,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1740,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  17oS».  Having  studied  medicine  he 
commenced  tine  practice  of  it  in  Boston  with 
great  success.  Four  days  before  the  battle  of 
Bunker-hill  he  received  his  military  command, 
and  on  the  retreat  from  the  redoubt,  was  shot 
in  the  trendies,  and  expired  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
five. 

WARSAW,  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Po- 
land, on  the  west  bank  of  the  Vistula,  contained, 
in  1830,  140,000  inhabitants,  but  owing  to  the 
siege  of  Warsaw  in  1831,  and  the  subsequent 
banishment  of  many  of  its  patriotic  citizens,  its 
population  is  at  present  reduced  to  about  00,000. 
In  the  war  with  the  Swedes,  in  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  Warsaw  was  occupied 
by  these  invaders,  who  made  it  the  depot  of 
their  spo  Is.  When  Charles  XII  advanced,  at  a 
subsequent  period,  to  Warsaw,  it  surrendered 
to  him  without  opposition.  It  was  defended  by 
Kosciusko  against  the  Prussians,  in  1794,  who 
wete  obliged  to  raise  the  siege.  Warsaw  at 
length  submitted  to  Suwarrow  and  the  Rus- 
sians. On  the  final  paitition  of  Poland,  in  17M5, 
this  part  of  the  country  fell  to  the  share  of  Prus- 
.sia,  and  Warsaw  had  no  other  rank  than  that  of 
a  capital  of  a  province,  until  the  end  of  1806, 
when  the  overthrow  of  the  power  of  Prussia  led 
to  the  formation,  by  Bonaparte,  of  the  inde- 
IH.-nd.-ril  slate,  called  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw. 

WARWICK,  earl  of,  known  by  the  appella- 
tion of  the  king-maker ,  was  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  generals  of  his  age.  He  put  himself 
•  at  tt»  head  of  the  Yorkists,  and  gave  battle  t<. 
the  Lancasterians  at  St.  Albans,  in  which  ho 
was  defeated,  in  14GI .  He  afterwards  harangued 
the  citizens  of  London,  assembled  in  St.  John's 
Fields,  setting  forth  the  title  of  Edward,  the. 
eldest  son  of  the  duke  of  York,  and  inveighing 
against  the  tyranny  and  usurpation  of  the  house 
of  Lancaster.  After  the  decisive  battle  of  Tou- 
ton,  and  Edward  was  safely  fixed  on  the  throne, 


Warwick  advised  him  to  marry,  and  with  his 
consent  went  over  to  France,  to  procure  Bona 
of  Savoy  as  queen.  But  while  the  earl  was 
hastening  the  negotiation  in  France,  the  king 
married  Elizabeth  Woodville.  Having  thus 
given  Warwick  real  cause  of  offence,  he  widen- 
ed the  breach,  by  driving  him  from  the  council. 
Warwick,  whose  prudence  was  equal  to  his 
bravery,  soon  made  use  of  both  to  assist  his  re- 
venge ;  and  formed  such  a  combination  agaiiist 
Edward,  that  he  was,  in  turn,  obliged  to  fly  the 
kingdom,  and  king  Henry  was  released  "from 
prison,  to  be  placed  upon  a  dangerous  throne. 
A  parliament  was  called,  which  confirmed  Hen- 
ry's title,  with  great  solemnity,  and  Warwick 
was  himself  received  among  the  people,  under 
the  title  of  the  king-maker.  Edward,  how- 
ever, did  not  long  remain  abroad  ;  and,  having 
made  a  descent  at  Ravenspur,  in  Yorkshire,  he 
proceeded  with  an  increasing  army  towards 
London.  Nothing  now,  therefore,  remained  to 
Warwick,  but  to  cut  short  a  state  of  anxious 
suspense,  by  hazarding  a  battle.  Edward's  for- 
tune prevailed.  They  met  at  Barnet,  and  the 
Lancasterians  were  defeated,  while  Warwick 
himself,  leading  a  chosen  body  of  troops  into 
the  thickest  of  the  fight,  fell  in  the  midst  of  his 
enemies,  covered  with  wounds. 

WASHINGTON,  capital  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  is  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Potomac,  and  contains 
23,203  inhabitants.  Its  natural  situation  is  plea- 
sant and  healthy,  and  it  is  laid  out  on  a  plan, 
which,  when  completed,  will  render  it  one  of 
1(40  handsomest  and  most  commodious  cities  in 
the  world.  Among  the  public  edifices  of  the 
city  are  the  Capitol,  the  President's  House,  the 
General  Post  Office,  and  four  buildings  for  the 
executive  departments  of  the  national  govern- 
ment. Columbian  college  is  pleasantly  situated 
a  mile  north  of  the  President's  house.  The 
District  of  Columbia,  in  which  Washington  is 
situated,  was  ceded  to  the  government  by  the 
states  of  Maryland  and  Virginia,  and  it  became 
tlic  seat  of  irovernment  in  1800. 
{WASHINGTON,  George,  the  third  son  of 
Augustine  Washington,  was  born  Feb.  22, 1732, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Potomac,  in  the  county  of 
Westmoreland,  Virginia.  His  father  died  when 
he  was  but  10  years  old,  and  the  care  of  his 
education  devolved  upon  his  mother.  >  That  a 
mother  should  love  such  a  son  as  George  proved 
himself  to  bo,  and  that  a  son  should  love  such  a 
mother  as  Mrs.  Washington  certainly  was,  is 
not  at  all  surprising.  From  his  earliest  .lays  she 
had  exerted  her  whole  influence  to  imbue  him 
with  a  love  of"  whatever  was  lovely  and  of  good 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


WAS 


603 


WAS 


report,"  and  her  exertions  had  not  been  in  vain. 
How  well  he  repaid  her  for  her  care,  may  be 
seen  in  the  following  story.  When  about  four- 
teen years  of  age  he  became  strongly  inclined 
to  go  to  sea,  with  a  view  of  enlisting  in  the 
service  of  the  mother  country,  at  that  time  en- 
gaged in  a  war  with  France  and  Spain. 

Ft  was  surprising  that  a  youth  so  young,  and 
who  had  been  abroad  so  little,  should  have  had 
the  moral  courage  to  quit  country  and  friends 
on  a  purpose  so  full  of  danger.  But  so  it  was. 
He  was  resolved  to  go.  Preparation  had  been 
made.  A  midshipman's  birth  had  been  pro- 
cured for  him  on  board  a  British  man-of-war, 
then  lying  in  sight  of  his  mother's  house  ;  and 
even  his  trunk  was  on  board.  When  the  pre- 
cise time  arrived  that  he  was  to  go,  he  passed 
into  the  sitting-room  of  his  mother,  to  take  leave 
of  her.  She  was  sitting  in  tears.  He  approach- 
ed her,  and  putting  his  arms  about  her  neck, 
affectionatelv  kissed  her.  He  was  about  to  bid 
her  "farewell;"  but  he  hesitated.  Her  affec- 
tioji  and  affliction  unmanned  him.  He  was 
young  and  ambitious  ;  and  at  that  early  day  the 
spirit  of  patriotism,  which  so  nobly  characterised 
him  in  after  life,  in  respect  to  his  country,  was 
stirring  within  him.  Yet,  the  feelings  of  his 
heart  were  stronger  than  any  other  ties  ;  and 
here,  nobly  sacrificing  his  pride  and  ambition, 
he  relinquished  his  purpose,  and  stayed  to  com- 
fort her  who  gave  him  birth. 

His  eMer  brother  having  married  a  connexion 
of  lord  Fairfax,  his  lordship  gave  George  Wash- 
ington, in  his  eighteenth  year,  the  appointment 
of  surveyor.  Jn  1751  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  adjutant-generals  of  Virginia,  with  the  rank 
of  major.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  sent  by  the 
governor  of  Viror'mia  to  carry  a  letter  to  the 
French  commander  on  the  Ohio,  forbidding  his 
encroachment  on  the  lands  belonging  to  Vir- 
ginia. The  journey  was  about  400  miles,  200 
of  which  lay  through  a  trackless  wilderness, 
inhabited  by  Indians.  He  left  Williamsburg 
on  the  31st  of  October,  and  delivered  his  letter 
on  the  12th  of  December.  Having  received  an 
answer  he  set  out  immediately  on  his  return 
which  proved  dangerous  and  toilsome.  The 
following  is  his  own  account  of  it : 

"  As  f  was  uneasy  to  get  back,  to  make  a  re- 
port of  my  proceeding  to  his  honor  the  gov- 
ernor, I  determined  to  prosecute  my  journey 
the  nearest  way,  through  the  woods,  and  on 
foot.  I  took  my  necessary  papers,  pulled  off 
my  clothes,  and  tied  myself  up  in  a  watch-coat. 
Then,  witli  a  gun  in  my  hand,  and  pack  on  my 
back,  in  which  were  my  papers  and  provisions, 
51* 


I  set  out  with  Mr.  Gist,  fitted  in  the  same  man- 
ner. We  fell  in  with  a  party  of  Indians,  who 
had  lain  in  wait  for  us.  One  of  them  fired  not 
fifteen  steps  off,  but  fortunately  missed;  we 
walked  on  the  remaining  part  of  the  night, 
without  making  any  stop,  that  we  might  get  the 
start  so  far  as  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  their  pur- 
suit the  next  day ,  as  we  were  well  assured  that 
they  would  follow  our  track  as  soon  as  it  was 
light.  The  next  day  we  continued  travelling 
until  quite  dark  and  got  to  the  river.  We  ex- 
pected to  have  found  the  river  frozen,  but  it  was 
not  more  than  fifty  yards  from  each  shore.  The 
ice,  I  suppose,  had  been  broken  up,  for  it  was 
driving  in  vast  quantities.  There  was  no  way 
of  getting  over  but  on  a  raft,  which  we  set 
about  making  with  one  poor  hatchet,  and  fin- 
ished just  after  sun-setting:  this  was  one  day's 
work.  We  got  it  launched,  then  went  on  board 
of  it.  and  set  off;  but  before  we  were  halfway 
over,  we  were  jammed  in  the  ice,  in  such  a 
manner  that  we  expected  every  moment  our 
rail  to  sink  and  ourselves  to  perish.  I  put  out 
my  setting  pole  to  endeavor  to  stop  the  raft,  that 
the  ice  might  pass  by,  when  the  rapidity  of  the 
stream  threw  it  with  so  much  violence  against 
the  pole,  that  it  jerked  me  out  into  ten  feet  wa- 
ter." At  length,  on  the  ICth  of  January,  he 
arrived  at  Williamsburg;  and  delivered  the  im- 
portant letter  to  the  governor. 

Having  been  appointed  Colonel  of  a  regiment 
raised  to  defend  the  rights  of  the  colonists 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  French.  Wash- 
ington distinguished  himself  greatly  by  his  de- 
fence of  Fort  Necessity,  although  he  was  finally 
forced  to  capitulate.  Having  resigned  his  com- 
mission, he  retired  in  1754,  to  Mount  Vernon,  on 
the  Potomac,  a  country-seat  which  had  been 
bequeathed  him  by  his  brother.  In  1755  he  ac- 
cepted the  invitation  of  general  Braddock  to 
enter  his  family  as  a  volunteer  aid-de-camp,  and 
accompanied  him  in  the  memorable  and  unfor- 
tunate expedition  to  the  Ohio,  the  result  of 
which  would  probably  have  been  very  different 
from  what  it  was,  had  Braddock  followed  the 
prudent  advice  of  his  aid.  When  the  troops 
fell  into  the  Indian  ambuscade,  the  officers  were 
singled  out  by  their  savage  foes  and  deliberate- 
ly shot,  Washington  being  the  only  aid  that  was 
unwounded,  and  on  him  devolved  the  whole 
duty  of  carrying  the  orders  of  the  commander- 
in-chief.  Though  he  had  two  horses  killed 
under  him,  and  four  balls  through  his  coat, 
he  escaped  unhurt,  while  every  other  officer  on 
horseback  was  either  killed  or  wounded.  Dr. 
Craik,  the  physician  who  attended  him  in  his 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


WAS 


604 


WAS 


last  sickness,  was  present  at  this  battle,  and 
i»ys,  "  I  expected  every  moment  to  see  him 
fall.  Nothing  but  the  superintending  care  of 
Providence  could  have  saved  him  from  the  fate 
of  all  around  him." 

After  an  action  of  three  hours,  the  troops  gave 
way  in  all  directions,  and  Col.  Washington  and 
two  others  brought  off  Braddock  who  had  been 
mortally  wounded.  Washington  attempted  to 
rally  the  retreating  troops;  but, as  he  said  him- 
self, it  was  like  attempting  to  stop  the  wild 
bears  of  the  mountains.  The  conduct  of  the 
regular  troops  was  most  cowardly.  The  enemy 
were  few  in  numbers,  and  had  no  expectation 
of  victory.  The  preservation  of  Washington 
during  this  battle  was  almost  miraculous.  He 
was  exposed  more  than  any  other  officer,  and 
was  particularly  the  object  of  savage  attacks 
on  account  of  his  superior  bravery.  After  the 
defeat,  a  famous  Indian  warrior,  who  acted  a 
distinguished  part  in  that  bloody  tragedy,  was 
heard  to  say  that  Washington  was  never  born 
to  be  killed  by  a  bullet;  "  for,"  said  he,  "  I  had 
seventeen  fair  shots  at  him  with  my  rifle,  and 
yet  i  could  not  bring  him  to  the  ground." 

After  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Ohio, 
and  the  cessation  of  hostilities  on  the  part  of 
the  Indians,  Washington  retired  to  his  farm, 
and  soon  after  married  Mrs.  Custis,  a  lady  of 
large  fortune,  and  many  accomplishments.  He 
continued  to  be  an  active  member  of  the  gene- 
ral assembly,  and  on  the  approach  of  hostilities 
with  Great  Britain,  was  chosen  to  the  first  Con- 
gress. On  the  14th  of  June,  1775,  he  was  cho- 
sen commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the 
United  Colonies.  He  repaired  immediately  to 
the  head-quarters  of  the  American  army  at  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts,  and  having  forced  the 
British  to  evacuate  Boston,  led  his  army  to  New 
York,  where  he  was  doomed  to  witness  the  de- 
feat of  the  Americans  on  Long  Island,  on  the 
27th  of  August,  but  the  retreat  of  the  army  was 
conducted  in  a  masterly  manner.  After  the 
tattle  of  White  Plains,  the  prospects  of  the 
Americana  appeared  hopeless,  but  the  successes 
of  Trenton  and  Princeton  inspired  the  army 
with  fresh  courage.  By  these,  Philadelphia  was 
saved  and  New  Jersey  regaintd.  On  the  ii.">th 
of  August  1777,  the  British  forces  under  lord 
Howe,  which  had  sailed  from  New  York,  dis- 
embarked at  the  ferry  of  Elk  river,  and  on  the 
10th  of  September,  the  battle  of  Brandy  wine 
was  fought  and  the  Americans  de!: 
this  battle,  the  young  marquis  de  1 
displayed  great  courage,  and  though  severely 
wounded,  continued  many  hours  on  foot  and 


horseback,  endeavoring  to  rally  and  encourage 
the  troops. 

Major  Ferguson,  who  commanded  a  rifle  corps 
a  day  or  two  previous  to  this  battle,  was  the 
hero  of  a  very  singular  adventure  which  he  thus 
describes  in  a  letter  to  a  friend. 

"  We  had  not  lain  long,  when  a  rebel  officer, 
remarkable  by  a  huss;ir  dress,  pressed  toward 
our  army,  within  a  hundred  yards  of  my  right 
flank,  not  perceiving  us.  He  was  followed  by 
another,  dressed  in  dark  green  and  blue,  mount- 
ed on  a  bay  horse,  with  a  remarkably  high 
cocked  hat.  I  ordered  three  good  shots  to  stand 
near,  and  lire  at  them  ;  but  the  idea  disgusting 
me,  I  recalled  the  order.  The  hussar,  in  re- 
turning, made  a  circuit,  but  he  passed  within  a 
hundred  yards  of  us  ;  upon  which  I  advanced 
from  the  woods  towards  him  Upon  my  call 
ing,  he  stopped  ;  but,  after  looking  at  me,  again 
proceeded.  I  again  drew  his  attention,  and 
made  signs  to  him  to  stop,  levelling  my  piece  at 
him;  but  he  slowly  cantered  away.  By  quick 
firing,  I  could  have  lodged  half  a  dozen  balls-in 
or  about  him,  before  he  was  out  of  my  reach.  1 
had  only  to  determine  ;  but  it  was  not  pleasant 
to  fire  at  the  back  of  an  unoffending  individual, 
who  was  very  coolly  acquitting  himself  of  his 
duty  ;  so  I  let  it  alone. 

The  next  day,  the  surgeon  told  me  that  the 
wounded  rebel  officers  informed  him  that  gen- 
eral Washington  was  all  the  morning  with  the 
ligjit  troops,  and  only  attended  by  a  French 
officer  in  the  hussar  dress,  he  himself  dressed 
and  mounted  as  I  have  before  described.  I  am 
not  sorry  I  did  not  know  who  it  was  at  the 
time." 

The  battle  of  Brandy  wine  opened  the  way  to 
Philadelphia  for  the  British,  who  entered  it  on 
the  26th  of  September.  After  the  unsatisfac- 
tory engagement  at  Germantown,  the  Ameri- 
can troops  were  quartered  for  the  winter  at 
Valley  Forge,  where  their  sufferings  were  ex- 
treme. One  day ,  a  quaker  by  the  name  of  Potts 
had  occasion  to  go  to  a  certain  place,  which  led 
him  through  a  large  grove  at  no  great  distance 
from  head-quarters.  As  he  was  proceeding 
along,  he  thought  he  heard  a  noise.  He  stopped 
and  listened. 

He  did  hear  the  sound  of  a  human  voice  at 
some  distance,  but  quite  indistinctly.  As  it  was 
in  the  direct  course  he  was  pursuing,  he  went 
on,  but  with  some  caution.  At  length  he  came 
within  sight  of  a  man  whose  back  was  turned 
towards  him  on  his  knees,  in  the  attitude  of 
prayer.  Potts  now  stopped,  and  soon  saw  Wash- 
ington himself,  the  commander  of  the  American 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


WAS 


605 


WAS 


armies,  returning  from  bending  before  the  God 
of  hosts  above. 

Potts  himself  was  a  pious  man,  and  no  sooner 
had  he  reached  home,  that  in  the  fulness  of  his 
faith,  he  broke  forth  to  his  wife  Sarah : 

"All's  well!  all's  well!  Yes,— George 
Washington  is  sure  to  beat  the  British — sure  !  " 
"  What's  the  matter  with  thee, Isaac?  "  replied 
the  startled  Sarah.  "  Thee  seems  to  be  much 
moved  about  something." 

"  Well  !  what  if  I  am  moved  ?  Who  would 
not  be  moved  at  such  a  sight  as  I  have  seen  to- 
day ?  "  "  And  what  hast  thou  seen,  Isaac  ?  " 

"  Seen  !  I '  ve  seen  a  ma"n  at  prayer  ! — in  the 
woods!  —  George  Washington  himself!  And 
now  I  say, — just  what  I  ftave  said, — 'All's 
well  !  George  Washington  is  sure  to  beat  the 
British  !  — sure  !  '  " 

In  June,  1778,  the  British  evacuated  Phila- 
delphia, and  retreated  upon  New  York  closely 
followed  by  Washington,  who  attacked  them 
at  Monmouth  on  the  24th,  and  fought  them  with 
advantage,  although  without  gaining  a  decided 
victory.  Washington  having  given  his  orders 
to  La  Fayette,  was  personally  engaged  inform- 
ing the  line  of  the  main  body  near  the  court 
house,  and  was  speaking  with  col.  Hartly  of  the 
Pennsylvania  line,  when  a  cannon  ball  struck 
just  at  his  horse's  feet,  throwing  the  dirt  in  his 
face  and  over  his  clothes.  The  general  contin- 
ued giving  orders  without  noticing  the  derang- 
ment  of  his  toilette.  "  Never,"  says  La  Fayette, 
"  was  general  Washington  greater  in  war  than 
in  this  conflict :  his  presence  stopped  the  retreat, 
his  dispositions  fixed  the  victory.  His  fine  ap- 
pearance on  horseback,  his  calm  courage,  roused 
by  the  animation  produced  by  the  vexation  of 
the  morning,  gave  him  the  air  best  calculated 
to  excite  enthusiasm." 

In  1781  Washington,  in  conjunction  with 
count  Rochambeau,  planned  an  expedition 
against  New  York,  which  was  abandoned  with 
a"  view  of  directing  their  operations  to  the 
south.  Demonstrations,  however,  were  made 
against  the  city,  and  sir  Henry  Clinton  was  not 
aware  of  the  change  in  his  intentions.  The 
siege  of  Yorktown  commenced  on  the  28th  of 
September,  and  lord  Cornwallis  was  compelled 
to  surrender  after  much  hard  fighting,  on  the 
19th.  If  we  are  called  upon  to  admire  the  con- 
duct and  successes  of  Washington  in  action, 
our  admiration  is  no  less  due  to  his  behavior 
in  those  intervals  of  repose  when  the  American 
forces  had  time  to  reflect  upon  their  wants,  and 
brood  over  their  supposed  grievances.  He 
quelled  mutiny,  but  he  pitied  the  sufferings  that 


produced  it ;  and  while  he  was  resolved  to  en- 
force subordination,  he  was  no  less  determined 
to  administer  ail  the  comfort  which  it  was  in 
his  power  to  bestow. 

On  the  25th  of  November,  1783.  Washington 
made  his  public  entry  into  the  city  of  New 
York.  On  the  4th  of  December,  the  principal 
oificers  of  the  army  assembled  at  Francis'  tavern 
in  New  York,  to  take  a  final  leave  of  their  be- 
loved commander-in-chief.  Soon  after  his  ex- 
cellency entered  the  room.  His  emotions  were 
too  strong  to  be  concealed.  Filling  a  glass,  and 
turning  to  them  he  said  ;  "  with  a  heart  full  of 
love  and  gratitude,  I  now  take  leave  of  you. 
I  most  devoutly  wish  that  your  latter  days  may 
be  as  prosperous  and  happy  as  your  former  ones 
have  been  glorious  and  honorable."  Having 
drank,  he  added,  "  I  cannot  come  to  each  of 
you,  but  shall  be  obliged  to  you  if  each  of  you 
will  come  and  take  me  by  the  hand."  General 
Knox,  being  nearest,  turned  to  him.  Incapable 
of  utterance,  Washington  in  tears  grasped  his 
hand,  embraced  and  kissed  him.  In  the  same 
affectionate  manner,  he  took  leave  of  each 
succeeding  officer. 

Leaving  the  room,  he  passed  through  the 
corps  of  light  infantry,  and  walked  to  White 
Hall,  where  a  barge  waited  to  convey  him  to 
Paulus'  Hook.  The  whole  company  followed 
in  mute  and  solemn  procession,  with  dejected 
countenances,  testifying  feelings  of  melancholy 
which  no  peii  can  describe.  Having  entered 
the  barge,  he  turned  to  the  company,  and  way- 
ing  his  hat,  he  bade  them  a  silent  adieu.  They 
paid  him  the  same  affectionate  compliment,  and 
after  the  barge  had  left  them  they  returned  in 
the  same  solemn  manner,  to  the  place  where 
they  had  assembled. 

/On  the  23d  of  December,  1783.  general  Wash- 
ington resigned  his  commission  to  congress, 
then  sitting  at  Annapolis^  On  this  interesting 
and  solemn  occasion  he  appeared  in  the  hall  of 
congress.  As  he  rose  to  speak,  every  eye  was 
fixed  upon  him.  He  began  by  expressing  his 
humble  joy  at  the  accomplishment  of  his  wish- 
es and  exertions,  in  the  independence  of  his 
country.  Next,  he  recommended  to  congress 
and  to  the  country  the  companions  of  his  toils 
and  trials,  and  concluded  as  follows : 

"  I  consider  it  an  indispensable  duty  to  close 
the  last  solemn  act  of  my  official  life,  by  com- 
mending the  interests  of  our  dearest  country  to 
the  protection  of  Almighty  God,  and  those  who 
have  the  superintendence  of  them  to  his  holy 
keeping. 

"  Having  now  finished  the  work  assigned 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


WAS 


606 


WAS 


me,  I  retire  'from  the  great  theatre  of  action, 
and,  bidding  an  affectionate  farewell  to  this 
august  body,  under  whose  orders  I  have  long 
acted,  I  here  offer  my  commission,  and  take 
my  leave  of  all  the  employments  of  public  life." 

Upon  accepting  his  commission,  congress, 
through  their  president,  expressed  in  glowing 
language  to  Washington  their  high  sense  of  his 
wisdom  and  energy,  in  conducting  the  war  to 
so  happv  a  termination,  and  invoked  the  choicest 
blessings  on  his  future  life. 

President  Mifflin  concluded  as  follows  :  — 
"  We  join  you  in  commending  the  interests  of 
our  dearest  country  to  Almighty  God,  beseech- 
ing him  to  dispose  the  hearts  and  minds  of  its 
citizens  to  improve  the  opportunity  afforded 
them  of  becoming  a  happy  and  respectable  na- 
tion. And  as  for  YOU,  we  address  to  Him  our 
earnest  prayers,  that  the  life  so  beloved,  may  be 
fostered  with  all  his  care ;  that  your  days  may 
be  as  happy  as  they  have  been  illustrious  ;  and 
that  he  will  finally  give  you  that  reward  which 
the  world  cannot  give." 

A  profound  stillness  now  pervaded  the  assem- 
bly. The  grandeur  of  the  scene,  the  recollec- 
tion of  the  past,  the  felicity  of  the  present,  the 
hopes  of  the  future,  crowded  fast  upon  all,  while 
they  united  in  invoking  blessings  upon  the  man 
who,  under  God,  had  achieved  so  much,  and 
who  now,  in  the  character  of  a  mere  citizen,  was 
hastening  to  a  long  desired  repose,  at  his  seat 
at  Mount  Vernon  in  Virginia.  •  Congress  voted 
the  victorious  general  an  equestrian  statue,  and 
the  legislature  of  Virginia  decreed  to  him  "  a  sta- 
tue of  the  finest  marble  and  best  workmanship." 

But  Washington  was  not  permitted  to  remain 
in  his  dignified  retirement ;  for  the  nation,  aware 
of  the  importance  of  securing  his  wisdom  and 
influence,  chose  him  the  first  president,  under 
the  new  constitution  of  178(J.  •  His  feelings 
on  this  occasion  are  expressed  in  a  letter  to  a 
friend,  of  which  the  following  is  an  extract:  "  I 
am  unwilling  in  the  evening  of  a  life  almost 
consumed  in  public  cares,  to  quit  a  peaceful 
abode  for  an  ocean  of  difficulties,  without  tlu: 
competency  of  political  skill,  abilities  and  incli- 
nation, which  are  necessary  to  manage  the 
helm.  I  am  sensible  that  I  am  embarking  on  a 
hazardous  voyage,  but  what  returns  will  be 
made  Heaven  alone  can  foretell.  Integrity  and 
firmness  are  all  I  can  promise ;  these,  be  the 
voyage  long  or  short,  shall  never  forsake  me, 
although  I  may  be  deserted  by  all  men,  for  of  all 
consolations  which  are  to  be  derived  from  these, 
under  any  circumstances,  the  world  cannot  de- 
Drive  me." 


In  the  first  presidency,  the  door  of  the  presi- 
dent's house  gathered  but  little  rust  on  its  hin- 
ges, while  often  was  its  latch  lifted  by  the 
"  broken  soldier."  Scarce  a  day  passed  that 
some  veteran  of  the  heroic  time  did  not  present 
himself  at  head  quarters.  The  most  battered  of 
these  types  of  the  days  of  privation  and  trial 
was  "  kindly  bid  to  stay,"  was  offered  refresh- 
ment, and  a  glass  of  something  to  the  old  gene- 
ral's health,  and  then  dismissed  with  lighter 
hearts  and  heavier  pouches. 

So  passed  the  many  ;  but  not  so  with  one  of 
Erin'fe  sons.  It  was  about  the  hour  of  the 
Thuesday  levee,  wh'en  German  John,  the  por- 
ter, opened  to  a  hearty  rap.  expecting  to  admit 
at  least  a  dignitary  of  the  land,  or  foreign  am- 
bassador, when  who  should  march  into  the  hall, 
but  an  old  fellow,  whose  weather  beaten  coun- 
tenance, and  well-worn  apparel  showed  him  to 
be  no  "  carpet  knight."  His  introduction  was 
short,  but  to  the  purpose.  He  had  come  to  head- 
quarters to  see  his  honor's  excellence,  God  bless 
him  !  He  was  an  old  soldier.  In  vain  the  por- 
ter assured  him  that  it  would  be  impossible  to 
see  the  president  at  that  time  ;  a  great  company 
was  momently  expected ;  the  hall  was  not  a 
fitting  place  ;  'would  he  not  go  to  the  stewards 
apartment  and  get  something  to  drink  ?  To  all 
which  Pat  replied  lie  was  in  no  hurry  ;  that  he 
would  wait  his  honor's  leisure  ;  —  and  taking  a 
chair  composed  and  made  himself  comfortable. 
And  now  passed  ministers  of  state,  and  foreign 
ministers,  senators,  judges,  the  great  and  the 
gay;  meanwhile  poor  Pat  stoutly  maintained 
his  post,  gazing  on  the  crowd  till  the  levee 
ended.  The  president,  about  to  retire  to  hia 
library,  was  informed  that  an  obstinate  Irish- 
man had  taken  possession  of  the  hall,  and 
would  be  satisfied  with  nothing  short  of  an  in- 
terview with  the  president  himself. 

The  chief  good-naturedly  turned  into  the 
hall.  So  soon  as  the  old  veteran  saw  his  old 
commander,  he  roared  out,  "  long  life  to  your 
honor's  excellency  !  "  at  the  same  time  hurling 
his  hat  to  the  ground,  and  erecting  himself 
with  military  precision.  "  Your  honor  will  not 
remember  me ;  though  many  is  the  day  that 
I  have  marched  under  your  orders,  and  many's 
the  hard  knock  I  '  ve  had  too.  I  belonged  to 
Wayne's  brigade  —  Mad  Antony,  the  British 
called  him,  and,  by  the  powers,  he  was  always 
mad  enough  for  them,  I  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  of  Germantown.  Hurrah  for  America ! 
and  it  does  my  heart  good  to  see  your  honor,  and 
how  is  the  dear  lady  and  the  little  ones  ? " 
Here  the  usually  grave  temperament  ol 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


WAS 


607 


WAS 


Washington  gave  way,  as  with  a  smile  he  re- 
plied that  he  "was  well,  as  was  Mrs.  Washing- 
ton ;  but  they  were  unfortunate  in  having  no 
children  ;  then  pressing  a  token  into  the  soldier's 
hand,  he  ascended  the  staircase  to  his  library. 
The  Irishman  followed  with  his  eyes  the  retiring 
general,  then  looked  again  and  again  upon  the 
token  which  he  had  received  from  his  honor's 
men  hand,  pouched  it.  recovered  his  hat,  which 
he  placed  with  military  exactness  a  little  on  one 
side,  then  took  up  his  line  of  march,  and  as  he 
passed  the  porter,  he  cried  out,  "  there  now, 

E)u  Hessian  fellow,  you  see  his  honor's  excel- 
nce  has  not  forgotten  an  old  soldier." 

Throughout  the  eight  years  of  his  presiden- 
tial career,  Washington  did  nothing  to  forfeit 
the  esteem  of  his  fellow  citizens,  who  acknow- 
ledged him,  "  first  in  peace,  first  in  war,  and 
first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen.')  An 
Englishman  in  Philadelphia,  speaking  of  the 
presidency  of  Washington,  was  expressing  a 
desire  to  see  him.  While  this  conversation 
passed,  "  there  he  goes,"  cried  the  American, 
pointing  to  a  tall,  erect,  dignified  personage, 
passing°on  the  other  side  of  the  street.  "  That 
general  Washington  !  "  exclaimed  the  English- 
man ;  "  where  is  his  guard  ?  "  "  Here ! ''  replied 
the  American,  striking  on  his  breast  with  em- 
phasis. 

On  Friday,  the  13th  of  December,  1790,  ex- 
posure to  wet  produced  an  inflammatory  disor- 
der of  the  throat,  which  terminated  fatally  on 
the  night  of  Saturday.  The  deep  and  wide- 
spreading  jjrief  occasioned  by  this  melancholy 
event,  assembled  a  great  concourse  of  people 
for  the  purpose  of  paying  the  last  tribute  of 
respect  to  the  first  of  Americans.  On  Wednes- 
day, the  18th  of  December,  attended  by  milita- 
ray  honors  and  the  ceremonies  of  religion,  his 
body  was  deposited  in  the  family  vault  at  Mount 
Vernon. 

So  short  was  his  illness,  that,  at  the  seat  of 
government,  the  intelligence  of  his  death  pre- 
ceded that  of  his  indisposition.  It  was  first 
communicated  by  a  passenger  in  the  stage  to  an 
acquaintance  whom  he  met  in  the  street,  and 
the  report  quickly  reached  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives which'was  then  in  session.  A  solemn 
silence  prevailed  for  several  minutes ;  judge 
Marshal,  then  a  member  of  the  house,  stated  in 
his  place  the  melancholy  information  which  had 
been  received.  This  informatian,  he  said,  was 
not  certain,  but  there  was  loo  much  reason  to 
believe  it  true. 

"  After  receiving  intelligence,"  he  added, 
•;  of  a  national  calamity  so  heavy  and  afflicting, 


the  house  of  representatives  can  be  but  ill  fitted 
for  public  business."  He  therefore  moved  an 
adjournment,  and  the  house  adjourned. 

The  expression  of  Washington's  countenance 
was  serious,  but  very  pleasing :  his  eyes  were 
a  mild  blue ;  and  the  flush  of  health  gave  a 
glow  to  his  cheeks.  His  step  was  always  firm ; 
but  after  the  toils  of  the  long  war,  his  body 
was  a  little  bent  as  he  walked,  and  his  oiice 
smooth  forehead  and  cheeks  were  marked  with 
care-worn  furrows.  General  Washington,  in 
the  prime  of  life,  stood  six  feet  two  inches,  and 
measured  precisely  six  feet  when  attired  for  the 
grave. 

To  a  majestic  height  was  added  correspond- 
ing breadth  and  firmness  ;  and  his  whole  per- 
son was  so  cast  in  nature's  finest  mould,  as  to 
resemble  the  classic  remains  of  ancient  statuary, 
where  all  the  parts  contribute  to  the  purity 
and  perfection  of  the  whole.  Bred  in  the 
vigorous  school  of  the  frontier  warfare,  "  the 
earth  his  bed.  his  canopy  the  heavens,"  he  ex- 
celled the  hunter  and  the  woodsman  in  their 
athletic  habits,  and  in  those  trials  of  manhood 
which  distinguished  the  hardy  days  of  his  early 
life  :  he  was  amazingly  swift  of  foot,  and  could 
climb  the  mountain  steep,  and  "  not  a  sob  his 
toil  confess." 

It  matters  very  little,  says  Phillips,  what  im- 
mediate spot  may  have  been  the  birth-place  of 
such  a  man  as  "Washington.  No  people  can 
claim,  no  country  can  appropriate  him.  The 
boon  of  Providence  to  the  human  race,  his  fame 
is  eternity,  and  his  residence  creation.  Though 
it  was  the  defeat  of  our  arms,  and  the  disgrace 
of  our  policy,  I  almost  bless  the  convulsion  in 
which  he  had  his  origin.  If  the  heavens  thun- 
dered, and  the  earth  rocked,  yet,  when  the 
storm  had  passed,  how  pure  was  the  climate 
that  it  cleared  !  how  bright,  in  the  brow  of  the 
firmament,  was  the  planet  w  hich  it  revealed  to 
us  !  In  the  production  of  Washington,  it  does 
really  appear  as  if  Nature  was  endeavoring  to 
improve  upon  herself,  and  that  all  the  virtues 
of  the  ancient  world  were  but  so  many  studies 
preparatory  to  the  patriot  of  the  new.  Indi- 
vidual instances,  no  doubt,  there  were,  splendid 
exemplifications  of  some  singular  qualification  : 
Ctesar  was  merciful,  Scipio  was  continent, 
Hannibal  was  patient ;  but  it  was  reserved  for 
Washington  to  blend  them  all  in  one,  and,  like 
the  lovely  masterpiece  of  the  Grecian  artist,  to 
exhibit,  in  one  glow  of  associated  beauty,  the 
pride  of  every  model,  and  the  perfection  of 
every  master.  As  a  general,  he  marshalled  th* 
peasant  into  a  veteran,  a-nd  supplied  by  disci 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


WAT 


608 


WAT 


plmethe  absence  of  experience;  as  a  statesman, 
In,-  enlarged  the  policy  of  the  cabinet  into  the 
most  comprehensive  system  of  general  advan- 
tage; and  such  was  the  wisdom  of  his  views, 
and  the  philosophy  of  his  councils,  that,  to  the 
soldier  and  the  statesman  he  almost  added 
the  character  of  the  sage  !  A  conqueror,  he  was 
untainted  with  the  crime  of  blood ;  a  revolu- 
tionist, lie  was  free  from  every  stain  of  treason  ; 
for  aggression  commenced  the  contest,  and  his 
country  called  him  to  the  command.  Liberty 
unsheathed  his  sword,  necessity  stained,  victory 
returned  it.  If  he  had  paused  here,  history 
might  have  doubted  what  station  to  assign  him ; 
whether  at  the  head  of  her  citizens,  or  her  sol- 
diers, her  heroes,  or  her  patriots.  But  the  last 
glorious  act  crowns  his  career,  and  banishes  all 
hesitation.  Who  like  Washington,  after  having 
emancipated  a  hemisphere,  resigned  its  crown, 
and  preferred  the  retirement  of  domestic  life  to 
the  adoration  of  a  land  he  might  be  almost  said 
to  have  created ! 

Happy ,  proud  America  !  The  lightning  of 
heaven  yielded  to  your  philosophy  !  The  temp- 
tations of  earth  could  not  seduce  your  patriot- 
ism !  '' 

WASHINGTON,  William  Augustine,  a  dis- 
tinguished cavalry  officer  in  the  American  re- 
volution, was  born  in  Virginia.  He  distinguish- 
ed himself  particularly  at  Guilford,  and  Eutaw, 
where,  however,  he  was  made  prisoner,  and 
detained  until  the  close  of  the  war.  During  the 
the  presidency  of  Adams,  general  Washington 
attached  his  relative  to  his  staff  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general.  He  died  in  1810. 

WATERLOO,  a  Belgic  village  on  the  road 
from  Charleroi  to  Brussels,  10  miles  from  the  lat- 
ter city,  at  the  entrance  of  the  forest  of  Soignies. 

WATERLOO,  battle  of,  by  French  writers 
called  Mont  St.  Jean,  near  which  village  it 
was  fought  in  the  spring  of  1815.  The  Eu- 
ropean confederates  having  outlawed  Napo- 
leon by  a  declaration  at  Vienna,  assembled  their 
forces  to  invade  France  by  the  east  and  north. 
A  Prussian  army  of  60,000  was  collected  near 
Charleroie,  under  Blucher,  and  an  English, 
Hanoverian,  Dutch,  and  Flemish  army  of 
100,000,  under  Wellington,  in  advance  of  Brus- 
sels. On  the  13th  of  June,  the  French  army 
of  110,000  men,  under  Napoleon,  debouched 
from  Givelte  and  Charleroi,  attacked  the  Prus- 
sians at  Ligny ,  and  drove  them  back  with  great 
slaughter,  making  from  ten  to  fifteen  thousand 
prisoners.  In  the  meantime  the  left  wing  of 
the  French  army  on  the  15th,  attacked  the  Eng- 
lish position  at  Quatre  Bras,  cut  to  pieces  some 


Scotch  regiments,  and  compelled  the  remainder 
of  the  allies  to  retreat  on  Brussels.  Marshal 
Wellington  now  assembled  ali  his  foro?s  in  the 
strong  position  of  Waterloo,  the  right  of  which 
was  defended  by  the  chateau  of  Hougomont ; 
the  left  and  centre  by  acclivities  of  ground,  and 
his  rear  protected  by  the  immense  forest  of 
Soigny.  After  the  affair  of  Ligny,  Napoleon 
divided  his  force  into  two  divisions,  sending  his 
right  wing,  of  30,000  men,  under  Grouchy,  in 
pursuit  of  the  Prussians,  who  made  a  stand  at 
Wavre ;  while  with  the  left  and  centre  he  fol- 
lowed the  English  in  the  direction  of  Waterloo 
and  Brussels,  and  finding  Wellington  in  posi- 
tion at  Mont  St.  Jean,  lie  bivouacked  on  the 
17th  on  the  grounds  on  the  other  side  of  the 
valley,  while  the  English  and  allies  were  pre- 
paring for  attack  on  the  opposite  side.  At  noon 
on  the  18th,  the  French  commenced  their  attack 
on  the  chateau  of  Hougomont,  and  endeavored 
by  that  position  to  gain  the  heights,  and  turn 
the  right  of  the  English  army  ;  and  here  a  scene 
of  bloody  contest  was  maintained  for  some  hours, 
in  which  many  thousands  of  the  combatants 
lost  their  lives.  Another  attack  was  commenced 
in  the  centre  in  the  bottom,  beneath  which  is 
situated  a  farm  called  La  Ha  ye  Siiinte.  Here 
likewise  a  dreadful  slaughter  took  place,  chiefly 
of  Hanoverians,  and  the  French  carried  the  po- 
sition. In  the  right  the  French  ascended  the 
acclivity,  and  advanced  on  the  plain,  but  were 
checked  by  a  charge,  in  which  Sir  Thomas  Pic- 
ton  was  killed.  On  their  left  they  advanced 
from  Hougomont.  within  half  a  mile  of  the  vil- 
lage of  Mont  St.  Jean,  but  were  here  arrested 
by  other  charges,  in  which  the  prince  of  Orange 
was  wounded.  The  enthusiastic  courage  of  the 
French  was  every  where  opposed  by  the  cool 
resolution  of  the  English  regiments,  who  formed 
themselves  into  squares,  and  received  and  re- 
pelled thq. attacks  of  the  French  cavalry.  In 
this  position  the  two  armies  remained,  with  Va- 
rious local  success,  till  about  four  in  the  after- 
noon, when  a  body  of  Prussians  under  marshal 
Bulow  approciched  from  Wavre,  and  secured 
the  English  position  on  the  left.  At  six  in  the 
evening  the  issue  remained  doubtful ;  the 
French  considered  the  victory  as  their  own,  and 
an  Hanoverian  regiment  actually  fled  from  the 
field,  and  passed  throngh  Brussels.  But  mar- 
shal Wellington,  assured  of  the  speedy  approach 
of  marshal  Blucher  with  a  body  of  Prussian 
cavalry  on  the  French  right  flank,  maintained 
his  principal  position  with  inflexible  determina- 
tion; and  about  eight  o'clock  the  Prussian  cav- 
alry, under  Blucher,  debouched  from  the  woods 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


WES 


609 


WHI 


on  the  left,  overthrew  and  captured  the  French 
right  wing,  and  advanced  along  the  valley,  arid 
passed  the  centre,  of  the  French  position,  carry- 
ing all  before  them.  The  French  on  the  heights 
and  on  their  left  wing,  perceiving  themselves 
thus  surrounded,  were  seized  with  a  general 
panic,  a  cry  of  sauve  quipeiit  ran  through  their 
ranks  ;  the  confusion  was  increased  by  a  gene- 
ral charge  of  the  British,  and  they  fled  in  com- 
plete rout  towards  the  French  frontiers,  leaving 
all  their  cannon  and  baggage  in  the  hands  of 
the  victors.  The  loss  of  killed  and  wounded  on 
both  sides  has  been  variously  computed,  but  it 
cannot  have  been  less  than  00,000.  This  battle 
was  followed  by  the  most  important  political 
consequences.  The  main  French  army  was 
thus  dispersed  without  cannon  and  without  am- 
munition. Grouchy,  who,  with  his  division,  re- 
mained immovable  during  the  battle  at  Wavre, 
about  nine  miles  distant,  on  hearing  of  its  re- 
sult, retreated  towards  Paris,  and  Napoleon,  to 
diminish  the  effects  of  his  disaster,  repaired  in- 
stantly to  the  same  city,  where  the  intrigues 
and  conflicts  of  parties"  determined  him  to  re- 
sign the  crown  in  favor  of  his  son  and  embark 
for  America.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Prussians 
advanced  briskly  in  pursuit  of  the  disordered 
French,  and  marshal  Wellington  having  dis- 
posed of  his  wounded,  followed  without  inter- 
ruption to  the  walls  of  Paris,  where,  after  some 
negotiation,  the  Bourbons  were  restored. 

WAYNE,  Anthony, a  general  in  the  Ameri- 
can revolution,  born  in  Pennsylvania,  Jan.  1, 
1745.  He  was  educated  at  a  Philadelphia  aca- 
demy. Having  served  his  country  in  a  civil 
capacity,  he  raised  a  company  of  volunteers  in 
1775,  and  was  elected  colonel.  In  the  retreat 
from  Canada  he  behaved  with  great  prudence, 
and  on  Feb.  12,  1777  was  made  brigadier-gene- 
ral by  the  continental  congress.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine, 
and  succeeded  in  carrying  Stony  Point  by  as- 
sault. He  was  in  continual  service  throughout 
the  war,  and,  in  1792  was  appointed  by  Wash- 
ington to  succeed  general  St.  Clair  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  employed  against  the  Indians 
on  the  western  frontier.  Aug.  20,  1794,  he 
gained  a  victory  near  Miami  on  the  lakes,  and 
successfully  ended  the  war.  He  died  in  1796. 

WEST  POINT,  a  village  of  New  York,  and 
military  post  on  the  Wrestbank  of  the  Hudson, 
53  miles  above  New  York.  It  is  the  scene  of 
the  treachery  of  Arnold.  Its  military  academy 
enjoys  hio-h  repute. 

WEST  INDIES,  the  great  Archipelago 
which  lies  between  North  and  South  America, 


commonly  divided  into  The  Bahamas,  Great 
Antilles,  Lesser  Antilles,  Caribbee  islands,  Vir- 
gin islands,  Leeward  islands,  and  Windward 
islands. 

Population  of  the  West  India  Islands. 

Islands.                                 Whites.        Slaves.  Total. 

Hayti,  800,000 

Spanish  Islands. 

Cuba,                                 311,051        286,942  704,487 

Porto  Rico,                        133,100         31,874  323,838 

English  Islands. 

Antigua,                                1,980         29,839  35,714 

Anguilla,                                  365           2,388  3,080 

Barbadoes,                           14,959         81,902  102,007 

Dominica,                                840          15,392  19,838 

Grenada,  &c.                           801          24,145  28,783 

Jamaica,                                37,000     >  322,421  414,421 

Montserrat,                              330           6,262  7,406 

Nevis,                                       700           9,259  11959 

St.  Kitts,                                1,612          19,310  23,922 

St.  Lucia,                                 972          13,348  18,051 

St.  Vincent,                          1,301         23,000  27,114 

Tobago,                                       322          12,000  1 4  04-2 

Tortola,  &c.                             477           5,399  7*172 

Trinidad,                               4,201         24,006  44,163 

Bahamas,                                 4,240            9,268  16,499 

Bermudas,                             3,905           4,370  9,250 

French  Islands. 

Martinique,  10,000  81,142  101,865 
Guadeloupe,  with  Mari-) 

egalante,  Desirade,      >  12,800         88,000  111,000 

Saintes,  &c.  ) 

Dutch  Islands. 

St.  Kustatius,  with  Saba,          ?            12,000  18,000 

Curacao,                                     ?             6,500  11,000 

S™^;(inparttoj          ?          4,000        6,000 

Danish  Islands. 

Santa  Cruz  or  St.  Croix,  2,500  29,500  34,000 
St.  Thomas,  800  5,500  7,000 

St.  John,  150         2,600  3,000 

Swedish  Islands. 
St.  Bartholomew,  ?  6,000         12,000 

WHIPPLE,  William,  a  signer  of  the  De- 
claration of  Independence,  born  in  Maine,  in 
1730.  Having  followed  the  sea  for  some  time, 
he  abandoned  it  in  1759,  and  commenced  busi- 
ness in  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  from 
which  state  he  was  sent  to  Congress,  in  1776. 
He  was  placed  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  brigades 
of  New  Hampshire  in  the  revolutionary  war, 
after  the  close  of  which,  he  held  several  civil 
offices,  and  died  in  1785. 

WHITFIELD,  James,  Archbishop  of  Balti- 
more, was  born  at  Liverpool  in  England  on  the 
3d  of  Nov.  1770,  and  died  at  Baltimore  on  the 
19th  of  Oct.  1834.  At  the  age  of  17  he  was  be- 
reaved of  his  father  and  became  the  protector  of 
his  mother.  To  assuage  her  grief,  and  to  restore 
her  sinking  health,  he  accompanied  her  to  Italy. 
On  his  return  from  that  country  where  he  had 
been  for  some  time  engaged  in  mercantile  pur- 
suits, he  found  himself  in  France  at  the  time 
when  Napoleon  had  decreed  that  every  Eng- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


WIC 


610 


WIL 


lishman  in  France  was  a  prisoner.  He  spent 
the  greatest  part  of  his  exile  in  Lyons,  where  he 
became  acquainted  with  Ambrose  Marechal,  the 
late  archbishop  of  Baltimore,  who  was  then  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  the  seminary  in  that  city. 
The  piety  of  his  youth  inclined  his  mind  to  the 
sacerdotal  state,  and  he  commenced  the  study 
of  divinity  under  the  direction  of  his  learned 
and  pious  friend.  He  distinguished  himself  by 
his  solid  judgment  and  persevering  industry. 
In  the  year  1801)  he  was  ordained  priest  in  the 
city  of  Lyons.  After  the  death  of  his  mother. 
he  returned  to  England,  and  was  employed  in 
the  discharge  of  parochial  duties  in  the  town  of 
Crosby. 

When  Dr.  Marechal  was  elevated  to  the  archi- 
episcopal  see  of  Baltimore,  he  wrote  to  Mr. 
Whitfield,  earnestly  soliciting  him  to  give  his 
assistance  to  the  flock  which  Providence  had 
placed  under  his  charge.  He  complied  with 
the  request  of  his  former  friend,  and  landed  on 
our  shores  on  the  8th  of  September,  1817.  In 
1825  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity 
from  the  court  of  Rome.  At  the  death  of  the 
Rev.  Archbishop  Marechal,  his  name  was  on 
the  list  which  was  first  sent  to  Rome  to  receive 
the  sanction  of  his  Holiness,  and  he  was  soon 
after  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  in 
the  Cathedral  in  that  city. 

WHITFIELD,  George,  founder  of  the  sect 
of  Calvinistic  Methodists,  born  1714,  and  died 
at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  1770.  where  he 
lies  interred.  His  eloquence  in  the  pulpit  was 
very  remarkable.  He  was  in  early  life  associ- 
ated with  the  still  more  celebrated  John  Wes- 
ley, (born  1703,  and  died  1791,)  but  in  after  life 
they  were  separated  by  difference  of  opinion. 

WICKLIFFE,  or  Wycliffe,  John,  the  "  Morn- 
ing Star  of  the  Reformation."  was  born  at  a  vil- 
lage of  the  same  name,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1X24. 
He  was  nominated  one  of  the  king's  commis- 
sioners, to  require  of  the  pope  that  he  would  not  , 
interfere  in  ecclesiastical  benefices.  This  trea- 
ty was  carried  on  at  Bruges  ;  but  nothing  was 
concluded,  upon  which  the  parliament  passed 
an  act  against  the  papal  usurpations.  This  en- 
couraged Wicklifte  to  go  on  in  exposing  the 
tyranny  of  the  pope,  who,  in  1377,  denounced 
the  reformer  asaheretic,  and  required  thfiuvli- 
bishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  bishop  of  London, 
to  proceed  in  judgment  upon  him.  Wickliffe, 
however,  was  supported  by  the  duke  of  Lan- 
caster and  earl  Percy,  who  appeared  with  him 
at  St  Paul's,  Feb.  1'J,  1378.  High  words  en- 
•ued  on  that  occasion  between  the  bishop  of 
London  and  the  temporal  lords ;  in  consequence 


of  which,  the  populace  took  the  bishop's  part, 
and  plundered  the  duke's  house  in  the  Savoy. 
Wickliffe,  being  thus  countenanced  at  court, 
undertook  a  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into 
English,  which  work  he  accomplished,  and 
thereby  increased  the  number  of  his  enemies. 
Of  this  version,  which  was  made  from  the  Vul- 
gate, several  copies  are  extant;  but  only  the 
New  Testament  has  been  yet  printed.  In  1381 
Wickliffe  ventured  to  attack  the  doclrine  of 
transubstantiation,  in  a  piece  entitled  "  De  Blas- 
phemia,''  which  being  condemned  at  Oxford, 
lie  went  thither  and  made  a  declaration  of  his 
faith,  and  professing  his  resolution  to  defend  it 
with  his  blood.  The  marriage  of  the  king  with 
Anne  of  Luxemburg,  proved  very  advantageous 
to  Wickliffe ;  for  she  was  a  most  exemplary 

Erincess,  and  a  great  friend  to  scriptural  know- 
'dge.  By  her  means,  the  writings  of  the  Eng- 
lish reformer,  were  sent  to  Germany,  where  they 
afterwards  produced  an  abundant  harvest.  On 
leaving  Oxford,  Wicklifft-  received  a  citation 
from  the  pope  to  appear  at  Rome  ;  but  he  an- 
swered, that  "  Christ  had  taught  him  to  obey 
God  rather  than  man."  He  died  of  the  palsy. 
at  Lutterworth,  in  1384. 

WILKES,  John,  a  political  character,  was 
born  in  Clerkenwell,  where  his  father  was  a  dis- 
tiller, in  17^:7.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel 
of  the  Buckinghamshire  militia,  and  a  seat  in 
parliament  for  Aylesbury  ;  but,  on  publishing  a 
virulent  papercalled  the  "  North  Briton,''  ho  was 
expelled  the  House  of  Commons;  and  convict- 
ed in  the  court  of  King's  Bench.  Previous  to 
this,  however,  he  had  gained  a  verdict  in  the 
Common  Pleas  against  the  secretary  of  state, 
for  an  illegal  seizure  of  his  papers  by  a  general 
warrant.  In  the  meantime,  Wilkes  incurred 
another  prosecution  for  printing  an  obscene 
poem,  called  an  "  Essay  on  Woman  ;"  and  for 
not  appearing  to  receive  judgment,  was  out- 
lawed. He  then  went  to  France,  where  Ire  re- 
sided till  1768,  when  he  was  elected  for  Mid- 
dlesex ;  but  was  prevented  from  taking  his  seat, 
and  committed  to  the  King's  Bench  prison, 
which  occasioned  dreadful  riots  in  St.  George's 
Fields.  Upon  this,  Wilkes  published  anoOier 
libel,  for  which  he  was  again  expelled  the  House 
of  Commons ;  but  was  rechoson,  and  the  elec- 
tion as  repeatedly  declared  void.  His  popular- 
ity was  now  at  its  height,  and  a  large  subscrip- 
tion was  made  for  the  payment  of  his  debts.  In 
1770  he  was  chosen  an  alderman  of  London,  and 
in  1774  lord  mayor.  The  same  year  he  was  re- 
turned again  for  Middlesex,  when  he  was  per- 
mitted to  take  his  seat  without  farther  opposi- 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


WIL 


611 


WOL 


lion.  In  1779,  after  three  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts, he  was  elected  chamberlain  of  London. 
He  died,  Dec.  26,  1797. 

WILLIAM  I,  king  of  England,  a  descendant 
of  Canute,  was  born  1027.  In  1051  he  paid  a 
visit  to  Edward  the  Confessor,  in  England,  and 
in  1058  he  betrothed  his  daughter  to  Harold  II. 
In  1066  he  made  a  claim  to  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land, invaded  England,  landed  at  Pevensey,  in 
Sussex,  defeated  the  English  troops  at  Hastings, 
October  14,  when  Harold  was  slain,  and  Wil- 
liam assumed  the  title  of  Conqueror.  He  was 
crowned  at  Westminster,  December  25),  10G6. 
In  1072  he  repelled  the  attack  of  .Malcolm,  king 
of  Scotland,  in  Northumberland.  In  107!)  he 
was  wounded  by  his  son  Robert,  at  Gerberot, 
in  Normandy,  and  in  1086  he  invaded  France. 
He  soon  after  fell  from  his  horse,  and  contracted 
a  rupture  :  he  died  at  Hermentrude,  near  Rou- 
en, in  Normandy,  1067.  He  was  buried  at 
Caen,  and  was  succeeded  in  Normandy  by  his 
eldest  son,  Robert,  and  iri  England  by  his  sec- 
ond son. 

WILLIAM  II,  was  born  1057,  and  crowned 
at  Westminster.  September  27,  1087.  In  1090 
he  invaded  Normandy  with  success.  William 
was  killed  by  accident,  while  hunting  in  the 
New  Forest,  in  1100. 

WILLIAM  III.  originally  prince  of  Orange, 
landed  at  Torbay',  Nov.  4.1 088,  the  epoch  of 
the  English  revolution.  He  was  crowned  with 
his  consort  Mary,  Feb.  16.  1681).  William, 
being  a  Presbyterian, began  his  reign  by  repeal- 
ing those  laws  that  enjoined  uniformity  of  wor- 
ship; and  though  he  could  not  entirely  succeed, 
a  tolerrtion  was  granted  to  such  dissenters  as 
should  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance,  and  hold 
no  private  conventicles.  In  the  mean  time, 
James,  whose  authority  was  still  acknowledged 
in  Ireland,  embarked  at  Brest  for  that  country, 
and  arrived  at  Kinsale.  He  soon  made  a  pub- 
lic entry  into  Dublin,  and  was  well  received. 
After  the  unsuccessful  siege  of  Londonderry, 
his  army  encountered  the  royal  forces,  com- 
manded by  William  in  person,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Boyne,  in  1690,  when  the  latter  gained  a 
splendid  victory.  At  length,  after  a  series  of 
disasters,  James  died  Sept.  Hi,  1700.  William, 
in  the  mean  time,  became  fatigued  with  oppo- 
sing the  laws  which  parliament  were  every  day 
laying  round  his  authority,  and  thus  gave  up 
the  contest.  He  admitted  ever}7  restraint  upon 
the  perogative  in  England,  upon  condition  of 
being  properly  supplied  with  the  means  of 
humbling  the  power  of  France.  For  the  pro- 
secution of  the  war  with  France,  the  nation 
52 


mortgaged  the  taxes,  and  involved  themselves 
in  what  is  now  called  the  national  debt .  Eng- 
land received  in  return,  the  empty  reward  of 
military  glory  in  Flanders,  and  the  conscious- 
ness of  having  given  their  allies,  particularly 
the  Dutch,  frequent  opportunities  of  being  un- 
grateful. The  wap  with  France  continued 
during  the  greatest  part  of  William's  reign,  but 
was  at  length  concluded  by  the  treaty  of  Rys- 
wick,  in  1697.  William  was  thrown  from  his 
horse,  Feb.  21, 1702,  when  his  collar-bone  was 
fractured ;  and  this  hastened  his  dissolution. 
He  died  in  the  following  month,  of  an  asthma 
and  fever,  in  the  13th  year  of  his  reign. 

WILLIAMS  Roger,  was  born  in  Wales  in 
1598,  and  having  completed  his  collegiate  edu- 
cation at  Oxford,  took  orders  in  the  established 
church,  but  soon  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the 
Puritans  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  obliged 
to  come  to  America  in  1631.  His  religious 
principles  drew  down  upon  him  the  indignation 
of  the  authorities  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  he 
was  banished.  He  settled  at  Providence,  Rhode 
Island,  where  he  founded  a  community  in 
which  intolerance  was  unknown.  He  died  in 
April,  1683. 

WILLIAMS,  William,  a  signer  of  the  De- 
claration of  Independence,  was  born  at  Lebanon 
in  Connecticut,  April  8, 1731,  and  died  Aug,  2, 
1811.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  college. 

WILLIAMS,  Otho  Holland,  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  American  army,  born  in  Prince 
George's  county  Maryland,  in  1748,  and  died 
in  July,  1794. 

WILSON,  James,  a  signer  of  the  American 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Scot- 
land, in  1742,  and  came  to  Philadelphia  in  176G. 
In  1789  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States,  and  died  Aug.  1798 

WISCONSIN,  see  Northwest  Territory. 

WOLCOTT,  Oliver,  a  signer  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  was  born  in  1726,  at 
Windsor,  in  Connecticut,  and  graduated  at 
Yale  college.  He  studied  law,  commenced  its 
practice  with  success,  and  in  1776  was  elected 
to  the  national  congress.  He  served  at  the 
head  of  a  volunteer  corps  in  the  army  which 
forced  Burgoyne  to  surrender.  After  serving 
ten  years  as  lieutenant-governor,  he  was  chosen 
governor  of  the  state.  He  died  Dec.  1,  1707. 

WOLFE,  James,  was  the  son  of  lieutenant- 
general  Edward  Wolfe,  born  at  Westerham, 
in  Kent,  in  1725.  He  entered  early  into  the 
army,  and  before  he  was  twenty,  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Lafeldt.  At  that  of 
Minden,  he  gained  additional  laurels  as  lieu 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


WOL 


612 


WOT 


tenant-colonel  of  Kingsley's  regiment,  as  he 
afterwards  did  at  Louisbourg,  from  whence  he 
Uad  but  just  returned,  when  he  was  appointed 
.o  command  the  expedition  against  C^uebec. 
The  enterprise  was  hazardous,  but  general 
Wolfe  surmounted  all  obstacles,  and  on  the 
heights  of  Abraham  encountered  the  enemy  ; 
when,  in  the  moment  of  victory,  he  received  a 
ball  in  the  wrist  and  another  in  the  body,  which 
obliged  him  to  be  carried  into  the  rear.  In  his 
last  agonies  he  was  roused  by  the  shout, "  They 
run  !':  on  which  he  eagerly  asked,  "  Who  run  ?" 
and  being  told  the  French,  he  said,  ••  1  ttUMUK 
God :  I  die  contented,"  and  expired  Sept.  13, 
175!). 

WOLSEY,  Thomas,  a  cardinal  and  states- 
man, was  born  in  1471  at  Ipswich,  where  his 
father  was  a  butcher.  In  150^,  being  then 
chaplain  to  Henry  VII,  he  was  made  dean  of 
Lincoln ;  and  in  the  next  reign  he  gained  an 
absolute  ascendency  over  the  young  monarch 
by  flattering  his  passions  and  sharing  in  his 
amusements.  He  was  accordingly  made  al- 
moner to  the  king,  a  privy  councillor,  canon  of 
Windsor,  registrar  of  the  garter,  and  dean  of 
York.  Soon  after  this  accumulation  of  honors, 
he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  garter,  and 
rewarded  with  the  grant  of  the  revenues  of  the 
bishopric  of  Tournay  in  Flanders.  In  1514  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  within 
a  few  months  afterwards  was  elevated  to  the 
see  of  York  and  the  dignity  of  a  cardinal.  In 
1510  he  was  appointed  legate  with  the  fullest 
powers,  and  at  the  same  time  was  made  lord 
chancellor.  In  151!)  he  obtained  the  temporal- 
ities of  the  see  of  Bath  and  Wells,  to  which 
were  added  those  of  Worcester  and  Hereford, 
with  the  rich  abbey  of  St.  Alban's.  Wolsey 
now  aspired  to  the  papacy,  and  on  being  disap- 
pointed of  it,  received,  as  a  compensation  from 
the  emperor,  a  pension  of  nine  thousand  crowns 
of  gold,  while  his  own  sovereign  gave  him  the 
bishopric  of  Durham.  On  the  death  of  Adrian 
VI  he  made  another  effort  to  gain  the  tiara,  but 
without  success.  In  152d  he  exchanged  Dur- 
ham for  Winchester;  but  a  cloud  now  arose, 
i  by  the  king's  dissatisfaction  with 
his  conduct  in  the  business  of  t!v.>div 
cording] y  while  the  cardinal  sat  in  the  court.  <>f 
chanc'-ry,  an  indictment  was  preferred  against 
him  in  the  king's  bench,  on  the  statute  of  pro- 
visors,  in  consequence  of  which  the  great  seal 
was  taken  from  him.  all  his  goods  were  seized, 
and  articles  of  impeachment  were  soon  exhibited 
in  parliament.  The  prosecution,  however,  \v;i* 
stayed,  and  he  received  the  king's  pardon;  but 


while  IK  was  endeavoring  to  reconcile  himself 
to  his  fallen  state  at  Cawood  castle,  his  capri- 
cious master  caused  him  to  be  arrested  for  high 
lr»-:tsiii,  and  hurried  from  Yorkshire  towards 
London.  The  agitation  and  fatigue  brought 
on  a  disorder,  of  which  he  died  at  the  abbey  of 
Leicester,  Nov.  <fc>,  1530. 

All  who  know  any  thing  of  his  history,  know 
that  he  was  proud  and  ostentatious,  and  accus- 
tomed t>the  use  of  gorgeous  costume,  in  which 
he  piqued  himself  in  outshining  all  the  otht  r 
courtiers  of  H?nry  VIII.  One  day.  a  prodiirnl 
nobleman,  who  was  deeply  in  debt,  and  paid 
nobody,  came  hit ,>  court  fn  a  dress,  the  splen- 
dor of  which  outshone  that  of  Wolsey.  who 
being  piqued,  addressed  the  nobleman,  ami 
said,  "  My  lord,  it  would  be  more  commendable 
in  you  to  pay  your  debts,  than  to  hv!- 
much  money  on  your  dress."  "  May  it  please 
your  revere'nce,"  replied  the  nobleman,  ••  you 
are  perfectly  right:  I  humblv  thank  vou  for  the 
hint,  and  now  make  a  bejrinning.  to  show  how 
1  value  your  kind  :;<];:.  inition.  My  father 
owed  your  deceased  father  a  en  vat  for  a  calf  s 
head  :  here  is  ai.r/>nirf — 1, :  , 

WORCESTER,  the  chief  t..wn  of  \Voroos- 
tArshire.  England.  It  salFenvi  much  (luring  the 
wars  between  the  li  -uses  of  York  and  Lancas- 
ter; but  the  most  remarkable  event  here  was 
the  famous  battle  be',\vee:i  th-  English  army 
under  Cromv.  •  ;  use  of 

Charles  1 1 ,  in  !<>>!);  when  the  royalists  hid  5,000 
kiik-d  and  (S.OOO  taken  prisoners,  mo.-l  of  whon, 
were  sfild  ns  si  '.ves  t»  the  American  colonies. 

WORCESTER.,  a  har.d~.Me  town  of  Wor- 
cester count  v,  Mass.  The  third  j»ermanent  set- 
tlement was  commenced  in  1713.  The  town 
was  incorporaled  in  17^2.  and  on  the  erection 
of  Worcester  county,  in  17:55.  became  the  cap- 
ital. PopaUtkm  in  1890, 4,271. 

\YOTTON.sir  Henry,  a  statesman,  was  boni 
at  Boughton-hall,  in  Kent,  in  15T»s.  He  be- 
rime secretary  to  the  earl  of  Essex,  on  whose 
full  ho  went  abroad,  and  while  at  Florence  was 
honored  with  the  confidence  of  the  grand  duke; 
who  sent  him  on  a  secret  mission  to  James  VJ 
of  Scotland.  He  died  in  Idll't. 

WOTTOX.  Nicholas,  a  statesman,  was  un- 
the  preceding,  and  born  in  Kent,  about 
141t7.  During  the  reign  of  Henry  VH1  he  was 
employed  on  different  embassies ;  and  in  that 
of  Edward  he  was  made  secretary  of  state.  In 
l.Vil,  he  went  on  a  mission  to  the  emperor  of 
(lennany  ;  after  which  he  became  resident  at 
the  court  of  France.  He  died  in  London,  in 
I'HkJ;.  and,  was  buried  at  Canterbury. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


WYN 


613 


XEN 


WURMSER,  Dagobert  Sigismund,  count, 
an  Austrian  general,  was  born  in  Alsace  in 
1724.  In  his  youth  he  served  in  the  French 
anny,  and  next  in  that  of  the  emperor,  when: 
he  rose  to  the  highest  honors.  In  the  revolu- 
tionary war  he  drove  the  republicans  out  of 
Alsace ;  but  at  last  was  obliged  to  retreat  before 
superior  numbers.  In  1794,  however,  he  took 
Manheim  ;  and  in  179G,  defeated  the  French  in 
Italy.  At  last  being  obliged  to  throw  himself 
into  Mantua,  he  was  forced  to  capitulate.  He 
died  in  Hungary  in  171)7. 

WURTEMBEKG,  or  Wirtemberg,  a  king- 
dom in  the  western  part  of  Germany,  contain- 
ing 1 ,502.033  inhabitants.  In  the  wars  of  the 
French  revolution,  Wirtemberg  was  repeatwlly 
traversed  by  the  hostile  armies ;  its  territory 
was,  in  17SJG,  the  ground  chosen  for  conflicts 
in  the  advance,  as  well  as  in  the  celebrated  re- 
treat of  Moreau.  In  17!)9,  it  was  the  scene  of 
the  defeat  of  the  French  under  Jourdan  ;  in 
1800.  of  their  renewed  success  under  Moreau. 

VVYATT,  sir  Thomas,  a  statesman,  was  born 
at  Allington-castle,  in  Kent,  in  1503.  His  fa- 
ther, sir  Henry  Wyatt,  was  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower  in  the  reign  of  Richard  III,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  been  preserved  by  a  cat  that  fed 
him  daily,  for  which  reason  all  the  portraits  of 
him  are  painted  with  that  animal  in  his  arms 
or  by  his  side.  On  the  accession  of  Henry  VII 
he  was  knighted ;  and  in  the  next  reign  made 
master  of  the  Jewel-office.  He  died  in  1533. 
Thomas  became  a  great  favorite  with  Henry 
VIII,  and  by  one  of  his»  jests  hastened  on  the 
reformation.  The  king  having  complained  of 
the  delay  of  the  court  of  Rome  in  granting  the 
divorce,  sir  Thomas  exclaimed,  "  Lord  !  that  a 
man  cannot  repent,  him  of  his  sin  without  the 
pope's  leave  !"  This  witticism  hastened  the 
king's  resolution,  and  he  soon  afterwards  acted 
upon  it  as  a  maxim  of  sound  reason.  Wyatt, 
however,  fell  into  some  trouble  afterwards  by 
his  freedom  of  speech,  and  was  twice  tried  for 
sedition,  but  acquitted.  He  died  at  Sherbourne. 
in  Dorsetshire,  in  1541. 

WYNDHAM,  sir  William,  a  statesman,  wns 
born  at  Orchard  Wyndham,  in  Somersetshire, 
in  1637.  In  1710,  he  was  made  secretary  at 
war;  and  in  1713,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
On  the  accession  of  George  I  he  was  dismissed 
from  office  ;  and  when  the  rebellion  broke  out 
in  Scotland,  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower,  but 
never  brought  to  trial.  He  continued  to  act  in 
opposition  till  his  death,  which  happened  at 
Wells,  in  1740  ;  when  he  was  succeeded  in  his 
title  and  estate  by  his  eldest  son,  Charles 


Wyndham,  who  became  earl  of  Egremont,  and 
died  in  17*53. 

WYTHE.  George,  a  signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  born  in  Elizabeth 
county,  Virginia,  in  172(5.  Until  30  he  lived  a 
life  of  continual  dissipation,  but  at  that  age  ap- 
plied himself  assiduously  to  the  study  of  the 
law,  and  commenced  its  practice  with  great  dis- 
tinction. His  labors  in  the  cause  of  indepen- 
dence were  strenuous  and  continued.  He  died, 
June  8,  1806,  having  filled  the  office  of  chan- 
cellor of  the  state  of  Virginia  for  several  years. 

X. 

XANTIPPUS,a  Lacedasmonian  general  who 
assisted  the  Carthaginians  in  the  first  Punic 
war.  He  defeated  the  Romans,  256,  B.  C.  and 
took  the  celebrated  Regulus  prisoner.  Such 
signal  services  deserved  to  be  rewarded,  but  the 
Carthaginians  looked  with  envious  jealousy 
upon  Aantippus,  and  he  retired  to  Corinth  after 
he  had  saved  them  from  destruction.  Some 
authors  support  that  the  Carthaginians  ordered 
him  to  be  assassinated,  and  his  body  to  be  thrown 
into  the  sea  as  he  was  returning  home  ;  while 
others  say  that  they  had  prepared  a  leaky  ship 
to  convey  him  to  Corinth,  which  he  artfully 
avoided. 

XENOPHON,  an  Athenian,  son  of  Gryllus, 
celebrated  as  a  general,  an  historian,  and  a  phi- 
losopher. He  was  invited  by  Proxenus,  one  of 
his  intimate  friends,  to  accompany  Cyrus  the 
younger  in  an  expedition  against  his  brother 
Artaxerxes,  king  of  Persia ;  but  he  refused  to 
comply  without  previously  consulting  his  ven- 
erable master,  and  inquiring  into  the  propriety 
of  such  a  measure.  Socrates  strongly  opposed 
it,  and  observed,  that  it  might  raise  the  resent- 
ment of  his  countrymen,  as  Sparta  had  made 
an  alliance  with  the  Persian  monarch;  but, 
however,  before  he  proceeded  further,  he  advis- 
ed him  to  consult  the  oracle  of  Apollo.  Xeno- 
phon  paid  due  deference  to  the  injunctions  of 
Socrates,  but  as  he  was  ambitious  of  glory,  and 
eager  to  engage  in  a  distant  expedition,  he 
hastened  with  precipitation  to  Sardis,  where  he 
wns  introduced  to  the  young  prince,  and  treated 
with  great  attention.  In  the  army  of  Cyrus, 
Xenophon  showed  that  he  was  a  true  disciple 
of  Socrates,  and  that  he  had  been  educated  in 
the  warlike  city  of  Athens.  After  the  decisive 
battle  in  the  p'lains  of  Cunaxa,  and  the  fall  of 
voting  Cyrus,  the  prudence  and  vigor  of  his 
iinind'were  called  into  action.  The  ten  thou- 
sand Greeks  who  had  followed  the  standard  of 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


XER 


G14 


XI M 


an  ambitious  prince,  were  now  at  the  distance 
of  above  six  hundred  leagues  from  their  native 
home,  in  a  country  surrounded  on  every  side 
by  a  victorious  enemy,  without  money,  without 
provisions,  and  without  a  leader.  Xenophon 
was  selected  from  among  the  officers,  to  super- 
intend the  re  treat  of  his  country  men,  and  though 
he  was  often  opposed  by  malevolence  and  envy, 
yet  his  persuasive  eloquence  and  his  activity, 
<•  mvinced  the  Greeks  that  no  general  could 
extricate  them  from  every  difficulty,  belter  than 
the  disciple  of  Socrates.  He  rose  superior  to 
danger,  and  though  under  continual  alarms 
from  the  sudden  attacks  of  the  Persians,  he  was 
•  •nabled  to  cross  rapid  rivers,  penetrate  through 
vust  deserts,  gain  the  tops  of  mountains,  till  he 
could  rest  secure  for  awhile,  and  refresh  his 
tired  companions.  This  celebrated  retreat  was, 
at  last,  happily  effected,  the  Greeks  returned 
home  after  a  march  of  two  hundred  and  fifteen 
days,  and  an  absence  of  fifteen  months.  Xeno- 
phon was  no  sooner  returned  from  Cunaxa, 
than  he  sought  new  honors,  in  following  the 
fortune  of  Agesilaus  in  Asia.  lie  enjoyed  his 
confidence,  he  fought  under  his  standard,  and 
conquered  with  him  in  the  Asiatic  provinces, 
as  well  as  at  the  battle  of  Coroneea.  His  fame, 
however,  did  not  escape  the  aspersions  of  jeal- 
ousy, he  was  publicly  banished  from  Athens 
for  accompanying  Cyrus  against  his  brother, 
and  being  now  without  a  home,  he  retired  to 
Scillus,  a  small  town  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Olympia.  He  died  at  Corinth  in  the  00th  year 
of  his  age,  35!)  years  before-  the  Christian  era. 
XERXES  I,  succeeded  his  father  Darius  on 
the  throne  of  Persia,  and  though  but  the  second 
son  of  the  monarch,  he  was  preferred  to  his 
elder  brother  Artabazanes.  Xerxes  continued 
the  warlike  preparations  of  his  father,  and 
added  the  revolted  kingdom  of  Egypt  to  his 
extensive  possessions.  He  afterwards  invaded 
Europe,  and  entered  Greece  with  an  army,  the 
most  numerous  which  had  ever  been  collected 
together  in  one  expedition;  but  badly  armed 
and  disciplined,  and  encumbered  with  an  useless 
utU-ndance  of  servants,  women,  and  eunuchs, 
it  was  stopped  at  Thermopylae,  by  the  valor  of 
three  hundred  Spartans,  and  their  allies,  under 
king  Leonidas.  Xerxes,  astonished  that  such 
a  handful  of  men  should  dare  to  oppose  his  pro- 
gress, ordered  some  of  his  soldiers  to  bring  them 
alive  into  his  presence  ;  but  for  three  successive 
days  the  most  valiant  of  the  Persian  troops  were 
repeatedly  defeated  in  attempting  to  execute 
the  monarch's  injunctions,  and  the  courage  of 
Uie  bpartans  might  perhaps  have  triumphed 


longer,  if  a  Trachinian  had  not  led  a  detach- 
ment to  the  top  of  the  mountain,  which  sudden- 
ly fell  upon  the  devoted  Leonidas.  The  king, 
himself,  nearly  perished  on  this  occasion,  and  it 
h:is  been  reported,  that  in  the  night,  the  des- 
perate Spartans  sought,  for  awhile,  the  royal 
tent,  which  they  found  deserted,  and  wandered 
through  the  Persian  army,  slaughtering  thou- 
sands~before  them.  The  battle  of  Thermopylae 
was  the  beginning  of  the  disgrace  of  Xerxes  ; 
the  more  he  advanced,  it  was  to  experience  new 
disappointments;  his  fleet  was  defeated  at  Ar- 
temisiumand  Salamis,  and  though  he  burnt  the 
deserted  city  of  Athens,  and  trusted  to  the  art- 
ful insinuations  of  Themistocles,  yet  he  found 
his  myriads  unable  to  conquer  a  nation  that  was 
superior  to  him  in  the  knowledge  of  war  and 
maritime  affairs.  Mortified  with  the  ill  success 
of  his  expedition,  and  apprehensive  of  imminent 
danger  in  an  enemy's  country,  Xerxes  hastened 
to  Persia,  and  in  thirty  days  he  marched  over  all 
that  territory  which  before  he  had  passed  with 
much  pomp  and  parade  in  the  space  of  six 
months.  Mardonius,  the  best  of  his  generals, 
was  left  behind  with  an  army  of  300,000  men, 
and  the  rest  that  had  survived  the  ravages  of 
war,  of  famine,  and  pestilence,  followed  their 
timid  monarch  into  Thrace,  where  his  steps 
were  marked  by  the  numerous  birds  of  prey  that 
hovered  round  him,  and  fed  upon  the  dead  car- 
casses of  the  Persians.  When  he  reached  the 
Hellespont,  Xerxes  found  the  bridge  of  boats 
which  he  had  erected  there,  totally  destroyed 
by  the  storms,  and  he  crossed  the  straits  in  a 
small  fishing  vessel.  Restored  to  his  kingdom 
and  safety,  he  forgot  his  dangers,  his  losses  and 
his  defeats,  and  gave  himself  up  to  riot  and  de- 
bauchery. His  indolence  and  luxurious  volup- 
tuousness offended  his  subjects,  and  Artabanus, 
the  captain  of  his  guards,  conspired  against  him, 
and  murdered  him  in  his  bed,  in  the  2lsi  year 
of  his  reign,  about  4CA  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era. 

XIMENES,  Francis,  a  Spanish  cardinal,  was 
born  in  1437,  at  Torrelaguna,  in  Old  Castille 
In  1507,  the  pope  (rave  him  a  cardinal's  hat,  ana 
soon  after  the  king  appointed  him  prime  minis- 
ter, which  office  he  discharged  with  the  great- 
est honor.  He  was  very  successful  in  the  con- 
version of  the  Moors,  three  thousand  of  whom 
were  baptized  in  one  day  at  Grenada.  On  the 
death  of  Ferdinand,  in  1516,  the  cardinal  was 
:i|>p'.inted  regent  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  one  of 
his  first  acts  was  to  introduce  a  reformation  in 
the  government.  He  died,  Nov.  8, 1517. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


ZEN 


615 


ZEN 


YORK  ;  .3.  city  of  England.  It  is  an  ancient 
city,  and  was  the  seat  of  several  of  the  Roman 
emperors.  The  cathedral  is  a  splendid  speci- 
men of  Gothic  architecture,  and  was  a  century 
and  a  half  in  building.  York  in  1831  contained 
28,359  inhabitants,  and  is  regarded  as  the  capi- 
tal of  the  north  of  England. 

YORKTOWN;  a  post-town,  capital  of  York 
county,  Virginia,  on  the  south  side  of  York  riv- 
er, 21)  miles  N.  W.  of  Norfolk,  memorable  for 
the  capture  of  Cornwallis,  Oct.  19,  1781. 

YPRKS,  a  city  of  Belgium.  In  1793  and 
1794,  this  town  was  exposed  to  bombardment, 
from  both  French  and  allies  ;  it  fell  eventually 
into  the  power  of  the  former,  and  remained  in 
their  hands  until  the  downfal  of  Napoleon,  in 
18J4. 

YUCATAN,  the  most  easterly  state  of  the 
Mexican  confederacy,  very  fertile  and  valuable, 
and  containing  4!!(>,000  inhabitants.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  peninsula,  jutting  out  into  the  gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  English  have  a  small  settlement 
there  for  procuring  logwood,  which  is  the  prin- 
cipal article  of  commerce. 

YVERDUN,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  popula- 
tion 4 ,000.  Here  is  the  school  of  the  celebrated 
Pestalozzi,  which  was  established  in  the  year 
18«J4. 


ZACATECAS.astate  of  Mexico,  containing 
2,353  square  leagues,  and  272.901  inhabitants 
It  is  mountainous  and  arid,  but  famous  for  its 
rich  silver  mines. 

ZAMOSK.  a  strong  fortress  in  the  south-east 
of  Poland.  In  1(!5(J  it  was  unsuccessfully  be- 
sieged by  the  Swedes;  in  1715  it  was  surprised 
by  the  Saxons;  and  in  the  civil  contests  of 
1771,  the  Poles  were  defeated  in  its  vicinity,  bv 
the  Prussians.  In  1812  it  was  one  of  the  tew 
towns  in  which  the  French  left  a  garrison,  after 
their  retreat  from  Russia. 

ZAMOSKI,  John,  great  chancellorof  Poland, 
and  general  of  the  army  of  that  kingdom.  He 
was  sent  ambassador  into  France  for  the  duke 
of  Anjou,  whom  the  Polanders  had  chosen  king. 
This  prince  beincr  recalled  to  take  possession  of 


that  he  gave  his  niece  to  him  in  marriage,  made 
him  chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  and  first  gave 
him  the  command  of  eight  thousand  men  in  the 
52* 


war  of  Muscovy,  and  afterwards  of  all  the  army 
of  Poland.  Zamoski  acquitted  himself  in  all 
these  employments  with  much  courage  and 
great  success. 

ZANGUEBAR,  a  large  territory  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  Africa.  Its  name  means  "  the  coast 
of  the  negroes,"  all  the  inhabitants  being  blacks. 

ZANTE,  (anciently  Zacynthus;)  one  of  the 
seven  Ionian  islands  in  the'Mediterranean  Sea; 
population  40.000.  Zante,  the  capital,  has  a 
population  of  20.000.  Its  harbor  is  spacious,  and 
its  environs  are  pleasant  and  picturesque.  In 
1820,  several  hundred  houses  were  overthrown 
by  an  earthquake.  The  island  was  in  posses- 
sion of  the  Venetians  from  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In 
1797,  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  and  in  1799, 
by  the  Russians.  In  1815,  it  became  one  of 
the  members  of  the  Ionian  Republic. 

ZEALAND,  a  province  of  the  Netherlands. 
Population  in  182;),  12:U84.  ZEALAND,  the 
largest  of  the  Danish  islands,  between  the  Cat- 
tegat  and  the  Baltic.  It  contains  the  fortress  of 
Elsinore,  and  its  capital  is  Copenhagen. 

ZEALAND,  NEW;  two  islands  in  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  separated  by  Cook's  Straits. 
They  have  recently  become  the  theatre  of  an 
active  commerce  with  the  British  colonies. 

ZENOBIA,  Septimia,  a  celebrated  princess 
of  Palmyra,  who  married  Odenatus.  whom  Gal- 
lienus  acknowledged  as  his  partner  on  the  Ro- 
man throne.  After  the  death  of  her  husband, 
which,  According  to  some  authors,  she  is  said 
to  have  hastened,  Zenobia  reigned  in  the  east 
as  regent  of  her  infant  children,  who  were  hon- 
ored with  the  title  of  Caesars.  She  assumed  the 
name  of  Augusta,  and  she  appeared  in  imperial 
robes,  and  ordered  herself  to  be  styled  the  queen 
of  the  east.  The  troubles  which  at  that  time 
agitated  the  western  parts  of  the  empire,  pre- 
vented the  emperor  from  checking  the  inso- 
lence and  ambition  of  this  princess,  who  boasted 
to  be  sprung  from  the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt.  Au- 
relian  was  no  sooner  invested  with  the  imperial 
purple,  than  he  marched  into  the  east,  deter- 
mined to  punish  the  pride  of  Zenobia.  He  well 
knew  her  valor,  and  he  was  not  ignorant  that 
in  her  wars  against  the  Persians,  she  had  dis- 
tinguished herself  no  less  than  Odenatus.  She 
was  the  mistress  of  the  east ;  Egypt  acknow- 
ledged her  power,  and  all  the  provinces  of  Asia 
Minor  were  subject  to  her  command.  When 
Aurelian  approached  the  plains  of  Syria,  the 
Palmyrean  queen  appeared  at  the  head  of  seven 
hundred  thousand  men.  She  bore  the  labors  of 
the  field  like  the  meanest  of  her  soldiers,  and 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


ZOP 


G16 


ZUT 


walked  on  foot  fearless  of  danger.  Two  battles 
were  foucrht,  the  courage  of  the  queen  gained 
the  superiority,  but  an  imprudent  evolution  of 
the  Palmyrean  cavalry  ruined  her  cause ;  and 
while  they  pursued  with  spirit  the  flying  ene- 
my, the  Roman  infantry  suddenly  fell  upon  the 
main  body  of  Zenobia's  army,  and  the  defeat 
was  inevitable.  The  queen 'tied  to  Palmyra, 
determined  to  support  a  siege.  Aurelian  fol- 
lowed her,  and  after  he  had  almost  exhausted 
his  stores,  he  proposed  terms  of  accommoda- 
tion, which  were  rejected  with  disdain  by  the 
warlike  princess.  Her  hopes  of  victory,  how- 
ever, soon  vanished,  and  though  she  harassed 
the  Romans  night  and  day  by  continual  sallies 
from  her  walls,  and  the  working  of  her  military 
engines,  she  despaired  of  success  when  she 
heard  that  the  armies  which  were  marching  to 
her  relief  from  Armenia,  Persia,  and  the  east, 
had  partly  been  defeated  and  partly  bribed  from 
her  allegiance.  She  fled  from  Palmyra  in  the 
night ;  but  Aurelian,  who  was  apprized  of  her 
escape,  pursued  her,  and  she  was  caught  as  she 
was  crossing  the  river  Euphrates.  She  was 
brought  into  the  presence  of  Aurelian,  and 
though  the  soldiers  were  clamorous  for  her 
death,  she  was  reserved  to  adorn  the  triumph  of 
the  conqueror.  She  was  treated  with  great  hu- 
manity, and  Aurelian  gave  her  large  possessions 
near  Tibur,  where  she  was  permitted  to  live  the 
rest  of  her  days  in  peace,  with  all  the  grandeur 
and  majesty  which  became  a  queen  of  the  east, 
and  a  warlike  princess.  Her  children  were  pa- 
tronized by  the  emperor,  and  married  to  per- 
sons of  the  first  distinction  at  Rome.  Zenobia 
has  been  admired  not  only  for  her  military  abil- 
ities, but  also  for  her  literary  talents.  She  has 
been  praised  for  her  great  chastity  and  con- 
stancy, though  she  betrayed  too  often  her  pro- 
pensities to  cruelty  and  intoxication  when  in  the 
midst  of  her  officers.  She  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Aurelian  about  the  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
third  year  of  the  Christian  era. 

Z1ETEN,  John  Joachim  Van,  a  Prussian 
general,  was  born  in  10HO.  He  distinguished 
Himself  greatly  in  the  seven  years'  war,  particu- 
larly at  the  battle  of  Prague,  and  the  storming 
of  the  heights  of  Torgau.  He  died  in  17-.\ 

Z1MISCC8,  John,  a  noble  Armenian,  who 
contributed  to  the  elevation  of  Nicephorus,  but 
who,  instead  of  being  rewarded  for  his  services, 
waa  sent  into  disgraceful  exile.  He  afterwards 
conspired  with  the  empress,  who  in  person 
opened  the  chamber-door  of  Nicephorus  to  the 
conspirators,  who  massacred  him  without  op- 
position. Zimisces  was  then  proclaimed  empe- 


ror of  the  East,  and  afterwards  signalized  him- 
self in  many  engagements,  but  was  at  length 
taken  off  by  poison,  in  the  ninth  year  of'liis 
reign. 

ZIMMERMANN,  John  George,  chevalier 
von,  an  eminent  physician  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Brug,  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  in 
1726.  Having  made  choice  of  the  medical  profes- 
sion, he  was  appointed  public  physician  to  his 
native  town,  employing  his  leisure  hours  in  writ- 
ing many  pieces  in  prose  and  verse,  the  most 
popular  of  which  is  his  work  on  Solitude. 

ZISCA,  John,  a  courageous-German  general, 
who  headed  the  Hussites,  and  obtained  an  im- 
portant victory,  but  being  slain,  his  skin  was 
made  into  a  drum,  to  animate  the  Hussites  with 
the  remembrance  of  his  valor. 

ZOPYRUS.  a  Persian,  son  of  Megabyzus, 
who,  to  show  his  attachment  to  Darius,  the  son 
of  Hystaspes,  while  he  besieged  Babylon,  cut 
off  his  ears  and  nose,  and  fled  to  the  enemy, 
telling  them  that  he  had  received  such  a  treat- 
ment from  his  royal  master  because  he  had  ad- 
vised him  to  raise  the  siege,  as  the  city  was  im- 
pregnable. This  was  credited  by  the  Babylo- 
nians, and  Zopyrus  was  appointed  commander 
of  all  their  forces.  When  he  had  totally  gp.ined 
their  confidence,  he  betrayed  the  city  into  tho 
hands  of  Darius,  for  which  he  was  liberally  re- 
warded.  The  regard  of  Darius  for  Zopyrus 
could  never  be  more  strongly  expressed  than  in 
what  he  used  often  to  say,  "  that  lie  had  rather 
have  Zopyrus  not  mutilated  than  twenty  Ba- 
bylons." 

ZOROASTER,  a  king  of  Bactria.  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  age  of  iVinus,  king  of  As- 
syria, some  time  before  the  Trojan  war.  He 
was  respected  by  liis  subjects  ana  contempora- 
ries !br  his  abilities  as  a  monarch,  a  lawgiver, 
and  a  philosopher,  and  though  many  of  his  doc- 
trines are  puerile  ;ind  ridiculous,  yet  his  follow- 
ers are  still  found  in  numbers  in  the  wilds  of 
Persia,  and  the  extensive  provinces  of  India. 

ZURICH,  a  canton  of  Swit/.erland.  ZU- 
RICH a  city  of  Switzerland.  Population  14,000. 
In  recent  times,  Zurich  has  been  the  theatre  of 
many  interesting  political  events,  and  the  scene 
of  many  conflicts.  Massena  defeated  here  the 
ulli(M  forces  of  Russia  and  Austria. 

ZUTPIIEN,  an  inland  town  of  the  Nether- 
liuuls,  province  of  Gelderland.  In  the  wars  of 
Philip  II.  Zutphen  was  besieged  in  1572,  by  the 
Spaniards,  who  refusing  the  citizens  a  capitu- 
hil.ion,  entered  the  town  by  storm,  and  commit- 
ted frightful  ravages.  It  was  retaken  in  1. ">!)!, 
and  in  this  siege  sir  Philip  Sidney  was  killed. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL, 


CHRONOLOGICAL    VIEW. 

INCLUDING  AMBASSADORS,  ALLIANCES,  ARCHITECTURE,  BATTLES  AND  SIEGES,  COM. 
MERGE,  CONSPIRACIES,  DISCOVERIES,  EARTHdUAKES  AND  VOLCANIC  ERUPTIONS, 
EMINENT  PERSONS,  ENCROACHMENTS  OF  THE  SEA,  FAMINES,  FIRES,  FROSTS,  LAWS, 
COURTS  OF  JUSTICE,  LIVING  CHARACTERS  OF  EMINENCE,  LONGEVITY,  MASSACRES, 
MILITARY  AND  RELIGIOUS  ORDERS,  MUSIC,  REBELLIONS,  RIOTS,  SEA  FIGHTS,  SCULP- 
TURE, STORMS,  TAXATION,  TREATIES,  &x.  &c. 


AGR 

ABDICATIONS  :  of  Sylla  as  perpetual  dic- 
tator of  Rome,  ante  C :  79 ;  of  the  emperor 
Dioclesian,  A.  D.  304 ;  of  Cbevaline  king  of 
the  West  Saxons,  593;  Amurath  II  emperor 
of  the  Turks,  1447 ;  of  Charles  V  as  emperor 
of  Germany,  and  as  Charles  I  of  Spain,  1556  ; 
Christiana,  queen  of  Sweden,  1654  ;  Cassimer 
V,  king  of  Poland,  1U68  ;  James  II  of  England, 
but  really  dethroned,  1688  ;  Philip  V  of  Spain, 
1724,  January  15th,  but  resumed  the  sceptre  in 
about  fourteen  months  allerwards,  on  the  death 
of  his  son  Louis,  in  whose  favor  he  had  abdi- 
cated ;  Victor  Amadeus  king  of  Sardinia,  1730  ; 
Francis  II  resigns  his  title  as  ernperor  of  Ger- 
many, August  6th,  1800;  Charles  IV  of  Spain, 
March  19th,  1808;  Gustavus  Adolphus  IV, 
king  of  Sweden,  March  19th,  1809  ;  Napoleon 
deposed,  1814,  and  atrain  in  1815. 

AFFIRMATION  of  the  Quakers  first  ac- 
cepted as  an  oath,  1702 — alteration  made  ?:i 
it,  December  13th,  1721.  Made  legally  equal 
to  an  oath  in  most,  if  not  all  the  states  of  the 
United  Slates. 

AGRICULTURAL  Societies  formed  in 
Great  Britain,  1787.  Many  societies  now  exist 
in  the  United  States. 

AGRICULTURE.  The  first  mention  of 
agriculture  is  found  in  the  writings  of  Moses. 
From  them  we  learn  that  Cain  was  a  "  tiller  of 
the  ground,"  and  that,  Noah  "  began  to  be  a 
husbandman  and  planted  a  vineyard." 

The  Chinese,  Japanese,  Chaldeans,  Egyp- 
tians, and  Phoenicians,  appear  to  have  held 
husbandry  in  high  estimation,  in  the  earliest 
ages.  The  Carthaginians  were  sensible  of  its 
bfessings,  and  ferried  the  art  to  a  high  degree 
of  perfection.  The  implements  of  Grecian  ar- 
chitecture were  very  few  and  simple ;  the  Ro- 
mans used  a  great  'many  implements,  but  par- 
ticularly venerated  the  plough. 


AGR 

The  agriculture  of  Great  Britain  was  much 
improved  after  its  conquest  by  the  Normans, 
who  were  celebrated  for  their  skill  in  agricul- 
ture. The  implements  then  used  were  very 
similar  to  those  of  modern  times.  Many  works 
on  agriculture  have  been  written  in  England 
at  different  periods,  which  have  been  of  great 
importance  both  to  the  British  nation  and  all 
the  world.  The  establishment  of  a  national 
board  of  agriculture,  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  has 
been  of  eminent  service  to  British  husbandry. 

French  agriculture  began  to  flourish  early  in 
the  17th  century,  under  Henry  IV.  Many 
agricultural  societies  were  established,  and 
Bonaparte  instituted  professorships  and  gardens 
for  the  exhibition  of  the  different  modes  of  cul- 
ture and  the  dissemination  of  plants.  He  also 
enlarged  and  enriched  the  National  Garden. 
The  implements  of  agriculture  in  France  are 
generally  rude  and  unwieldy,  and  the  opera- 
tions of  husbandry  unskilfully  performed. 

No  books  on  agriculture  were  written  in 
Germany  till  the  17th  century.  The  agricul- 
ture is  there  every  where  improving.  Gov- 
ernment, as  well  as  individuals,  have  formed 
institutions  for  the  instruction  of  young  people 
in  the  arts  of  husbandry.  The  culture  of  forests 
receives  particular  attention  in  Germany.  Some 
of  the  implements  of  Great  Britain  have  been 
introduced ;  but  generally  speaking  the  agricul- 
tural tools  are  unwieldy  and  inefficient. 

In  1788,  Arthur  Young  wrote  a  treatise  upon 
rural  economy  in  Italy.  There  is  a  great  vari- 
ety in  the  culture  of  land,  as  the  climate,  soil, 
and  surface  of  Italy  are  so  various.  Only  one  fifth 
of  the  surface  is  considered  sterile.  The  im- 
plements and  operations  of  agriculture  in  Loin- 
bardy  are  both'  imperfect.  The  irrigation  of 
lands  is  a  remarkable  feature  in  Italian  hus- 
bandry. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


ALL 


618 


ALM 


The  agriculture  of  the  United  States  em- 
braces all  the  products  of  European  cultivation, 
together  with  some,  such  as  sugar  and  indigo, 
which  are  rarely  ever  cultivated  in  any  part  of 
Europe.  The  agricultural  implements  and 
farming  operations  of  the  United  States  are 
very  similar  to  those  of  Great  Britain. 

AIRGUNS,  invented  1646. 

AIRPUMPS,  invented  by  Otto  Gnirick,  in 
1G54. 

A  J  AX,  British  ship  of  the  line,  burnt  near  the 
Island  of  Tenedos,  and  more  than  350  men  per- 
ished. Feb.  14th,  1807. 

ALIEN  LAW  of  the  United  States,  passed 
June  25th,  1798  ;  repealed,  1800. 

ALIENS,  British,  ordered  by  the  United 
States'  Government,  to  report  themselves  to  the 
marshals  of  the  district  where  they  respectively 
reside,  July  10th,  1812. 

ALLIANCES,  the  most  remarkable  were — 
between  the  confederate  Greeks,  against  Troy, 
B.  C.  1 194—34.  Between  the  Romans  and  the 
Carthaginians  B.  C.  508.  Between  the  Athe- 
nians, Thebans,  Corinthians  and  Argives, 
against  the  Lacedemonians.  B.  C.  395.  It  is. 
not  a  little  remarkable,  that  in  the  long  course 
of  Roman  conquest,  not  one  well  arranged  and 
conducted  alliance  was  formed  and  contributed 
to  restrain  her  power.  In  modern  ages,  alliances 
in  the  true  sense  of  the  term,  are  recent.  The 
Crusades  were  really  a  species  of  alliance,  but 
with  very  little  of  the  system  of  modern  allian- 
ces. The  League  of  Cambray.  formed  Dec.  10th, 
1508,  between  Louis  XII,  king  of  France,  the 
emperor  of  Germany,  Maximilian  I,  and  the 
Pope,  Julius  II,  against  the  Venetians,  was  the 
first  of  those  coalitions  so  disastrous  or  benefi- 
cial, as  the  case  may  be,  which  have  so  deeply 
influenced  modern  European  policy.  Those 
of  most  importance  after  the  league  of  Cham- 
bray,  have  been,  a  league  between  Henry 
VIII  of  England,  and  the  emperor  Charles 
V  acrninst  Francis  I,  king  of  France.  In  1:"2:>, 
by  the  Pope,  the  emperor  and  the  Venetians, 
against  the  king  of  France.  Of  the  present 
states  of  Germany,  at  Smajcalde,  December 
22d,  1530.  to  maintain  the  reformed  Minion; 
between  Francis  I,  king  of  France,  and  Sultan 
Solyrnan,  against  the  emperor  Charles  V.  |.~.3i;. 
The  latter  confederation  renewed,  1 
tween  the  emperor  Charles  V,  and  Pope  Paul 
III,  against  the  Protestants,  I.'.M;  beiw.-n 
Spain, Venice,  and  Pope  Pius  V,  against  Tur- 
key, 1570;  between  England,  and  the  States 
General  of  Holland,  1578,  against  the  Span- 
iards; union  of  Utrecht,  1579,  which  begins 


the  republic  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces; 
the  Evangelical  League,  formed  1626.  between 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  and  Den- 
mark, to  which  Sweden  allerwards  acceded, 
against  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I. — this  was  a 
very  important  compact,  which,  in  1648,  pro- 
duced the  treaty  of  Westphalia ;  triple  alliance 
between  Britain,  Sweden,  and  the  States  Gen- 
eral, aofuinst  France  16U8  ;  of  the  empire  and 
Holland,  against  France,  July  15, 167:2;  league 
of  Augsburg  against  France.  July  11,  1686; 
the  grand  alliance  between  the  ernperor  Leo- 
pold I,  the  States  General  of  Holland,  and 
William  III.  king  of  England,  against  France, 
May  12th.  1680;  first  treaty  of  partition,  be- 
tween France.  England  and  Holland.  August 
19, 1698,  second  treaty  of  partition,  1700,  March 
3d,  at  Landen,  and  25th  at  the  Hague  ;  alii-, 
ance  of  Germany,  England  and  Holland,  on  one 
side,  and  France,  Spain  and  Portugal,  on  the 
other,  1701  ;  barrier  treaty  of  Antwerp,  Nov. 
15th,  1715,  between  Germany  and  Holland; 
quadruple  alliance  between  Great  Britain, 
France,  Germany  and  Holland,  August  2d, 
1718  ;  defensive  alliance  between  Great  Britain 
and  Prussia,  1742;  quadruple  alliance  of  War- 
saw, January  8,  1745,  between  Great  Britain. 
Austria,  Holland,  Poland;  defensive  alliance 
of  Stockholm,  May  29th,  1747,  between  Prus- 
sia, Poland  and  Sweden  ;  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Prussia,  February  16.  1756;  renewed 
April  11,  1758 — without  any  regular  compact, 
France,  Austria,  Russia  and  Sweden,  were  at 
the  epoch  of  the  lost  mentioned  alliance  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  Prussia,  actually  in 
the  field  against  Prussia.  To  the  United  States, 
if  not  the  world,  the  most  important  of  all  alli- 
ances or  confederations  was  thatef  the  British 
North  American  colonies.  This  great  union, 
not  for  war.  but  defence,  after  many  incipient 
steps,  was  formed  in  1775 ;  announced  to  the 
world  as  free  and  independent.  July  4th,  1776; 
received  the  general  name  of  UNITED  STATKS. 
by  a  resolution  of  Congress,  Sept.  J7?(i,  and 
consummated  by  the  adoption  of  a  Federal  con- 
stitution of  government,  March  3d,  1789.  First 
coalition  against  France,  by  Great  Britain.  Prus- 
sia, Austria,  Sardinia,  &c.  1793;  second  coali- 
tion. April  V-th,  1799;  third,  1805.  Holy  Alli- 
ance between  Francis  I,  emperor  of  Austria, 
Alexander  emperor  of  Russia,  and  the  king  of 
I'rn--ia.  and  to  which  Denmarl,  Sweden  and 
the  Netherlands,  afterwards  acceded,  formed 
1815. 

ALMANACS,  first  published  by  Martin  I1-. 
kus  at  Buda  1470. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AMB 


619 


ARC 


ALPHABETIC  WRITING  introduced  into 
Europe  by  Cadmus,  A.  C.  1493. 

ALUM,  first  discovered  at  Rocha,  in  Syria, 
A.  D.  1300;  in  Tuscany  1400;  first  made  to 
perfection  in  England,  1608,  discovered  in 
Ireland,  October  22d,  1757;  in  Anglesea,  1790. 
ALTAR,  a  place  on  which  sacrifices  were 
offered  in  ancient  times,  but  in  Christian 
churches  the  place  where  the  communion  is 
administered — first  used  in  the  latter  A.  D.  135 ; 
consecrated  271 ;  first  in  Britain,  634.  A  Ro- 
man altar  dug  up  near  Carlisle,  England,  April, 
1803. 

AMBASSADORS  and  ministers  plenipo- 
tentiary, have  been  from  time  immemorial, 
considered  in  some  measure,  privileged  char- 
acters. Those  of  king  David,  about  1030,  B. 
C.  being  insulted  by  the  king  of  the  Ammonites, 
led  to  a  war  destructive  to  the  aggressors. 
The  Roman  ambassadors  at  Clusium  B!  C.  390, 
mixing  with  the  inhabitants  in  battle  with  the 
Gauls,  Brennus,  king  of  the  latter,  considered 
their  conduct  an  act  of  hostility  on  the  part  of 
their  country,  raised  the  siege  of  Clusium, 
marched  towards  Rome,  defeated  the  Romans  at 
Allia,  and  toak,  plundered  and  burned  Rome. 
In  modern  times  the  privileges  of  ambassadors 
have  been  more  distinctly  defined.  In  Eng- 
land during  the  protectorship  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well, Don  Pantaleon  Sa,  brother  to  the  Portu- 
guese ambassador  in  London,  committed  a 
murder  in  open  day,  and  sought  refuge  in  his 
brother's  house ;  but  the  Protector  refused  to 
sanction  such  an  asylum  in  a  case  of  murder, 
and  Sa  was  seized,  confined,  tried  and  hanged, 
1653.  About  twenty  years  afterwards,  the 
prince  of  Furstenburg  was  arrested  at  the  diet 
of  Ratisbon,  f  >r  murder,  by  order  of  the  emperor 
of  Germany,  and  the  case  of  Sa,  given  as  a 
justification.  In  1709.  in  England,  the  Russian 
ambassador  was  arrested  for  debt  by  a  lace 
merchant,  which  led  to  an  act  of  parliament 
exempting  ambassadors,  or  their  immediate  suit, 
from  arrest  in  civil  cases.  The  following  table 
shows  the  respective  salaries  paid  to  the  British, 
and  United  States'  ambassadors,  at  the  principal 
states  of  Europe,  amount  reduced  to  dollars, 
and  even  numbers  : 

Ens-Hsh  Ambassadors.  U.  States  Ambassadors. 

France  .  .  $48,000  .  .  '.  $9,000 
Spain  .  .  .  52,000  ....  9,000 
Holland  .  .  52,000  ....  4,500 
Russia  .  .  .  52.000  ....  0,000 
British  in  U.  S.  26,000  U.S.  in  Eng.  9,000 
The  first  ambassador  from  Russia  to  England, 
arrived  in  London  155(5.  First  from  India  to 


any  part  of  Europe,  was  from  Tippo  Saib  to 
France,  1 778.  First  from  the  United  States  was 
Silas  Deane  to  France,  1770.  First  from  the 
Ottoman  emperor  to  GreatBritain,  1793.  First 
from  the  new  Spanish  states  of  America,  were 
received  by  the  United  States,  and  recipro- 
cated by  ministers  sent  to  Buenos  Ayres,  Mex- 

1  AMPHITHEATRE  at  Rome,  built  A.  D. 
G9.  Fourteen  modern  chapels  erected  within  its 
walls — that  of  Verona  next  in  size  ;  and  that 
of  Nismes  next— at  Fidonia  fell,  and  killed 
50,000  people.  Its  ruins  still  exist  at  Castel 
Gimbelio. 

AMPHYCT IONIC  COUNCIL,  or  General 
Assembly  of  Greece,  established  B.  C.  1497. 
This  is  the  first  instance  on  record,  of  a  free 
representation  of  independent  states,  meeting 
to  deliberate  and  settle  their  concerns  by  the 
force  of  reason,  in  place  of  arms. 

ANATHEMA,  first  used  by  the  Christians 
as  a  punishment,  A.  D.  387. 

ANATOMY  as  a  science,  restored  about 
1550;  anatomy  of  plants  observed  1680. 

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM,  an  imposture 
that  made  its  appearance  in  France,  1768,  but 
soon  disappeared  there,  and  broke  out  in  Eng- 
land, 1789.  It  has  since  been  revived  and  has 
some  believers  in  Europe. 

ANNUITIES  or  Pensions  first  granted  in 
England,  1512,  when  20Z.  was  given  to  a  lady 
of  the  court  for  services  done  ;  and  in  1536,  6t. 
13s.  4d.  thought  sufficient  to  maintain  a  gentle- 
woman :  again  in  1554,  13/.  (is.  Sd.  deemed  a 
competent  sum  to  support  a  student  at  law. 
Annuities  for  life  were  regulated  by  law,  1777. 

APOTHECARIES,  first  mentioned  in  pro- 
fane history,  ate.  C.  1345;  by  Solomon  in  Ec- 
clesiastes,  ate.  C.  977.  Exempted  from  civil 
offices  in  England,  17U2  ;  act  for  better  regulat- 
ing the  practice  of,  passed  1815. 

APRICOTS  first  planted  in  England  1540. 
This  fruit  originally  came  from  Epirus. 

ARCHITECTURE.  The  first  habitations 
of  man  were  such  as  nature  afforded,  just  suf- 
ficient to  satisfy  his  simple  wants,  huts,  grottos 
and  tents.  As  civilization  advanced,  men  began 
to  build  more  durable  and  commodious  habita- 
tions. They  fitted  the  stones  or  bricks  together 
more  neatly,  but  at  first  without  any  cement. 
After  they  had  learned  how  to  build  houses, 
they  began  to  erect  temples  for  their  gods, 
which  were  much  larger,  and  better  made  than 
their  own  habitations. 

Architecture  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the 
earliest  inventions,  and  its  works  have  been 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


ARC 


620 


ARU 


regulated  by  hereditary  imitation.  Whatever 
rude  structure  the  climate  or  materials  of  any 
country  had  forced  the  earlier  inhabitants  to 
construct,  the  same  form  has  been  kept  up  in 
after  years  by  their  more  refined  posterity. 

Thus  the  Egyptian  style  of  building  derived 
its  origin  from  the  cavern  and  wound  ;  the 
Chinese  from  the  tent ;  the  Grecian  from  the 
wooden  cabin,  and  the  Gothic  from  the  bower 
of  trees.  Architecture  at  length  became  a 
fine  art,  and  much  pains  was  bestowed  upon 
temples  and  palaces.  Colonnades,  halls  and 
courts  soon  appeared,  the  rough  trunk  was 
transformed  into  the  lofty  column,  and  the  nat- 
tural  vault  of  a  cavern  into  the  splendid  Pan- 
theon. 

The  first  nations  who  paid  attention  to  archi- 
tecture were  the  Babylonians,  who  built  the 
temple  of  Belus  and  the  hanging  gardens  ;  the 
Assyrians,  who  filled  Nineveh  with  splendid 
buildings;  the  Phrenicians,  whose  cities  were 
adorned  with  magnificent  structures,  and  the 
Israelites,  whose  temple  was  considered  won- 
derful. Of  the  Persian  and  Egyptian  architec- 
ture, we  have  some  remains,  and  they  are  all 
in  a  style  of  prodigal  splendor  and  gigantic 
height. 

The  Greeks  first  introduced  a"  more  simple 
and  dignified  style  of  building,  called  the  Doric 
order.  The  Ionic  and  Corinthian  columns 
were  soon  added  to  the  Doric.  After  the  Pelo- 
ppnnesian  war,  this  noble  simplicity  had  again 
given  place  to  excess  of  ornament,  arid  after 
the  death  of  Alexander,  32:5,  B.  C.,  the  art  de- 
clined, and  was  afterwards  but  little  cultivated 
in  Greece. 

The  Romans  had  paid  some  attention  to 
architecture,  hut  did  not  equal  the  Greeks,  till 
the  time  of  Augustus,  who  encouraged  Greek 
artists  to  erect  splendid  buildings  In  Rome. 
But  when  the  seat  of  government,  was  removed 
to  Constantinople,  the  art  declined  in  Rome. 
About  this  time,  the  Roman  or  Composite  col- 
umn originated, -which  was  employed  in  tem- 
ples and  splendid  buildings. 

Thiv-e  beautiful  works  of  art  were  almost 
entirely  destroyed  by  the  Goths  and  Vandals  ; 
but  Theodoric,  a  friend  of  the  arts,  endeavored 
to  restore  them  and  even  erected  'several  new 
ones.  This  is  tin-  era  of  the  origin  of  modern 
art,  and  the  style  of  building  it  introduced  is 
called  Gothic  architecture. 

Architecture  has  experienced  different  desti- 
nies in  different  countries.  It  has  risen  and 
declined  at  different  periods.  In  America,  the 
Grecian  architecture  is  prevailing,  as  it  is  better 


adapted  than  the  Gothic  to  small  buildings,  and 
does  not  require  splendid  edifices  to  display  its 

^ARITHMETIC,  by  the  Arabian  figures, 
introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Saracens  of 
Spain,  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era. 

ARMISTICE,  or  suspension  of  amis,  be- 
tween two  or  more  belligerent  states,  but  with 
an  agreement,  that  all  things  shall  remain  in 
stalu  qw.o,  to  the  termination  of  the  agreement. 
The  first  armistice  or  provisional  articles  of 
peace  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  was  signed  November  30th,  1782; 
between  Naples  and  the  French  general  t  :ham- 
pionet,  January  7th,  171)9;  atSteyer  in  Austria, 
between  the  Austrian  government  and  general 
Moreau.  December  25th,  1600 ;  of  Treviso, 
January  IGtb,  16(11 ;  at  Tilsit,  June  21i|  1607, 
between  France.  Russia,  and  Prussia. 

ARMS,  or  armorial  ensigns,  were  of  great 
antiquity,  and  in  some  form  very  general,  but 
as  now  understood,  coats  of  arms  originated 
with  the  northern  nations  who  overturned  the 
Roman  empire. 

ARMY,  standing, a  body  of  men  exclusively 
set  apart  and  employed  in  the  profession  of 
arms,  as  distinguished  from  militia.  (Sci:  militia). 
Philip  II,  king  of  Macedonia,  formed  the  first 
regular  standing  army  on  record,  and  the  effects 
were  to  change  the  political  aspect  of  the  world. 
The  second  standing  army  was  that  of  Car- 
thage, from  B.  C.  about  260— '202,  under  Ham- 
ilcar,  Asdrubal  and  Hannibal.  The  Cartha- 
ginian army  forced  the  more  steady  Romans  to 
resist  them  by  another  standing  army;  the  battle 
of  Zama,  B.  C.  202,  Oct.  19th,  annihilated  the 
former,  and  left  the  latter  master  of  the  world. 
There  is  nothing  in  history  so  remarkable,  as 
that  from  the  battle  of  Zama.  except  in  the 
instance  of  Partliia,  no  regular  force  which 
deserved  the  name,  was  raised  to  resist  the 
Roman  arms.  Those  terrific  legions,  however, 
yielded  to  time,  and  were  not  followed  by 
another  attempt  to  form  a  system  of  organized 
armies,  until  under  Charles  VII.  king  of 
France.  1445.  Since  that  epoch,  the  v.  hole 
features  of  war  have  changed  ;  most  nations 
have  now  a  regular  standing  military  force. 
The  proportion  between  the  troops  in  service 
and  men  able  to  bear  arms  in  modern  times, 
has  been  assumed  as  one  to  a  hundred. 

ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES.  These  cele- 
brated chronolnineal  tables  \\ere  brought  from 
Greece  to  England,  in  1027,  by  Thomas,  earl 
ol'Arundel.  They  were  composed  of  a  large 


HISTORICAL     AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AST 


621 


AST 


number  of  marble  slabs  or  blocks,  which  were, 
however,  mutilated,  and  in  part  lost  during  the 
civil  wars  in  England,  in  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century.  Fortunately  they  have  been  at 
different  times,  and  partly  whilst  the  collection 
was  complete,  edited  bv  Seldon,  Iredeaux,  Mat- 
taire,  Chandler,  &c.  and  though  by  some,  their 
genuineness  has  been  doubted,  they  are  now 
by  the  best  critics,  considered  real  and  invalu- 
able remains  of  the  literature  of  ancient  Greece. 
They  contain  a  connected  chronology  in  Greek 
capital  letters,  from  the  reign  of  Cecrops.  king 
of  Athens,  B.  C.  1582,  to  the  archonship  of 
Astyanax  in  Poros,  and  of  Diognetus  at  Ath- 
ens, B.  C.264.  What  remains  entire  are  in  the 
possession  of  the  university  of  Oxford. 

ASPARAGUS  first  introduced  into  Eng- 
land, 1608. 

AS'PRONOMY.  the  science  of  the  Heavens, 
the  history  of  which  dates  backward  into  the 
morning  of  time.  Observations  on  the  appa- 
rent and  real  revolutions  of  the  stars  must  have 
been  made,  and  a  really  great  advance  in  the 
science,  long  before  any  form  of  record  pre- 
served the  fruits  of  discovery.  Some  of  the 
principal  constellations,  as  they  are  now  named, 
are  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Job.  The  Chal- 
deans observed  and  recorded  eclipses,  both 
lunar  and  solar,  B.  C.  719—20,  and  then  knew 
the  Luni — Solar  period  of  223  lunations,  or 
6585  days  8  hours  nearly.  It  is  probable, 
as  far  backwards  in  time  as  eight  or  nine  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  era,  that  the  real 
length  of  the  tropical  or  solar  year,  was  known 
in  China,  Indostan.  Chaldea,  and  Egypt;  and 
in  China  and  Indostan,  their  authenticated 
records  reach  to  B.  C.  3102.  The  following 
brief  tabular  history  of  this  noble  science,  was 
compiled  from  Rees'  Cyclopedia,  art.  Astron- 
omv,  and  will  save  much  reference. 

B.  C.  721,  March  19th,  8  h.  4()min.  p.  m.  1st 
lunar  eclipse  on  record  ;  720,  March  5,  11  h. 

I  m.  p.  m.  2ddo.;  September  1,7  h.  40  m.  p.  in. 
3d  do. ;  648  the  Thoth  of  the  era  of  Nabonassar, 
was  on  February  1st,  having  shifted  25  days  in 
one  hundred  years;  621,  April  22d,  3  hours 
after  midnight";  the  fourtli  eclipse  of  the  moon 
on  record ;  5S5,  May  28th,  an  eclipse  of  the 
moon  predicted  by  Thales,  and   brought  the 
Lydian  war  to  an  end  ;  502,  November  19th, 

II  h.  36  min.  p.  in.  the  sixth  lunar  eclipse  on 
record,  observed  at  Babylon;  491,  April  25th, 
seventh  lunar  eclipse  on  record   observed   at 
Babylon  ;  359,  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  found, 
23°  W  10" ;  310,  August  15th,  solar  eclipse,  11 
digits  10',  observed  between  Sicily  and  Africa, 


by  the  fleet  of  Agathocles.  Comet  seen  in 
China  same  year ;  294,  March  9th,  conjunction 
of  the  moon  with  Spica  Virginis,  b°  W.  from 
the  equinoctial  point,  observed  by  Timocharis ; 
285,  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  began  his  sera 
June  2Gth,  being  the  first  who  determined  the 
real  length  of  the  solar  year  to  be  3C5  days,  5 
hours  and  49  minutes;  282,  Timocharis  ob- 
served another  conjunction  of  the  moon  with 
Spica  Virginis,  November  Oth,  3£  hours  after 
midnight;  2(52,  transit  of  Mercury  over  the 
Bull's  Horn  observed  :  Mercury  23°  in  Taurus, 
and  the  Sun  29° 30'  in  Aries;  241,  September 
3d,  Jupiter  observed  in  7°  33'  Virgo;  230,  Era- 
tosthenes, observed  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic 
to  be  23°  51'  20" ;  162,  Hipparchus  began  his 
astronomical  observations  at  Rhodes,  and  con- 
tinued them  to  128,  or  34  years;  146,  this 
astronomer  observed  the  vernal  equinox.  March 
24th,  at  mid-day.  A  remarkable  comet  appeared 
in  Greece  ;  143,  Hipparchus  observed  the  au- 
tumnal equinox,  September  26th,  about  sunset. 


3epteir 
;  141,, 


began  his  new  lunar  cycle  ;  141 ,  January  17th, 
2  hours  before  midnight  an  eclipse  of  the  moon 
at  Alexandria;  128,  Hipparchus  observed  the 
vernal  equinox  to  be  on  Thursday,  March  23d, 
about  sunset ;  and  the  star  Cor  Leonis,  29°  50' 
from  the  summer  solstitial  colune  ;  127,  May 
2d,  about  sunrise,  Hipparchus  observed  the  sun 
7°  35'  in  Taurus,  the  moon  21°  40'  in  Pisces, 
and  their  mean  distance,  to  be  312°  32*;  and 
Spica  Virginis  6°  W.  of  the  autumnal  equinoc- 
tial point;  49,  comet  appeared  in  China;  44, 
great  comet,  supposed  the  same  which  appeared 
again  A.  D..531,  1106,  and  in  1680;  25,  the 
Egyptians  adopt  the  Julian  year,  and  fix  their 
Thoth,  or  New  Year  day,  August  29th. 

A.  D.  13,  a  comet  appeared  in  China ;  39, 
conjunction  of  Saturn,  Jupiter  and  Mars;  55, 
comet  appeared  in  China ;  92,  Agrippa  observes 
in  Armenia,  a  conjunction  of  the  moon  with 
the  pleiades,  November  29th,  5  hours  before 
midnight ;  130,  Ptolemy  observed  Mars  in  op- 
position, December  14th,  3  hours  p.  m. ;  132, 
September  25th,  2h.  p.  m.  Ptolemy  observed  the 
autumnal  equinox ;  133,  May  6th,  11  h.  45 
m.  p.  m.  Ptolemy  at  Alexandria,  observed  an 
eclipse  of  the  moon.  May  17th  11  h.  p.  m.  he 
observed  Jupiter  in  13°  15' Taurus  ;  and  Saturn 
in  9°  4(y  Sagitarius  on  June  4th,  4  h.  p.  m. ; 
J34,  February  16,  in  the  morning,  Ptolemy  ob- 
served Venus,  21°  05'  in  Capricorn,  and  on  Oct. 
3d  in  the  mornintr,  Mercury  in  20°  12"  of  Virgo ; 
138,  Ptolemy  observed  Cor  Leonis  2°  30'  of  this 
sign,  and  32°  40'  from  the  summer  solstice  : 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


AST 


622 


AST 


140,  Ptolemy  observed  Venus  on  July  18th,  to 
be  in  18°  30'  of  Gemini,  and  47°  15'  from  the 
mean  place  of  the  sun.  Observed  the  vernal 
equinox  at  Alexandria.  March  22,  1°  p.  ni. ;  21:2, 
a  comet  appeared  in  China  ;  222.  August  29th, 
a  conjunction  of  some  of  the  planets  observed 
at  Alexandria  ;  373,  a  comet  appeared  in  China ; 
400,  a  comet  appeared  in  China  ;  729,  2  comets 
appeared,  one  before  sunrise,  the  other  after 
sunset.  This  was  no  doubt  a  deception ;  it  was 
one  comet  apparently  in  different  parts  of  the 
Heavens;  807,  January  31st,  3  h.  after  mid- 
night, Jupiter  was  eclipsed  by  the  moon.  March 
I7ih,  a  spot  observed  on  the  sun  ;  810,  astron- 
omy revived  under  the  Caliph  Almamun,  and 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  found  23°  34';  819, 
degree  of  the  meridian  measured  on  the  plains 
of  Sinjar,  near  Babylon,  and  found  to  be  56| 
Arabian  miles;  825,  Benimula  observed  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  to  be  23°  35';  837,  a 
comet  appeared  in  China  and  in  Europe,  which 
moved  in  25  days  through  JJ  25  ft,  and  disap- 
peared in  y  ;  880,  September  1'Jth,  11  h.  45' 
a.  m.  Albategnius,  or  Mahomet  of  Aractus.  an 
Arabian  astronomer,  observes  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic  to  be  23°  35';  882,  Sept.  19th,  1  h. 
15'  after  midnight  Albategnius  observes  the 
autumnal  equinox ;  and  in  883,  the  sun's  apo- 
gee in  22J  27'  of  Gemini ;  the  first  star  of  Aries 
distant  from  the  equinoctial  point  18°  02';  911, 
Thebit  ben  Chora,  found  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic,  to  be  23°  33'  30" ;  999,  Abou!  Wafi,  and 
Abu  Hamed,  found  the  obliquity  of  the  eclip- 
tic, 23°  35';  1070,  Arzachel.  found  the  obli- 
quity of  the  ecliptic  to  be  23°  34';  107(5.  the 
same  astronomer  found  the  sun's  apogee,  17°  50' 
in  Gemini ;  1079.  March  14th,  2  h.  9'  p.  m.  the 
vernal  equinox  observed  by  Arznchel;  1186, 
September  16th,  great  conjunction  of  all  the 
planets  in  Libra,  about  sunrise.  Mercury  4°  Iff; 
Venus  3°  49* ;  Mars  9°  08'  Jupiter  2°  03' ;  Sat- 
urn 8°  OC';  1252,  Alphonso  X,  had  those  astro- 
nomical tables,  which  bear  his  name,  published. 
In  this  school  the  sun's  apogee  was  found  28° 
4<y  in  Gemini ;  12<54,  July  (5th,  a  comet  reached 
ita  perihelion,  inclination  of  its  orbit  to  the 
ecliptic,  36°  3(X:  121)9,  Cosah  Nasirodni  ob- 
served the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  23°  30' ; 
1273,  Cheouching  in  China,  found  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic,  23 ;  31.','  39";  1299,  a  comet 
reached  its  perihelion  in  February,  ascending 
node  25°  in  Gemini,  inclination  20°;  1337, 
first  cornet,  whose  course  was  observed  and 
recorded  with  astronomical  exactness,  reached 
ita  perihelion,  June  2d,  Gh.25'  a.  m.  ascending 

\r. 


1341,  a  comet  in  Libra,  first  seen  near  Spica 
Virginis,  and  disappeared  near  SI  Leo;  1437, 
Ulugh  Beigh,  observed  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic,  23°  30'  17";  1460,  Regiomontanus, 
found  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic.  23°  29'; 
1472,  February  29th,  10  h.  23'  a.  m  comet, 
reaches  its  perihelion,  ascending  node  11°  46' 
20"  in  Capricorn ;  inclination  of  its  orbit  5°20/; 
1476,  Waltherus  found  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic,  23°  30';  147d,  Waltherus  found  the 
vernal  equinox  on  March  llth, 8  h.  05'  a.  m. ; 
1503,  Waltherus  found  the  summer  solstice  to 
be  on  June  12th,  12  h.  46°  34' at  Nuremberg, 
and  the  sun's  apogee  4°  09' in  Cancer;  1510, 
Wernerus  found  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic, 
23°  28'  30";  1515,  Copernicus  observed  the 
vernal  equinox,  March  11,  4  h.  307  a.  m.  at 
Frauenburg.  He  observed  Spica  Virginis  in 
17°  03'  (2"  in  Libra,  and  the  sun's  apogee.  €° 
4(/  in  Cancer ;  1530.  Copernicus  completed  his 
immortal  worl$,  "  ASTKO.NOMIA  INSTAURATA," 
&c.  but  it  was  not  published  until  the  year  of 
his  death,  1543.  This  work  alone  did  more 
for  astronomy  than  was  ever  done  for  any  other 
science  by  a  single  production  ;  1540.  September 
27th,  Copernicus  found  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic  23°  2o'  08"  ;  ]55(5,  April  22d,  8  h.  3'  a. 
m.  a  comet  reached  its  perihelion,  ascending 
node  25°  42'  in  Libra ;  inclination  of  its  orbit 
32°  06'  30";  1577.  October  27th,  6  h.  a.  m.  a 
comet  reached  its  perihelion ;  1582,  Calendar 
reformed  by  pope  Gregory  XIII;  1584,  Tycho 
Brahe  found  the  vernal  equinox,  March  10th, 
1  h.  56'  p.  m.  at  Urianiburg;  1588,  Tycho  ob- 
served the  summer  solstice,  June  llth,  1  h.  36' 
p.  m.  at  Urianiburg;  the  sun's  apogee  5°  3CK 
in  Cancer ;  1595,  Tycho  Brahe  found  the  obli- 
quity of  the  ecliptic,  23°  21Y  25";  1610,  teles- 
copes introduced  into  use  by  Gallileo ;  1626, 
Kepler  published  his  Rudolphine  tables,  and 
formed  an  sera  in  the  history  of  man.  Coper- 
nicus had  shown  near  a  century  before,  that 
the  planets  moved  round  the  sun,  and  now 
Kepler  in  his"  ASTRONOMIA  NOVA  CET.ESTIS," 
&c.  showed  in  what  manner,  and  by  what 
laws  they  moved,  and  paved  the  way  for  New- 
ton to  show  why  thay  moved  ;  1631 ,  November 
17th.  9  h.  37'  a.  m.  Gassendi  first  observed  a 
transit  of  Mercury  over  the  sun's  disc  :  1639, 
November  24th.  old  style,  or  December  4th, 
new  style.  3  h.  15'  p.  in.  Mr.  Ilorrox,  an  Eng- 
lishman, was  the  first  who  ever  observed  a 
transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun's  disc;  1670, 
Mengoli  observed  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic 
to  be  23°  28'  24";  1672,  Richer  found  the  obli- 


node  24°  21'  in  Gemini,  inclination  32°  11';    quity  of  the  ecliptic,  23°  28' 54";  1676,  rings  of 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


AST 


623 


BAN 


Saturn  discovered  by  Haygens,  1687,  Newton's 
'•'  PRINCIPIA"  were  ptfclished,  and  consum- 
mated what  Copernicus  and  Keppler  had  begun ; 
1680,  December  18th,  Oh.  6'  p.  m.  a  cornet 
reached  its  perihelion,  ascending  node  2°  Win 
Capricorn,  inclination  of  its  orbit  61°  22*  55". 
This  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  comet  which 
reached  its  perihelion  B.  C.  44,  and  A.  D.  531 
and  1105,  and  to  have  a  periodic  time  of  575 
years.  In  its  perihelion  it  almost  touches  the 
sun's  surface,  being  only  about  570,000  miles 
from  its  centre,  and  moves  in  that  part  of  the 
orbit,  above  88:),OJO  miles  hourly ;  1682,  Sep- 
tember 22d,  6  h.  34'  a.  m.  autumnal  equinox 
observed  at  Paris ;  1691,  Flamstead  found  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  23°  28'  32";  1703,  Bi- 
anchini^  found  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  23° 
28'  15";  1732,  the  summer  solstice  observed  at 
Paris,  June  21sl,  7  h.  28'  30"  a.  m. ;  1752,  new 
style  introduced  into  England,  Sept.  3d  called 
the  13th  ;  1759,  March  13th,  1  h.  5(X  a.  m.  a 
comet  reaches  its  perihelion.  The  elements  of 
the  orbit  of  this  cometary  body  are  much  more 
accurately  known  than  that  of  any  other  of 
those  erratic  masses.  Ascending  node  23"  45' 
35"  in  Taurus — inclination  of  its  orbit  17°  40' 
15".  The  same  comet  reached  its  perihelion 
'1531,1607,  1682,  and  1759— periodic  times  76 
years  63  days  ;  74  years  322  days,  and  76  years 
178  days,  and  may  be  expected  again  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  year  1835  ;  1761,  June  5th, 
transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun's  disc,  extensively 
observed;  1769,  June  3d,  transit  of  Venus  over 
the  sun's  disc,  still  more  extensively  and  accu- 
rately observed  than  that  of  1761.  The  next 
transit  will  be,  December  8th,  1874:  1781, 
March  13tli,  Dr.  Herschel  discovered  the  most 
distant,  and  third  largest  planet  in  the  solar 
system,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Geor- 
giuin  Sidus,  it  is,  however,  more  commonly  in 
the  United  States,  called  "  the  Herschol,""and 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  Uranus;  1801, 
January  1st,  Mr.  Piazzi,  at  Palermo,  discovered 
a  primary  planet,  which  he  named  Ceres ; 
1-332,  March  28th,  Dr.  OLBERS  of  Bremen,  dis- 
covered a  primary  planet  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  Pallas.  Obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  found 
this  year  at  Paris,  23°  28' 06"  ;  1804,  Sept.  1st, 
Mr.  Harding  at  Lilienthal,  near  Bremen,  dis- 
covered a  primary  planet,  to  \vhichhe  gave  the 
name  of  Juno  ;  1807,  March  29th,  Dr.  Gibers 
of  Bremen,  discovered  a  primary  planet,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  Vesta.  These  four 
planets  revolve  in  interfering  orbits,  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter,  and  as  far  as  observation 
has  exposed  its  parts  to  human  view,  the  dis- 


covery  of  Vesta  completed  our  knowledge  of 
the  solar  system. 

The  "MECHANIQF.  CEF.KSTE"  of  La  Place, 
published.  This  immortal  monument  of  hu- 
man genius,  hits,  it  may  be  safely  said,  com- 
pleted the  science,  rendered  astronomy  the 
most  perfect,  as  it  is  the  most  sublime,  of  all  the 
sciences.  The  translation  of  this  work  by  Dr. 
Bowditch  of  Boston,  has  been  recently  com- 
pleted, and  in  part  published,  and  reflects  upon 
him  the  highest  honor. 

AURORA  BOREALIS,  first  recorded  to  be 
seen  March  6th,  1716 ;  it  had  been  no  doubt 
occasionally  observed  from  time  immemorial. 

AURICULAR  CONFESSION,  first  intro- 
duced, 1215. 


B. 


BAFFIN'S  BAY,  separating  Greenland  from 
North  America,  discovered  by  captain  Baffin, 
in  1622. 

BAIZE  MANUFACTURE  first  introduced 
into  England,  at  Colchester,  1660. 

BALL  of  fire  fell  during  a  thunder  storm, 
upon  a  public  house  in  VVapping,  which  set  fire 
to  it,  and  the  house  adjoining,  July  4th,  1803. 

BALLOONS,  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Gusmac,  a  Jesuit,  1729,  but  probably  invented 
much  earlier,  and  first  used  in  France  by  Mont- 
golfier,  who  ascended  in  one,  attended  by  the 
marquis  d'Allande,  and  M.  llozier,  November 
23d,  1782;  another  ascent  was  made  the  saiwb 
year,  by  Messrs.  Charles  and  Roberts,  on  De- 
cember first,  at  Paris.  Mr.  Lunardi,  at  London, 
Sept.  loth,  1784,  rose  from  Moorfields,  being 
the  first  ascent  in  Englan'd.  First  experiment 
with  balloons  in  this  country,  were  made  by 
Dr.  Rittenhouse  and  Francis  Hopkinson,  Dec. 
1783.  They  connected  several  small  balloons 
together,  and  thus  enabled  a  man  to  ascend  to 
the  height  of  one  hundred  feet,  and  to  float  to 
a  considerable  distance.  Afterwards  an  ascent 
was  made  by  Blanchard,  at  Philadelphia,  Jan- 
uary 9.  1793.  More  recently,  ascensions  have 
become  very  common. 

BANKS.  In  the  United  States  they  com- 
menced in  the  early  part  of  the  revolutionary 
war.  The  first  by  a  number  of  gentlemen  in 
Philadelphia,  June  17th,  1780,  with  a  capital 
of  $839,160;  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
plying the  American  army  with  provisions. 

Bank  of  North  America,  incorporated  by 
Congress.  Dec.  31,  1781 — the  first  at  Boston, 
bega'n  1734,  and  the  bank  of  New  York  com 
menced  the  same  year. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


BAT 


624 


BAT 


Bank  of  the  United  States,  incorporated 
March  2, 1791.  Capital,  10,000,000,  in  25,000 
shares,  of  $400,  each;  2,000,000  held  by  the 
United  Stales,  and  paid  in  ten  equal  annual 
instalments.  2,493  shares  sold  by  the  United 
States,  in  1796-7,  at  advance  of  25  per  cent.; 
287  more  in  1799,  at  20  per  cent,  advance; 
and  2,220  in  1802,  at  45  advance;  making, 
exclusive  of  dividends,  a  profit  of  G71,«60 
dollars  to  the  United  States.  The  charter  ex- 
pired llth  of  March,  1811,  and  was  not  renewed, 
but  the  events  and  necessities  of  the  last  war 
with  Great  Britain,  superinduced  the  creation 
of  a  similar  institution.  "The  United  States' 
Bank,"  with  a  capital  of  35,000,000  of  dollars, 
was  chartered  for  twenty  yeara,  April  181G,and 
with  power  to  form  branches.  The  mother 
bank  at  Philadelphia,  went  into  operation  Jan. 
1,1817. 

BANKERS,  the  first  were  Lombard  Jews, 
about  A.  D.  808.  In  England,  the  mint  was 
used  by  merchants  to  lodge  their  money  in,  till 
the  king  made  free  with  it  in  1640  ;  after  which 
they  trusted  to  servants,  till  too  many  of  them 
ran  to  the  army  ;  they  then  lodged  it  with  gold- 
smiths, whose  business  was  to  buy  and  sell 
plate,  and  foreign  coins ;  they  at  first  paid  4d. 
per  cent,  per  diem,  but  lent  it  to  others  at  higher 
interest,  and  so  became  the  first  bankers,  1645. 

BANKRUPTS,  literally,  "seat  or  bench 
broker,"  in  England  first  regulated  by  law, 
1443.  In  1812.  enacted  that  "members  of  the 
muse  of  commons  becoming  bankrupts,  and 
not  paying  their  debts  in  full,  shall  vacate  their 
seats. 

BARK,  Jesuit,  virtue  of  discovered  1500; 
brought  to  Europe  1(550. 

BAROMETERS  invented  1G26  ;  wheel  ba- 
rometers contrived,  16(58;   phosphoric,  l(i?5 ; 
pendant,  lt»95;  marine,  1700. 
BATTLES,  SIEGES,  &c.    B.  C.  1360  Ar- 
ponautic  Expedition. 
1317  War  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes. 
1280-70  Siege,  capture,  and  destruction  of  Troy 
by  the  Greeks. 

742-722  First  Messenian  war. 

882-688  Second  Messeninn  war. 

490  Battle  of  Marathon;  Persians  defeated  bv 
the  Greeks. 

480  Battles  "f  Thermopyla;,  Artemisium,  Sala- 
mis,  and  Himera ;  defeat  of  the  Persians  bv 
thr  Greeks. 

479  Nr,val  victory  gained  by  the  Greeks  at 
Mycale;  victory  of  PlaUese. 

469  Battles  of  tlie'Kurymedon  by  land  and  by 
•ea,  gained  by  Cimon. 


4G5-455  Third  Messenian  war. 

431-404  Peloponnesi*  war.  between   Athens 

and  her  allies,  and  the  Peloponnesian  states ; 

414.  expedition   of  the   Athenians  against 

Syracuse. 

406,  battle  of  ^gospotamos. 
3S)0  Battle  of  Allia  ;.  Rome  taken  by  the  Gauls 
371-362  War  between   Thebes  and   Sparta; 

371  Battle  of  Leuctra;  362,  battle  of  Manti- 

nea  and  death  of  Epaminondas. 
357  Social  war.     Delphian  sacred  war. 
338  Amphissian  sacred  war.     Battle  of  Chero- 

no) ;  Macedonian  ascendency. 
334  Alexander  invades  the   Persian  empire ; 

battle  of  the  Granicus;  333,  battle  of  Issus ; 

33J,  battle  of  Arbela;  323,  death  of  Alex- 
ander and  division  of  his  empire. 
265-241  First  Punic  war ;  280,  Duilius  gains 

a  naval  victory. 
218-201  Second  Punic  war;  Hannibal  enters 

Italy  ;  gains  the  battles  of  Ticinus  and  Tre- 

bia.  21S:  of  Trasymene,  217;   of  Cannte, 

216;  defeated  at  Zama,  202. 
201-197  First  Macedonian  war. 
189  Battle  of  Magnesia  ;  Antiochus  defeated 

by  the  Romans. 
172-168  Second  Macedonian  war ;   battle  of 

Pydua,  168. 
149-146  third  Punic  war;  Carthage  destroyed. 

146. 

111-106  Jugurlhine  war. 
101  Marius  defeats  a  Cimbrian  horde. 
91  Marsic  Social  war. 
88-81  Mithridatic  war. 

73-71  Servile  war  conducted  by  Spartacus. 
48  Battle  of  Pharsalia;  death  of  Pompey. 
42  Battle  of  Philippi ;    Brutus  and  Cassiua 

defeated. 

31  Naval  battle  of  Actium;  Augustus  con- 
quers Antony. 

A.  1).  70  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus. 
263  Irruption  of  Franks  into  Gaul. 
30G  Constantine  embraces  Christianity. 
395  Division  of  the  Roman  empire;  Honorius 

in  the  west ;  Arcadius  in  the  east. 
401  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  devastates 

Italy ;  410.  Captures  Rome. 
43:{-4;">2  Devastations  of  Attila  and  the  Huns; 
451 ,  Defeat  of  Attila  at  Chalons. 
476  the  Roman  empire  of  the  west  overturned. 
1066  Battle  of  Hastings,  gained  by  William  the 

Conqueror. 

109(5  First  Crusade  ;  1099,  Capture  of  Jerusa- 
lem. 

1147  Second  Crusade. 
1189  Third  Crusade  under  Philip  II,  of  France, 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


BAT 


625 


BAT 


and  Richard  Cccur^le  Lion  ;  1191,  Capture 
of  Ptolemais ;  119*2  Victory  of  Ascalon  over 
Saladm. 

1202  Fourth  Crusade ;  Capture  of  Constanti- 
nople. 

120G  Victories  of  Genghis  Khan  ;  Mongul  Em- 

1217!Fifth  Crusade;  1223,  Sixth  Crusade  led 

by  the  emperor  Frederic  II. 
1248  Seventh  Crusade  under  St.  Louis. 
1282  Sicilian  Vespers  ;  massacre  of  the  French 

in  Sicily. 

1314  Battle  of  Bannockburn. 

1315  Battle  of  Morgarten  won  by  the  Swiss. 
1346  Battle  of  Cressy,  won  by  the  English  over 

the  French. 
1356  Battle  of  Poictiers ;  capture  of  the  French 

king  by  the  Black  Prince. 
1361  Capture  of  Adrianople  by  the  Turks,  who 

establish  themselves  in  Europe. 
1369-1405  Victories  and  Empire  of  Timour  or 

Tamerlane. 
1383  Battle  of  Otterburn  between  Percy  and 

Douglas. 

1403  Battle  of  Shrewsbury  ;  1405,  of  Monmouth. 
1415  Battle  of  Agincourt  won  by  Henry  V,  of 

England. 
1445-85  Wars  of  the  Red  and  White  Roses  in 

England;  1455,  battle  of  St.  Albans  ;  1463, 

offlexham;  1471,  of  Tewksbury  ;  1435,  of 

Bosworth  field. 
1470  Battles  of  Granson  and  Morat  won  by  the 

Swiss  over  Charles  the  Bold. 
1513  Battle  of  Flodden  field;  Scots  defeated  by 

the  English. 
1515  Francis  I  of  France,  defeats  the  Swiss  at 

Mariornan. 
1521  Conquest  of  Mexico  by  Cortes. 

1525  Francis  I  of  France  defeated  and  made 
prisoner  by  Charles  V,  at  Pavia. 

1526  Battle  of  Mohacz  ;  Moldavia  and  Walachia 
conquered  by  the  Turks. 

1528  Conquest  of  Peru  by  Pizarro. 

152!)  First  siege  of  Vienna  by  the  Turks. 

1546  Religious  war  in  Germany ;  Smulcaldic 
league  ;  Protestants  defeated  "at  Muhlherg. 

1560  Religious  wars  in  France  ;  156SJ  Battles  of 
Jarnac  and  Moncontour. 

1566  Beginning  of  the  insurrection  of  the  Neth- 
erlands; 1581.  the  United  Provinces  declare 
their  independence  on  Spain. 

157J  Battle  of  Lepanto ;  the  Turkish  fleet  de- 
feated. 

1588  Defeat  and  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Ar- 
mada. 

1618-48  Thirty  years'  war ;  1631 ,  battle  of  Leip- 


sic,  won  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  over  the 
Imperialists;  1632  battle  of  Lutzen,  death 
of  Gustavus. 

1642  Civil  war  in  England;  battle  of  Edgehill ; 
1644  of  Marston  Moor;  1645,  of  Naseby; 
1651,  of  Worcester. 

1658  Battle  of  Gravelines. 

1660  Restoration  of  the  monarchy  in  England, 
and  recall  of  the  Stuarts. 

1683  Siege  of  Vienna  by  the  Turks ;  raised  by 
Sobieski. 

1683  Descent  of  the  prince  of  Orange  upon 
England  ;  revolution ;  1690,  battle  of  the 
Boyne. 

1690  Battle  of  Fleurus.  1692,  Battle  of  Stein- 
kirk;  1693,  Battle  of  Nerwinden. 

1692  Battle  of  La  Hogue  ;  French  fleet  destroy- 
ed by  the  English. 

1702  Sp'anish  succession  war ;  1704,  Battle  of 
Blenheim;  1706.  of  Rarnilies  ;  1708,  of  Ou- 
denarde;  1709,  of  Malplaquet. 

1709  Battle  of  Pultowa  won  by  Peter  the  Great 
over  Charles  XII ;  rise  of  Russia. 

1715  Rebellion  in  Scotland ;  battle  of  Preston 
Pans. 

1716  Battle  of  Peterwardin  gained  by  Eugene 
over  the  Turks. 

1740-43  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  ;  1743, 

Battle  of  Dettengen ;  1 745,  Battle  of  Fon- 

tenoy. 
1745  Battle  of  Preston  Pans  ;  1746,  of  Falkirk  : 

and  Culloden. 
1756-63  Seven   years'    war;    1757,   Battle   of 

Prague;  ofRosbach;  of  Breslan  ;  1758,  of 

Crevelt;  1759  of  Minden;  of  Cunersdorf ; 

capture  of  Quebec  by  the  English. 
1775  Battle  of  Bunker's  hill;  J776,  Battle  of 

Long  Island. 
1777  Battle  of  Brandy  wine;   of  Germantown; 

of  Saratoga. 
1781  Battle  of  the  Cowpens;  of  Guilford ;  of 

Eutaw  Springs ;  Cornwallis  surrenders   at 

Yorktown. 
1762  Attack  on  Gibraltar  by  the  French  and 

Spanish. 
1792  Battle  of  Jemappes  (Dumouriez).  '93  of 

Fleury  (Jourdan). 
1794  Battle  of  Praga  ;  Suwarroffbutchers  thirty 

thousand  Poles. 
1796  Bonaparte's  Italian  campaign  ;  battles  of 

Montenotte ;  Millesimo  ;  Lodi ;  Roveredo ; 

Arcola,  &c.  '97  of  Rivoli;  Tagliamento. 
1798  Campaio-n  in  Egypt ;  battle  of  the  Pyra- 
mids ;  Nelson's  victory  at  Aboukir. 
1800  Battles  of  Montebello  ;  Marengo  ;  Hohen 

linden. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


HJ  I! 


626 


BLA 


1802  Servile  war  in  St.«Domin<ro. 

1805  Battles  of  Eichingen  ;  Trafalgar  ;.  Auster- 

litz. 

180(5  Battle  of  Jena. 

1807  Bombardment  of  Copenhagen  ;  battles  of 
Evlau  and  Friedland. 

1809  Battles  of  Eckmuhl ;  VVagram  ;  Talavera. 

1810  Battle  of  Busaco  ;  1811,  Fuente  d'Onoio. 
1312  Battle  of   Smolensk;    capture    of  Mos- 
cow. 

1813  Battles  of  Lutzen ;    Vittoria;    Dresden; 
Culm  ;  Leipsic. 

1814  Battles  of  Brienne ;  Montmirail ;  Monte- 
reau ;  of  Lake  Erie  ;   of  Lake  Champlain 
and  Plattsburgh  ;  Baltimore. 

1815  Battle  of  Mew  Orleans;  of  Waterloo. 
1817  Battle  of  Chacabuco  ,  of  May  pa. 

1820  Battle  of  Carabobo;  1821,  Insurrection  in 

Greece. 

1822  Battle  of  Pichincha. 
1 8*2-1  Battle  of  Junin  ;  of  Ayacucho. 
1827  Battle  of  Navarino;    destruction  of  the 

Turco — Egyptian  fleet. 

1833  Naval  victory  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  won  by 
Napier  over  the  Miguelite  fleet. 

BAYONETS  invented  at  Bayonne,in  France, 
1070 ;  first  used  in  England  September  24th, 
1693. 

BELLOWS  invented  B.  C.  554. 

BELLS  invented  by  Pauliniua,  Bishop  of 
Nola  in  Campania,  about  400;  first  known  in 
France,  550;  first  used  in  the  Greek  empire, 
8G4;  were  introduced  into  monasteries  in  the 
seventh  or  eighth  century.  Pope  Stephen  III, 
placed  three  bells  in  a  tower  on  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome.  In  the  churches  of  Europe  they  were 
introduced  in  900.  They  were  first  introduced 
into  Switzerland  1020.  The  first  tunable  set 
in  England  were  hung  up  in  Croyland  Abbey, 
in  Lincolnshire.  9(iO;  baptized  in  churches, 
1020.  Bells  of  the  church  of  Notre  Darne  bap- 
tized and  received  the  names  of  duke  and 
dutchess  d'AngoutetiM,  the  prince  <!e  Foix  and 
docbett  de  Uamas  being  proxies,  Nov.  15th, 
1BM>. 

P.IHLE  IIIST9RY  ceases  340  years  before 
Christ.  Beptoagint  version  nude'  'J-M  ;  J\r<l 
divide,!  into  chapten,  1253.  The  first  English 
edition  was  in  15:;<;;  Hie  first  authorized  edition 
in  England  was  in  1539;  the  second  translation 
was  ordered  t.)  be  read  in  churches,  I5-i:t;  (!„• 
present  translation  finished,  September,  li',11  ; 
ps-rmitti-d  by  the  pope  to  be  translated  into  ali 
the  languages  of  the  Catholic  states,  February 
SWth,  17511 ;  the  following  is  a  dissection  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testamenta : 


In  the  Old  Testament.      Jn  the 
39 


»  Total. 
27  66 

Chapters  1)2!)  260  1,189 

Verses  '23,214         7,95!)  31  173 

Words          5!)2,493      181,253         773.746 

Letters       2,728,100      838,380      3,566/180 

The  Apocrypha  has  183  chapters  C081  verses, 

and  125,185  words.     The  middle  chapter,  and 

the  least  in  the  Bible,  is  the  1 17th  Psalm  ;  the. 

middle  verse  is  the  8th  of  118th  Psalm  ;  the 

middle  line  is  the  2d  book   of  the  Chronicles, 

4th    chapter,  and   16th   verse;    the   word   and 

occurs  in  the  Old  Testament  35,535  times  ;  the 

same    word    in   the    New    Testament   occurs 

10,684  times;  the  word  Jehovah  occurs  6,855 

times. 

Old  Testament.— The  middle  book  is  Prov- 
erbs, the  middle  chapter  is  the  29th  of  Job  ;  the 
middle  verse  is  in  the  2d  book  of  Chronicles, 
20th  chap,  and  18th  verse  ;  the  least  verse  is  the 
1st  book  of  Chronicles,  1st  chap.,  and  1st  verse. 
JVc?o  Testament. — The  middle  is  the  Thessa- 
lonians,  2d  :  the  middle  chapter  is  between  the 
13th  and  14th  of  the  Romaiis  ;  the  middle  verse 
is  the  17th  of  the  17th  chapter  of  the  Acts  ;  the 
least  verse  is  the  35th  verse  of  the  llth  chapter 
of  the  Gospel  by  St.  John. 

The  21st  verse  of  the  7th  chapter  of  Ezra  has 
all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  it. 

The  19th  chapter  of  the  2d  book  of  Kings, 
and  the  37th  chapter  of  Isaiah,  are  alike. 

The  book  of  Esther  has  10  chapters,  but 
neither  the  words  Lord  nor  God  in  it. 

The  following  is  a  chronological  list  of  differ- 
ent versions  and  editions  of  the  scriptures  : 
First  translated  into  the  Saxon  language  939. 
Hebrew — first  printed  Hebrew  Bible  done  at 
Soncinum  in  Italy,  at  Naples,  1487;  complete 
of  the  whole  Bible,  at  Soncinum,  1488;  at  Ven- 
ice, by  Bomberg,  1518 — and  at  the  same  epoch 
in  Spain,  under  Cardinal  Ximenes;  in  1526-28, 
the  first  edition  of  B.  Chaim  ;  Basil,  1534  ;.  in 
1549,  by  B.  Chaim  ;  in  1572,  the  Royal  or 
Spnnish  Polyjrlott,  8  vols.  at  Antwerp;  third 
edition  of  B.  Chaim's  Bible,  1(518;  in  1623,  at 
Venice;  Amsterdam,  1724— 27  ;  Paris  1641, 10 
fol.  vols.  Polyo-lott;  London  Polvfflott,  1757. 

BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE  first  mentioned, 
1H50;  used  in  England.  1307;  the  only  mode 
of  sending  money  from  Kno-laiid  by  law,  1381. 
BIRTH,  remarkable— Ellen  Ellis,  at  Beuma- 
ris,  in  Anglesv,  aged  72.  was  brought  to  bed 
A'lay    lOthJ    1776;    she    had   been    married  46 
years,  and  her  eldest  was  45  years  old.     She 
had  not  had  a  child  for  25  years  before. 
BLANKETS  first  made  in  England  1340. 


-  - 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


BUI 


627 


CAN 


BLISTER  PLASTERS,  invented  B.  C.  60. 

BLUE,  Prussian,  discovered  at  Berlin,  1704. 

BLOOD,  circulation  of,  through  the  lungs, 
first  made  public  by  Michael  Servetus,a  French 
physician,  in  1553;  Cisalpinus  published  an 
account  of  the  general  circulation,  of  which  lie 
had  some  confused  ideas,  and  improved  it  af- 
terwards by  experiments,  1569;  but  it  was  fully 
confirmed  by  Harvey,  1623. 

BOMBS,  first  invented  at  Venloo,  and  used 
in  the  siege  of  Wachtendonch,  1588  ;  first  used 
in  the  service  of  France,  1634. 

BOMB-VESSELS,  first  invented  in  France, 
16al. 

BOOKS  in  the  present  form,  were  invented 
by  Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus.  8c7 ;  the  first 
supposed  to  be  written  in  Job's  time ;  30,000 
burnt  by  order  of  Leo,  761 ;  a  very  large  estate 
given  for  one  on  Cosmography,  by  king  Alfred  ; 
were  sold  from  10/.  to  30Z.  a  piece,  about  1400; 
the  first  printed  one  was  the  Vulgate  edition 
of  the  Bible,  1462  ;  the  second  was  Cicero  de 
Officiis,  1466;  Cornelius  Nepos  published  at 
Moscow,  being  the  first  classical  book  printed 
in  Russia,  April  29th,  1702;  books  to  the  num- 
.ber  of  200,000,  burnt  at  Constantinople,  by  the 
order  of  Leo  I,  476;  above  4,194,412  volumes 
were  in  the  suppressed  monasteries  of  France, 
in  1790  ;  2,000,000  were  on  theology,  the  man- 
uscripts were  2o,000;  in  the  city  of  Paris  alone 
were  808,120  vols. 

BREAD,  made  from  the  flower  of  gramine- 
ous fruits,  discovered  in  very  early  ages,  but 
not  made  with  yeast  by  the  English,  until  1650. 

BREADFRUIT,  first  introduced  into  the 
West  Indies,  by  captain  Bligh,  January  1793. 

BREECHES  first  introduced  into  England, 
1G54. 

BREVIARIES  first  introduced  in  1030. 

BRIBERY  first  used  in  England,  1554. 

BRICKS  first  used  in  England  by  the  Ro- 
mans— the  size  ordered  1625,  by  Charles  I. 

BRIDGE,  the  first  stone,  in  England,  was  at 
Bow,  near  Stratford,  1087. 

BUCKLES  were  invented  about  16BO. 

BUILDING  with  stone  brought  into  Eng- 
land by  Bennet,  a  monk.  070 ;  with  brick,  first 
introduced  by  the  Romans  into  their  provinces ; 
first  in  En  or]  and  about  88(5;  introduced  into 
London,  by  the  earl  of  Arundel  1600,  being  then 
almost  built  with  wood,  it  was  a  very  ugly  city. 
The  increase  of  buildings  in  London  prohibit- 
ed, within  three  miles  of  the  city  gates,  by 
queen  Elizabeth,  and  that  only  one  family 
should  dwell  in  one  house,  1580.  The  build- 
ings from  High  Holborn,  north  and  south,  and 


Great  Queen-street,  built  nearly  on  the  spot 
where  stood  the  Elms  or  the  ancient  Tyburn, 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III,  were  erected  be- 
tween 1607  and  1631  The  number  of  houses 
in  London  and  its  suburbs,  in  1772,  were  com- 
puted at  122,930 ;  but  in  1791,  they  amounted 
to  above  200.000.  In  St.  George's  fields,  near 
7000  have  been  erected  within  the  above  pe- 
riod. 

BULL-BAITING,  first  at  Stamford,  Lin- 
colnshire, 1209;  atTutbury,  Staffordshire,  1374  ; 
bull-fights  in  Spain,  first  used,  1560 ;  bull-run- 
ninf ,  at  Tutbury ;  in  Staffordshire,  instituted 
1374. 

BULLETS  of  stone  used  instead  of  iron  ones. 
1514;  of  iron  first  mentioned  in  the  Fasdra, 
1550. 

BULLION  of  gold  and  silver,  first  method  of 
assaying,  1354. 

BURGESSES  were  first  constituted  in  Scot- 
land, 1326.  • 

BURIAL-PLACE,  the  first  Christian  one  in 
Britain,  596  ;  burials,  first  permitted  in  conse- 
crated places,  750 ;  in  church  yards,  758  ;  bury- 
ing in  woollen  in  England,  first  began,  1666. 

BURNING-GLASS  and  common  mirrors, 
the  discovery  attributed  to  Tshernhausen,  a 
Lusatian  baron,  1680. 


CABLES,  a  method  of  making  them  in- 
vented, by  which  20  men  are  enabled  to  do  the 
work  of  200.  The  machine  is  set  in  motion  by 
sixteen  horses,  for  the  cable  is  of  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  largest  ships,  1792. 

CALICO,  first  imported  into  England,  1631 ;. 
first  made  in  Lancashire,  1772 ;  calico-printing 
and  the  Dutch  loom,  first  used  in  England, 
1676. 

CANALS.  The  first  regular  chain  of  artifi- 
cial water  inter-communication,  of  which  his- 
tory has  transmitted  to  us  the  record,  was  that 
between  the  Nile  and  Red  Sea.  This  canal 
route  was  examined  with  great  care  by  the 
French  engineers,  and  several  portions  found 
in  1798,  in  such  a  state  of  preservation  as  only 
to  demand  cleansing. 

The  system  of  modern  canal  improvement 
may  be  stated  to  have  commenced  in  Italy,  at 
Viterbo,  1481,  when  sluices  with  double  doors 
were  invented,  and  first  used  on  a  large  scale, 
near  Milan,  by  Leonard!  de  Vinci.  The  canals 
of  the  Delta  of  the  Rhine  commenced,  it  is  true, 
in  the  dark  ages,  but  it  was  not  before  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  that  they  were  planned 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


CHA 


628 


CHO 


scovered.  1441. 

CAPE  BRETON  discovered  by  the  English, 
^4;  yielded  to  France,  1032;  taken  by  En- 
xnd,  17-15;  restored,  1748;  again  taken  and 


and  constructed    with  scientific  regularity  of 

CANARY  ISLES  discovered,  1344;  explor- 
ed 13!)3. 

CANDLES,  of  tallow,  so  expensive  a  luxury 
in  England,  that  splinters  of  wood  were  used 
for  light,  A.  D.  1300— no  idea  of  wax  candles 
until  long  afterwards. 

CANDLE  LIGHT  introduced  into  churches 
on  tlx>  continent  of  Europe,  274.  , 

CANON  LAW  first  introduced  into  En- 
gland, 1140. 

CANONIZATION  first  used  by  papal  au- 
thority, A.  D.  993. 

CAPE  BLANCO,  on  the  coast  of  Africa, 
discovered.  1441. 

CAPE 
1534 
glai 
kept,  1758. 

CAPE  DE  VERD  islands  discovered,  1447. 

CARDS  invented  in  France,  first  used  for 
Charles  VI  amusement,  1380;  they  were  forbid 
the  use  of  in  Castile  in  1387;  128,000  packs 
were  stiinped  in  England  in  1775. 

CARDINALS  were  originally  the  parish 
priests  at  Rome;  title  began  to  be  used,  308; 
college  of,  founded  by  Pope  Pascal  I,  817;  did 
not  elect  the  popes  till  MGO ;  wore  the  red  hat, 
to  remind  them  that  they  ought  to  shed  their 
blood,  if  required,  for  religion,  and  were  declar- 
ed princes  of  the  church,  1222 ;  the  cardinals 
set  fire  to  the  conclave,  and  separated,  and  a 
vacancy  in  the  papal  chair  for  two  years,  1314; 
cardinal  Carassa  was  hanged  by  order  of  Pius 
IV,  15GO;  as  was  cardinal  Poli,  under  Leo  X; 
the  title  of  eminence  first  given  them  by  Pope 
Urban  VIII,  about  1630. 

CARRIAGES  first  introduced  into  Vienna, 
J515;  into  London.  1580. 

CARVING  in  marble  invented.  13.  C.  772. 

CAST-IRON,  Leicester  square,  London,pav- 
ed  with,  1817. 

CATALOGUES  of  English  printed  books, 
wen-  first  published  15<>f>;  in  Ireland.  H>:!2. 

CELERY  first  introduced  into  England,  by 
Marsh.il  Tallard,  during  his  captivity  there, 
after  the  battle  of  Blenheim,  in  1704. 

CELESTIAL  SPHERE  brought  into  Greece 
froiti  Egvpt,  by  Eudoxus  of  Cnidus,  "d-- 

CHAIN  SHOT  invented  bv  admiral  tie  Witt 
1606. 

CHAIRS,  sedan,  first  used  in  London;  a 
fourteen  years  patent  for  selling  them  granted 
to  Duncombe,1634. 

CHANCERY,  court  of,  established  in  En- 


gland, 605;  present  one  by  William  I,  10GG. 
The  first  person  qualified  for  chancellor,  by  edu- 
cation, was  sir  Thomas  More,  153U,  the  "office 


before  being  rnther  that  of  a  secretary  of  state, 
than  the  president  of  a  court  of  justice ;  first 
reference  to  a  master  in,  owing  to  the  ignorance 
of  the  chancellor,  sir  Christopher  Hatton,  1588. 
CHARITY  SCHOOLS  first  began  in  En- 

§  land,  March  25,  1688;  6000  children  met  at 
t.  Paul's,  May  2,  1782;  1  GO  schools  within 
London,  Westminster,  and  the  bills  of  mortality, 
established  between  1688  and  17G7,  inclusive. 

CHERRIES  brought  to  Rome,  by  Lucullus, 
70  ;  apricots  were  first  introduced  into  England, 
from  E;>irus  ;  peaches  from  Persia ;  the  finest 
plums  from  Damascus  and  Armenia  ;  pears  and 
rigs  from  Greece  and  Egypt;  citrons  from  Me- 
dia; pomegranates  from  Carthage,  about  114 
years  before  Christ. 

CHERRY  TREES  first  planted  in  Britain, 
100  before  Christ;  brought  from  Flanders  and 
planted  in  Kent,  with  such  success,  that  an 
orchard  of  32  acres,  produced  in  one  year, 
£1000,1540. 

CHESS,  the  game  of,  invented  G08.  before 
Christ. 

CHEST,  at  Chatham,  for  the  relief  of  sea- 
men, instituted,  1588. 

CHIARO-OBSCURO,  the  art  of  printing  in, 
with  three  plates,  to  imitate  drawings,  first  used, 
1500. 

CHIMN1ES  first  introduced  into  buildings 
in  England,  1200;  only  in  the  kitchen,  or  large 
hall,  smoky  ;  where  the  family  sat  round  a  large 
stove,  the  funnel  of  which  passed  thiough  the 
ceiling,  1300. 

CHINA  WARE,  made  in  England,  at  Chel- 
sea, in  1752;  and  in  several  parts  of  England, 
in  1760;  by  Mr.  Wedgewood,  1762;  at 'Dres- 
den, in  Saxony, 1706. 

CHINA,  first  voyage  to,  from  the  United 
States,  1784  ;  China  porcelain  first  spoken  of  in 
history,  1591. 

CHOCOLATE,  introduced  into  Europe,  from 
Mexico,  1520. 

CHOLERA,  progress  of  the.  The  severe 
epidemic,  which  under  the  name  of  the  Cholera, 
Asiatic  Cholera,  Malignant  Cholera,  or  Cholera 
Asphyxia,  has  within  a  few  years  afflicted  many 
parts  "of  i!ie  world,  is  reputed  to  have  originated 
in  August,  1817,  at  Jessore,  the  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict in  Bengal,  lyinnr  to  the  northeast  of  Cal- 
cutta. In  the  following  September  it  invaded 
CitleuHii,  soon  after  many  other  cities  of  Hin- 
dostan;  and  in  a  short  time  it  extended  its  rav- 
ages into  .yarious  other  countries  of  Asia.  It 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CHO 


629 


cm 


his  been  estimated  that  during  the  14  years 
from  its  commencement  at  Jessore,  it  carried 
off  no  less  than  18  millions  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Hindostan ;  and  its  ravages  are  said  to  have 
been  still  greater  iu  China.  See  the  "  Revue 
Encyclopedique  "  for  June,  1831.  In  1830,  it 
invaded  European  Russia,  and  afterwards  Po- 
land, Hungiry,  Germany,  Austria,  and  other 
countries  of  Europe.  In  1831,  in  October,  it 
broke  out  at  Sunderland,  in  England ;  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1832,  in  London;  soon  afterwards  in 
various  places  in  the  British  Empire ;  in  Paris, 
near  the  last  of  March  ;  at  Quebec  and  Montreal 
in  June ;  and  at  New  York  in  July.  The  mor- 
tality in  Paris  was  very  great,  but  the  official 
reports  after  the  first  fortnight  embraced  only  a 
part  of  the  deaths.  The  number  of  deaths,  as 
reported,  from  the  26th  of  March  to  the  loth  of 
April,  was  8,198;  and  in  France,  to  the  1st  of 
August,  6!),159.  The  number  of  cases  in  En- 
gland and  Scotland,  as  reported,  from  the  com- 
mencement of  tiie  disease  to  the  1st  of  Septem- 
ber, was  47,874  ;  deaths,  17,684;  in  Ireland,  to 
the  1-rth.of  August,  22,865  cases,  and  7,119 
deaths.  During  its  second  appearance  in  Lon- 
,  don,  no  reports  were  published.  The  number 
of  cases  in  Hungiry  has  been  stated  at  435,330, 
and  of  deaths,  at  188,000. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  number  of 
cases  of  the  Cholera  and  of  deaths  in  various 
places  which  have  been  visited  by  it,  as  report- 
ed, and  stated  in  different  Journals. 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Civse-  Deaths. 

Dublin,  9,252  2,775 

Glasgow,  to  AU2.  15,                    4,164  1,993 

Liverpool,  "        31,                  4,(i4J  1,397 

London,  to  April  28,                   2,53-2  1,334 

Cork,  3,305  843 

Limerick,  2,497  843 

Dn.gheda,  to  July  28,                   1,202  483 

Edinburgh,  "    25,                     796  4G7 

Paisley,  "    25,                     633  308 

Belfast,  2,559  313 

Greeni>ck,  to  July -25,                      534  275 

Hull,  "    28,                      72f.  250 

Leeds,  "     26,                      544  212 

York,  "    25,                     334  152 

Plymouth,  "    26,                     354  147 

Le'ith,  "    25,                     194  112 

Wairington,  "    26,                      243  1  >!) 

Carlisle,  "    25,                     214  }'.>:)- 

Continent  of  Europe. 

St.  Petersburg,  9,247  Op 

MOW.IW.  8,576  4,f>9'l 

Le.nberg,  4,922 

Vienna,  3,934  1,893 

Warsaw,  3,912  1,460 

Berlin,  2,220  1,401 

Prague,  3,234  1,333 

KoniKsberg,  2,188  1,314 

Niznei  Novgorod,  1,897  982 


Kazan, 

Breslau, 

Brtinn, 

Hamburg, 

Maudeburg, 

Elbing, 

Stettin, 

Halle, 

America. 

Quebec,  to  Sept.  I, 

Montreal,  "    2, 

New  York,  "     8, 

Do.  Oct.  12, 

Philadelphia,       Sept.  1, 
Baltimore,  "   29, 


Cases.  Death.. 

1,487  857 

1,276  671 

1,540  604 

874  455 

576  346 

434  283 

366  250 

303  152 

2,218 

4,385  1,843 

5,842  3,197 

3,471 

2,240  740 

710 
1,146 


Albany,  "     8,  1,146  418 

Norfolk,  "11,  400 

Rochester,  "    3,  389  107 

CHRISTIANITY  was  propagated  in  Spain 
in  36 ;  in  Britain,  CO ;  or  as  others  say,  in  the 
5th  century  ;  in  Franconia  and  Flanders,  in  the 
7th  century ;  in  Lombardy,  Thuringia,  and 
Hesse,  in  the  8th  century;  in  Sweden,  Den- 
mark, Poland  and  Russia,  in  the  9th  century; 
in  Hungary  and  Sclavonia,  in  the  10th  century; 
in  Vandalia  and  Prussia,  in  the  Uth  century; 
in  Pomerania  and  Norway,  in  ihe  12th  century  ; 
in  Livonia,  Lithuania  and  part  of  Tarlary,  in 
the  13th  century;  in  Sclavonia,  part  of  Turkey, 
and  the  Canary  isles,  in  the  14th  century  ;  iu 
Africa,  at  Guinea,  Angola,  and  Congo,  in  the 
loth  century  ;  made  great  progress  in  Prussia, 
fboth  the  Indies,  and  in  China,  by  the  Protestant 
faith,  in  the  16th  century  ;  reinstated  iu  Greece, 
&c.  &c.  in  the  17th  century. 

CHRISTMAS- DAY  first  observed  as  a  fes- 
tival. 98. 

CHURCH  MUSIC  introduced  into  worship, 
350 ;  choral  service  first  used  in  England,  at 
Canterbury,  677;  changed  throughout  England, 
from  the  use  of  St.  Paul's  to  that  of  Sarum, 
1418  ;  first  performed  in  English,  May  8,  1559. 

CHURCH  YARDS  first  consecrated,  317; 
admitted  into  cities,  740. 

CINNAMON  TRADE  first  began  by  the 
Dutch  1506;  but  had  been  known  in  the  time 
of  Augustus  Caesar,  and  long  before. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS.  The  first  was 
Magellan,  or  rather  by  his  fleet,  as  he  was  him- 
self slain  on  the  voyage,  1520;  Groalva,  1527; 
Alvaradi,  1537;  Mendana,  1567;  sir  Francis 
Drake,  1577;  Cavendish,  1586;  Lemaire,  1(515; 
Quiros,  1625;  Tassman,  1642;  Cowley,  1683; 
Dampier,  1(589;  Cooke,  1708;  Clipperton  and 
Sherlock,  1719;  Anson;  1740;  Byron,  1764; 
Wallis,  1760;  Cook,  1763,  1772,  1776;  contin- 
ued by  King,  1780 ;  and  since  by  Portlocke, 
1788;  Bougainville,  1766;  "La  Peyrouse,  17S2- 
D'Entrecasteux,  1791. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


COL 


630 


COM 


CIRCUMNAVIGATORS  of  the  U.  States, 
the  first  ship  with  which  this  was  performed, 
returned  to  Boston,  in  December.  1790. 

CLOCK  MAKERS,  three  from  Delft,  first 
in  England,  1568. 

CLOCKS,  called  water  clocks,  first  used  in 
Rome,  158  years  before  Christ ;  clocks  and  dials 
first  set  up  in  churches,  913;  clocks  made  to 
strike  by  the  Arabians,  801  ;  by  the  Italians, 
1300;  a  striking  clock  in  Westminster,  1368; 
the  first  portable  one  made  1530;  none  in  En- 
gland that  went  tolerably,  till  that  dated  1540, 
maker's  name,  N.  O.  now  at  Hampton  court 
palace ;  clocks  with  pendulums,  &c.  invented 
by  one  Fromantil,  a  Dutchman,  about  1656 ; 
repeating  clocks  and  watches  invented  by  one 
Barlow, "1676.  Till  about  1031,  neither  clocks 
nor  watches  were  general. 

CLOTH,  coarse  woollen,  introduced  into  En- 
gland, 11U1 ;  first  made  at  Kendal,  1390;  med- 
leys first  made, 1614. 

CO  ACHES  first  used  in  England,  1580  ;  an 
act  passed  to  prevent  men  riding  in  coaches  as 
effeminate,  in  J601.  Began  to  be  common  in 
London,  1G05.-  Hackney  chariots,  not  to  ex- 
ceed 200,  licensed  1814. 

COALS  discovered  near  Newcastle,  1234  ; 
first  dug  at  Newcastle,  by  a  charter  granted  the 
town,  by  Henry  III ;  first  used,  1280 ;  dyers, 
brewers,  &c.  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I,  began 
to  use  sea  coal  for  fire,  in  1350  ;  in  general  use 
in  London,  1400. 

Coal,  in  the  United  States,  is  found  in  great 
abundance  on  both  sides  of  the  Appalachian 
mountains.  A  coal  mine  near  Pittsburg,  took 
fire,  and  burned  many  years;  the  fire  was  final- 
ly extinguished  by  the  incumbent  earth  and 
rocks  falling  into  the  cavity. 

COFFEE,  first  brought  into  England  by  Na- 
thaniel Conopius,  a  Cretan,  who  mnde  it  his 
common  beverage,  at  Baliol  college,  Oxford,  in 
1041  ;  first  brought  to  Marseilles,  1644. 

COFFEE  TREES  were  conveyed  from  Mo- 
cha to  Holland,  in  1616;  and  carried  to  the 
West  Indies  in  the  year  1726;  first  cultivated 
at  Surinam  by  the  'Dutch,  1718 ;  its  culture 
encouraged  in  the  plantations,  1732. 

COIN,  silver,  coined  at  Rome,  26!)  before 
Christ ;  before  then  brass  money  was  only  used ; 
coin  first  used  in  Britain,  25  years  before  Christ. 
The  Mint  of  the  United  States  of  America,  es- 
tablished 1793,  issued  gold  and  silver  coin  ;  the 
copper  had  been  delivered  before. 

COINING  with  a  die  first  invented,  1617; 
first  u«?d  in  England,  1620. 

COLLEGES,  as  places  of  public  instruction 


in  which  acapemical  degrees  were  granted, 
were  first  known  at  Paris,  A.  D.  1215,  and  were 
completely  established  there  1231. 

The  following  list  shows  the  names  of  the 

S'ncipal  colleges  and  universities  in  Europe  : — 
mbridge  began  626.  according  to  some  others, 
900;  revived,  1110;  Dublin,  1591;  Edinburgh, 
founded  by  James  VI,  1580 ;  Frankfort  on  the 
Oder,  1506  ;  Geneva.  1365  ;  Glasgow,  Scotland, 
1450;  Gcetingen,  Hanover,  1734;  Leipsic,  Sax- 
ony, 1409;  Moscow,  1754 ;  Oxford,  in  England, 
886;  Padua,  Italy.  1197;  Paris, 792*,  Petersburg, 
Russia,  1747;  Sorbonne,  Fran.ce,  1253;  Stras- 
burg,  Germany,  1588;  Venice,  1592;  Vienna, 
1236;  Utrecht,  Holland.  1636;  Wurtemburg, 
Saxony, 1502. 

COMEDY,  the  first  acted  in  Athens,  on  a 
scaffold,  by  Susarian  and  Dalon,  562  B.  C. ; 
those  of  Terence  first  acted  154  B.  C. ;  the  first 
in  England  1551. 

COMMERCE.  The  first  mention  made  of 
nations  trading  one  with  another  appears  in  the 
book  of  Genesis,  chap,  xxxviii.  25,  when  Jo- 
seph's brethren  sold  him  to  a  caravan  of  Ishma- 
elites,  who  were  conveying  spices,  balm  and 
myrrh  into  Egypt.  The  balm  was  from  Gilead,* 
and  the  myrrh  was  the  produce  of  Arabia. 
They  were  going  through  the  land  of  Canaan 
to  Egypt,  which  was  then  a  highly  cultivated 
kingdom. 

The  central  situation  of  Egypt  has  always 
made  it  the  emporium  of  commerce.  By  cara- 
vans, the  treasures  of  Asia  and  Africa  were 
brought  thither.  Trade  was  always  held  in 
esteem,  because  of  the  wealth  it  brought.  Of 
the  maritime  trade  of  the  Egyptians,  we  have 
no  tegular  account,  for  they  superstitiously 
neglected  the  sea  for  many  ages. 

Tyre  and  Sidon,  cities  of  Phoenicia,  are  next 
found  rising  into  notice.  Their  country  was 
not  rich  in  its  productions ;  industry  alone  made 
their  rocks  productive  ;  they  conveyed  tbeir 
merchandise  from  port  to  port,  and  commerce 
by  feeding  industry  was  itself  enriched. 

About  eleven  hundred  years  before  Christ,  in 
the  time  of  David,  the  Phoenicians,  in  the  true 
spirit  of  commerce,  continually  extended  their 
voyages,  and  finding  plenty  of  gold  in  Spain, 
'tlMW  formed  a  settlement  for  the  purpose  of 
trlBe,  called  Gadir,  now  Cadiz. 

Solomon  saw  the  advantage  of  commerce, 
and  caused  ships  to  be  built,  which  he  sent  to 
Ophir,  and  which  brought  back  gold,  silver, 
ivory,  birds  and  other  things,  lie  had  also 
great  traffic  with  Egypt,  whence  he  obtained 
horses  and  fine  linen. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


COM 


631 


COM 


About  869  years  before  Christ,  Carthage  was 
built,  and  became  famous  for  her  commerce 
throughout  the  civilized  world.  In  700  li.  C. 
Corinth  became  distinguished  as  a  maritime 
power,  and  made  great  improvements  in  the 
building  of  ships. 

In  588  B.  C.  Tyre  became  famous.  We  read 
an  interesting  account  of  her  commerce  and 
•plendor  in  the  2oth,  27th,  and  28th  chapters  of 
Ezekiel.  But  the  Tyrians  drew  upon  them- 
selves the  vengeance  of  God,  and  they  were 
subdued  first  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  after- 
wards more  completely  by  Alexander  332.  B.  C. 

The  Phrenicians,  after  the  destruction  of 
Tyre,  still  pursued  and  enlarged  the  sphere 
of  commerce,  by  means  of  Carthage,  till  that 
city  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans  14G  B.  C. 
At  this  lime,  the  Grecian  states  came  into  view 
by  their  attention  to  naval  affairs.  Athens  and 
Sparta  in  turn  became  famous,  and  remained  so 
till  their  overthrow. 

Alexander  paid  great  attention  to  commercial 
affairs,  and  built  the  cities  of  Alexandria  and 
Berenice,  at  which  places  he  carried  on  an  ex- 
tensive trade  with  the  west  by  means  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea;  with  the  richer  provinces 
of  the  east  by  the  Red  Sea ;  and  with  the  central 
countries  of  Asia,  by  the  isthmus  of  Suez.  He 
kept  up  large  fleets,  and  his  revenues  were  im- 
mense. 

The  Romans  were  ignorant  of  the  value  of 
commerce,  and  as  if  they  were  determined  to 
root  it  out,  destroyed  Corinth,  which  was  one 
of  the  most  commercial  cities  of  Greece.  Great 
stagnation  of  commerce  now  followed,  which 
was  felt  by  all  the  surrounding  countries,  till  the 
time  of  Julius  Cssar,  who  determined  to  revive 
it,  and  restored  in  one  year  both  Corinth  and 
Carthage. 

As  the  Romans  were  now  masters  of  all 
around  the  Mediterranean,  they  began  to  favor 
commerce  for  their  own  sake.  They  therefore 
obtained  supplies  from  all  the  regions  round 
about,  to  minister  either  to  their  necessities  or 
their  luxuries.  The  return  they  made  for  these 
various  and  choice  articles  was  in  money,  and 
therefore  this  interchange  can  hardly  be  called 
commerce.  Indeed  the  Romans  have  never 
been  a  commercial  people,  they  despised  the 
character  of  a  merchant,  and  wished  to  rule  and 
obtain  riches  only  by  the  sword. 

After  the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to 
Constantinople,  Theodoric  became  kingof  Italy, 
and  under  his  wise  and  peaceful  reign,  com- 
merce began  a^in  to  flourish,  though  in  a  re- 
duced state.  In  the  east,  silk  began  to  be  a 


great  article  of  commerce,  and  the  Persians  en- 
riched themselves  very  much  in  their  trade  with 
ships  from  India,  which  stopped  at  their  ports. 

In  the  middle  of  the  5th  century,  the  Turkish 
power  began  to  rise  and  carried  on  trade  be- 
tween China  and  Constantinople.  In  732  Ven- 
ice began  to  pay  attention  to  commerce,  and 
carried  on  extensive  traffic  with  the  east.  Many 
other  states  in  Italy  also  carried  on  a  large  trade 
with  different  countries,  in  10G3,  Pisa  and  Ge- 
noa, became  distinguished  as  commercial  cities. 

At  the  accession  of  William  the  Conqueror  to 
the  throne  of  England,  100(5,  we  date  the  com- 
mencement of  commerce  in  that  country ;  as 
much  intercourse  took  place  between  Normandy 
and  England. 

The  Crusade  we  find  giving  the  next  spur  to 
commerce.  The  Crusaders,  finding  in  the  east, 
luxuries  that  they  could  not  procure  at  home, 
determined  to  supply  themselves  with  these 
foreign  elegances,  conveniences  and  necessi- 
ties. Commerce  therefore  began  to  extend 
itself  with  rapidity. 

The  discovery  of  the  polarity  of  the  loadstone 
gave  new  wings  to  commerce ;  it  was  applied 
to  navigation  about  the  year  1200.  In  the  time 
of  king  John,  1216,  England  became  very  rich 
and  populous  by  trade,  and  the  people  flourished 
accordingly. 

In  1241,  the  German  towns  began  to  engage 
in  commerce,  and  entered  into  a  league  for  mu- 
tual defence.  They  were  called  the  Hanse 
towns.  They  made  themselves  very  rich  and 
powerful.  Edward  I  of  England  allowed  them 
great  privileges  in  trade,  which  were  however 
curtailed  under  Edward  VI.  in  the  time  of 
Elizabeth,  another  blow  was  struck  at  their 
commerce  ;  but  in  spite  of  all,  they  became  89 
formidable  that  the  governments  of  several  states 
entered  into  a  league  against  them,  which  result- 
ed in  their  power  being  weakened,  and  finally 
sunk,  in  1622. 

About  the  year  1251,  we  find  Florence  rising 
into  notice,  in  a  commercial  point  of  view.  Its 
trade  was  immense,  and  its  fabrics  beautiful  and 
costly.  The  merchants  amassed  great  wealth, 
and  became  the  bankers  of  all  Europe.  This 
state  of  splendor  continued  for  centuries. 

Flanders  was  for  some  time  the  seat  of  the 
principal  manufactories  of  Europe.  As  far  back 
as  the  year  !*6(),  we  find  the  Flemish-  trading  to 
great  advantage.  In  1253,  they  w*>re  famous 
for  their  linens,  and  they  continued  eminent  for 
their  manufactures  till  1584,  wnen  Antwerp 
was  destroyed  by  (Jie  duke  of  r^arma.  This  put 
an  end  to  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  and  her 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


COM 


632 


COM 


fine  manufactures  were  dispersed  among  other 
nations. 

Hitherto,  the  trade  with  India  had  been  car- 
ried on  by  caravans,  but  in  1497,  a  passage  being 
found  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  way 
was  now  open  to  wealth  and  luxury. 

In  the  year  1500,  the  Portuguese  began  to 
make  settlements  in  Africa,  and  soon  after  Por- 
tugal became  the  centre  of  commerce,  till  1580, 
when  the  kingdom  was  seized  by  the  king  of 
Spain. 

From  the  reign  of  John  in  121 G  to  1317,  com- 
merce flourished  in  England.  But  at  that  time, 
quarrels  between  the  English  and  Flemish  were 
BO  fierce,  that  all  commercial  intercourse  were 
suspended.  In  1331,  it  was  again  revived  under 
Edward  III  who  introduced  the  manufacture  of 
woollen  cloth. 

In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,  the  reformation 
was  of  great  service  to  commerce,  and  in  the 
time  of  Edward  VI,  a  trade  was  entered  into 
with  Russia.  Queen  Elizabeth  greatly  encour- 
aged commerce.  She  formed  several  trading 
companies,  one  to  Russia,  and  another  to  Tur- 
key and  the  Levant.  The  East  India  Company 
began  during  her  reign  in  1660.  Under  her 
patronage  also,  settlements  were  first  made  in 
North  America.  These  settlements  soon  be- 
came new  channels  for  commerce  and  outlets 
for  the  manufactures  of  England. 

The  East  India  Company  was  dissolved  in 
1655,  but  the  injury  to  commerce  was  so  great, 
that  it  was  reestablished  in  1657.  Holland,  at 
this  lime  was  gaining  great  power,  and  her  p$o- 
ple  were  famous  for  their  trade.  In  1689,  the 
East  India  Company  founded  Calcutta,  their 
principal  settlement  in  Hindostan.  The  other 
two  are  Madras  and  Bombay. 

Under  the  house  of  Brunswick,  the  commerce 
of  England  increased  with  great  rapidity.  Many 
places  of  small  importance  sprang  up  and  be- 
came rich  and  flourishing. 

The  East  India  trade  has  been  very  success- 
ful, and  has  flourished  notwithstanding  the 
opposition  it  has  encountered.  The  Company 
have  not  only  had  great  mercantile  transactions, 
but  they  also  possess  territory  as  large  as  half 
Europe.  Their  trade  is  great  with  the  Spice 
Islands  and  with  China. 

As  for  the  commerce  of  our  own  country. 
•fler  independence  was  declared,  our  commer- 
cial resources  began  to  develope  themselves. 
Our  ships  penetrated  to  the  most  distant  seas, 
and  brought  home  with  them  the  produce  of 
erery  clime.  Our  commercial  prosperity  is  now 
established  on  an  enduring  basis. 


COMPANIES,  SOCIETIES,  &c.  African 
Colonization  Society,  originated  at  Wnshing 
ton  city,  December  2lst.  1816;  Auxiliary  So- 
cieties, soon  after  formed  in  many  parts  of 
the  United  States. 

Agricultural  Society  of  New  York,  1797. 

Agricultural  Society  of  Philadelphia,  formed 
1785;  revived,  1804  ;  incorporated,  1809. 

Antiquarian  Society  in  Massachusetts,  1792. 

Bank  of  Englnnd,  established,  1693.  An  ac- 
count of  the  liabilities  and  assets  of  the  Bank 
of  England,  on  the  average  of  the  quarter 
from  the  23d  of  Sept.  to  the  16th  of  Dec.  1834, 
both  inclusive. 

Liabilities.  Assets. 

Circulation        £18,304,000    Securities         £26,362.000 
Deposits  12,250,000    Bullion  6,720,000 


£30,560,000 

Bank  of  Amsterdam,  founded  1609. 

Bank  of  Venice,  1157. 

Bank  of  Rotterdam,  1035.  For  other  Banks, 
see  art.  Banks. 

Bible  Societies.— Bible  Society  of  Philadelphia, 
formed  May  7th,  1808;  first  in  New  York, 
December  4,  1809  ;  Salem  in  Massachusetts, 
instituted  May  15,  1811  ;  of  Baltimore,  1810; 
the  American  Bible  Society  in  New  York, 
established  May  8th.  1815. 

Boston  Athenaeum,  incorporated,  1807;  Boston 
Episcopal  Charitable  Society,  incorporated, 
1724 ;  Boston  Female  Asjlum,  incorporated 
1800;  Boston  Library,  1794. _ 

British  Museum,  established  1753. 

Companies  first  established  in  London,  1198; 
cooks'  company  London,  incorporated,  1481 ; 
coopers'  company,  London,  incorporated, 
1501  ;  cordwainers'  company,  London,  in- 
corporated. 1410:  curriers'  company,  London, 
incorporated,  1605;  cutlers' company,  Lon- 
don, incorporated,  1417. 

Deaf  and  dumb  society,  for  the  instruction  of, 
instituted  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  June  24, 
1816. 

East  India  company,  in  England,  established, 
1600 ;  their  stock  then  consisting  of  £  72UOO, 
when  they  fitted  out  four  ships;  and,  meet- 
ing with  "success,  they  have  continued  ever 
since ;  India  stock  sold  from  360  to  500  per 
cent.  1683;  a  new  company  established,  1698; 
•  the  old  one  reestablished,  and  the  two  united, 
1700;  agreed  to  give  government  £400,000 
per  annum  for  four  years,  on  condition  that 
they  might  continue  unmolested,  1769;  in 
great  confusion,  and  applied  to  parliament  for 
assistance,  1773;  judges  sent  from  England, 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


CON 


633 


CON 


by  government,  faithfully  to  administer  the 

laws  there,  to  the  company's  servants,  April 

2,   1774;  board  of  control  instituted,   1784; 

charter  of  renewed,  18)3;    modified  lately. 

East  India  company,  of  Sweden,  erected  March. 

,  1731. 

South   Sea  company  began,  May  6.  1710;    its 
bubble,  1720 ;  its  directors' estates  to  the  value 
of  £2,000,000,  seized  1721  ;  compounded  with 
Mr.  Knight,  their  cashier,  for  £  10,000,  who 
had  absconded  with  £  100,000,  in  1720  ;  and 
he  returned  to  England,  1743. 
COMPASS,  or  the  polarity  of  magnetised 
iron,  one  of  the  greatest,  and  as  to  the  date  of 
its  discovery ,  most  uncertain  of  human  improve- 
ments.    There  is,  however,  good  evidence  to 
prove  that  the  mariner's  compass  was  in  use  in 
Europe  as  early  as  A.  D.  1180  ;  variation  first 
observed  by  Columbus   and   his  companions, 
1492;  its  dip.  about  1576. 

CONGRESS,  continental,  first  met  in  Phila- 
delphia, September  5th,  1774  ;  Oct.  8th,  resolve 
t.o  support  Massachusetts.  Second  congress 
assembled  May  10th,  in  Philadelphia;  June  7, 
style  the  colonies  "  The  Twelve  United  Colo- 
nies," Georgia  not  having  yet  acceded  to  the 
Union;  June  22,  1775,  appoint  eight  major 
generals  ;  May  5,  1776,  declare  the  authority  of 
England  abolished  ;  July  4,  declare  independ- 
ence ;  December  12,  1770,  adjourn  from  Phila- 
delphia to  meet  at  Baltimore ;  30th,  resolve  to 
send  commissioners  to  Prussia,  Austria,  Spain, 
&.C.;  September  18,  1777,  on  the  approach  of 
the  British  army,  adjourn  to  meet  in  Lancaster, 
from  where  they  again  adjourn  on  the  30th  of 
the  same  month  to  meet  in  Little  York.  Sep- 
tember 14th,  1778,  appoint  Benjamin  Franklin 
minister  to  France,  who  was  the  first  regularly 
constituted  ambassador  from  the  United  Stales, 
the  former  foreign  agents  being  styled  commis- 
sioners; October  4th,  1782,  resolve  against  a 
separate  peace  ;  June  26th,  1783,  adjourn  to 
Princeton,  and  from  thence  to  Annapolis,  where 
they  met  November  26th  ;  April  1st,  1789,  first 
assembled  under  the  federal  constitution  ;  Sep- 
tember 22,  1790,  pass  an  act  to  remove  to  Wash- 
in<rton  city  in  1800. 

/CONSPIRACIES  and  insurrections,  the 
niost  remarkable  in  ancient  or  modern  history. 
A  conspiracy  was  formed  against  the  infant 
republic  of  Rome,  to  restore  the  banished  Sex- 
tus  Tarquin,  and  the  regal  government,  in 
which  the  two  sons  of  Junius  Brutus,  the  first 
consul,  being  concerned,  were  publicly  con- 
demned and  put  to  death  by  their  father,  507, 
13.  C.  Another  by  the  Tarquin  faction  against 


the  Roman  senators  ;  Publius  and  Marcus  dis- 
cover it ;  the  other  conspirators  are  put  to  death, 
496.  Of  Catiline  and  his  associates,  to  murder 
the  consuls  and  senate,  and  to  burn  the  city  of 
Rome,  discovered  by  Cicero,  consul  for  the  year 
62.  An  insurrection  in  Spain  cost  the  lives  of 
30,000  Spaniards,  and  double  that  number  of 
Moors,  A.  D.  1560.  At  Malta,  to  destroy  the 
whole  order,  for  which  125  slaves  suffered  death, 
June  26th,  1749.  At  Lisbon,  by  several  of  the 
nobility,  who  shot  the  king,  1758.  At  St.  Do- 
mingo and  the  other  French  West  India  Isl- 
lands,  where  near  16,000  negroes  were  slain, 
and  400  whites,  and  550  plantations  destroyed, 
1794.  Of  the  prince  of  Asturias  against  his 
father,  1807.  Of  the  inhabitants  of  Madrid 
against  the  French,  in  which  many  persons 
were  killed,  1808.  In  Paris,  for  which  the  con- 
spirators,.three  ex-generals  and  eleven  officers 
were  executed,  October  30th,  1812.  AtTraven- 
core,  to  massacre  the  European  officers  at  an 
entertainment.  1812.  At  Lisbon,  to  overturn 
the  Portuguese  government,  May,  1817. 

Conspiracies  and  insurrections  in  England. 
Of  the  barons  against  Henry  III,  1258.  Of  the 
duke  of  Exeter  and  others,  against  the  life  of 
Henry  IV,  discovered  by  dropping  a  paper  acci- 
dentally, 1400.  Of  Richard,  duke  of  Glouces- 
ter, atrainst  his  nephews  Edward  V,  and  his 
brother,  whom  he  caused  to  be  murdered,  1483. 
Of  the  earl  of  Suffolk  and  others  against  Henry 
VII,  1506.  Insurrection  of  the  London  appren- 
tices, 7  Henry  VIII,  1527.  Against  queen  Eliz- 
abeth, by  Dr.  Story,  1571 ;  by  Anthony  Bab- 
bington  and  others,  1586;  by  Lopez,  a  Jew, 
and  others,  1593 ;  by  Patrick  York,  an  Irish  fen- 
cing master,  employed  by  the  Spaniards  to  kill 
the  queen,  1594  ;  of  Walpole,  a  Jesuit,  who 
engaged  one  Squire  to  poison  the  queen's  sad- 
dle, 1598 ;  all  the  conspirators  were  executed. 
Against  James  I,  by  the  marchioness  de  Ver- 
neuil,  his  mistress,  and  others,  1605.  The  Gun- 
powder plot  discovered,  Nov.  5th,  1605.  Of 
Sindercomb  and  others  to  assassinate  Oliver 
Cromwell;  discovered  by  his  associates;  Sin- 
dercomb was  condemned,  and  poisoned  himself 
the  day  before  he  was  to  have  been  executed, 
1656.  An  insurrection  of  the  Puritans,  1657. 
An  insurrection  of  the  fifth-monarchy  men 
against  Charles  II,  1660.  A  conspiracy  of 
Blood  and  his  associates,  who  seized  the  duke 
of  Ormond,  wounded  him,  and  would  have 
hanged  him  if  he  had  not  escaped  ;  they  after- 
wards stole  the  crown,  1670  and  71.  Of  the 
French,  Spanish  and  English  Jesuits,  counte- 
nanced by  the  pope,  to  assassinate  Charles  II  dis- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


COU 


634 


DIA 


covered  by  Dr.  Tongue  and  Titus  Gates.  1668; 
another  to  assassinate  him  at  the  Ilye-house 
farm,  near  Hoddesdon,  Hertfordshire,  in  his 
way  from  New  Market,  called  the  Rye-house- 
Pldt,  10S3.  Of  Lord  Preston,  the  bishop  of 
Ely,  and  others,  to  restore  king  James,  1691. 
Of  Granvil,  a  French  chevalier  and  his  associ- 
ates, to  assassinate  king  William  in  Flanders, 
1692.  A  conspiracy  by  the  earl  of  Aylesbury 
and  others,  to  kill  the  King  near  Richmond,  as 
he  came  from  hunting,  discovered  by  Fender- 
grass,  called  ihe  Assassination  Plot,  1635.  Of 
Simon  Frazer,  lord  Lovat,  in  favor  of  the  Pre- 
tender, against  queen  Anne,  1703.  Of  the 
marquis  Guiscard,  1710.  To  assassinate  George 
I.  by  James  Sheppard,  an  enthusiastic  youth, 
who  haii  heen  taught  to  consider  the  king  as  an 
usurper,  1718.  Of  counsellor  Layer  and  oth- 
ers to  bring  in  the  Pretender,  1722.  Of  colo- 
nel Despard  and  his  associates  to  assassinate 
George  III  and  overturn  the  government, 
1803 

COPPER  MONEY  first  coined  in  Scotland 
by  order  of  parliament.  1406;  in  Ireland,  139*.) ; 
in  France,  1580 ;  in  England,  the  first  legal, 
1689.  Tradesmen's  tokens,  or  half  pence,  were 
coined  in  1072;  penny  pieces  first  issued  July 
2Gth,  1797;  half  pence  on  the  same  principle, 
issued  January,  1800. 

COPPER  MINES  first  discovered  in  Swe- 
den, 13!lO;  in  England,  1561 ;  revived  in  Eng- 
land, 1689;  foundin  New  York,  1722.  The 
Paris  copper  mine  in  Anglesea  has  a  bed  of 
copper  ore  forty  feet  thick,  and  supplies  be- 
tween 29  and  30. WO  tons  annually. 

COUNCILS- That  at  Jerusalem,  when  the 
first  controversy  was  discussed,  48 ;  at  Antioch. 
269;  at  Aries,  314,  at  which  three  English 
bishops  were  present;  the  first  Nicene  one, 
when  328  fathers  attended,  against  Arius,  325; 
the  first  at  Constantinople,  when  Pope  Damasus 
presided,  and  150  fathers  attended,  381 ;  that  at 
Sardis,  when  376  fathers  attended,  400;  the 
first  at  Ephesus,  when  Pope  Celestine  presided, 
and  200  fathers  attended,  431  ;  that  at  Chalce- 
don.when  Pope  Leo  presided,  and  000  fathers  at- 
tended, 451  ;  the  tecond  at  Constantinople,  when 
Pope  Virgilius  presided,and  IGTy  fathers  attend- 
ed. 662;  niic  c:illf(i  the  Milevetan  council, 568; 
at  Constantinople,  in  COO;  at  Rome  in  649;  the 
third  at  Constantinople,  when  Pope  Agatho 
presided,  and  289  fathers  attended,  680  ;  the 
second  at  Nice,  when  Pope  Adrian  presided, 
and  350  fathers  attended,  787;  the  fourth  at 
Constantinople,  when  Pope  Adrian  presided, 
and  101  fathers  attended,  869;  that  at  Vercel- 


lus,  when  Pope  Leo  IX  presided,  1053;  the 
Lateran  one,  when  Pope  Calixtus  II  presided, 
and  300  fathers  attended,  1112;  the  second 
Lateran  one,  when  Pope  innocent  II  presided, 
and  1000  fathers  attended,  1139;  the  third  La- 
teran one,  when  Pope  Alexander  III  presided, 
and  300  fathers  attended,  1175;  the  fourth  La- 
leran  one,  when  Pope  Innocent  III  presided, 
and  Ilt5  fathers  attended,  1215  and  1217;  at 
Lyons,  1255  and  1274 ;  that  at  Vienna,  when 
Pope  Clement  V  presided,  and  300  fathers  at- 
tended, 1311  ;  one  at  Constance,  when  Pope 
John  XXII,  and  Martin  V  presided,  1414  ;  the 
sixth  Lateran  one,  when  Pope  Julian  III  and 
Pius  IV  presided  against  Luther,  15-46.  Ther« 
have  been  several  oilier  provincial  councils, 
and  others,  as  that  of  Avignon,  in  France,  and 
at  Bituria,  in  Tuscany,  1431  ;  at  Tours,  in 
France,  1448;  at  Florence,  in  Italy,  1449;  at 
Toledo,  in  Spain,  1473;  at  Aspurgh.  in  Ger- 
many, 1548  ;  at  Cologne  in  Germany,  1548;  at 
Treves,  in  Germany,  1548 ;  at  Cologne,  in  Ger- 
many 1549;  at  Me'ntz,  in  Almaine,  1549;  and 
at  Numantia,  in  Spain,  1550. 

COUNTIES  first  division  of,  in  England, 
A.  D.  900. 

CROWN,  the  first  Roman  that  wore  one, 
was  Tarquin,  616  B.  C. ;  first  used  in  England, 
872  ;  the  first  tiara,  or  Tripple  one,  used  by  the 
popes,  1364 ;  the  first  single  one  used  by  them 
was  in  553;  the  first  double  one  in  1303. 

CUSTOM  HOUSE.  London,  first  built, 
1559;  burnt  down  1814;  rebuilt  and  opened 
for  business,  1817. 

CYPHER,  or  the  Arabic  numerical  figures, 
introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Spain, 
in  813. 


I). 


DECIMAL  ARITHMETIC  introduced  into 
common  use  in  Europe,  about  1600. 

DEGREES  academical  first  granted  at  Paris 
1213. 

DELPHOS,  temple  of,  burnt,  548  before 
Christ. 

DELFT  earthenware  first  made  at  Faenza 
1450. 

DE  LA  PLATA,  river  of,  discovered  1512. 

DIAMONDS  first  polished  and  cut  at  Bru- 
RI-S.  M.-9. 

DIAMOND  MINES  discovered  in  Brazil, 
1730  ;  that  at  Coulour  in  the  East  Indies,  1640; 
that  at  Golconda,  in  1584;  one  sent  from  Bra- 
zil for  the  court  of  Portugal,  weighed  1680 
carats,  or  twelve  ounces  and  a  half,  valued  at 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


DIS 


635 


DIS 


224  millions  sterling.  Governor  Pitt's  weighed 
127  carats,  and  100  after  cutting,  and  sold  for 
£135,000,  to  the  king  of  France.  That  which 
belonged  to  Aurung  Zebe  weighed  793  carats, 
in  a  rough  state,  and  when  cut  279  carats,  worth 
£779,244.  The  grand  duke  of  Tuscany 's  weigh- 
ed 139  carats.  A  diamond  of  immense  value 
is  in  the  possession  of  the  Rajah  of  Mattan  in 
Borneo.  He  refused  an  offer  made  for  it  by  the 
Governor  of  Batavia,  of  $150,0^0,  and  two  large 
brigs  of  war,  with  their  guns  and  ammunition. 
It  is  said  to  be  shaped  like  an  e^g. 

DISCOVERIES,  Geographical,  in    modern 
times. 
861.  Feroe  Islands — discovered  about  this  time 

by  a  Scandinavian  vessel. 
871.  Iceland — discovered  by  some  Norwegian 
chiefs,  who  were  compelled  to  leave  their  na- 
tive country.  According  to  some  accounts  it 
had  been  visited  before  this,  by  a  Scandina- 
vian pirate,  Naddodd. 

950.  Greenland — discovered  by  the  Icelanders 
about  this  period.  The  first  colony  estab- 
lished there  was  destroyed  by  a  pestilence  in 
the  14th  century,  and  by  the  accumulation  of 
ice  which  prevented  all  communication  be- 
tween Iceland  and  Greenland. 
1001.  Winenland — a  part  of  the  continent  of 
America,  is  supposed  to  have  been  discovered 
by  the  Icelanders.  It  was  called  Winenland. 
or  Vinland,  from  the  abundance  of  a  species 
of  vine  found  there.  The  Icelandic  chroni- 
cles are  full  and  minute  respecting  this  dis- 
covery. 

1344.  Madeira — The   discovery   of  this  island, 
attributed   to   a.u   Englishman,   Robert   Ma- 
cham  ;  it  was  revisited  in  1419  by  Juan  Gon- 
zalez, and  Tristan  Vaz,  Portuguese. 

1345.  Canary  Isles — discovered  by  some  Geon- 
ese  and  Spanish  seamen,  having  been  known 
to  the  ancients. 

13G4.  Guinea — the  coast  of,  discovered  by  some 
seamen  of  Dieppe,  about  this  period. 

1416.  Porto  Santo — discovered  by  Vaz  and  Zar- 
co,  Portuguese. 

1419.  .Madeira — discovered  by  the  same  naviga- 
tors. It  was  first  called  St.  Lawrence,  aftW 
the  Saint's  day  on  which  it  was  seen  : — and 
subsequently  Madeira,  on  account  of  its 
woods. 

1434.  Cape  E:>jad3r  or  Nun— doubled  for  the 
first  time  by  the  Portuguese. 

1440  )  Smcrral  Riccr — discovered  by  the  Portu- 

1445  $      guese. 

144sJ.  Cape  I'erd— discovered  by  Denis  Fernan- 
dez, a  Portuguese. 
54 


1448.  Azores  Islands — discovered  by  Gonzallo 
Velio,  a  Portuguese. 

1449.  Cape  Verde  Islands — discovered  by  An- 
tonio de  Noli,  a  Genoese  in  the  service  of 
Portugal. 

1471 .  Island  of  St.  Tltomas.  under  the  Equator, 
discovered. 

1484.  Congo — discovered  by  the  Portuguese, 
under  Diego  Cam. 

I486  Cape  of  Good.  Hope — discovered  by  Bar- 
tholomew Diaz.  It  was  originally  called 
"  The  Cape  of  Tempests,"  and  was  also  nam- 
ed "  The  Lion  of  the  Sea,"  and  "  The  Head  of 
Africa."  The  appellation  was  changed  by 
John  II,  King  of  Portugal,  who  augured  fa- 
vorably of  future  discoveries  frotn  Diaz  hav- 
ing reached  the  extremity  of  Africa. 

1492.  Lucaijos  (or  Bahama)  Islands.  —  These 
were  the  first  points  of  discovery  by  Colum- 
bus. San  Salvador,  one  of  these  Islands,  was 
first  seen  by  this  great  navigator,  on  the 
night  of  the  llth  or  12th  of  October,  in  this 
year. 


Cuba,  Island  of 
Hispaniola.  or, 
St.     Domingo, 
1493.  Jamaica 


Jamaica  }  discovered 

St.  Christopher's  >  bus  in  his 
Dominica  )  age. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  —  doubl< 


discovered  by  Columbus 
in  his  first  voyage. 

by  Col  urn 
second  voy 


1497.  Cape  of  Good  Hope  —  doubled  by  Vasco 
di  Gama,  and  the  passage  to  India  discovered. 

1497.  Newfoundland — discovered  by  John  Ca- 
bot, who  first  called  it  Prima  Vista  and  Bac- 
calaos.  The  title  of  Prima  Vista  still  belongs 
to  one  of  its  capes,  and  an  adjacent  island  is 
still  called  Baccalao. 

149d.  Continent  of  America — discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus. 

Malabar,  Coast  of — discovered  by  Vasco  di 
Gama. 

Mozambique,  Island  of— discovered  by  Vas- 
co di  Gama. 

1499.  America,  Eastern  Coasts  of — discovered 
by  Ojede  and  Amerigo  Vespucci.     (It  is  con- 
tended by  some  that  this  preceded  by  a  year 
the  discovery  of  the  American  Continent  by 
Columbus.) 

1500.  Brazil— discovered  24lh  April  by  Alva- 
rez de  Cabral,  a  Portuguese,  who  was  driven 
on  its  coast  by  a  tempest.     He  called  it  the 
Lnnd  nf  the  Holy  Cross.   It  was  subsequently 
called  Brazil,  on  account  of  its  red  wood  ;  and 
was  carefully  explored  by  Amerigo  Vespucci, 
from  1500  to  1504. 

1501.  Labrador  and  River  St.  Lawrence  —  dis- 
covered by  Cortereal,  who  sailed  from  Lis- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


DIS 


636 


DIS 


bon  on  a  «oyage  of  discovery  for  the  Portu- 
guese. 

1502.  Gulf  of  Mexico.— Some  of  the  shores  of 
tliis  Gulf  explored  by  Columbus  on  his  last 
voyage. 

St.  Helena,  the  Island  of—  discovered  by 
Jean  de  Nova,  a  Portuguese. 

150(5.  Ceylon — discovered  by  the  Portuguese. 
Ceylon  was  known  to  the  Romans  in  the 
time  of  Claudius. 

15(K).  Madagascar,  Island  of — discovered  by 
Tristan  da  Cunha,  and  revisited  by  the  Por- 
tuguese navigator  Fernandez  Pereira,  in  1508. 
This  island  was  first  called  St.  Lawrence, 
having  been  discovered  on  the  day  of  that 
saint.  * 

1508.  Canada  —  visited  by  Thomas  Aubert. 
Known  before  to  fishermen  who  had  been 
thrown  there  by  a  tempest. 

Ascension  Isle — discovered  by  Tristan  da 
Cunha. 

Sumatra,  Island  of — discovered  by  Siquey- 
ra,  a  Portuguese. 

1511.  Sumatra — more  accurately  examined  by 
the  Portuguese.   ' 

Molucca  Isles — discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese. 

Sunda  Isles — discovered  by  Abreu,  a  Por- 
tuguese. 

1512.  Maldives. — A  Portuguese  navigator,  who 
was  wrecked  on  these  islands,  found  them  in 
occasional  possession  of  the  Arabians. 

Florida— discovered  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  ,a 
Spanish  navigator. 

1513.  Borneo  and  Java. — The  Portuguese  be- 
came acquainted  with  these  islands? 

1513.  South  Sea.— The  Great  Ocean  was  discov- 
ered this  year  from  the  mountains  of  Darien, 
by  Nunez  de  Balboa,  and  subsequently  navi- 
gated by  Magellan.  The  supposition  of  the 
New  World  being  part  of  India  now  ceased. 

1515.  Peru — discovered  by  Perez  de  la  Rua. 

1516.  Kio  Janeiro — discovered  by  Dias  de  Solis. 
l.'.li;.   liin  ill-  In  I'liitit — discovered  by  the  same. 

1517.  China,  discovery  of—  by  sea,  by  Fernand 
Perez  d'Andrada. 

1517.  Bengal — discovered  bv  some  Portuguese 
thrown  on  the  ivusl  by  a  tempest. 

1518.  Mexico  —  discovered    by    the   Spaniards 
Conquered  by  Cortes,  in  l.~.l:>. 

151(1.  Mii«rll<i,i,  Straits  of—  [Kissed  by  Magellan 
with  a  il-et  of  discovery,  filled  out  by  the 
Empetor  Cbarlei  V.  The  first  voyage  round 
the  world  was  undertaken  by  this  navigator; 
and  his  vessel  performed  the  enterprise,  al- 
though the  commander  perished. 


1520.  Terra  del  Fucgo — discovered  by  Magellan. 

1521.  Ludrone  Islands — discovered  by  Magellan. 
1521.  Philippines. — This  archipelago  discovered 

by  Magellan,   who  lost  his  lite   here   in   a 
skirmish. 

1524.  New  France. — The  first  voyage  of  discov- 
ery made  by  the  French  under  Francis  the 
First,  one  of  whose  ships,  after  reaching  Flor- 
ida, coasted  along  as  far  as  50  degrees  north 
latitude,  and  gave  to  this  part  the  name  of 
New  France. 

1524.  Nort h  America — travelled  over  from  Flor- 
ida to  Newfoundland  by  Verazzani,  a  Floren- 
tine, in  the  service  of  France. 

1525.  New  Holland — discovered  by  the   Portu- 
guese about  this  time  :  this   immense  tract 
was  for  some  time   neglected  by  Europeans, 
but  was  visited  by  the  l)utch.  at  various  peri- 
ods, from  161!)  to  1G44.     This  fine  country  is 
now  colonized  by  the  English,  and  every  year 
adds  something  to  our  knowledge  of  its  ex- 
tent and  its  peculiarities. 

1527.  New  Guinea — discovered  by  Saavedra,  a 
Spaniard,  sent  from  Mexico,  by  Cortez. 

1530.  Guinea,  the  first  voyage  to — made  by  an 
English  ship  for  elephants'  teeth. 

1534.  Canada — visited  by  Cartier,  of  St.  Malo  ; 
a  settlement  having  previously  been  made  in 
1523,  by  Verazzani,  who  took  possession  in 
the  name  of  Francis  I  of  France. 

1535.  California — discovered  by  Cortez. 

1537.  Chile — discovered  by  Diego  de  Almagro, 
one  of  the  conquerors  of  Peru. 

1541.  Labrador — discovered  by  a  French  engi- 
neer, Alphonze. 

1541.  India — the  first  English  ship  sailed  to,  for 
the  purpose  of  attacking  the  Portuguese. 

1542.  Japan — discovered    by   the    Portuguese, 
Antonio  de  Meta  and  Antonio  de  Peyxoto, 
who  were  cast  by  a  tempest  on  its  coasts. 

1545.  Potosi.  Mines  of— discovered  by  the  Span- 
iards. 

I"/'.  Spitzbergen — observed  by  the  English, but 
mistaken  for  part  of  Greenland.  Visited  by 
Barentz,  a  Dutch  navigator,  in  search  of  a 
northeast  passage,  in  15%. 

1553.  White  Sea. — This  sea,  which  had  not  been 
visited  since  the  time  of  Alfred,  was  now  sup- 
posed to  be  discovered  by  Chancellor,  the 
English  navigator. 

Nova  ZrnMa—  discovered  by  Willoughby, 
an  English  seaman. 

1575.  Salomons  Isles— discovered  by  Mendana, 
a  Spaniard,  sent  by  the  Goveinor  of  Peru. 

157(i.  Froliisher' s  Strait — discovered  by  the  En 
glish  navigator  whose  name  it  bears. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


DIS 


637 


DIS 


Greenland — further  explored  by  Frobisher, 
who  also  penetrated  further  between  this 
country  and  Labrador. 

1577.  New  Albion — discovered  by  Drake,  who 
was  the  second  to  attempt  a  voyage  round  the 
world,  which  he  performed  in  three  years. 

1580.  Siberia — discovered  by  Yermak  T imophu- 
ievitch,  Chief  of  Cossacks. 

1587.  Davis's  Strait- — discovered  by  the  English 
navigator  whose  name  it  bears,  in  his  voyage 
for  the  discovery  of  a  northwest  passage. 

1594.  Falkland  Islands— discovered  by  the  En- 
glish navigator,  Hawkins. 

1595.  .Marquesas — discovered    by   Mendana,   a 
Spaniard,  on  his  voyage  from  Peru  to  found  a 
colony  in  the  Solomon  Isles. 

Solitary  Island — discovered  by  Mendana  on 
the  above-named  voyage. 

1G06.  Jlrciiipelago  del  Espiritu  Santo — discover- 
ed by  Quires,  a  Portuguese,  sent  from  Peru. 
These  islands  are  the  Cyclades  of  Bougain- 
ville, and  the  New  Hebrides  of  Cook. 

Otakcite — supposed  to  be  discovered  by 
Quiros,  who  named  it  Sagittaria. 

1607.  )  Hudson's  Bay — discovered  by  the  cel- 

1610.  5  ebrated  English  navigator,  Hudson,  on 
his  third  voyage.  Venturing  to  pass  the  win- 
ter in  this  Bay  on  his  fourth  voyage,  he  was, 
with  four  others,  thrown  by  his  sailors  into  a 
boat,  and  left  to  perish. 

1607.  Chesapeake  Bay  —  discovered  by  John 
Smith. 

1615.  Straits  of  Le  Moire — discovered,  with  the 
island  of  Staten  on  the  east,  by  Le  Maire,  a 
merchant  of  Amsterdam,  and   Schouten,  a 
merchant  of  Horn. 

1616.  Cape  Horn— doubled  by  Le   Maire  and 
Schouten,  Dutch  navigators,  who  called    it 
after  the  town  of  which  Schouten  was  a  na- 
tive.    These  enterprising  men  performed  a 
voyage  round  the  world  in  about  two  years. 

1616.  Van  Dieman's  Land — discovered  by  the 
Dutch. 

1616.  Baffin  s  Bay— discovered  by  William  Baf- 
fin, an  Englishman.  The  nature  and  extent 
of  this  discovery  were  much  doubted,  till  the 
expeditions  of  Ross  and  Parry  proved  that 
Baffin  was  substantially  accurate  in  his  state- 
ment. 

1636.  Frozen  Ocean. — In  this  year  the  Russians 
discovered  that  this  ocean  washed  and  bound- 
ed the  nortli  of  Asia.  The  first  Russian  ship 
sailed  down  the  Lena  into  this  sea. 

1642.  JVeic  Zealand — with  the  southern  part  of 
Van  Dieman's  Land,  discovered  by  Tasman, 
a  Dutch  navigator. 


1654.  Bourbon,  Isle  of—occupied  hy  the  French. 
1673.  Louisiana — discovered   by  the   French. 

This  country  received  its  name  from  La  Salle, 

a  Frenchman,  who  explored  the  Mississippi, 

in  ll:52. 
1686.  Easter  Island — discovered  by  Roggewein, 

a  Dutch  navicrator. 
1690.  Kamschatka—the  principal  settlement  of 

the  Russians  on  the  coast  of  Asia,  discovered 

by  a  Cossack  chief,  Morosko.     This  country 

was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Russians  in 

1697. 
1692.  Japan.— Carefully  visited  by  Kampfer,  a 

German. 
1699.  A'cic  Britain.— This  island,  and  the  straits 

which  separate  it  from  New  Guinea,  discov- 


ered ,hy  Dampier.     This  enterprising  seaman 
rid  at  the  period 
of  this  discovery. 


made  a  voyage  round  the  worl< 


1711.  Kurile  Isles — occupied  by  the  Russians. 
The  people  of  these  islands,  which  are  21  in 
number,  still  pay  tribute  to  Russia.  They 
are  principally  volcanic. 

1723.  Behring' s  Strait — explored  and  designated 
by  a  Danish  navigator  in  the  service  of  Rus- 
sia, whose  name  it  bears.  Behring  thus  es- 
tablished that  the  continents  of  Asia  and 
America  are  not  united,  but  are  distant  from 
each  other  about  39  miles. 

1728.  Kamschatka — ascertained  by  Beruing  to 
be  a  peninsula. 

1741.  Aleutian  Isles — on  the  coast  of  North 
America,  discovered  by  Behring.  A  more 
accurate  survey  of  these  islands  was  made 
under  the  Russian  Government,  by  Captains 
Billing  and  Sarytchef,  from  1781  to  1798. 

1765.  Duke  of  York's  Island  —  discovered  by 
Byron. 

Isles  of  Danger — discovered  by  Byron. 

1767.  Otaheite— discovered  by  Wallis. 

1768.  Cook's  Strait — discovered  by  Capt  Cook 
on  his  first  voyage  round  the  world,  which 
occupied  from  1768  to  1771. 

1770.  JVeir  South  Wales — discovered  by  Captain 

Cook. 
1772.  Island  of  Desolation—the  first  land  south 

of  India,  discovered  by  Kerguelen,  and  called 

by  his  name.    Subsequently  called  the  Island 

of  Desolation  by  Captain  Cook. 
1774.  J\"ew  Caledonia — discovered  by  Cook  in 

his  second  voyage,  1772-1775. 
1778.  Icy  Cape — discovered  by  Captain  Cook. 
1778.  Sandwich  Islands — discovered  by  Cook  in 

his  third  voyage,  which  commenced  in  1776 

He  lost  his  life  in  1779. 
1797.  Bass's  Straits. — Mr.  Bass,  Surgeon  of  II. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


DUE 


638 


EAR 


B.  M.  S.  Reliance,  penetrated  as  far  as  West- 
em  Port,  in  a  small  open  boat,  from  Port 
Jackson,  and  was  of  opinion  that  a  Strait  ex- 
isted between  New  South  Wales  and  Van 
Diernan  s  Land.  .In  1799,  Lieut.  Flinders 
circumnavigated  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and 
named  the  Strait  after  Mr.  Bass. 

1804,5,  0.  Missouri — explored  to  its  sources  by 
Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke,  and  the  origin 
and  source  of  the  Columbia  ascertained. 

1819.  Barrow's  Straits — discovered  by  Lieut. 
Parry,  who  penetrated  as  far  as  "Melville 
Island,  in  lat.  ?432(/i\.,  and  long.  113°  47' W. 
The  Strait  was  entered  on  the  3d  of  August. 
The  lowest  state  of  the  thermometer  was  55 
degrees  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit. 

1819.  JVeir  Soulli  Shetland — discovered  by  -Mr. 
Smith,  of  the  biig  William,  bound  to  Valpa- 
raiso. 

1819.  )  .Vorth  America,  The  northern  limits  of— 

1822.  $  determined  by  Capt.  Franklin,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Coppermine  liver  to  Cape  Turn- 
again. 

1821.  Asia,  The  northern  limits  of— determined 
by  Baron  Wrangel. 

1825-0.  j\orth  America — Franklin's  second  ex- 
pedition, in  which  the  coast  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Coppermine  and  M'Kenzie's 
rivers,  and  the  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the 
latter  to  149.J  W.  Long,  were  discovered. 

1827.  jYurt/i  America. — In  August  of  this  year, 
Captain  Beechey,  in  H.  B.  M.  S.  Blossom, 
discovered  the  coast  from  Jcy  Cape  to  Point 
Barrow,  leaving  about  140  miles  of  coast 
unexplored  between  this  Point  and  Point 
Beechey.  Point  Barrow  is  in  150A  decrees 
West  longitude. 

1830.  Africa — Lander  descends  the  Quorra  or 
Niger  from  Boussa,  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
determining  the  long  agitated  question  of  the 
termination  of  that  river. 

1830-33.  jVortA  America— Capt.  Ross  examines 
the  northeastern  coast,  and  proves  that  the 
continent  reaches  to  Lancasti-r  Sound. 
DISTAFF    spinning,  first    introduced    into 

England  by  Bonavrra,  an  Italian   ]',(>'> 

DISTILLATION  of  spirituous  liquors  began 

in  the  I W\  century.     In  Ireland  in  1590. 

IMS  I'll, LING  first  practised  in  Spain  by  the 

Moors,  1150. 

DKi'itY  LAM:  THEATRE  built  i6G2; 

destroyed  by  fire  IC.T',':  rebuilt  KiTJ;  pulled 
down  l?:»l  ;  rebuilt  I7:»l;  burnt  H<)9  ;  rebuilt 
1111.1  M!,,.ii,'d  to  the  public,  November  10,  1812. 

DUELLING   introduced   into   Europe  as  a 
public  mode  of  trial,  A.  D.  1096;  became  com- 


mon as  a  manner  of  settling  points  of  honor, 
about  1520. 


EARTHQUAKES  and  VOLCANIC  ERUP- 
TIONS.     B.  C.  427    Eruption   of  Etna  and 
Earthquake  ravaged  environs  of  Catania. 
373  Helice   and   Bura  destroyed   by  an  earth- 
quake, attended  by  a  frightful  inundation. 
144  Isle  of  lliera  rose  from  the  JEgean  Sea 

during  an  earthquake. 
A.  D.  79   Eruption  of  Vesuvius  destroys  Her- 

culaneum  and  Pompeii. 
115  Antioch  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 

1137  Catania  swallowed  up  by  an  earthquake. 

1138  Ninth  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  after  which 
it  is  quiescent  for  Ki8  years. 

1302  Ischia  ravaged  by  a  volcanic  eruption  pre- 
ceded by  violent  earthquakes. 

1538  Monte  Nuovo,  a  hill  440  feet  high,  form- 
ed near  Naples. 

1573  Island  of  little  Kameni  rises  near  Hiera. 

1631  Eruption  of  Vesuvius  destroys  Torre  del 
Greco  with  3,000  persons. 

1GG6  New  eruption  of  Vesuvius  after  a  pause 
of  35  years  ;  since  this  period  in  constant  ac- 
tivity with  rarely  an  interval  exceeding  ten 
years. 

1069  Eruption  of  Etna;  Mount  Rossi,  450  feet 
high,  formed;  14  villages  and  towns,  and 
part  of  Catania  destroyed. 

1GD2  Jamaica  ravaged  by  an  earthquake,. and 
many  of  the  inhabitants  swallowed  up  by 
rents  in  the  ground ;  three  quarters  of  the 
houses  of  Port  Royal  with  the  ground  they 
occupied  sank  with  their  tenants  under  water. 

1693  Shocks  of  earthquake  in  Sicily,  which 
levelled  Catania,  and  49  other  places  to  the 
ground,  and  destroyed  100,000  persons. 

1099  Earthquakes  in  Java,  when  no  less  than 
208  severe  shocks  were  counted  ;  the  fish  kill- 
ed in  the  rivers  by  the  mud  which  filled  them, 
and  great  numbers  of  wild  animals  destroyed. 

1706  Eruption  of  Teneriffe,  attended  by  shocks 
which  caused  many  springs  to  disappear  and 
hills  to  rise  up  from  the  plains. 

1725  Eruption  of  the  volcano  Leirhnukur,  in 
Iceland,  during  which  a  tract  of  high  land 
sank  down  and  formed  a  lake,  and  a  hill  rose 
from  the  bed  of  a  lake. 

1730-36  Five  years'  convulsion  of  Lancerote ; 
the  earth  was  rent,  and  discharged  pestilen- 
tial vapors;  smoke  and  flames  rose  from  the 
sea  with  loud  explosions;  fiery  streams  of 
lava  of  great  extent  devastated  the  land,  chok- 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EAR 


639 


ECL 


ed  up  rivers,  and  running  into  the  sea,  killed 
great  numbers  offish  ;  30  volcanic  cones  from 
300  to  GOO  ft.  high  from  their  base  were  formed. 

1737  Earthquake  in  Kamschatka,  which  caused 
an  inundation  of  the  sea,  formed  new  hills, 
lakes,  and  bays. 

1746  Earthquake  in  Peru ;  200  shocks  expe- 
rienced in  the  first  24  hours ;  Lima  destroyed  ; 
several  new  bays  formed ;  nineteen  ships 
sunk  and  four  carried  a  great  distance  up  the 
country  by  the  rise  of  the  sea ;  several  volca- 
noes burst  forth  in  the  vicinity,  and  poured 
forth  torrents  of  water,  which  overflowed  ex- 
tensive tracts. 

1750  Conception  or  Fenco  in  Chili  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake,  and  overwhelmed  by  the 
sea. 

1753  Earthquake  destroyed  Lisbon  (Nov.  1), 
and  60,000  persons  perished  in  six  minutes. 
The  sea  first  retired,  and  then  rolled  in,  rising 
50  ft.  above  its  usual  level ;  the  largest  moun- 
tains in  Portugal  rocked  and  split  asunder, 
and  sent  forth  flames  and  clouds  of  dust.  The 
shock  was  felt  nearly  all  over  Europe,  in  the 
north  part  of  Africa,  rn  the  Atlantic,  and  even 
in  the  West  Indies  ;  a  vast  wave  swept  over 
the  coast  of  Spain,  in  some  places,  60  feet  in 
height,  and  near  Morocco  the  earth  opened, 
swallowed  up  about  10,000  persons  with  their 
herds,  and  then  closed  over  them. 

1759  The  volcano  of  Jorullo  in  Mexico  rose 
during  an  earthquake  from  the  plain  of  Mal- 
p;iis,  forming  a  hill  1600  feet  high. 

1766  Violent  shocks  agitate  Venezuela  occurring 
hourly  for  above  a  year. 

1772  Eruption  of  the  volcano  Papandayang  in 
Java  :  a  tract  of  country  15  miles  long  by  six 
broad  was  engulfed,  40  villages  swallowed  up 
or  overwhelmed,  and  the  cone  of  the  volcano 
was  reduced  in  height  4,000  feet. 

1777  During  the  eruption  of  the  volcano  on  the 
side  of  which  the  city  of  Guatimala  was  built, 
the  ground  gaped  open  and  swallowed  the 
whole  city  with  its  8,000  families. 

1783  Earthquake  in  Calabria  destroyed  all  the 
towns  and  villages,  20  miles  round  Oppido, 
and  40.000  persons  were  swallowed  up  or 
overwhelmed  ;  the  shocks  continued  for  four 
years. 

1783  Eruption  of  the  volcano  Asamayama  in 
Niphon,  preceded  by  an  earthquake,  during 
which  the  earth  yawned  and  swallowed  many 
towns. 

1797  Earthquake  in  Quito  destroyed  many 
towns  and  villages. 

1806  An  island  6'J  miles  in  circuit  with  several 
54* 


low  conical  hills  upon  it  rose  from  the  sea 
among  the  Aleutian  islands. 

1811  Earthquake  in  South  Carolina,  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi ;  the  latter  was  con- 
vulsed to  such  a  degree  Between  the  mouths 
of  the  Ohio  and  the  St.  Francis  as  to  create 
lakes  and  islands ;    and  deep  chasms  were 
formed  in  the  ground,  from  which  vast  vol- 
umes of  water,  sand,  and  coal   were  thrown 
up  to  the  height  of  GO  or  70  feet. 

1812  The  ,city  of  Caraccas   destroyed   by   an 
earthquake,  and  10.000  persons  buried  under 
its  ruins. 

1815  Eruption  of  the  volcano  Tomboro  in  Sum- 
bava,  attended  by  whirlwinds,  which  com- 
mitted great  ravages,  and  by  a  sudden  rising 
of  the  sea,  which  submerged  towns  <ind  con- 
siderable tracts.  Of  12,000  inhabitants  of  the 
island  only  26  survived. 

1819  An  earthquake  in  Cutch  destroyed  many 
towns  and  villages;  deepened  the  eastern  arm 
of  the  Indus  from  one  to  eighteen  feet;  sub- 
merged some  tracts  and  elevated  others. 
1822  Aleppo  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 
1822  Chili  ravaged  by  an  earthquake,  the  shock 
of  which  was  felt  for  a  distance  of  1200  miles ; 
the  coast  in  the  neighborhood  of  Valparaiso 
for  a  distance  of  100  miles  was  raised  above 
its  former  level  from  two  to  four,  and  even 
six  or  eight  feet :  the  whole  tract  thus  raised 
had  an  area  of  about  100,000  square  miles. 
1827  Earthquake  commits  great  ravages  around 

Bogota. 

1831  The  island  of  Sciacca  rose  from  the  sea 
near  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily  :  the  depth 
of  the  sea  at  this  spot  was  6DO  feet,  and  the 
island  was  100  feet  above  the  surface  :  circuit 
3,240  feet :  in  the  winter  of  1831,  the  island 
was  swept  away  by  the  waves,  leaving  only 
a  shoal. 

ECLIPSES,  the  most  remarkable,  of  the  sun, 
observed  at  Sardis,  and  predicted  by  Thales, 
585  B.  C.  At  Athens,  424  B.  C.  At  Rome, 
caused  a  total  darkness  at  noon-day,  A.  D.  291. 
At  Constantinople,  968.  In  France,  June  29, 
1033,  dark  at  noon-day.  In  England.  March 
21,  1140,  occasioned  a  total  darkness.  Another 
June  22,  1191,  entire  darkness,  and  the  stars 
very  visible  at  ten  in  the  morning.  In  the  same 
year  the  true  sun,  and  the  appearance  of  anoth- 
er, so  that  astronomers  alone  could  distinguish 
the  difference  by  their  glasses.  Another,  1331. 
A  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  in  England,  when 
the  darkness  was  so  great.,  that  the  stars,  faintly 
appeared,  and  the  birds  went  to  roost  in  the 
morning  about  ten,  April  22d,  1715.  Great 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


EMI 


640 


EMI 


Eclipse  in  the  Unitrd  States  130G;  another  1811; 
another  H31.  One  occurred  in  Id34, and  throe 
more  will  take  place  in  the  course  of  five  years. 
During  the  present  century  about  25  more  will 
occur. 

Eclipses  of  the  moon,  total,  observed  by  the 
Childeans  at  Babylon,  721  B.  C.  At  Syracuse, 
413  B.  C.  In  Asia  Minor,  219  B.  C.  At  Rome, 
predicted  by  Q.  f-ulpitius  Callus,  168  B.  C. 
Another,  which  terrified  the  Roman  troops,  and 
prevented  their  revolt,  A.  D.  14.  Eclipses  cf 
the  moon  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE,  near  Ply- 
mouth, England,  first  built,  1696;  blown  down, 
November  26,  1703  ;  rebuilt  170(i ;  burnt  down, 
December,  1755;  rebuilt  October,  1759;  again 
burnt  d<,v.-n  1770  ;  rebuilt  1774. 

ELECTRICITY,  first  idea  of,  given  by  two 
globes  of  brimstone,  14G7;  electric  spark  dis- 
covered at  Leyden,  174(i;  first  known  it  would 
fire  spirits,  1756 ;  that  of  the  aurora  borealis  and 
of  lightnincr  in  17(i9. 

ELGIN  MARBLES  purchased  by  the  Eng- 
lish government  at  £35,000,  and  added  to  the 
British  Museum,  1815. 

EMINENT  PERSONS.  Aben,  Ezra,  learn- 
ed Jewish  rabbi,  of  Toledo  in  Spain,  born  1099, 
died  1174. 

Abernethy,  John,  eminent  Irish  Protestant 
divine,  born  1680,  died  1740,  aged  60. 

Ainsworth,  Robert,  eminent  English  lexicor'- 
rapher,  born  1GGO,  died  1743. 

Alberoni,  cardinal,  celebrated  statesman,  born 
at  Placentia,  in  Itily,  1664,  died  1752,  aged  80. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  gardener. 

Alcibiades,  Athenian  general,  born  B.  C.  443. 
died  403. 

Alcuin,  or  Albinus  Flaccus,  philosopher, 
flourished  in  the  eighth  century.  He  was  a 
light  in  the  dark  ages,  and  f.unous  for  encour- 
aging learning  and  science  ;  a  native  of  Eng- 
land. He  founded  the  university  of  Paris,  by 
order  of  Chailemagne. 

Aldrovandi,  Ulysses,  eminent  naturalist,  born 
at  Bologna,  1922,  died  1605,  aen-d  «3 

Alfred,  son  of  Ethelred  11  kin<r  of  England. 
tad  Ins  ryes  put  out  by  earl  Godwin,  and  61  HI 
of  his  tnin  murdered  atGuilford  :  he  died  soon 
after  at  F.ly. 

Allen.  Rev.  Moses,  born  Sopt.  14,  1748.  He 
ze  il..ti-lv  j->ined  the  cause  «\  his  country  ;  was 
t:.k«-M  prisoner  nt  Srivann»h:  December.  177- ; 
and  \vn*  drowrwrl  1-Vb.  .-.  177.1.  in  an  attempt  to 
escape  .from  a  Britisli  pris-m  ship. 

Allen,  Paul,  Amcricini  poet,  historian  and 
edit.,r,  born  at  Rhode  Island,  and  died  in  Balti- 


more, August  19th,  182G,  in  the  55th  year  of  his 
age. 

Allen,  William  Henry, born  in  Rhode  Island, 
1734  ;  a  gallant  officer  of  the  United  Stales  navy, 
killed  in  battle  on  board  the  Argus,  Aug.  1813. 

Anacharsis,  a  Scythian  philosopher  who  re- 
sided most  part  of  his  life  in  Greece,  where  he 
flourished,  B.  C.  GOO. 

Anderson,  J;>s.  writer  on  commerce,  died  17G4. 

Andrews,  John,  1).  D.  provost  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  born  in  Cecil  county, 
Maryland,  174G,  died  in  Philadelphia. 

Anthony,Mark.  Roman  general  and  triumviri, 
born  B.  C"  86,  killed  himself  in  Egypt  after  the 
battle  of  Actium,  30  B.  C. 

Anthony,  Francis,  English  physician,  born 
1550,  died  1623  ;  he  was  the  inventor,  and  made 
a  fortune  by  vending  a  panacea,  called  Jurum 
potabile. 

A rbaces,  founder  of  the  Median  monarchy, 
B.  C.  820. 

Arc,  Joan  of,  a  much  celebrated  French 
woman,  born  in  Lorraine  about  A.  D.  1400, 
ruined  the  English  cause  in  France,  was  finally 
taken  prisoner  by  them,  and  burned  to  death  by 
the  English  at  Rowen,  1431. 

Arius.  founder  of  the  Arian  sect, died  A.D.  33G. 

Armstrong,  John,  Scots  physician  and  poet, 
born  at  Castleton,  Scotland,  1709,  died  1779. 

Arne,  Thomas  Augustus,  musician,  flourished 
from  about  1736,  to  his  death,  1778. 

Arnold,  Samuel,  musical  composer  of  emi- 
nence, born  1739,  died  1802. 

Arundel,earl  of,  who  brought  the  Arundelian 
marbles,  from  Greece  to  England ;  died  1645. 

Asaph,  St.  bishop  of  Llan-Elvy,  in  North 
Wales,  to  which  he  gave  his  own  name,  flour- 
ished A.  D.  590. 

Aspasia,  a  Greek  courtezan,  one  of  those  very 
rare  exnrnples  of  mental  power  and  moral  weak- 
ness, became  the  wife  of  Pericles,  flourished  at 
Athens,  B.  C.  430. 

Aspasia  of  Phocaea.  successively  wife  to  Cy- 
rus the  younger,  and  of  his  brother  Artaxerxes 
Mnemoii,  has  be^n  confounded  with  Aspasia  of 
Athens,  though  different  in  country  and  char- 
acter. 

Athanasius,  St.  a  very  celebrated  Christian 
bishop,  born  it  is  supposed,  about  29G.  He  was 
the  Catholic  champion  in  the  Arian  controver- 
sy ;  ordained  bishop  of  Alexandria,  A.  D.  327, 
which  he  held  46  years  to  his  death,  373. 

Atticus,  Pcmponius,  the  friend  of  Cicero,  and 
an  example  n  in  id  blood  and  violence,  of  the  best 
ci.'ects  of  stoical  philosophy,  born  B.  C.  100, 
died  33. 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EMI 


641 


EMI 


Atterbury,  Francis,  eminent  English  prelate, 
born  I6;J2,  made  bishop  of  Rochester,  1713  ;  but 
in  1722  deprived  and  banished  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment ;  died  at  Paris,  173L 

Bainbridge,  Commodore  William,  a  distin- 
guished commander  in  the  American  navy.  He 
was  born  at  Princeton,  N.  J.  on  the  7th  of  May, 
1774;  died  at  Philadelphia,  July  27,  1833,  in 
his  6Jth  year. 

Banks,  sir  Joseph,  English  philosopher,  a 
most  distinguished  man  in  science  and  litera- 
ture, and  president  of  the  royal  society,  born 
1740. 

Baranzano  Redemptus,  deserves  a  place  in 
history,  as  one  of  the  founders  of  inductive 
science,  was  contemporary  and  correspondent 
of  chancellor  Bacon  ;  born  in  Piedmont,  1590, 
died  at  Montargis,  1622. 

Barberac,  John,  eminent  jurisconsult,  and 
•writer  on  the  laws  of  nations,  born  at  Beziers, 
1674,  died  1747. 

Barclav,  Robert,  apologist  for  the  quakers, 
born  1648.  died  1690,  aged  only  42. 

Baretti,  Italian  lexicographer,  author  of  an 
esteemed  English  and  Italian  Dictionary,  was 
born  at  Turin,  1716;  came  to  England  and  be- 
came one  'if  the  companions  of  Johnson,  Burke, 
&c.  died  1789,  aged  73. 

Barneveldt,  John  Olden,  grand  pensionary  of 
Holland,  born  1547,  became  one  of  the  greatest 
diplomatists  of  his  age,  but  by  adopting  the 
opinions  of  Arminius,  was  involved  in  the  relig- 
ious controversies  which  then  distracted  his 
country.  By  his  influence  in  great  part,  Spain, 
in  lli'J.),  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the 
seven  united  provinces  ;  under  frivolous  charg- 
es he  was  beheaded,  1619,  aged  72. 

Barrow,  Isaac,  eminent  English  divine  and 
mathematician,  born  in  London  1630,  died  1677. 

Barthelerny,  John  James,  eminent  French 
writer,  author  of  "  the  travels  of  the  younger 
Anacharsis,"  born  at  Cassis  in  Provence  171(3, 
died  April  30th,  1795,  in  his  80th  year. 

Basil.  St.  bishop  of  Ancyra,  died  378,  aged  51. 

Bass,  Edward,  first  bishop  of  Massachusetts, 
born  I72.J,  died  1803,  aged  77. 

Bassi,  Laura,  an  Italian  lady  of  great  literary 
acquirements,  flourished  1732,  to  her  death  at 
Bologna,  1778. 

Baxter.  Richard,  eminent  English  non-con- 
formist divine,  and  religious  writer,  born  1U15, 
died  16!) I,  aged  76. 

Bavard.  John,  eminent  patriot  in  our  revolu- 
tion, born  in  Maryland,  1738,  died  1807,  aged 
68  years. 

Beatty,  William,  captain  in  the  Maryland  line 


under  colonel  Howard  ;  was  particularly  dis- 
tinguished in  the  battle  of  the  Cowpens,  and  in 
other  battles  of  the  revolution,  and  iell  in  battle. 

Beccaria,  Ctesar,  marquis  of  Bonesana,  author 
of  the  "  treatise  on  crimes  and  punishments," 
born  1720,  died  November,  1794,  a<red  74. 

Behmen,  Jacob,  called  by  his  followers  "  the 
German  Theosophist ;"  born  1577,  died  1624, 
aged  49. 

Bentham,  Jeremy,  a  celebrated  jurist,  died 
in  London, tJune  6,  1832,  aged  85.  He  was 
born  February  15,  (old  style)  1747-8,  in  Lon- 
don, was  educated  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
attained  the  degree  of  A.  M.  in  1767,  attended 
the  lectures  of  Sir  William  Blackstone,  after- 
wards entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar,  but  soon  abandoned  the  profession, 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  composition  of  his 
voluminous  writings  on  jurisprudence,  govern- 
ment, and  various  branches  of  political  and 
moral  science.  Mr.  Bentham  had  a  high  repu- 
tation for  talents,  and  held  a  correspondence 
with  many  of  the  most  distinguished  statesmen 
of  Europe.  As  a  writer,  he  was  very  obscure, 
but  he  had  able  friends  who  attempted  to  render 
some  of  his  numerous  works  intelligible.  A  part 
of  them  have  been  arranged  and  translated  into 
French,  by  his  friend  and  admirer  M.  Etienne 
Dumont,  of  Geneva,  and  printed  partly  in  Paris, 
and  partly  in  London.  This  eccentric  man, 
who  made  utility  the  basis  of  his  philosophy, 
bequeathed  his  body  to  the  dissectors,  in  ordei 
to  benefit  the  science  of  anatomy. 

Bernard,  of  Menthon,  founder  of  two  monas- 
teries in  the  Alps  on  Mountjoux,  since  called 
from  him,  Great  and  Little  St.  Bernard.  These 
mountain  monasteries  are  hospitals,  in  which 
poor  travellers  are  received,  fed,  lodged,  and  if 
sick  or  wounded,  treated  with  the  utmost  care. 
Though  subjected  to  the  changes  of  nine  hun- 
dred years,  these  hospitable  institutions  still 
subsist;  their  illustrious  founder  was  born  in 
the  Genevois,  A.  D.  903,  and  died  at  ISovara, 
988,  aged  65. 

Bernoulli,  Daniel,  a  great  mathematician, 
born  at  Groningen,  February  9,  1700,  and  died 
at  Basil,  March  17,  1782,  aged  82  years. 

Bertholdus,  to  whom  the  discovery  of  gun- 
powder has  been  ascribed,  died  A.  D.  1340. 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  captain  in  the  U.  States' 
navy,  during  the  revolutionary  war,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1750.  On  the  "night  of  March 
7lh.  1778,  he  was  blown  up  with  his  ship,  the 
U.  States  frigate  Randolph,  of  36 -guns,  and  315 
men,  in  an  action  off  Barbadoes,  with  the  Brit- 
ish ship  Yarmouth,  of  64  guns,  Capt.  Vincent. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


EMI 


642 


EMI 


Black,  Joseph,  Scots  chemist  and  physician, 
died  1799,  aged  71. 

BJackmore,  sir  Richard,  English'  poet  and 
physician,  born  1G50,  and  died  October  8,  1729, 
aged  79. 

Blair,  James,  a  Scots  Episcopalian  divine, 
founder  of  the  college  of  William  and  Mary, 
Virginia.  Mr.  Blair  was  born  in  Scotland,  about 
1060;  in  16d3,  he  was  sent  out  to  America,  as 
a  missionary,  by  Dr.  Compton,  bishop  of  Lon- 
don ;  and  by  the  same  prelate;  was  appointed 
in  1685,  his  commissary  in  Virginia.  It  was 
at  the  latter  epoch,  that  he  conceived  the  plan, 
and  by  unwearied  exertions,  succeeded  in 
founding  a  college  at  Williamsburg.  The  pa- 
tent for  the  college  was  granted  by  William  and 
Marv,  about  1693,  and  from  its  founders  named 
"  W'illiam  and  Mary  College,"  of  which  Mr. 
Blair  was  first  president ;  and  having  filled  the 
ministry  sixty,  and  the  presidency  of  the  col- 
lege fifty  years,  died  1743,  aged  about  83  years. 

Bland,  Pheodoric,  M.  D.  served  as  colonel  in 
the  revolutionary  army,  in  the  Virginia  line, 
with  much  reputation  ;  died  a  member  of  Con- 
gress, from  Virginia,  June  1st,  1790,  in  his  49th 
year. 

Blount,  sir  Charles,  born  1654,  died  1693, 
aged  3!). 

Bodmer,  "the  Father  of  German  Literature," 
was  born  at  Zurich,  1698,  died  1783,  ag-ed  85. 

Bonaparte,  Madame  Letitia,  mother  of  the 
emperor  Napoleon,  died  at  Rome,  October,  1832, 
aged  82.  Her  maiden  name  was  Lelitia  Ram- 
ofini.  She  was  born  at  Ajaccio,  Aug.  24, 1750  ; 
was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  young  women  of 
Corsica,  was  married  in  the  jiiidst  of  civil  dis- 
cord and  contention  to  Charles  Bonaparte,  an 
officer  who  fought  with  Paoli ;  was  possessed 
of  <rre:it  firmness  of  character  ;  and  was  left  a 
widow  in  17;&,  having  borne  13  children,  of 
whom  five  sons  and  three  daughters  survived 
their  father;  all  of  whom  became  celebrated. 

Botzaris,  Mark,  one  of  the  gallant  defenders 
of  liberty  in  modern  Greece,  was  born  in  Alba- 
nia, in  17^),  and  is  said  to  have  been,  at  an  early 
period  of  his  life,  in  the  French  service.  When 
the  Greeks  rose  to  throw  off  the  Ottoman  yoke, 
he  ardently  espoused  the  cause  of  his  country, 
and  wns  chosen  stratarch  of  Western  Greece. 
The  Turks  linvinir  invaded  Ktolia  with  a  large 
army,  he,  at  the  head  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
volunteers,  made  a  nocturnal  attack  on  the  en- 
emy's c  imp,  and  put  great  numbers  of  them  to 
the  sv.--.rd  ;  but  towards  the  close  of  the  contest 
ne  received  a  mortal  wound.  His  companions 
in  arms,  by  a  desperate  effort  succeeded  in 


bearing  him  from  the  field,  and  he  expired  at 
Missolonghi  on  the  following  day,  August  23, 
1823. 

Boydell,  John,  patron  of  the  arts  and  engraver 
by  profession;  born  at  Donington,  England, 
January  19,  1719;  came  to  London  on  foot, 
bound  himself  an  apprentice  to  an  engraver ; 
began  to  publish  1745—6,  and  in  1790,  had  ex- 
pended in  the  promotion  of  the  arts  in  general, 
and  the  Shakespeare  Gallery  in  particular, 
.€350,000  sterling,  or  1,554,000  dollars.  Died 
in  London,  December  7,  18G4,  having  nearly 
reached  the  age  of  eighty-six  years. 

Boyle,  Charles,  fourth  earl  of  Orrery,  gene- 
rally supposed  the  inventor  of  the  noble  astro- 
logical instrument,  which  bears  his  title,  born 
1676,  died  1731,  aged  55.  He  patronised  Row- 
ley, the  real  inventor  of  the  Planetarium,  called 
the  ORRERY. 

Bracton,  Henry,  eminent  English  law  writer, 
flourished  1244. 

Bradford,  William,  eminent  lawyer  of  Penn- 


iylvania;  born  in  Philadelphia,  September  14, 
755,  died  August  2:5,  17<!5,  aged  40. 
Bradford,  William,  one  of  the  first  printers  in 


English  America,  born  1658,  died  1752,  aged  94. 

Bradford,  William,  printer  and  editor  of  one 
of  the  first  public  papers  in  Philadelphia,  called 
the  Pennsylvania  Journal,  died  1791.  aged  73. 

Bradley,  James,  eminent  English  astronomer, 
born  16!'2;  succeeded  Dr.  John  Keil.  as  Savii- 
lian  professor  of  astronomy,  at  Oxford,  in  1721  ; 
discovered  the  aberration  of  the  fixed  stars,  and 
mutation  of  the  earth's  axis  ;  was  appointed  as- 
tronomer royal,  February, 1741-2,  died  July  13, 
1762,  aged  70. 

Braho,  Tycho,  eminent  astronomer,  born  in 
Sweden,  December  19th,  1646,  died  at  Prague, 
October  22d,  1601,  aged  55. 

Braxter,  Carter,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
declaration  of  independence,  born  in  Virginia, 
Sept.  10, 1736,  died  in  Richmond,  Oct.  10, 1797. 

Briggs,  Henry,  English  mathematician,  in- 
ventor of  Logarithmic  numbers,  born  1556, 
died  1630,  aged  74. 

Brigjjs,  Isaac,  eminent  mathematician,  died 
at  Sandy  Spring,  Maryland,  January,  Ic25, 
aged  62  years. 

Brindley,  James,  self  taught  English  mecha- 
nician, and  the  very  able  coadjutor  of  the  duke 
of  Bridgewater.  in  "the  construction  of  canals, 
locks,  bridges,  aqueducts,  &c.  born  1716,  died 
September~27lh,  1772,  aged  55. 

Brooke,  eminent  Em>-lTsh  law  writer,  flourish 
ed  1550-58. 

Brooke,  Henry,  author  of"  The  Fool  of  Qual 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EMI 


643 


EMI 


ity,"  an  excellent  novel,  born  in  Ireland,  1700, 
died  October,  18u3,  aged  77. 

Brooke,  Robert,  burn  at  London,  June  3d, 
1602;  an  early  emigrant  to  Maryland,  arrived 
June  2  >th,  1650;  "  he  was  the  first  who  did 
seat  Patuxent,  about  20  miles  up  the  river,  at 
Delia  Brooke.'"  He  died,  July  20th,  1655. 
Battel  creek,  in  Calvert  county,  Maryland,  is 
so  named  from  the  town  of  Battel,  in  Sussex, 
whence  Mr.  Brooke  removed,  when  he  set  out 
for  America. 

Browne,  John,  Scots  M.  D.  author  of  the 
"  Elements  of  Medicine,"  born  1735,  died  1788, 
aged  53. 

Bruno,  founder  of  the  Carthusians,  died  A. 
D.I  101,  aged  71. 

Buclian,  Dr.  William,  author  of  "  Domestic 
Medicine,"  &c.  died  Feb.  25th,  1805,  aged  7(i. 

Buchanan,  George.  Scots  poet  and  historian, 
born  1506,  died  1582,' aged  76. 

Buchanan,  George,  M.  D.  one  of  the  founders 
and  first  commissioners  engaged  in  1729,  to  set- 
tle and  purchiise  the  land  of  the  city  of  Balti- 
more, died  1745. 

Buchanan,  Claudius,  eminent  missionary  to 
the  East  Indies,  died  Feb.  t)th,  1315. 

Burgh,  James,  author  of  "  The  dignity  of 
Human  Nature,"  died  1775,  aged  61. 

Burrows,  William,  born  October  6,  1785;  a 
gallant  officer  in  the  United  States  navy,  who 
fell  a  victim  in  the  moment  of  his  glory,  6th 
Sept.  1813,  commanding  the  Enterprize,  which 
engaged  the  Boxer ;  he  received  a  mortal 
wound  early  in  the  action,  and  when  the 
sword  of  the  enemy  was  presented  to  him,  he 
exclaim"(i.  ''I  am  satisfied — I  die  content;" 
and  soon  after  expired.  Action  forty-five  min- 
utes. 

Burkitt,  William,  English  divine,  and  author 
of "  A  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament," 
born  in  England  1650,  died  1703,  aged  53. 

Burlamaqui,  John  James,  author  of  principles 
of  Natural  Laws;  born  at  Geneva,  1694,  died 
there  1750,  aged  56. 

Burleigh,  lord  Exeter,  made  minister  of  state 
to  queen  Elizabeth,  1560,  died  1598. 

Burnet,  Gilbert,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  and 
author  of"  the  History  of  the  Reformation  of 
the  Church  of  England  ;"  "  History  of  his  own 
Times,"  &c.  born  in  Scotland  1643;  died 
March  17th,  1715,  aged  72. 

Burton,  Robert,  author  of"  the  Anatomy  of 
Melancholy,"  died  1639,  aged  63. 

Butler,  Joseph,  bishop  ofDurham,  and  author 
of  "the  Analogy  of  Religion,"  &c.  born  in 
England  1692,  died  1752,  aged  60. 


Butler,  Samuel,  English  poet,  author  of  IIu- 
dibras.  born  in  16M,  died  JU8U,  aged  80. 

Buller,  Richard,  officer  of  the  revolutionary 
war,  colonel  of  Morgan's  rifle  corps,  and  shared 
at  Saratoga,  and  many  other  places,  the  renown 
of  that  admirable  body.  After  a  life  of  honor, 
colonel  Butler  fell,  in  the  defeat  of  St.  Clair's 
army,  by  the  Indians,  November  4,  1791. 

Butler,  Thomas,  brother  of  Richard,  and  a 
brave  United  States'  officer,  joined  the  army  in 
1776 ;  was  at  Brandy  wine  battle  on  the  llth  of 
September  of  that  year;  served  through  the 
war,  and  was  very  severely  wounded  in  the 
war  with  the  Indians, at  the  battle  where  his 
brother  fell.  His  latter  years  were  imbittered 
by  disputes  with  general  Wilkinson,  which  was 
closed  by  death,  Sept.  7th,  1805,  aged  51.  He 
would  not  yield  to  the  general  order,  which  re- 
quired officers  and  soldiers  to  cut  the  hair  close 
to  the  head. 

Butler,  Zebulon,  was  born  at  Lyme  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, 1731 ;  entered  into  military  service 
early  in  life,  and  served  through  the  French 
war,  from  1755  to  1763.  When  the  revolution- 
ary war  commenced,  he  was  appointed  colonel 
in  the  Connecticut  line.  Died  July  28th,  1795, 
in  his  64th  year. 

Cadwallader,  John,  an  early  patriot  of  the 
American  revolution,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
1743;  appointed  brigadier  general  and  had  a 
share  in  the  operations  at  Trenton  and  Prince- 
ton in  the  winter  of  1776 — 7;  died  February 
10th,  1786  in  his  44th  year. 

Calmet,  a  learned  Benedictine,  died  in  France 
October  25,  1757,  aged  86. 

Calvert,  George,  baron  of  Baltimore,  founder 
of  Maryland,  was  of  Flemish  descent,  born  at 
Kipling,  in  Yorkshire,  England,  1582,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford;  in  1619,  he  was  made  by 
Charles  I,  king  of  England,  one  of  the  principal 
secretaries  of  state  ;  resigned  that  office,  1624, 
made  baron  of  Baltimore,  1625,  obtained  a  pa- 
tent for  Maryland,  June  20th  1632,  and  died  at 
London  the  same  year. 

Camper,  Adrian  Gilles,  revived  Craniology, 
and  was  eminent  as  a  comparative  anatomist, 
flourished  1789. 

Canning,  George,  eminent  English  states- 
man, and  late  premier  of  England,  died  August 
8th,  1827,  aged  57. 

Carey,  Wm.,D.D.  of  the  English  Baptist  mis- 
sion at  Serampore,  was  born  Aug.  17, 1761.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  poor  man,  and  commenced  bu- 
siness in  hie  as  a  shoemaker.  By  industry  and 
application  he  acquainted  himself  with  Hebrew 
and  various  other  languages.  In  1793,  he  left 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


EMI 


644 


EMI 


spectable  Irish  family ;  was  of  the  Catholic  reli- 
gion, and  inherited  a  very 
Nov.  14,  1832 


England  for  India.  He  translated  the  Scriptures 
into  Bengalee,  and  into  all  the  principal  langua- 
ges of  Moithern  Hindostan,  and  compiled  also 
a  voluminous  Bengalee  Dictionary;  died  18:54. 
Carroll,  Charles,  of  Carrollton,  the  last  sur- 
viving si<mer  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence. Fie  was  born  at  Annapolis,  on  the  20th 
of  September,  1737  ;  was  descended  from  a  re- 
is  of  the  Catholic  reli- 
ry  large  estate ;  died 

Cassini  de  Thury,  Coeser  Francois,  2nd  son  of 
James,  director  or  the  royal  observatory  after 
his  father,  born  at  Paris,  June  17,  1714,  died 
September  4th,  1784,  aged  70.  The  family  hav- 
ing been  at  the  head  of  the  royal  observatory, 
at  Paris,  113  years. 

Cato,  the  Censor,  born  B.  C.  235,  died  149, 
aged  86. 

Catullus,  Latin  poet,  died  B.  C.  16,  aged  71. 

Cave,  Edward,  editor  of  the  first  periodical 
Magazine  in  England,  born  1691,  died  1754. 
aged  63. 

Caverly,  sir  Hugh,  the  first  who  used  gun- 
powder in  the  service  of  England,  died  1389. 

Caxton,  William,  the  first  who  introduced 
printing  into  England,  born  1412,  died  1491, 
•ged  79. 

Chaise,  Francis  de  la,  French  Jesuit,  and  con- 
fessor to  Louis  XIV,  king  of  France,  from  1675, 
to  his  death,  1709.  It  is  supposed  with  every 
rational  probability  that  Father  de  la  Chaise,  in- 
stigated the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantz. 

Chambers,  Ephraim,  the  first  person,  who  in 
England,  undertook  a  work  in  the  form  now 
known  as  a  Cyclopoedia,  or  Ericyclopcedia ;  his 
dictionary  was  the  origin  of  what  is  now  term- 
ed Rees'  Cyclopaedia.  He  was  born  about  1680, 
died  May  15th,  1740. 

Chastellux,  marquis  of,  French  general  in  the 
revolutionary  war,  and  who  published  travels 
in  America,  born  1734. 

Chew,  Benjamin,  born  in  Maryland,  Novem- 
ber 29,  1722;  eminent  lawyer,  member  of  con- 
gress, 1776,  who  preferred  reform  rather  than 
revolution,  and  retired  from  public  concerns  • 
died  2-Hh  January,  1810. 

Churchill,  John,  duke  of  tyarlborough,  celc- 
br-it.,1  Knglish  general,  born  in  Devonshire, 
1750,  died  at  Windsor  Lodge,  1722,  aged  7'-> 

Clark,  Kev.  Adam,  LL.  D.,  F.  S.  A.,  &c.,  a 
distinguished  Methodist  preacher  and  divine!  a 
man  of  great  talents  and  extensive  learning, 
particulnily  in  the  oriental  languages  and  bibli- 
cal Ijentii.-r.  and  author  of  a  well  known  and 
learned  commentary  on  the  Scriptures,  and  va- 


rious  other  publications.  He  was  born  in  1763, 
in  the  county  of  Londonderry,  in  Ireland,  his 
father  being  of  an  English  family,  and  his  mo- 
ther a  Scotchwoman.  By  invitation  of  Mr.  John 
Wesley  he  became  a  pupil  in  Kingswood  school 
then  recently  established,  and  was  sent  out  by 
Mr.  Wesley,  an  itinerant  preacher,  in  1782,  at 
the  early  age  of  19.  He  was  greatly  admired 
as  a  preacher :  at  first  his  youth  attracted  great 
numbers  of  hearers  ;  but  afterwards  the  extent 
of  his  resources,  from  the  gifts  of  nature  and 
the  fruits  of  study,  commanded  attention  wher- 
ever he  went ;  and  hardly  any  man  ever  drew 
so  large  congregations,  or  of  so  mixed  a  charac- 
ter. He  continued  to  travel  in  various  circuits, 
till  1805,  when  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Lon- 
don, where  he  passed  a  considerable  part  of  his 
subsequent  life.  To  his  great  talents  and  learn- 
ing he  united  the  virtues  of  the  humble  Chris- 
tian ;  was  greatly  respected  by  all  denomina- 
tions; and  though  catholic  in  his  feelings,  he 
was  strongly  attached  to  the  body  of  Christians 
with  which  he  was  connected  ;  died,  August 
26,  1834,  at  Bayswater,  near  London,  of  the 
cholera,  aged  72. 

Clark,  Abraham,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  de- 
claration of  independence,  born  in  New  Jersey, 
15th  February,  1726;  died  by  a  stroke  of  the 
sun,  1794,  in  the  69th  year  of  his  age. 

Clayton,  John,  an  eminent  English  botanist, 
author  of  "  The  Flora  Virginica,"  was  born  in 
England,  about  1685 ;  came  an  infant  with  his 
father  to  America,  and  in  1722,  became  clerk  of 
the  county  of  Gloucester,  Virginia,  which  oflice 
he  held  51  years,  to  his  death,  1773,  aged  88. 

Clerke,  Charles,  able  English  naval  comman- 
der, the  companion,  friend  and  successor  of  cap- 
tain James  Cook,  died  on  the  coast  of  Kams- 
chatka,  August  22d,  1779,  aged  39. 

Clinton,  Charles,  was  born  in  the  county  of 
Longford,  Ireland,  1690;  came  to  America, 
1729  ;  died,  1773,  aged  nearly  83. 

Cloriviere,  Joseph  Peter  Picot,  director  of  the 
monastery  of  the  Visitation  in  George-Town.  D. 
C.  horn  at  Broons,  in  Brittany,  France,  4th  No- 
vember, 1768.  In  the  French  Revolution,  he 
sided  with  the  royal  party;  reputed  inventor  of 
the  famous  infernal  machine,  and  in  conse- 
quence was  compelled  to  leave  his  country  ;  be- 
came subsequently  a  priest  in  Baltimore  and 
Charleston.  South  Carolina,  in  the  former  of 
which  places'  he  took  orders  from  aichbishop 
Carroll,  in  1812;  and  in  1819  was  appointed 
over  the  monastery  in  George-Town,  \\herehe 
closed  his  life,  on  September  30th,  1826,  aged 
57  ;  a  distinguished  and  respectable  man. 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EMI 


645 


EMI 


physi< 


Clum,  Mrs.  near  Litr.hfield,  England,  died 
Jan.  28th,  1772,  aged  13d,  and  had  lived  103 
years  in  one  house. 

Colden,  Cadwallader,  mathematician  and  phi- 
losopher, born  at  Demse,  in  Scotland,  February 
17th,  1088;  came  to  America,  1708,  and  to 
which  he  removed  his  family  1710,  settled  in 
New- York.  He  died,  September  '28th,  1776,  on 
the  day  of  the  conflagration  of  New- York,  aged 

Cole,  William,  a  great  botanist,  born  in  Eng- 
land, 1026,  died  1662,  aged  36 

Condillac,  Stephen  Bonnet  de,  French  meta- 

ysician,  died  1780. 

Confucius,  Chinese  philosopher,  born,  B.  C. 
555. 

Copernicus,  Nicholas,  restorer  of  the  Pytha- 
gorean, or  true  system  of  the  Universe,  born  at 
Thorn,  in  Prussia,  February  19,  1473  ;  he  com- 
pleted his  astronomical  system,  in  1530 ;  not 
published  until  1543,  and  then  only  under  the 
authority,  and  at  the  'expense  of  cardinal  Ni- 
cholas Schcenburg.  A  copy  of  this  treatise,  the 
"  .Istronomia  Instaurata,  s'ive  de  Reculutionilms 
Orbium  Celestrum"  reached  the  hand  of  its  il- 
lustrious author,  only  a  few  hours  before  his 
death,  May  22d,  1543,  in  his  71st  year. 

Corneille,  Thomas,  brother  to  the  more  fa- 
mous Peter  Corneille,  French  dramatist  and  his- 
torian, died  1709. 

Corn-a,  de  Serra  Abbe,  eminent  Portuguese 
naturalist  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Serpa,  in 
Portugal,  1754,  several  years  ambassador  from 
Portugal  to  the  United  "States,  returned  to  his 
native°country,  about  1818,  and  died. 

Correlli,  signora,  received  the  triumph  of  a 
coronation  at  "Rome,  July  1776. 

Cosmo  de  Medicis,  died  1464,  aged  75. 

Crabbe,  Rev.  George,  LL.  B..  a  distinguished 
poet.  He  was  born  at  Aldborough,  in  Suffolk, 
December  24,  1754  ;  and,  after  having  received 
a  very  limited  classical  education,  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  the  business  of  a  surgeon  and  apo- 
thecarv;  but  he  had  little  fondness  for  his  pro- 
fession ;  and  having  cultivated  a  taste  for  poetry, 
he  repaired  to  London,  at  about  the  age  of  24, 
as  a  literary  adventurer.  After  having  attempt- 
ed in  vain  to  gain  the  favorable  notice  of  the 
public,  the  "  youth  to  fortune  and  to  fame  un- 
known" ventured,  without  an  introduction,  to 
make  application  to  the  celebrated  Edmund 
Burke,  and  committed  to  him  al::r<re  quantity  of 
miscellaneous  composition.  Mr.  Burke  received 
him  with  kindness ;  selected  from  among  other 
poems  "  The  Library"  and  "  The  Village,"  (the 
former  of  which  was  soon  afterwards  published, 


and  the  latter  in  1783);  and  introduced  him  to  the 
acquaintance  of  Mr.  Fox,  and  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds. Sir  Joshua  submitted  to  Dr.  Johnson 
the  manuscript  of  "  The  Village,"  "  which," 
said  the  famous  critic,  in  his  letter  on  returning 
the  poem,  "  I  read  with  great  delight  ;  it  is  ori- 
ginal, vigorous,  and  elegant."  After  a  short 
preparation,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Mr. 
Burke,  Mr.  Crabbe  was  ordained  a  deacon  in 
1781.  "  The  Newspaper"  was  published  in 
1785  ;  "  The  Parish  Register"  in  1807  ;  "  The 
Boroucrh"  in  1810;  "  Tales  in  Verse"  in  1812; 
and  "  Tales  of  the  Hall"  in  1819.  Mr.  Crabbe 
has  been  characterized  by  the  Edinburgh  Re- 
view as  "  the  satirist  of  low  life."  "  He  is  a 
writer,"  says  Mr.  Hazlitt,  "  of  great  power,  but 
of  a  perverse  and  morbid  taste.  —  His  poems  are 
a  sort  of  funeral  dirge  over  human  life,  but 
without  pity,  without  hope.  He  has  neither 
smiles  nor  tears  for  his  readers."  He  died  at 
Trowbridge,  in  Wiltshire,  Feb.  8th,  1832,  aged 

Crebillon,  the  elder,  French  tragic  poet,  died 
1762,  aged  88. 

Cropper,  John,  a  gallant  officer  in  the  revolu- 


tionary  war,   and  personally  distinguished  by 

Ja 
aged  66. 


, 
general  Washington,  died  January  15th,  1822, 


Cruden,  Alexander,  author  of  a  Concordance 
to  the  Bible,  born  in  Scotland,  1701,  died  in 
London,  1770,  aged  69. 

Ctebius,  supposed  inventor  of  the  pump, 
nourished  B.  C.  120. 

Cudworth,  Ralph,  author  of  "  The  Intellec- 
tual System,"  died  1688,  aged  71. 

Cuflen,  Dr.  William,  of  Edinburgh,  died 
Februarys,  1790,  aged  80. 

Cuvier,  Baron,  a  Peer  of  France,  Perpetual 
Secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Profes- 
sor of  Natural  History  in  the  College  of  France, 
and  the  greatest  naturalist  of  the  age  ;  be  was 
bom  at  Montbelliard,  in  Upper  Rhine,  in  Au- 
gust, 1769,  and  died  at  Paris,  May  13,  1832. 

Dacier,  Andrew,  French,  classical  translator, 
died  1722,  aged  71. 

Dalton,  John,  English  M.  D.  who  adapted 
Milton's  Mask  of  Comus  to  the  stage,  and  gave 
the  benefit  to  the  grandaughter  of  the  poet; 
died  1763,  aged  54. 

Darke,  William,  usually  called  major  Darke, 
a  brave  veteran  officer,  born  in  Philadelphia 
county,  1736,  served  in  the  war  of  1  755-63  > 
again'in  the  revolutionary  war,  and  finally  in 
the  Indian  war,  under  general  St.  Clair,  on  No- 
vember 4th,  1701,  died  November  26th,  1801, 
aged  66. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


EMI 


646 


EMI 


Darn  ley,  lord,  king  of  Scotland,  and  father  of 
James  VI,  murdered  February  10.  15G7. 

Davenant,  Charles,  English  statistical  writer, 
and  amongst  the  first  of  that  class  in  that  king- 
dom, died  1714.  aged  58. 

Davidson,  William,  a  native  of  Lancaster 
county,  Pennsylvania,  born  1746,  and  in  1750, 
removed  by  Ins  parents  to  Mecklenburg,  North 
Carolina.  At  the  opening  of  the  revolutionary 
war,  he  entered  the  army,  in  which  he  rose  to 
the  rank  of  general,  and  fell  defending  the  pas- 
sage of  Catawba  River  against  Lord  Corn- 
wallis.  February  1st,  17cil. 

Daun,  Leopold  count,  marshal  of  the  German 
empire,  and  during  the  seven  years'  war,  the 
most  successful  opponent  of  Frederic  the  great, 
died  17(i(i,  aged  61. 

Day,  John,  printer,  the  first  who  introduced 
the  Greek  and  Saxon  characters  into  England, 
died  1584. 

Deane,  Silas,  member  of  congress,  died  in 
extreme  poverty  in  England,  1781. 

Defoe,  Daniel,  author  of  Robinson  Crusoe, 
died  1731. 

De  1'Isle,  Joseph  Nicholas,  French  astrono- 
mer, died  1772. 

De  1'Isle,  Wm.,  French  geographer,  died  1726. 

De  Lima,  John  Taverra.  a  native  of  Portugal, 
died  17138,  aged  1!!8. 

Denharn,Sir  John,  poet,  born  in  Dublin  1615, 
died  KiG8,  aged  53. 

Derham,  William,  English  divine  and  ma- 
thematician, died  in  1735,  aged  78. 

Dickenson,  John,  distinguished  American 
statesman  and  patriot,  entered  public  office  1764, 
died  in  1808. 

Didot,  Francis  Ambrose,  eminent  French 
printer,  died  July  10, 1804,  aged  74. 

Digges,  Dudley,  English  statesman,  died 
1639,  aged  56. 

Doddridge,  Philips,  eminent  English  divine, 
died  1751,  aged  49. 

Domat,  John,  eminent  French  judge  and  ju- 
rist, born  1625.  died  at  Paris  16'Jfl,  aged  71. 

Dow,  Rev.  Lorenzo,  a  celebrated  but  eccen- 
tric Methodist  preacher.  He  was  a  native  of 
Connecticut;  and  in  his  course  of  30  years' 
preaching,  he  tnvelled  over  England  and  Ire- 
land, and  visited  almost  every  part  of  the  I'nited 
States.  II.-  is  supposed  to  have  preached  to 
mure  penonslban  any  other  man  of  his  time. 
He  died  at  Georgetown,  D.  C.  Feb.  2d.  1-:M. 

Dr:i<-<>,  the  lawgiver,  flourished  B.  C.  624. 

Drake,  sir  Franris,  born  1545;  set  sail  on 
bis  voyage  round  the  world  1577;  died  1595, 
aged  50. 


Drayton,  Michael,  English  poet,  died  1631, 
aged  58.« 

Draylon,  William  Henry,  an  American  pat- 
,  riot  and  political  writer,  author  of  "  Freeman" 
born  1742,  died  a  member  of  Congress,  1779, 
aged  37. 

Drelincourt,  Charles,  French  Protestant  di- 
vine, died  1669,  aged  74. 

Drummond,  William,  poet,  died  1649,  aged 
63. 

Dryden,  John,  eminent  English  poet,  died 
1700,  aged  69. 

Dlucos,  Charles  Dineau,  French  historian 
and  didactic  writer,  died  1772,  aged  57. 

Duncan,  king  of  Scotland,  murdered  by  Mac- 
beth, A.  D. 1054. 

Duncan,  William,  author  of  "  Logic"  died 
1760  aged  43. 

Dunstan,  St.  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  from 
959  to  988,  was  one  of  the  violent  apostles  of 
clerical  celibacy. 

Dyer,  John,  English  poet,  born  1700,  died 
1758,  aged  58. 

Edward,  the  black  prince,  English  hero,  son 
of  Edward  III,  died  in  France,  1376,  aged  46. 

Ellwood.  Thomas,  an  eminent  member  of  the 
society  of  Friends;  at  21  he  joined  the  society, 
and  became  as  a  preacher  and  writer,  one  of 
their  most  efficient  members  to  his  death,  1713, 
in  his  74th  year. 

Klstol,  William,  a  Saxon  scholar,  died  1714. 

Epicurus,  founder  of  the  sect  which  bore  hia 
name;  born  at  Athens,  B.  C.  ?42,  died  271, 
aged  71 . 

^Epimenides.  a  Cretan  philosopher,  contetn 
porarv  with  Solon,  said  to  have  lived  157  years 

Erastothenes,  one  of  the  greatest,  mathema- 
ticians, of  antiquity  ;  the  first  in  Europe  who 
measured  a  degree  of  the  meridian,  and  the 
first  who  accurately  determined  the  inclination 
of  the  earth's  axis  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic, 
died  B.  C.  HIS,  aged  80. 

Eumenes  of  Pergamos,  one  of  the  rrrnerals 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  put  to  death  B.  C.  315. 

Euripides,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  great- 
est Greek  tragic  poets,  died  B.  C.  405,  aged  75. 

Eusebius,  Pamphylus  bishop  Cajsarea,  flour- 
ished A.  D. 270-340. 

Eusebius,  bishop  of  IS'icomedia,  an  Arian, 
flourished  3;>H-11. 

Eusebius.  bishop  of  Emessa,  theological  wri- 
ter, flourish.  (I  340-60. 

Kusebins,  bishop  of  Verceil,  theological  wri- 
ter, flourished  354-70. 

These  bishops  of  the  same  name  and  age  are 
almost  invariably  confounded. 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 

v       .  * 

EMI  647  EMI 


Evelyn,  John,  English  historian  and  poet, 
died  1698,  aged  44. 

Evelyn,  John,  English  natural  philosopher, 
died  1706,  aged  77. 

Evremont,  Saint,  died  September  9lh,  17C3, 
agediM). 

Farenheit,  Gabriel  Daniel,  inventor  of  the 
Thermometer  which  bears  his  name,  born  at 
Hamburg,  flourished  1720. 

Fancourt.  Samuel,  the  first  who  opened  a 
circulating  library  in  London ;  he  came  to  that 
city  about  1740,  and  set  up  his  library ;  died  in 
poverty  1768,  aged  90. 

Farinello,  eminent  Italian  opera  singer,  died 
in  England,  about  1780. 

Farquhar,  George,  dramatic  writer,  died  1707, 
;iged  20. 

Falstnlf,  Sir  John,  celebrated  English  general, 
flourished  under  the  Henries  IV ,  V  and  VI, 
and  died  about  1460. 

Fayette,  Mary  Magdalen  Proche  de  la  Vergne, 
countess  of,  dramatic,  historical  and  biographi- 
cal writer,  flourished  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV 
1(570-93. 

Ferdinando,  Marc  de  Paleotti,  hanged  in 
England  for  murder,  February  28th,  1718 ;  he 
was  brother  to  the  duchess  of  Shrewsbury. 

Ferarr,  Lawrence,  Earl,  committed  to  the 
tower  of  London  for  murdering  his  steward, 
Feb.  13,  1760;  tried,  found  guilty  April  Id, and 
hanged  at  Tyburn  May  5,  1760.  *! 

Fletcher,  Andrew,  commonly  canVsrf  Fletcher 
of  Salton,  Scots  political  writer,  died  1716, 
aged  63. 

Fleurv.  Claude,  French  ecclesiastical  writer, 
and  coadjutor  of  Fenelon,  as  preceptors,  died 
1723,  aged  83. 

Fontenelle,  Bernard  le  Bovier  de,  author  of 
Plurality  of  Worlds,  born  1657,  and  lived  to 
Jan.  17.17,  or  to  nearly  100  years. 

Fordyce,  James,  brother  of  David,  eminent 
Scots  divine,  and  author  of  Sermons  to  Young 
Women,  died  1796,  aged  76. 

Forrest,  Uriah,  a  brave  officer  of  the  Mary- 
land line,  in  the  American  revolutionary  war, 
born  in  St.  Mary's  county,  1756;  losing  a  leg 
in  the  battle  of  Germantown,  was  forced  to  re- 
tire from  service. 

Forster,  John  Reinhold,  author  of  Northern 
Voyages,  bom  in  Polish  Prussia  1729  ;  circum- 
navigated the  earth  with  captain  Cook ;  died 
Jamiary  9,  1779.  aged  70. 

Fortescue,  sir  John,  English  law  writer,  flour- 
ished about  1460. 

Foster,  sir  Michael,  eminent  English  crown 
lawyer,  died  1763,  aged  74. 
55 


Fothergill,  Dr.  John,  born  in  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, 1712,  in  1748,  published  his  treatise  on 
putrid  sore  throat ;  died  1780,  aged  68. 

Fox,  Richard,  bishop  of  Exeter,  eminent 
English  statesman,  died  1528,  aged  68. 

Freneau,  Philip,  a  poet  of  the  American  rev- 
olution ;  died  at  Freehold,  N.  J.,  Dec.  18th, 
1832,  aged  about  80. 

Frith,  John,  an  early  martyr  to  the  reforma- 
tion in  England,  was  burned  about  1533; 
Frith's  work  on  the  Eucharist,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  first  English  treatise  on  the  side 
of  the  reformed  doctrines. 

Froisart,  John,  early  French  historian,  died 
1402,  aged  69. 

Fromage,  Peter,  eminent  French  Catholic  mis- 
sionary, born  at  Laon.  1678,  died  1740,  aged  62. 

Fuller,  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas,  eminent  English 
divine  and  ecclesiastical  writer,  born  1608,  died 
1661,  aged  53. 

Fust,  or  Faustus  of  Mentz,  one  of  the  earliest 
printers  in  Europe,  died  about  1466. 

Gallilei.  Galhleo,oneof  the  greatest  revivers 
of  modern  science,  born  at  Pisa,  1564 ;  made 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  university  of 
Pisa,  1590;  removed  to  Venice  1592,  where  he 
exercised  the  duties  of  a  similar  office,  till  1611 ; 
in  1609,  he  had  made  the  first  Telescope,  died 
1642,  in  his  78th  year. 

Ganesvoort,  Gen.  Peter,  was  born  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.  July  16th,  1749;  joined  ithe  American 
army  as  a  major,  1775,  but  raised  to  the  rank  of 
colonel  the  ensuing  year;  on  August  2d,  1777, 
he  was  besieged  with  his  command  in  fort  Stan- 
wix,  where  Rome  in  Oneida  county  now  stands, 
by  Colonel  St.  Leger,  with  a  body  of  British 
tories  and  Indians,  who  after  a  most  gallant  de- 
fence, were  repelled  and  forced  to  retreat,  on 
August  22d.  He  continued  in  the  arrny  to  the 
close  of  the  war,  though  from  March  1782  in 
the  immediate  service  of  New  York ;  he  was 
appointed  by  president  Madison,  a  brigadier 
general,  in  which  service  he  continued  to  his 
death,  July  2d,  1812,  aged  63. 

Garden,  Alexander,  eminent  botanist,  born 
in  Scotland.  1730,  removed  to  Charleston,  S. 
Carolina,  1752,  died  in  London  1791,  aged  61. 

Garth,  Dr.  Samuel,  English  poet,  flourished 
1691-1719. 

Gascoigne,  sir  William,  eminent  English 
lawyer  and  judge,  born  1350,  died  1413,  aged  63. 

Gassendi,  Peter,  eminent  French  astrono- 
mer and  philosopher,  one  of  the  great  restorers 
of  inductive  philosophy,  died  1655.  aged  63. 

Gay,  John,  eminent  English  poet,  died  1732 
aged  44. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


EMI 


648 


EMI 


Gebhard,  Rev.  John  G.  born  Feb.  2it,  1730, 
at  Waldorf,  in  Germany;  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg,  emigrated  to  America, 
1771,  died  in  the  state  of  New  York,  August 
17th,  le2G,  in  the  77th  year  of  his  age,  and  the 
55th  of  his  ministry. 

Gebee,  Claude,  usually  called  Claude  de  Lor- 
raine, eminent  landscape  painter,  died  1G82, 
aged  62. 

Gerard,  French  nobleman,  and  first  grand 
master  of  the  knio-hts  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem, 
flourished  A.  D.  1 100. 

Gessner,  John  Mathias,  eminent  German 
philologist,  died  17(il,  aged  70. 

Gessner,  Solomon,  German  philologist,  died 
1G05,  aged  40. 

Gibson.  Col.  John,  an  officer  of  the  revolu- 
tionary war,  born  at  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania, 
May  23d,  1740,  served  under  Gen.  Forbes  when 
that  officer  took  Fort  du  Quesne ;  entered  the 
army  as  a  colonel  early  in  the  war,  and  contin- 
ued through  it;  died  at  Braddock's  Field,  near 
Pittsburg,  April  10th.  1822.  aged  nearly  82. 

Gibson,  Col.  George,  an  officer  of  the  revo- 
lutionary army,  a  native  of  Lancaster,  Pennsyl- 
vania, settled  early  In  life  at  Pittsburg,  joined 
the  army  as  a  colonel,  and  served  to  the  end  of 
1778.  In  the  war  with  the  Indian  tribes,  Col. 
Gibson  again  commanded  a  legiment,  and  shar- 
ed the  fatal  dangers  of  St.  Clair's  campaign  ami 
defeat,  in  the  latter  of  which  he  received  a  mor- 
tal wound,  which  terminated  an  honorable  and 
eventful  life  at  Fort  Jefferson,  Dec.  I Hh,  1794. 

Gilbert,  sir  Humphrey,  half  brother  to  s;r 
Walter  Raleigh, and  one  of  tlie  earliest  I'.nglish 
adventurers,  who  attempted  to  form  a  colony  in 
America,  born  1539;  in  157G,  published  "A 
treatise  to  prove  a  passage  by  the  north-west  to 
Indies."  In  ]">?-<,  lie  obtained  a  patent 
to  make  a  settlement  in  North  America,  and  in 
that  year  made  a  voyage  to  Newfoundland,  re- 
turned to  Europe, and  in  ir>.S1,on  his  homeward 
bound  voyage,  from  another  trip  to  America, 
was  lost  with  all  his  crew. 

(Jill,  Dr.  John,  eminent  scriptural  commen- 
fit..r.  died  1771,  aged  74. 

Glanvii.Joseph, eminent  English  philosopher, 
ili-d  l»:-o.  ;-.:-,•(!  -VS. 

r.  John  Rodolph,  from  whom  the  well 
I; no \v n  :..!<  lahi's  i!s  name,  flourished  KUi.'-Ci. 
•..  Fr-.nei::.  ciniiicii!.  Kn^li.-h  .M.  1). 
President  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  London," 
died  1G77,  aged  tiO.  The  man  who  was  one  of 
the  f.niiKli-rs  of  UN-  Royal  Society,  and  eulo- 
gized by  Bovrlnave  a°nd  Halier. 

Glover,  Ilichard,Eng.  poet,  died  1785,  aged  73. 


Gluck,  le  Chevalier  Christopher,  eminent 
German  musical  composer,  died  at  Vienna, 
1787,  aged  71. 

Godfrey,  Thomas,  inventor  of  the  Quadrant 
commonly  called  Hadley's.  By  the  latter  he 
was  cheated  out  of  the  credit  of  the  invention  ; 
bom  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  died  in  Decem- 
ber, 1749. 

Godeau,  eminent  French  ecclesiastical  histo- 
•  rian,  died  1G72,  aged  G7. 

Goethe,  John  Wolfgang  von,  died  at  Weimar, 
Germany,  March  22,  1832,  aged  82.  He  was 
an  eminent  author  and  a  romantic  poet,  held  in 
great  repute  by  his  countrymen  and  admirers  ; 
and  styled  "  tlie  patriarch  of  German  litera- 
ture ;"  according  to  a  writer  in  "  The  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review,"  "  the  first  man  of  his  na- 
ticn  and  time  ;  "  and  according  to  Prince  Fuck- 
ler  Mu^kau,  "  the  third  in  the  great  triumvi- 
rate with  Homer  and  Shakspeare." 

He  was  born  on  the  28th  of  August,  1749,  at 
Frankfort  on  the  Maine.  At  the  age  of  15,  he- 
went  to  the  University  of  Leipsic  ;  and  after 
passing  four  years  there,  he  resided  a\vhile  in 
Alsace3,  and  then  returned  to  his  native  city. 
About  ihe  year  177G.  on  the  invitation  of  the 
Grand  Duke,  he  vent  to  Weimar,  where  he 
pa^ed.  the  remainder  of  his  life,  loaded  by  his 
patrdn  , .with  .honors,  ennobled,  made  a  privy 
r,  and  for  many  years  prime  minister. 
Owi^^Si  part  to  tlie  liberal  ; 
Granouuke,  the  little  court  of  Weimar  was  a 
distinguished  focus  of  German  literature  ;  and 
in  the  eaflv  years  of  the  present  century,  this 
place  reckoned  among  its  residents  more  than 
twenty  writers  of  note,  at  the  head  of  whom 
were  'Goethe,  Schiller,  Wieland,  Herder,  and 
for  a  time,  Kotzebue.  SoVne  of  .the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  productions  of  Goethe  ;:n>  tlu' 
"Sorrows  of  Werther,"  "Faust,"  and  "  Wilhehii 
JMeister's  Apprenticeship."  The  edition  of  his 
works  published  at  Stuttgard  and  Tubingen,  in 
1830,  comprises  40  volumes.  He  left  his  MSS. 
to  the  caie  of  Dr.  Eckermann.  whom  he  ap- 
pointed editor  of  hia  posthumous  productions; 
and  an  edition  of  his  whole  works  now  publish- 
ing, will  comprise  fifty-five  volumes. —  lie  main- 
tained for  many  years  a  tranquil  empire  over 
the  literature  of  his  country,  which  was1  implic- 
itly acquiesced  in  by  the  candidates  for  literary 
lame  ;  yet  his  work.*  have  been  mucii  complain- 
ed of  as  clmracterized  by  unintelligible  mysti- 
cism, and  as  of  irreligious  and  immoral  ten- 
dency. 

Gordon,  Lord  George,  died  in  Newgate,  Nov 
1,  17-J3. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


EMI 


649 


EMI 


Gore,  Capt.  John,  the  friend  and  companion 
of  Capt.  Cook,  was  born  in  Virginia,  1735 ;  early 
in  life  he  entered  the  British  navy,  and  made 
his  first  voyage  round  the  world  with  Commo- 
dore Byron.  In  1763,  he  was  appointed  second 
lieutenant  of  the  Endeavour,  under  Captain 
Cook,  and  again  circumnavigated  the  earth. 
In  177(5,  he  was  appointed  first  lieutenant  of  the 
Resolution,  and  by  the,  successive  deaths  of 
Captains  Cook  and  Clerke,  returned  to  Europe, 
'October,  1780,  commander  of  the  squadron. 
Ended  his  days  as  one  of  the  captains  of  Green- 
wich Hospital,  Aug.  10th,  1790,  aged  55. 

GranvilIe,Geo.,  Eng.  poet,  died  I735,aged68. 

Greene,  Col.  Christopher,  a  relation  of  Gen. 
Nathaniel  Greene,  and  a  native  of  Warwick, 
Rhode  Island,  was  born  1737,  and  in  May,  1775, 
entered  the  service  as  a  lieutenant.  He  was 
with  Montgomery  at  Quebec,  where  he  became 
a  prisoner.  Soon  after  his  exchange,  he  joined 
his  reonrnent,  to  the  comnKind  of  which  he  rose 
in  1777.  He  fell  May  22d,  1781,  in  an  action 
with  some  tories  near  New  York. 

Greenville,  Sir'  Richard,  commander  of  the 
first  English  colony  sent  to  North  America,  was 
born  1540;  in  June,  1558,  landed  on  the  shores 
of  the  Roanoke,  and  left  a  small  colony  which 
was  subsequently,  it  is  probable,  destroyed  by 
the  savages,  as  no  trace  of  them  could  be  ever 
afterwards  discovered.  Greenville  shared  with 
Howard,  Drake,  Raleigh,  Hawkins 'and  dFndii- 
gher,  the  renown  of  defeating  the  Spanish  Ar- 
inada.  In  1591,  he  was  made  Vice  Admiral  of 
a  squadron  sent  out  to  the  West  Indies.  In 
this  expedition  he  fell  in  with  a  superior  force, 
and  in  the  action  his  ship  was  taken  and  him- 
self mortally  wounded. 

Greenville,  Sir  Bevil,  grandson  of  Admiral 
Greenville,  was  born  1596,  and  slain  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Lansdown,  near  Bath,  1(14:5. 

Grenville,  Lord  William  Wyndham,  was  a 
distinguished  statesman  and  powerful  debater, 
born  Oct.  ii">,  1759.  the  third  son  of  George 
Grenville,  Prime  Minister  of  England  in  1763- 
5.  The  secret  of  the  authorship  of  "  Junius  " 
is  said  to  have  been  entrusted  to  Lord  Gren- 
ville, and  that  it  would  be  disclosed 'after  his 
death;  and  the  office  of  making  the  disclosure, 
some  have,  supposed,  has  been  confided  to  his 
nephew,  Lord  Nugent.  He  died  at  his  seat, 
Dropmore,  in  Buckinghamshire,  on  the  12th  of 
Janua^,  1834,  aged  74. 

Grimston,  sir  Harbottle,  English  law  writer, 
died  1683. 

Guido  of  Arezzo,  musical  composer,  of  the 
llth  century. 


Guise,  Francis  de  Lorraine,  duke  of,  celebrat- 
ed'French  general,  murdered  at  Orleans.  1563. 
aged  44. 

"Guise,  Henry  de  Lorraine,  duke  of,  son  of 
Francis,  who  with  his  brother  Cardinal  de  Lor- 
raine, was  murdered  1588,  at  the  instigation  of 
Henry  III  king  of  France. 

Gunter,  Edmund,  eminent  English  mathe- 
matician, author  of  the  scale  and  chain  which 
bears  his  name,  died  1626,  aged  45. 

Hale,  sir  Matthew,  eminent  English  Judge, 
died  1676,  aged  67. 

Hammond,  James,  eminent  English  elegiac 
poet,  died  1740,  aged  30. 

Harris,  John,  the  first  compiler  of  a  dictionary 
of  arts  and  sciences  in  England,  died  a  beggar, 
1719,  aged  49. 

Hartley,  David,  eminent  English  metaphysi- 
cian, died  1757,  aged  53. 

Harvey,  Dr.  William,  who  discovered  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  died  June  3d,  1658, 
aged  80. 

Hauser,  Caspar,  a  personage  whose  history 
i9  enveloped  in  mystery,  died  at  Anspach, 
Bavaria,  of  wounds  inflicted  by  an  unknown 
assassin,  Dec.  17th,  1833.  On  the  26th  of  May, 
1828,  a  youth,  apparently  about  16  or  17  years 
of  age.  was  found  at  one  of  the  gates  of  Nurem- 
berg ;  but  he  was  unable  to  give  any  account 
of  himself,  nor  could  it  be  discovered  who 
brought  him  there,  whence  he  came,  or  who  he 
was.  He  was  4  feet  and  9  inches  in  height ; 
was  very  pale  ;  had  a  short  delicate  beard  on 
his  chin  and  upper  lip  ;  his  limbs  were  slender; 
his  feet  bore  no  marks  of  having  been  confined 
in  shoes ;  he  scarcely  knew  how  to  use  his 
fingers  or  hands;  and  his  attempts  to  walk  re- 
sembled the  first  efforts  of  a  child.  When 
spoken  to  he  understood  nothing  that  was  said 
to  him,  and  only  replied  in  a  few  words  of  un- 
intelligible gibberish ;  and  his  countenance  was 
expressive  of  gross  stupidity.  He  held  in  his 
hand  a  letter  addressed  to  th»  captain  of  one  of 
the  cavalry  companies  of  Nuremberg,  dated 
''Bavarian  Frontiers;  place  nameless."  Its 
purport  was  that  the  bearer  had  been  left  with 
the  writer,  who  was  a  poor  laborer,  in  October. 
1812,  and  who,  not  knowing  his  parents,  had 
brought  him  up  in  his  house,  without  allowing 
him  to  stir  out  of  it.  A  note  accompanying  the 
letter  contained  these  words  :— "  His  father  was 
one  of  the  light  cavalry  :  send  him,  when  he  is 
17  years  old,  to  Nuremberg,  for  his  father  was 
stationed  there.  He  was  born  April  30,  1812 
I  arn  a  poor  girl,  and  cannot  support  him  :  his 
father  is  dead."  A  pen  being  put  into  his 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


EMI 


050 


EMI 


hands,  he  wrot?  in  plain  letters  Caspar  Haiiscr. 
'  He  appeared  to  be  hungry  and  thirsty,  but  man- 
ifested great  aversion  to  eating  or  drinking  any 
tiling  that  was  ofi'ered  to  him  except  bread  and 
water. 

He  fell  into  the  hands  of  persons  who  treated 
him  kindly.,  and  taught  him  the  use  of  language  ; 
and  he  manifested  the  most  amiable  and  grate- 
ful disposition.  But  he  could  give  no  account 
of  himself,  except  that,  as  far  back  as  he  could 
remember,  he  had  always  inhabited  a  small  cell. 
continually  seated  on  the  ground,  with  his  i'eet 
naked,  and  having  no  covering  except  a  shirt 
and  trousers,  and  he  had  never  seen  the  sky. 
When  he  awoke  from  sleep  he  was  accustomed 
to  find  near  him  some  bread  and  a  pitcher  of 
water  ;  but  he  never  saw  the  face  of  the  person 
who  brought  them;  and  it  was  at  Nuremberg 
that  he  first  learnt  there  were  other  living  crea- 
tures besides  himself  and  the  man  with  whom 
he  had  always  been.  —  Previous  to  his  death 
Hauser  resided  at  Anspach,  where  he  had  a 
little  employment  in  the  registrar-office,  and 
Lord  Stanhope  had  also  provided  for  his  sup- 
port. Some  time  before  his  assassination,  an 
ineffectual  attempt  had  been  made  upon  his  life 
by  the  same  assassin,  as  is  supposed,  that  finally 
inflicted  the  fatal  blow  with  a  dagger. 

Heath,  Gen.  William,  born  at  Ro.vbury.  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1737,  and  died  in  his  native  place, 
Jan.  24th,  18!4,  aged  77.  Amongst  the  first  to 
take  up  arms  in  favor  of  his  insulted  country, 
was  appointed  by  the  provincial  congress  of 
Massachusetts,  in  1775,  a  brigadier  general; 
was  by  the  continental  congress,  in  177(5,  raised 
to  the  rank  of  major  general,  and  served  through 
the  war. 

Hedwig,  John,  eminent  botanist,  died  17f>7 
aged  G7. 

Herodotus,  the  father  of  history,  horn  at  Hal- 
icarn.isstis  in  Curia,  R.  C.  481,  flourished  B.  0. 
441)  ;  time  <>f  his  dealh  unknown.  His  hist'  ry 
includes  a  period  of  '234  years,  from  B.  C.  71;} 
to  47!  I. 

H.-rvey,  James,  English  divine  and  poet,  nn- 
thor  of"  Meditations,"  &,•.  died  I?:,*,  nred  44. 

Hay  ward,  Thomas,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
declaration  of  inde|x>ndence.  born  in  South 
Carolina,  17lii:  dird  March.  l~()!l. 

II,  II.  Aaron,  dramatic  English  prK.died  17.">0, 


Hillhouse,  James,  a  man  very  highly  respect- 
ed for  his  private  virtues  and  liis  great  and  lonir 
continued  public  services;  was  born  at  .  Mont" 
ville,  Conn.,  Oct.  21,  I754,  nrid  died  at  New 
Haven,  Dec.  2U,  1832,  in  his  7!'th  year. 


Hoadley,  Benjamin,  eminent  English  divine 
and  bishop  of  Winchester,  died  1701,  aged  85. 

liobbes,  Thomas,  celebrated  English  writer, 
died  1670,  aged  ill. 

Hogarth.  William,  eminent  English  painter, 
died  f7G4,  aged  67. 

Holbein,  Hans,  eminent  Swiss  painter,  died 
1554,  aged  56. 

Holt,  sir  John,  eminent  English  lawyer  and 
judge,  died  1709,  awed  07. 

Holwell,  John  2ephaniah,  commander,  and 
one  of  the  few  survivors  of  a  party  of  146  En- 
glish, who  were  confined  by  the  Nabob  of  Ben- 
gal in  175G,  in  what  was  called,  "  The  Black 
Hole  "  at  Calcutta.  Mr.  Holwell  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  this  dreadful  affair,  which  he  survived 
42  years,  dying  in  17<>8,  aged  89. 

Home,  Henry,  Lord  Kaimes.  eminent  critic, 
born  in  Scotland.  1696,  died  1762,  aged  80. 

Hooker,  Rev.  Richard,  author  of  Ecclesias- 
tical Polity,  died  16UO,  aged  47. 

Hoole,  John,  English  poet,  translator  of  the 
Orlando  Furioso,  and  Jerusalem  Delivered,  died 
1803,  aged  7ti. 

Hudson,  Henry,  eminent  naval  commander 
and  discoverer  in  North  America,  flourished 
from  1607  to  1610.  In  the  latter  year,  whilst 
navigating  the  bay  which  now  bears  his  name, 
his  crew  mutinied,  and  put  him.  his  son,  and 
seven  others  on  shore,  where  they  no  doubt 
perished. 

HumV.  David,  philosopher  and  historian,  died 
August  2T)th,  1776,  aged  05. 

Humphrey,  Col.  David,  patriot  of  the  Ameri- 
can revolution,  born  in  Connecticut,  1752;  in 
1780  was  appointed  one  of  the  aids  to  Gen. 
Washington,  with  whom  he  remained  through 
the  residue  of  the  war.  and  at  its  termination 
accompanied  him  tn  Virginia.  Col.  Humphrey 
was  distinguished  for  his  gallantry  and  military 
skill  at  the  siege  of  York.  He  remained  with 
Gen.  Washington,  until  17110.  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two  years  residence  in  France.  In  17'JO, 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  Portugal,  and  for 
the  residue  of  his  life  was  alternately  in  public 
and  private  life.  He  died,  Feb.  21st,  1818, 
aged  (JO* 

"Hunter,  John,  eminent   surgeon,  died  very 
suddenly  in  St.  George's  hospital,  1793,  aged  65. 

Hyde,  Edward,  Earl  of  Clarendon,  grand- 
father to  Queens  Mary  II  and  Anne,  and  author 
of  a  history  of  the  grand  rebellion,  ^ied  at 
Rouen, 1674,  aged  66. 

Jane,  the  insane,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and 
rubella,  became  mother  of  the  emperors  Charles 
V  and  Ferdinand  I.  The  death  of  her  husband 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EMI 


651 


EMI 


affected  her  reason  ;  she  became  insane  in  1506, 
and  remained  so  to  her  death,  1555,  49  years. 

Jasper,  sergeant,  distinguished  for  gallantry 
in  the  revolutionary  war;  June  23th,  1776,  in 
the  celebrated  attack  of  sir  Peter  Parker,  on 
Fort  Moultrio,  he  replaced  the  American  flag 
after  it  was  shot  away  by  a  cannon  ball.  He 
with  the  aid  of  sergeant  Newton,  waylaid,  sur- 
prised and  captured,  a  British  guard  often  mtn, 
releasing  an  American  of  the  name  of  Jones, 
whom  they  were  conducting  to  certain  death  at 
Savannah.  This  extraordinary  exploit  \vas 
performed  within  about  two  miles  from  the 
British  lines ;  killed  in  the  attack  on  Savannah 
Oct.  9,  1779. 

Jerome.  St.  died  A.  D.  420,  aged  80. 

John,  eminent  Swiss  naturalist,  born  at  Zu- 
rich, 1709,  died  1790,  a^ed  81. 

Janes,  sir  William,  English  poet,  statesman, 
and  oriental  scholar,  born  in  London,  174(5,  died 
in  Indostan,  April  27th,  1794.,  aged  47.. 

Julius  Ctssar.  much  celebrated  Roman  gen- 
eral, born  B.  C.  July  10th,  100;  murdered 
March  loth,  44,  ao-ed  56, 

Justin,  a  Latin  historian,  flourished  it  is  sup- 
posed under  Antoninus  Pius. 

Kaufman,  Angelica,  eminent  female  painter; 
died  1807,  a2ed  67. 

Kenn  -.k,  VVilliam,  dramatic  writer,  died  1777. 

Klopstock,  Frederick  Theoohilus,  eminent 
German  poet,  born  1724,  died  1803,  aged  79. 

Kneller,  sir  Godfrey  Theophilus,  eminent 
German  poet,  aged  75. 

Laud,  Archbishop,  beheaded,  1645,  aged  71. 

La  Place,  marquis,  Peter  Simon,  author  of  the 
••  Mechanique  Celiste,"  born  1740,  died  1827. 

Lavater,  the  physiognomist,  died  in  his  native 
city,  Zurich. 

Lawrence,  sir  Henry,  a  celebrated  portrait 
painter,  born  at  Bristol,  England,  1769,  died 
Jan.  9,  1830. 

Lee,  Francis  Lightfoot,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of^Independence,  born  Oct.  14, 

I~-:A. 

Lenox,  Earl  of,  Recent  of  Scotland,  murder- 
ed 1571. 

Leo  IX,  the  first  Pope  who  kept  an  army, 
1054. 

Lever,  sir  Ashton,  collector  of  a  museum, 
died  1788. 

L'Enclos,  Ninon  de,  died  1706,  aged  80. 

Linnaeus,  Charles  Von,  eminent  botanist,  died 
at  Upsal  in  Sweden,  January  10, 1778,  aged  71. 

Liverpool,  Lord,  distinguished  premier  of 
Entrlaiid.  born  June  17tJi,1769,  died  December 
18th,  1828. 


Livius,  Titus,  eminent  Roman  historian,  died 
A.  D-  18,  aged  76. 

Long,  Gabriel,  the  last  of  Gen.  Morgan's 
captains,  died  at  his  residence  in  Cul pepper 
county,  Virginia,  Feb.  3d,  1827.  It  is  said  that 
this  intrepid  soldier  fought  in  eighteen  battles. 

Longinus,  eminent  critic,  put  to  death  by  the 
Roman  emperor  Aurelian,  A.  D.  273. 

Loyala,  Ignatius,  founder  of  the  Jesuits,  died 
1556,  aged  65. 

Lucan.  Latin  epic  poet,  born  at  Corduba.  in 
Spain,  A.  D.  37;  put  to  death  by  Nero,  64, 
aged  27. 

Lucius,  the  first  Christian  king  of  Britain, 
reigned  77  years,  founded  the  first  church  in 
London,  which  was  made  the  see  of  an  arch- 
bishop, afterwards  removed  to  Canterbury. 
A.  D.  179. 

Lucretius,  Latin  poet,  born  at  Rome,  B.  C. 
95,  died  52,  aged  43. 

Lyttleton,  Lord,  Eng.  poet,  died  1773,  aged  73. 

Mackintosh,  sir  James,  Kt.,  M.  P.,  D.  L.  C., 
&c.,  was  born  October,  24,  1765,  at  Alldowrie 
in  the  county  of  Inverness,  Scotland,  and  was 
educated  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  where 
he  had  for  a  fellow-student  the  celebrated  Rob- 
ert Hall.  He  died  in  London,  May  30th,  18:52. 

Macklin,  Charles,  famous  comedian,  died 
July  llth,  1797,  aged  97. 

Magellan.  Ferdinand,  whose  ship  was  the  first 
which  was  navigated  round  the  world ;  killed 
on  the  voyage,  1520. 

Malbone.  Edward  G.,  an  eminent  miniature 
painter,  died  1807. 

Malebranche,  Nicholas,  philosopher,  born  at 
Paris  1638,  died  1715,  aged  77. 

Malhefbe.  Francis,  French  poet  and  critic, 
died  1028,  aged  72. 

Malthus,  celebrated  English  writer  on  politi- 
cal statistics,  died  Dec.  30,  1834. 

Margaret,  Countess  of  Richmond  and  Derby. 
mother  of  king  Henry  VII,  died  June  29, 1509  i 

Margaret,  Countess  of  Salisbury,  daughter 
of  the  duke  of  Clarence,  brother  of  Edward  IV ; 
beheaded  May  27th,  1541,  aged  70. 

Marechal,  Ambrose,  Catholic  archbishop  of 
Baltimore,  born  at  Orleans,  France,  1768;  died 
in  Baltimore  January  29th,  1828,  aged  60. 

Maria  Theresa,  empress  of  Germany,  mother 
of  the  unfortunate  Maria  Antoinette,  queen  of 
France,  born  1717 ;  married  the  duke  of  Lor- 
raine, 1736;  succeeded  her  father,  1740;  died 
1780,  aged  63. 

Marion,  Gen.  Francis,  a  brave  and  active 
officer  in  the  southern  war  of  the  revolution, 
died  in  South  Carolina,  1795. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


EMI 


652 


EMI 


M.irlbo  rough,  John  Churchill,  duke  of,  cele- 
brated English  general,  born  at  Ashe,  in  Dev- 
onshire, 1050;  died  1723.  aged  73. 

Martial,  Marcus  Valerius,  Latin  satiric  poet, 
died  A.  D.  104,  aged  75. 

Martin,  Luther,  eminent  lawyer,  first  attor- 
ney general  of  Maryland,  which. office  he  held 
during  the  war,  and  nearly  forty  years  ;  became 
a  chief  justice  of  the  city  court  of  Baltimore; 
died  July  10th,  1826,  in  his  82d  year.  He  was 
one  of  the  Convention  that  formed  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States. 

Mary  I,  Queen  of  .England,  daughter  of  Hen- 
ry VIII  and  Catharine  of  Arrngon.  born  151(5; 
succeeded  her  brother  Edward'V'l,  1553;  di^d 
November,  1558,  aged  42,  leaving  the  dreadful 
character  of  "The  Bloody  Mary." 

Mary,  of  Medicis,  queen  of  Henry  IV,  of 
France,  died  1(542,  aged  69. 

Mason,  George,  member  of  the  Convention 
which  framed  the  Constitution,  which  he  refus- 
ed to  sign  ;  member  of  Congress  from  Virginia, 
died  171*2,  aged  07. 

Massinger,  Philip,  Entrlish  dramatic  writer, 
died  1G40,  aged  56. 

Mather,  Increase,  eminent  American  divine, 
born  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  1635;  died 
1723,  aged  84. 

Mather,  Cotton,  son  of  Increase  Mather,  also 
eminent  divine  and  writer,  born  1(502;  died 
1  Tinged  (5. 

Maurice,  elector  of  Saxony,  and  successful 
supporter  of  the  Protestant  cause  in  Germany, 
killed  in  the  battle  of  Sieveuhausen,  1553,  aged 
32  years. 

Maurice,  of  Nassau,  prince  of  Orano-e.  and 
grandson  by  his  mother,  to  Maurice  of  Saxonv, 
pre-eminent  Dutch  general,  died  1(525,  aged  f>8. 

McKean,  Thomas,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  American  Independence  ;  colonel 
in  the  army  of  the  revolution  ;  he  prepared  the 
constitution  of  the  state  of  Delaware,  which  was 
adopted  unanimously,  July  •J.-'th.  1777;  he  re- 
ceived fioin  the  executive  council  of  Pennsyl- 
vania his  commission  as  chief  justice,  which 
office  he  held  twenty-two  years,  and  at  the  time 
of  this  appointment,  he  was  speaker  of  the 
house  «.f  assembly  in  Pennsylvania,  president 
of  Delaware,  and  a  member  of  the  congress, 
and  soon  after  w;is  <  !eet-<l  president  of  that  dis- 
tinguished body  ;  October  2:!d.  17dl ,  he  address- 
ed ;i  l.-uer  to  ooogreM  resigning  his  office  of 
president ;  congress  next  day  unanimously  rc- 
s-ilved  that  Thomas  McKean  be  requested  to 
resume  the  chair,  and  act  as  president.  To 
this  he  acceded.  He  was  governor  of  Pennsyl- 


vania nine  years;  born  March  19th,  1734.  died 
June  24th,  1817,  in  his  84th  year,  being  one  of 
four  survivors  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence. 

Medici,  John  de,  Pope  Leo  X,  born  at  Flor- 
ence 1475.  died  1521,  a  lover  and  patron  of 
learned  men. 

Medici,  Lorenzo,  grandson  of  Cosmo,  and  the 
most  eminent  of  his  family,  born  1448,  died 
1492,  aged  44. 

Melanclhon.  Philip,  illustrious  reformer,  and 
coadjutor  of  Luther,  born  14G5;  died  1560, 
a<red  (55. 

Melmoth,  William,  eminent  English  lawyer 
and  religious  writer,  died  1743,  aged  77. 

Melmoth,  William,  son  of  the  preceding,  ele- 
gant English  writer,  born  1710,  died  171*9,  aged 
89  years. 

Menasseh,  Ben  Israel,  a  very  learned  and 
eminent  Jewish  rabbi,  and  wiiter,  flourished 
172CM&. 

Mercator,  Gerafd.  improver  of  a  method  of 

frojectinp'  raaps  which  bears  his  name,  died 
594,  aged  82. 

Mercer,  Gen.  Huglf,  a  most  respectable  ana 
valuable  officer  in  the  revolutionary  war;  killed 
in  the  battle  of  Princeton,  January,  J777.  lie 
was  a  native  of  Scotland. 

Metastasio,  1' Abate  Pietro,  eminent  Italian 
poet,  born  1698,  died  at  Vienna,  1782. 

Metius,  James,  died  1612,  inventor  of  tele- 
scopes. 

Melon,  astronomer  of  Athens,  inventor  of 
the  Cycle,  which  bears  his  name,  flourished 
B.  C.  433-10. 

JViiekle.  William  Julius,  Scotch  poet,  and 
translator  of  the  Lusiad,  born  1734,  died  1781), 
aged  55. 

Mifflin,  Thomas,  m.ijor  general  in  the  revo- 
lutionary war ;  president  of  congress;  and  in 
that  character  received  the  resignation  of  Wash- 
ington in  a  public  audience  at' Annapolis  ;  was 
nine  vears  governor  of  Pennsylvania,  died  Jan. 
20,  1800,  in  the  571  h  year  of  his  age. 

Milton,  John,  was  born  in  London,  Dec.  9th, 
Hli  S.  died  iNovember  8lh,  1674. 

Moliere,  John  Baptist,  much  celebrated 
French  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Paris,  1620, 
died  1673,  aged  53. 

Monro.  Dr.  Alexander,  entitled  the  father  of 
the  medical  school  of  Edinburgh,  died  1787,  . 
aged  70. 

Montague,  Michael  de,  French  essayist,  died 
151.2,  aged  59. 

Montague,  lady  Mary  Wortlev,  writer,  born 
1690,  died  1762,  aged  72. 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EMI 


053 


EMI 


Montcalm,  Louis  Joseph  D.  killed  on  the 
plains  of  Abraham  1751) ;  he  was  commander  of 
the  French  army. 

Moutecuculi,  Raymond  de,  great  Italian  gen- 
eral, died  11W1,  aged  73. 

Montesquieu,  author  of  the  Spirit  of  Laws, 
born  KW9,  died  1755. 

Montg.ilfier,  inventor  of  air  balloons,  born 
1747,  died  1799. 

Mooie,  Dr.  John,  author,  born  1730,  died 
1802. 

More,  Hannah,  a  deservedly  celebrated  lady, 
who  was  born  at  Slapleton,  in  Gloucestershire 
in  1744.  She  was  one  of  the  five  daughters  of 
a  village  schoolmaster,  whose  means  were  not 
sufficient  to  give  his  children  many  of  the  ad- 
vantages of  education  ;  but  this  deficiency  was 
supplied  by  their  own  talents  and  perseverance. 
The  literary  abilities  of  Hannah  early  attracted 
notice,  and  a  subscription  was  formed  for  estab- 
lishing her  and  her  sisters  in  a  school  of  their 
own. 

Her  first  literary  production,  "  The  Search 
after  Happiness,  a  pastoral  drama,"  was  written 
when  she  was  only  Id  years  of  age,  though  not 
published  till  1773.  By  the  encouragement  of 
Mr.  Garrick,  she  tried  her  st.iength  in  tragic 
conposition.  and  wrote  "  The  Inflexible  Cap- 
tive, a  Tragedy,"  which  was  printed  in  ]7t>4. 
Her  tragedy  of  "Percy,"  the  most  popular  of 
her  dramatic  compositions,  was  brought  out  in 
177^.  and  ran  14  nights  successively;  and  her 
last  tragedy,  "The  Fatal  Falsehood,"  was  pro- 
duced in  1779.  Shortly  after,  her  opinions  on 
public  theatres  underwent  a  change,  and,  as 
she  has  stated  in  the  preface  to  the  third  vol- 
ume of  her  works,  '•  she  did  not  consider  the 
stage,  in  its  present  state,  as  becoming  the 
appearance  or  countenance  of  a  Christian." 
'•  Early  in  life  she  attracted  general  notice  by 
a  brilliant  display  of  literary  talent,  and  was 
honored  by  the  intimate  acquaintance  of  John- 
son and  Burke,  of  Reynolds  and  Garrick,  and 
of  many  other  highly  eminent  individuals,  who 
equally"  appreciated 'her  amiable  qualities,  and 
her  superior  intellect.  But,  under  a  deep  con- 
viction, that  to  live  to  the  glory  of  God.  and  to 
the  good  of  our  fellow  creatures,  is  the  great 
object  of  human  existence,  and  the  only  one 
which  c:m  bring  peace  at  the  last,  she  quitted 
in  the  prime  of  her  days,  the  bright  circles  of 
fashion  and  literature,  and,  retiring  into  the 
neighborhood  of  Bristol,  devoted  herself  to  a 
life  of  active  Christian  benevolence,  and  to  the 
composition  of  various  works,  having  for  their 
object  the  religious  improvement  of-mankind. 


Her  practical  conduct  beautifully  exemplified 
the  mor-il  energy  of  her  Christian  principles." 

Her  first  prose  publication  was  "  Thoughts 
on  the  Manners  of  the  Great,"  printed  in  1788  ; 
followed  in  17U1,  by  her  "  Estimate  of  the  Re- 
ligion of  the  Fashionable  World."  In  1795, 
she  commenced  at  Bath,  in  monthly  numbers, 
"  The  Cheap  Repository,"  a  series  of  admirable 
tales  for  the  common  people,  one  of  which 
is  the  well-known  "  Shepherd  of  Salisbury 
Plain."'  The  success  of  this  seasonable  publi- 
cation was  extraordinary  ;  and  within  a  year 
the  gale  reached  the  number  of  1,000,000  cop- 
ies. Her  "  Strictures  on  the  Modern  System 
of  Female  Education"  appeared  in  1799  ;  "Hints 
towards  Forming  the  Character  of  a  Young 
Princess,"  in  1605;  "  Ccelebs  in  search  of  a 
Wife,"  in  1809,  (which  passed  through  at  least 
six  editions  in  less  than  a  year;)  "Practical 
Piety,"  in  1811  ;  "  Christian  Morals,"  in  1812; 
"  Essay  on  the  Character  and  Writings  of  St. 
Paul,"  in  1815;  and  "  Moral  Sketches  of  the 
Prevailing  Opinions  and  Manners, Foreign  and 
Domestic,  with  Reflections  on  Prayer."  The 
collection  of  her  works  comprises  11  volumes 
octavo. 

Near  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
Mrs.  More  left  Bath  and  retired  to  Barley 
Woo>',  a  c-)ttagt  delightfully  situated  in  the 
village  of  Wrington,  the  native  place  of  John 
Locke.  In  181!),  she  lost  her  last  surviving 
sister  Martha,  and  some  years  after  being  con- 
fined to  her  room,  she  quilted  Barley  Wood,  for 
Clifton,  where,  and  at  Bristol,  she  had  some  val- 
uable friends,  though  not  a  single  relation  of 
whom  she  had  anv  knowledge  in  the  world. 
She  is  said  to  have  "realized  upwards  of  £30,000 
by  her  writings;  and  her  charitable  bequests 
exceeded  £10.000.  She  died  at  Windsor-terrace, 
Clifton,  in  the  year  1833,  aged  88. 

Morgan.  John,  M.  D.  F.  R.  S.  a  learned  phy- 
sician, born  in  1733.  In  prosecuting  his  pro- 
fessional studies,  he  visited  many  of  the  most 
eminent  universities  of  Europe,  and  while  there, 
though  very  yonng,  was  so  distinguished  as  to 
be  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Be- 
fore his  return  home,  he  projected  the  plan  of 
the  rrodical  school  of  Philadelphia  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  college,  which  was  effected 
(himself  the  first  professor),  and  the  first  com- 
mencement was  held  in  1709 ;  he  was  active  in 
establishing  the  American  Philosophical  Soci- 
ety in  17(39;  was  director  general  of  hospitals 
in  the  army  of  the  United  States  ;  he  published 
several  scientific  tracts,  died  Oct.  15,  1789,  in 
the  54th  year  of  his  age. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


EMI 


654 


EMI 


Morris,  Robert,  born  in  January  1733-4  O. 
S.  in  Lancashire,  arrived  in  this  country  at  the 
age  of  13  years  ;  one  of  the  signers  of  the  dec- 
laration of  independence,  and  during  the  war 
of  the  revolution,  supported  the  credit  of  the 
United  States ;  established  the  first  bank  in 
Philadelphia,  the  bank  of  North  America,  1761, 
which  lent  for  the  public  service  of  the  govern- 
ment within  the  first  six  months  after  its  organ- 
ization, $480.000  ;  without  the  financial  talents 
and  services  of  this  distinguished  man,  it  is 
probable  all  the  physical  force  of  the  country 
would  have  proved  unavailing  to  establish  the 
independence  of  the  United  States ;  when  the 
paper  of  the  congress  of  United  America  was 
worth  nothing,  the  paper  of  Robert  Morris  sup- 
plied the  deficiency ;  his  personal  credit  was 
decidedly  better  than  the  credit  of  the  U.  States 
government;  he  was  one  of  the  convention 
which  framed  the  constitution  of  the  U.  States; 
a  member  of  the  first  senate  of  the  United  States ; 
his  most  intimate  friends  were  Washington, 
Hamilton,  and  Governor  Morris.  When  offered 
the  appointment  of  first  secretary  of  the  treas- 
ury by  Washington,  he  declined,  but  recom- 
mended his  friend  Alexander  Hamilton.  His 
unfortunate  land  speculations  iuibittered  his 
old  age,  which  ought  to  have  been  surrounded 
with  all  the  ease  and  happiness  that  earllily 
gratitude  could  bestow  ;  died  8th  May,  1806. 

Morris,  Lewis,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  dec- 
laration of  independence,  born  at  Morrisania, 
1726;  had  three  brothers,  all  distinguished; 
Staats,  a  number  of  parliament;  Richard,  judge 
of  the  admiralty,  and  chief  justice  of  New  York, 
and  governor  ;  an  orator,  statesman  and  mem- 
ber of  congress,  died  Jan.  1798,  in  the  72dyear 
of  his  age. 

Morrison,  Robert,  LL.  D.  senior  member  of 
the  Chinese  mission,  died  Aug.  1st,  183-1.  He 
translated  portions  of  the  scriptures  into  Chi- 
nese, and  was  the  author  of  a  Chinese  grammar 
and  dictionary. 

Mozart,  musical  composer,  born  January  27, 
1756,  died  December  17'.fc>. 

Murray,  William  Vans,  born  in  Maryland 
17C1 ,  died  1803,  aged  42 ;  he  was  a  distinguished 
and  eloquent  member  of  congress ;  minister  to 
the  Batuvian  Republic,  and  with  Chief  Justice 
Ellsworth,  and  Mr.  Davie,  as  envoy  extraodi- 
nary,  he  assisted  in  negotiating  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  of  1800. 

Murray,  William,  earl  of  Mansfield,  born  in 
17().'>,  died  in  171)3,  chief  justice  of  the  king's 
bench  of  England,  which  he  held  with  great 
reputation  upwards  of  30  years. 


Murray,  Lindley,  a  grammarian,  was  born  at 
Pennsylvania  in  1745,  and  died  in  1826. 

Napier,  John,  inventor  of  logarithms  for  the 
use  of  navigators,  born  in  1550,  died  in  1617. 

Nash,  Francis,  brigadier  general  in  the  Amer- 
ican revolution,  killed  at  the  battle  of  German- 
town,  in  1777. 

Nayler,  James,  enthusiastic  convert  to  qua- 
kerism,  born  in  1616;  sentenced  to  be  whipped 
and  imprisoned  for  life,  by  parliament,  for  blas- 
phemy, but  in  two  years  was  liberated,  and 
died  in  1G66. 

Necker,  James,  French  financier,  died  in  1804, 
aged  72,  a  native  of  Geneva. 

Nelson,  Robert,  author  of  "  The  Companion 
for  the  Festival  and  Fasts,"  born  in  1656,  and 
died  in  1715. 

Nepos,  Cornelius,  a  Latin  historian,  who 
flourished  in  the  time  of  Julius  Ctesar. 

Newton,  sir  Thomas,  author  of  "  Disserta- 
tions on  the  prophecies,'1  born  1703,  and  died 
in  17b2. 

Nisbet,  Charles,  D.  D.  of  Scotland,  presi- 
dent of  the  College  of  Carlisle  in  Pennsylvania, 
held  that  office  with  reputation  until  his  death 
in  1804. 

Nonius,  inventor  of  the  angles  of  45  degrees 
in  every  meridian,  died  1577. 

Norwood.  Rii'.JiaH,  measured  a  degree  in 
England  1632,  which  was  the  first  accurate 
measure. 

Nugent,  Thomas,  L.  L.  D.  author  of  a  French 
Dictionary,  died  May  27,  1779. 

Occuni  Sampson,  A.  Mohegan  Indian,  con- 
verted to  Christianity;  a  missionary  among  «l»e 
Western  Indians;  died  17*2. 

Oglethorpe,  James,  an  able  British  general, 
and  distinguished  philanthropist,  served  under 
Prince  Eugene,  founder  of  the  state  of  Georgia, 
and  died  in  1785,  aged  07. 

O'Leary,  Arthur,  of  Ireland,  distinguished  by 
his  writings,  religious  and  political ;  a  friend 
to  freedom  and  toleration,  died  in  lbC2,  aged 
73  years. 

Origen,  born  at  Alexandria,  and  died  in  254. 

Orleans,  Duke  of,  son  of  Charles  V,  mur- 
dered by  his  uncle  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  in 
1407. 

Orono,  chief  of  the  Penobscot  tribe,  labored 
to  promote  Christianity,  died  in  1801.  aged  113 
years  ;  his  wife  died  in 'l  809,  aged  115. 

Orpheus,  ancient  Greek  poet,  flourished  be- 
fore Homer,  a  distinguished  musician,  poet  and 
physician. 

Ossian^  a  Gffilic  poet,  supposed  to  have  flour- 
ished in  the  3d  century. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EMI 


655 


EMI 


Otvvay,  Thomas,  poet,  and  dramatic  writer, 
Dorn  in  1(551,  and  died  in  1685. 

Page.  John,  governor  of  the  colony  of  Vir- 
ginia, an  ardent  patriot,  member  of  congress 
after  the  adoption  of'the  federal  constitution,  and 
governor  of  the  state  of  Virginia,  died  in  1808. 

Paine,  Robert  Treat,  a  distinguished  poet, 
born  in  1773,  died  in  1811. 

Paley,  Dr.  William,  elegant  writer  on  Ethics, 
oorn  in  1743,  died  in  1805. 

Parr,  Thomas,  died  in  1G75,  aged  152  years, 
and  lived  in  ten  reigns. 

Parhurst,  John,  a  learned  divine,  born  in 
1728,  and  died  1797,  author  of  a  Hebrew  and 
English  Lexicon. 

Parnell,  Thomas,  poet,  born  1679,  died  1717, 
author  of  the  "  Hermit." 

Pascal,  Blaize,  author  of  "  Provincial  Let- 
ters," born  in  1623,  died  in  1662. 

Patrick,  Saint,  apnstle  and  saint  of  Ireland, 
supposed  a  native  of  Wales,  died  in  460. 

Patterson,  William,  senator  of  the  United 
States,  governor  of  New  Jersey,  and  afterwards 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  U.  States, 
died  in  1806. 

Paul,  Saint,  of  Tarsus,  put  to  death  by  Nero, 
A.  D.  66. 

Pendleton,  Edmund,  eminent  lawyer  and 
statesman  of  Viro-inia,  member  of  congress  in 
1774,  died  in  18D3. 

Penn,  John,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  decla- 
ration of  independence,  born  in  Virginia,  May 
7.  1741,  died  Oct.  2;>,  1803,  in  the  83d  year  of 
his  age,  a  great  and  distinguished  man." 

Pennant.  Thomas,  wrote  a  number  of  valua- 
ble books,  and  died  in  1708.  aged  72. 

Peronse,  Ue  La,  celebrated  French  navigator, 
lost  in  J788. 

Perrault.  Charles,  died  in  1783.  aged  77. 

Perrier,  M.  Casimir.  Prime  Minister  of  France ; 
the  son  of  a  rich  merchant;  born  Oct.  12, 1777, 
at  Grenoble,  and  died  at  Paris,  of  cholera,  May 
16,  1832,  aged  54. 

Perry,  Oliver  H.izard,  a  distinguished  captain 
in  the  American  navy,  gained  a  signal  victory 
over  the  British  naval  forces  on  Lake  Erie  in 
1813,  died  in  Ia20. 

Peter,  Saint,  chief  of  the  apostles,  son  of  John 
and  brother  of  Andrew,  a  bold  and  powerful 
preacher.  Nero  caused  him  to  be  crucified, 
with  his  head  down,  A.  D.  66. 

Pelronius,  Arbiter,  writer  of  antiquity,  bled 
to  death  by  order  of  Nero,  A.  1).  65. 

Pike,  Zebu Ion  Montgomery,  brigadier  gen- 
eral of  the  United  States,  killed  at  York,  in  Up- 
per Canada,  1813. 


Pilate,  Pontius,  Roman  governor  of  Judea, 
hanged  himself  A.  D.  S7. 

Piles.  Roger  de.  eminent  painter,  bom  1635, 
and  died  in  1709. 

Pindar,  poet,  died  435  B.  C.,  aged  80. 

Piron,  Alexis,  French  poet  and  satirist,  died 
in  1773,  aged  64. 

Pitt,  William,  earl  of  Chatham,  illustrious 
English  statesman,  born  in  1708,  died  in  1778. 

Plato,  died  at  Athens  347,  B.  C. 

Playfair,  John,  D.  D.  of  Scotland,  born  1749, 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Edinburgh,  and 
died  1819. 

Pliny,  the  elder,  the  most  learned  of  ancient 
writers,  died  in  7!),  A.  D. 

Pliny,  the  younger,  born  62,  died  116. 

Plutarch,  philosopher  and  historian,  born  in 
Greece,  died  A.  D.  140. 

Pocahontas,  an  Indian  princess,  celebrated  in 
the  annals  of  Virginia,  married  Mr.  Rolfe,  and 
from  them  descended  families  in  Virginia;  died 
in  England  in  1616. 

Person,  Richard,  professor  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  had  the 
reputation  of  being  the  best  Greek  scholar  in 
England,  yet  his  learning  scarcely  produced 
him  a  living  ;  born  in  175LJ,  and  died  in  1808. 

Poila,  John  Baptist,  invented  the  Camera 
Obscura,  died  in  1515. 

Portuguese,  ambassador's  brother,  beheaded 
in  England  for  murder,  in  1654. 

Powhatan,  a  powerful  Indian  chief  in  Vir- 
ginia, hostile  to  the  English  ;  he  was  the  father 
of  Pocahontas,  and  on  her  marriage  became 
reconciled  to  the  whites,  and  died  in  1618. 

Pratt,  Charles,  earl  of  Camden ,  eminent  Eng- 
lish lawyer  and  statesman,  bora  in  1713,  died 
1794. 

Pratt.  Ephraim,  of  Plymouth,  Mass.,  died  in 
1804,  aged  116;  he  could  then  number  nearly 
1500  descendants. 

Price,  Dr.  Richard,  divine  and  politician, 
died  in  17Jl,aged68. 

Priestly,  Dr.  Joseph,  a  very  celebrated  dis- 
senting clergyman  and  philosopher;  he  died 
in  1804  in  Pennsylvania,  aged  71. 

Prior,  Matthew,  English  poet  and  statesman, 
born  1664,  and  died  in  1731. 

Prynne,  William,  eminent  English  lawyer 
and  writer,  under  Charles  I,  born  in  1600,  tried 
by  the  star  chamber  1633,  stood  in  the  pillory, 
May  1634;  ag;.in  1637;  took  his  seat  in  the 
long  parliament,  Nov.  28,  1640;  died  Oct.  24, 
16<i<). 

Puffendorf,  Samuel.  German  civilian,  born 
1631,  died  1694. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


EMI 


656 


EMI 


Pulaski,  count,  a  noble  and  distinguished 
Pole,  who  after  making  great  efforts  for  the 
freedom  of  his  own  country,  offered  his  servi- 
ces to  the  United  States  during  the  revolution  ; 
was  a  brigadier  general,  wounded  at  Savannah, 
and  died  soon  after  in  1779. 

Pythagoras,  died  407,  A.  C.  aged  71 . 

Quarles,  Francis,  author  of"  Emblems,"  born 
in  1592,  died  1644. 

Quevido,  an  eminent  Spanish  author,  born  in 
1570,  died  in  1645. 

Quin,  James,  famous  English  comedian,  born 
in  1693,  died  1766. 

Quincey,  Edmund,  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Massachusetts,  and  agent  for  the 
colony  at  the  court  of  St.  James  ;  died  in  Oct., 
J738. 

Quintus,  Curtius,  Roman  historian  ;  lived  A. 
D.  380. 

Rabeleis,  Francis,  a  celebrated  French  phy- 
sician and  satirist. 

Racine,  French  dramatic  writer,  died  1699, 
aged  60. 

Ratcliffe,  Dr.  John,  an  English  physician  of 
uncommon  eminence,  born  in  1650,  and  died  in 
1714. 

Reikes,  Robert,  born  in  1735,  in  1781  he  plan- 
ned the  institution  of  Sunday  schools ;  died  at 
Gloucester,  his  native  place,  in  1811. 

Ramsay,  Allan,  Scots  poet,  born  1606,  died 
1763. 

Ramsay,  David,  M.D.  eminent  physician,  his- 
torian and  statesman  of  S.  Carolina,  died  1815. 

Ramsay,  Martha  L.  wife  of  the  preceding  ; 
daughter  of  Henry  Laurence,  president  of  con- 
gress, died  in  1811. 

Randolph,  Edmund,  eminent  lawyer  of  Vir- 
ginia, member  of  congress  in  1779,  afterwards 
governor  of  Virginia ;  first  attorney  general  of 
the  United  States  ;  second  secretary  of  state  of 
the  United  States,  died  in  1813. 

Randolph,  John,  or,  as  he  himself  wrote  his 
name,  Jolm  Rundolph  of  Roanoke,  a  man  distin- 
guished for  genius, eloquence,  and  eccentricity. 
He  arrived  in  Philadelphia  a  few  days  before  his 
death,  in  a  slate  of  extreme  debility,  purposing 
to  proc<vd  to  Europe,  witli  the  hope  of  a  partial 
restoration  of  his  health. 

He  was  born  in  Virginia,  on  the  2d  of  June, 
1773  ;  and  was  descended  from  Pocahontas,  the 
daughter  of  Powhatan,  a  great  Indian  chief, 
through  his  grandmother,  whose  maiden  name 
was  Jane  Boiling,  the  great  grandaughter  of 
Jane  Rolfe  (married  to  Robert  Boiling),  the 
daughter  of  John  Rolfe  and  Pocahontas ;  so  that 
he  was  of  the  7th  generation  from  Pocahontas. 


His  father  died  in  1775,  leaving  three  sons  and  a 
large  estate  ;  and  his  mother  was  married  in 
1783,  to  St.  Olenrge  Tucker,  who  was  the  guar- 
dian to  Randolph  during  his  minority.  Mr. 
Randolph's  early  life  was  spent  at  different  pla- 
ces under  different  instructers,of  most  of  whom, 
he  said  he  "never  learned,  any  thing."  He 
passed  a  short  time  at  Princeton  College,  at 
Columbia  College,  and  at  William  and  Mary 
College,  and  was  a  little  while  a  student  at  law 
under  Edmund  Randolph.  Of  himself  he  re- 
marks, "  With  a  superficial  and  defective  edu- 
cation, I  commenced  politician."  Pie  waa 
elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1799,  and 
continued  a  member  of  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives, \vith  the  exception  of  three  intervals  of 
two  years  each,  (during  one  of  these  intervals 
he  was  in  the  U.  S.  Senate)  till  1829;  and  he 
was  afterwards  appointed  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary to  Russia.  Mr.  Randolph  was  never  mar- 
ried. He  was  possessed  of  a  large  and  valua 
ble  estate  on  the  Roanoke,  and  had.  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  3]  8  slaves,  and  180  horses,  of  which 
about  120  were  blood  horses.  He  died  at  Phi- 
ladelphia, May  24,  1833,  aged  60. 

Raphael,  Sanzio.  an  illustrious  painter,  often 
styled  the  "  divine  Raphael,"  born  in  1483,  died 
in  1520. 

Rapin.  an  eminent  historian,  born  in  Langue 
doc,  in  1661,  died  in  1725. 

Raynal,  historian,  died  March  1796,  aged  84 

Redman,  first  president  of  the  college  of  phy 
sicians  in  Philadelphia,  died  in  1808. 

Reichstadt,  Duke  of.  Napoleon  Charles 
Francis-Joseph,  Duke  of  Reichstadt  son  of  Na 
poleon,  Emperor  of  France,  was  born  at  Paris 
March  20,  1811,  the  only  offspring  of  the  mar- 
riage of  Napoleon  with  the  Archduchess  Maria 
Louisa;  and  immediately  upon  his  birth  he 
received  the  title  of  King  of  Rome ;  but  the 
downfall  of  the  father  entirely  changed  the  con- 
dition and  prospects  of  the  son.  He  died  at 
the  palace  of  Schoenbrunn,  near  Vienna,  of  con- 
sumption, July  22, 1832,  aged  21. 

Reid,  Dr.  Thomas,  distinguished  metaphysi- 
cian, born  in  1709,  died  in  1796. 

Rembrandt,  famous  Flemish  painter,  born  in 
1606,  died  in  1668. 

Richardson,  Samuel,  eminent  English  writer, 
born  in  168'J,  died  in  1761. 

Richlieu,  cardinal,  died  1642,  aged  57. 

llittenhouse,  David,  of  Pennsylvania,  emi- 
nent and  self-taught  philosppher,  invented  an 
orrery,  died  17%,  aged  65. 

Robertson,  Doctor  W'illiam,  historiographer 
of  Scotland,  born  in  1721,  died  1793. 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EMI 


657 


EMI 


Robespierre,  a  revolutionary  monster,  born  in 
1759,  and  executed  in  July,  1794. 

Robin  Hood,  famous  robber,  died  in  1247. 

Rochefbucault.  duke  of,  French  writer,  born 
in  1(313,  and  died' in  1660. 

Rochester,  licentious  wit  and  poet,  died  1G30, 
aged  32. 

Rollin,  French  author,  born  in  1G61,  died 
1741. 

Romayn,  John  B.,  D.  D.  of  New  York,  died 
in  1825. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  born  in  Geneva  in 
1711,  died  in  1778. 

Rowe,  Nicholas,  dramatic  poet,  died  in  1718. 

Rowe,  Elizabeth,  authoress  in  verse  and 
prose,  born  in  1664,  and  died  in  1737. 

Roy,  Rajah  Rammohun,  died  at  Stapleton 
Park,  the  residence  of  Dr.  Lant  Carpenter,  near 
Bristol,  England,  on  the  27lh  of  Sept.  1833. 
This  learned  Brainin,  who  has  for  several  years 
attracted  much  attention,  was  the  son  of  Ram 
Hant  Roy,  and  was  born  in  the  province  of 
Burdvvan,  in  Bengal,  his  paternal  ancestors 
being  Bramins  of  a  high  order  He  studied 
several  years  at  the  celebrated  seminary  of  Be- 
nares, and  travelled  in  Persia  and  other  oriental 
countries.  His  literary  attainments  were  ex- 
tensive. "  He  was  acquainted,"  says  Mr.  Arnot, 
"  more  or  less,  with  ten  languages, — Sanscrit, 
Arabic,  Persian,  Hindostanee,  Bengalee,  En- 
glish, Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  French.  The 
Two  first  he  knew  critically,  as  a  sehoiar  ;  the  3d, 
4th,  5th,  and  Gth,  he  spoke,  and  wrote  fluently  ;. 
in  the  eighth  perha^^iis  studies  did  not  extend 
much  beyond  the  VRgmals  of  the  Christian 
Scriptures ;  and  in  the  latter  two,  his  knowledge 
was  apparently  limited.  He  has  published  works 
in  Sanscrit,  Arabic,  Persian,  Bengalee,  and 
English." 

Rimmohun  Roy  was  about  six  feet  high,  and 
large  in  proportion,  but  his  person,  though  not 
wanting  in  apparent  symmetry,  was  unwieldy 
and  without  activity.  His  features  were  large, 
manly,  and  fine  ;  his  countenance  very  dark, 
with  a  sallow  tinge  of  ill  health  ;  but  his  eye 
was  full  of  Asiatic  fire. — In  politics  he  was  a 
zealous  republican  ;  expressed  warmly  his 
hearty  approbation  of  all  liberal  institutions  ; 
associated  chiefly  with  the  liberal  portion  of  the 
community  ;  and  took  a  very  deep  interest  in 
the  progress  of  the  measure  of  English  parlia- 
mentary reform. — He  has  left  two  sons  in  India, 
one  thirty  and  the  other  fifteen  years  of  age. 

Rubens,  sir  Peter  Paul,  famous  Flemish 
painter,  born  in  1577,  and  died  in  1G40. 

Rumford,  count,  real  name  Benjamin  Thomp- 
56 


son,  born  in  the  state  of  New  Hampshire,  was 
a  colonel  in  the  British  army  ;  a  lieutenant  gen- 
eral in  the  Bavarian  service  ;  .member  of  many 
scientific  institutions ;  author  upon  mechanical 
and  philosophical  subjects ;  died  near  Paris  in 
18f4. 

Rumsey,  an  ingenious  mechanic  of  Virginia, 
original  inventor  of  the  mode  of  propelling  boats 
by  steam,  in  1782;  he  died  in  London  sudden- 
ly, in  1790 

Rush,  Benjamin,  M.  D.  distinguished  physi- 
cian, professor  and  statesman,  member  of  con- 
gress and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  declaration 
of  independence,  born  Dec.  24th,  1745 ;  died 
April  17th,  1813,  in  the  G3th  year  of  his  age. 

Rushworth,  editor  of  "  Historical  Collec- 
tions," died  in  1G90,  aged  83. 

St.  Clair,  Arthur,  served  under  Gen.  Wolfe, 
major  general  in  the  army  of  the  revolution, 
served  with  great  reputation,  was  president  of 
congress ;  died  in  great  poverty  in  1818 ;  he 
was  a  native  of  Scotland,  and  came  to  America 
in  1755. 

St.  Pierre,  author  of  "  Studies  of  Nature," 
died  in  1814,  aged  77. 

Sancho,  Ignatius,  the  African,  born  in  1729, 
and  died  in  178(1 ;  intimate  with  Garrick  and 
Sterne. 

Sappho,  famous  poetess,  born  at  Mytlelene, 
in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  610  B.  C. 

Saurin,  James,  eminent  divine,  died  in  1730. 

Savage,  Richard,  English  poet,  died  in  jail  in 
1743  ;  son  of  the  countess  of  Macclesfield,  by 
the  earl  of  Rivers. 

Schrevelius,  lexicographer,  from  Holland, 
died  16U7,  aged  52.  ' 

Scott,  Thomas,  commentator  on  the  bible, 
died  1821. 

Seabury,  Samuel,  the  first  bishop  in  the 
United  States,  died  17%. 

Seeker.  Thomas,  archbishop,  born  in  1G93, 
died  in  1768. 

Sesostris.  or  Rameses  the  Great,  was  a  Pha- 
raoh of  the  Diospolitan  family  under  whom 
Egypt  rose  to  its  greatest  height  of  political 
power  and  internal  splendor.  This  greatest  of 
the  Egyptian  kings  extended  his  conquests,  and 
retained  dominion  from  the  Indus  to  the  Niger, 
from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar. 
He  enriched  Egypt  with  the  spoils  of  these 
many  powerful  kingdoms  and  the  commerce  of 
India,  and  employed  his  treasures  in  building 
cities,  raising  banks  about  others,  or  elevating 
with  immense  cost  the  whole  surface  of  their 
soil,  to  defend  them  from  the  inundations  of  the 
Nile.  He  built  palaces  more  magnificent  than 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


EMI 


658 


EMI 


have  ever  before  or  since  been  erected  by  the- 
hand  of  man.  Chumpollion  remarks  that  these 
constructions  seem,  to  be  the  conceptions  of  men 
one  hundred  feet  high  !  Lost  in  admiration,  he 
dares  not  attempt  to  describe  his  feelings  before 
these  structures  of  unequalled  majesty  and 
beauty.  But  the  highest  glory  of  Rameses  the 
Great,  remains  to  be  told.  He  voluntarily  re- 
signed the  power  his  ancestors  had  wrested 
from  a  savage  race  of  tyrants  from  whom  the 
founder  of  their  dynasty  had  delivered  their 
native  country  ;  and  gave  to  the  people  the  in- 
valuable right  of  possessing  property  in  the  soil. 
He  published  a  written  code  of  laws  more  than 
1500  years  B.  C.  and  the  wisdom  of  his  institu- 
tions was  so  great,  that  his  vast,  empire  long 
enjoyed  the  benefits  of  a  wisely  administered 
government.  Many  portraits  of  this  monaich 
exist.  One  of  these  was  taken  by  Cham- 
pollion  with  the  greatest  care  from  a  colossal 
statue  erected  by  him  at  Memphis,  thirty-four 
and  a  half  feet  high  ;  it  had  fallen  with  its  face 
to  the  earth,  and  thus  each  lineament  has  been 
admirably  preserved — presenting  to  our  view 
certainly  one  of  the  greatest  curiosities  of  the  age. 

Sewall,  LL.  D.  eminent  lawyer,  member  of 
congress,  and  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts. 

Sharp,  Granville,  advocate  for  the  abolition 
ofsluverv,  died  in  1813. 

Shenstone,  William,  died  in  17G3,  aged  49. 

Shippen,  William,  professor  of  anatomy  in 
the  Pennsylvania  University,  from  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  medical  school  until  his  death, 
in  1808. 

Shore,  Rt.  Hon.  John,  Lord  Teign  month,  in 
the  peerage  of  Ireland,  president  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  djed  in  London,  on 
the  14th  of  February,  1834,  aged  82. 

Simonidts,  Greek  poet,  flourished  about  500 
years,  B.  C. 

Simpson,  Robert,  writer  and  professor  of 
mathematics;  died  in  17<>5. 

SUme,  Sir  Hance,  eminent  physician  and 
naturalist,  born  in  Ireland,  in  KiC.O,  died  in  17.V-2. 

Smith,  Adam,  author  of  "Wealth  of  Nations," 
died  1?:):),  aged  07. 

Smith,  Isaac,  patriot  officer  of  the  revolution, 
member  of  rotvriess:  jud<_n>  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Xe\v  .lei>ey.an<!  died  in  Iw7.  nnvd  68. 

Smith,  William,  I).  I). eminent  tor  eloquence 
and  the  advancement  of  literature  ;  for  many 
years  provost  of  the  college  of  Philadelphia 
and  died  in  IHI:{. 

Smith.  S.mmel  Stanhope,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  an 
eminent  Presbyterian  clergyman,  and  president 
of  Princeton  college;  he  died  in  1819. 


Smollct,  Dr.,  physician,  historian,  naturalist, 
and  poet,  born  in  1720,  died  in  17!U. 

Socinus,  founder  of  the  Socinian  sect,  born 
152"),  died  in  15G2. 

Sophocles,  Greek  tragic  poet,  died  410  B.  C. 

Sotheby,  William,  F.  R.  S.  and  S.  A.  a  gen- 
tleman of  considerable  fortune  and  liberal  edu- 
cation, a  respectable  poet,  and  distinguished  as 
a  translator.  Some  of  his  principal  works  are 
the  Battle  of  the  Nile,  Saul,  several  tragedies, 
Oberon  (a  faithful  translation  from  the  German 
of  Wieland),  the  Georgics  of  Virgil  translated 
into  English  verse,  and  the  translation  of  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  Homer,  in  four  volumes 
octavo,  with  the  designs  of  Flaxman.  Mr. 
Sotheby  was  the  oldest  Kno-lish  poet.  He  died 
in  London,  Dec.  30th,  1833,  aged  70. 

Spurzhehn,  John  Caspar,  M.  D.,  the  celebrat- 
ed phrenologist,  and  author  of  various  works  on 
the  science  of  phrenology.  He  was  born  on 
the  31st  of  December,  J77G,  at  the  village  of 
Longvich  near  Treves,  on  the  Moselle,  in  Ger- 
many, was  educated  at  the  university  of  Treves, 
became  acquainted,  about  the  year  18('0,  with 
Dr.  Gall,  the  founder  of  the  doctrine  of  craniol- 
ogv,  as  it  was  then  called,  and  afterwards  be- 
came an  associate  and  fellow  laborer  in  defend- 
ing and  propagating  their  opinions  in  different 
countries  of  Europe.  After  having  given  lec- 
tures in  various  cities  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, and  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  he  sail- 
ed to  America,  and  on  the  17lh  of  September 
commenced  a  course  of  lectures  on  phrenology 
at  Boston,  and  soon  after  another  course  at 
Cambridge  :  he  died  ftfter  an  illness  of  about 
three  weeks,  in  Boston,  Mass.  Nov.  10th,  1832, 
much  lamented  by  those  who  had  made  his  ac- 
quaintance. 

Stanhope,  Earl  of  Chesterfield,  eminent 
statesman.  &c.  &c.  died  1773,  aged  79. 

Stati us,  Roman  poet,  died  about  102,  A.  D. 
aged  91 . 

Steele,  sir  Richard,  English  writer,  died  in 
1729. 

Stewart,  Dugald,  celebrated  philosophical 
writer,  born  in  Scotland,  1753;  died  1828. 

Sterne,  Lawrence,  born  in  1713,  died  17G8. 

Stnart.  Robert,  Lord  Castlereagh,  marquis  of 
Londonderry,  eminent  statesman  :ind  minister, 
died  by  suicide  in  1822. 

Stuart,  (j'ilbeit.  eminent  American  portrait 
painter,  born  1755.  died  1828. 

Suetonius,  bo0i  at  Rome,  and  flourished  110. 

Summcrfield.  John,  a  very  popular  preacher 
of  the  Methodist  church,  died  at  New  York,  in 
1825,  aged  27. 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


EMI 


659 


EMl 


Swedenborg  Emanuel,  an  eminent  mathe- 
matical, philosophical,  and  mystical  writer,  died 
in  1772,  aged  84. 

Tacitus,  born  A.  D.  56. 

Tasso,  an  Italian  poet,  died  in  1595,  aged  51. 

Taylor,  Doctor  Jeremy,  eminent  theological 
writer,  died  in  1667,  aged  54. 

Taylor,  George,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
declaration  of  independence  from  Pennsylva- 
nia, born  in  Ireland  in  1716;  signed  the  dec- 
laration of  independence  .August  2d,  1776,  be- 
fore which  time  no  member  of  congress  had 
affixed  his  name  to  that  instrument ;  died  Feb. 
23d,  1731,  aged  65. 

Teniers,  Flemish  painter,  died  in  1649. 

Terence,  born  at  Carthage,  a  slave  in  Rome  ; 
his  master  Terentius  Nucanus  gave  him  a  good 
education  and  his  liberty,  in  the  year  of  Rome 
560  ;  he  was  drowned  159  B.  C. 

Theocritus,  Greek  pastoral  poet,  flourished 
200  B.C. 

Thespis,  famous  Greek  tragic  poet,  and  first 
representer  of  tragedy  at  Athens ;  carried  his 
company  in  a  wagon,  from  which  he  perform- 
ed his  pieces  ;  flourished  53G  B.C. 

Thomson,  James,  English  pastoral  poet,  born 
in  1700.  died  1748. 

Thornton,  Matthew,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
declaration  of  independence,  from  New  Hamp- 
shire, born  in  Ireland  about  the  year  1714  ;  ed- 
ucated a  physician,  and  practised  medicine  in 
Londonderry,  New  Hampshire ;  he  died  in 
Massachusetts,  June  24th,  1803,  in  the  89th 
year  of  his  age. 

Thucydides,  historian,  died  391  B.  C. 

Thurlow,  Lord,  eminent  chancellor  of  En<r- 
land,  died  in  1806. 

Tilghman,  William,  a  great  and  good  man, 
an  eminent  and  learned  lawyer,  was  born  in 
Talbot  county,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Mary- 
land, about  a  mile  from  Easton,  Aug.  12,  1756. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  April  30,  1827. 

Tibullus,  poet,  died  A.  D.  17. 

Tillotson,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  died  in 
1694. 

Titian,  Tiziano  Vecelli,  the  greatest  painter 
of  the  Venetian  school,  died  in  1576,  aged  96. 

Todd,  Eli,  M.  D.,  physician  of  the  Retreat 
for  the  Insane  in  Hartford.  He  was  born  in 
New  Haven  about  the  year  1769 ;  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1787;  established  himself  in 
his  profession  at  Farmington,  Conn,  in  1819, 
removed  to  Hartford,  and  took  the  lead  in 
founding  the  Retreat  for  the  Insane.  He  was 
a  man  oT  superior  talents  and  extensive  acquire- 
ments, and  greatly  respected  and  beloved  as  a 


-physician,  a  philanthropist,  and  a  Christian 
He  died  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  November 
7th,  1833. 

Tooke,  Thomas,  a  learned  English  writer, 
author  of  the  "  Pantheon,"  died  in  1721. 

Toussaint,  Louverture,  a  mulatto  of  St.  Do- 
mingo, rose  to  the  command  of  the  blacks  of 
that  island,  formed  a  constitution,  adopted  the 
wisest  and  most  humane  regulations ;  treacher- 
ously betrayed  and  imprisoned  by  the  French, 
and  died  in  Paris,  not  without  suspicion  of  vio- 
lence, in  1803. 

Trumbull,  Jonathan,  eminent  lawyer  of  Con- 
necticut, patriot  of  the  revolution,  chief  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  Connecticut,  and  gov- 
ernor of  that  state,  died  in  1785. 

Vandyck,  sir  Anthony,  illustrious  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1599;  died  in  England  in 
1641. 

Varro,  born  23  B.  C. ;  he  was  80  years  old 
when  he  wrote  his  "  De  Re  Rustica." 

Vattel,  native  of  Switzerland,  author  of  valu- 
able writings  on  jurisprudence,  and  on  natural 
law,  died  in  1770. 

Viner,  Charles,  author  of  the  "  Abridgement 
of  English  Law,"  died  1757. 

Volney,  a  distinguished  French  writer,  died 
in  1802. 

Voltaire,  Marie  Francis  Avonet,  born  Feb.  20, 
1694  ;  died  May  30, 1778 

Wakefield,  Mrs.  Priscilla,  author  of  many 
popular  and  useful  works  for  children  and 
young  persons,  and  one  of  the  earliest  promot- 
ers of  those  provident  institutions,  called  Sav- 
ings Banks.  She  died  in  London,  Sept.  12th, 
1832,  in  her  82d  year. 

Walker,  John,  writer  of  a  pronouncing  dic- 
tionary of  the  English  language,  died  in  1807. 

Waller,  English  poet,  died  in  1687. 

Walpole,  Horace,  earl  of  Oxford,  author  of 
numerous  publications,  died  in  1797. 

Walton,  Izaak',  author  of  the  "  Complete  An- 
gler," died  in  1683. 

Washington,  William,  a  distinguished  officer 
of  the  revolution,  died  in  1810. 

Watts,  Isaac,  poet  and  author,  died  1748. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  distinguished  major  gene- 
ral during  the  revolution,  and  afterwards  in  a 
contest  with  the  Indians,  gained  a  great  victory ; 
died  in  1796. 

Wesley,  Samuel,  an  English  divine  and  poet, 
author  o'f  a  folio  volume  entitled  the  Life  of 
Christ,  an  heroic  poem,  printed  in  1697,  embel- 
lished with  sixty  handsome  engravings ;  he  died 
17:35. 

Wesley,  John,  son  of  the  preceding,  founder 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


EMI 


660 


EMI 


of  the  sect  called  Methodists,  died  1791,  at  a 
very  advanced  age. 

West,  Benjamin,  a  very  eminent  painter, 
born  in  Pennsylvania,  in.  1738,  of  the  Quaker 
society  ;  went  to  Rome,  thence  to  England, 
where  he  became  successor  to  sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds, the  President  of  the  Royal  Academy  ;  he 
died  in  1820. 

Whipple,  William,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
declaration  of  independence,  from  New  Hamp- 
shire, born  in  1730.  died  in  1785. 

White,  Henry  Kirke,  born  in  Nottingham, 
Marcli  21st,  1785.  died  October  l!)th,  18U(J,aged 
21.  His  parents  were  in  humble  life.  In  early 
childhood  he  gave  promise  of  great  genius.  His 
first  distinguished  composition,  a  tale  of  a  Swiss 
emigrant,  was  written  at  seven  years  of  age  ; 
and  at  eleven,  he  in  one  day  wrote  twelve  sep- 
arate themes,  one  for  each  boy  in  his  class  ;  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was  planed  at  a  stocking 
loom,  but  his  soaring  genius  could  not  be  hap- 
py there ;  to  all  kinds  of  trade  he  had  an  ex- 
treme aversion.  His  temper  and  tone  of  mind 
at  this  period,  are  displayed  in  an  address  to 
Contemplation.  About  a  year  after  this,  he 
entered  upon  the  study  of  the  law.  He  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  Latin  during  his  leisure 
hours,  in  which  language  he  received  only  some 
triflincr  instruction,  yet  in  ten  months  he  ena- 
bled Himself  to  read  Horace  with  facility,  and 
had  made  some  progress  in  Greek,  studying  at 
the  same  time  the  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portu- 
guese languages,  in  all  which  he  became  a  tol- 
erable proficient.  Chemistry,  astronomy,  and 
electricity,  were  among  his  studies  ;  he  paid 
•ome  attention  to  drawing  and  music,  and  had 
a  turn  for  mechanics ;  close  application  to  study, 
and  the  stridingsof  a  Herculean  intellect,  wore 
out  a  constitution  naturally  feeble.  Rigidly 
correct  in  morals,  and  amiable  in  all  tlie 'rela- 
tions of  life,  his  feelings  inclined  towards  deism  ; 
but  an  inquiring  mind,  open  to  conviction, 
could  not  resist  the  sublime  truths  of  the  holy 
scriptures  ;  he  read, and  believed,  and  from  this 
moment  religion  engaged  all  hU  anxiety,  as  of 
all  concerns  the  most  important.  The  proofs 
of  his  indefatigable  industry,  which  his  papers 
evin. :<•<!,  were  astonishing';  law,  electi  ic-il v. 
chemiftry,  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages,  to 
the  hiL'!nvt  branches  of  critical  knowledge,  his- 
tory, chronology,  divinity,  the  Fathers,  poetry, 
tragedies,  &c.  &c.  had  been  studied,  under- 
stood, and  commented  upon,  by  a  ynnih.  vh<> 
died  at  the  age  of  21  years,  though  borne  down 
by  poverty  and  ill  health. 

Wilberforce,  William,  one  of  the  most  cele- 


brated philanthropists  of  modern  times,  and 
whose  able,  zealous,  long-continued,  and  ulti- 
mately successful  exertions  in  favoi  of  the  abo- 
lition of  the  slave-trade,  have  given  him  a  high 
rank  among  the  benefactois  of  the  human  race. 
He  was  born  Aug.  24,1759,  at  Hull  ;  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  formed  an  intimacy  with  William  Pitt;  was 
elected  a  member  of  parliament  for  Hull  in 
1780  ;  for  the  county  of  York  in  1784  ;  and  in 
1787,  he  brought  forward  a  motion  for  the  abo- 
lition of  the  slave  trade,  and  the  question,  after 
a  long  and  laborious  struggle,  was  finally  car- 
ried during  the  ministry  of  Mr.  Fox,  June  10, 
180G.  In  17H7.  Mr.  Wilberforce  published  his 
celebrated  "  Practical  View,"  a  work  which  has 
been  translated  into  most  European  languages, 
and  of  which  about  fifty  editions  have  been 
printed  in  Great  Britain  and  America.  He  died 
in  London,  July  28th,  Ie:i3,  in  his  74th  year. 
His  remains  were  consigned  to  the  sanctuary 
of  the  illustrious  dead  in  Westminster  Abbey  ; 
and  his  "  funeral  train  included  the  great  and 
the  good  of  all  parties." 

Wilson,  Thomas.  LL.  D.  bishop  of  ?odor  and 
Mann,  a  most  excellent  prelate,  and  an  eminent 
writer  in  theology  ;  he  died  in  1755. 

Wilson,  Alexander,  a  distinguished  natural- 
ist ;  author  of  the  "  American  Ornithology ;"' 
he  died  in  1813,  aged  about  40. 

Windham,  William,  celebrated  English  ora- 
tor and  statesman  ;  secretary  of  war,  member 
of  parliament,  died  in  1810. 

Winder,  William  H.  eminent  lawyer  of  Ma- 
ryland, brigadier  grnefal  in  the  army  of  the 
United  States  during  the  second  war  with  Great 
Britain,  died  in  ]«24. 

Winthrop,  John,  first  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, emigrated  with  the  first  colonists,  and 
died  in  1(>4(.'. 

Winthrop,  John,  F.  R.  S.  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, governor  of  the  colony  of  Connecticut,  died 
iu  ll)7(i ;  a  man  of -great  learning  and  talents. 

Winthrop.  Fitz  Ji.hn,  F.  II.  S.  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  distinguished,  like  his  father,  for 
learning  and  piety;  governor  oT  Connecticut ; 
died  in  1707. 

Winthrop,  John,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S  ,  professor 
of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  in  the 
Harvard  college,  died  177!). 

Winthrop,  James,  LL.  D.,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, distinguished  for  his  devotion  to  literary 
pursuits;  died  in  18521. 

Wistcr,  Caspar,  M.  D.  an  eminent  physician, 
and  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  the 
University  at  Philadelphia,  died  in  1818. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


EMI 


661 


ENC 


Wirt,  Hon.  William,  was  born  at  Bladens- 
burg,  Md.,  on  the  8th  of  November,  1772,  and 
was  the  youngest  of  six  children.  In  1705,  he 
married  the  eldest  daughter  of  Dr.  George  Gil- 
mer,  a  distinguished  physician,  and  took  up  his 
residence  at  Pen  Park,  the  seat  of  his  father-in- 
law,  near  Charlottesyille,  and  here  hs  was  in- 
troduced to  the  acquaintance  of  Jefferson,  Mad- 
ison, Monroe,  and  other  persons  of  celebrity  ; 
but  he  soon  contracted  habits  of  great  dissipa- 
tion, from  which  he  is  said  to  have  been  recov- 
ered by  a  sermon  which  he  heard  from  a  blind 
preacher,  James  Waddell,  whom  he  has  cele- 
brated in  his  "  British  Spy."  In  1799.  his  wife 
died,  and  he  was  soon  after  elected  clerk  of  the 
House  of  Deleates.  Having  performed  the 


Witherspoon,  John,  D.  D.  LL.  D.  distin- 
guished Scotch  clergyman,  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  declaration  of  independence  ;  for  many 
years  president  of  Princeton  college,  both  be- 
fore and  after  the  revolution,  which  he  retained 
until  his  death  in  1784  ;  born  5th  Feb.  1722. 

Woollett,  William,  a  most  eminent  engraver, 
the  first  in  his  profession,  died  in  1785. 

Wooster,  David,  major  general  in  the  Amer- 
ican revolutionary  army  ;  killed  in  1777. 

Wooverman,  Dutch  landscape  painter,  died 
in  1638,  aged  68. 

Wren,  riir  Christopher,  illustrious  English 
architect,  and  builder  of  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Pauls,  died  1723,  aged  91. 

Yorke,  Philip,  Earlof  Hardwck,  chancellor 


duties  of  this  office  two  years,  he  was,  in  1802,    of  England,  died  in  1764,  aged  74. 
appointed  chancellor  of  the  Eastern  District  of         Yorke,  Charles,  son  of  the  preceding,  chan- 
cellor of  England,  and  died  suddenly  Thursday 


appoint 

Virginia,  and  then  took  up  his  residence  at 
Williamsburg  ;  and  in  the  same  year  he  married 
the  daughter  of  Colonel  Gamble  of  Richmond. 
He  soon  after  resigned  his  chancellorship,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  year  1803,  removed  to  Nor- 
folk, and  entered  upon  the  assiduous  practice 
of  his  profession.  Just  before  he  removed  to 
Norfolk,  he  wrote  the  letters  published  in  the 
Richmond  Argus,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Brit- 
ish Spy,"  which  were  afterwards  collected  into 
a  small  volume,  and  have  passed  through  ten 
editions.  In  1896,  he  took  up  his  residence  at 
Richmond,  and,  in  the  following  year,  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  trial  of  Col. 
Burr.  In  1812,  he  wrote  the  greater  part  of  a 
series  of  essays,  which  were  originally  pub- 
lished in  the  Richmond  Enquirer  under  the 
title  of  "The  Old  Bachelor,"  and  have  since, 
in  a  collected  form,  passed  through  several  edi- 
tions. The  "  Life  of  Patrick  Henry,"  his 
largest  literary  production,  was  first  published 
in  1817. 

In  1816,  he  was  appointed  bv  Mr.  Madison 
the  United  States'  Attorney  for  "the  District  of 
Virginia  ;  and  in  1817,  by  Mr.  Monroe,  Attor- 
ney General  of  the  Uaited  States,  a  post  which 
he  occupied  with  distinguished  reputation  till 
1819,  through  the  entire  administrations  of  Mon- 
roe and  Adams.  In  183'),  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Baltimore,  for  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
As  a  public  and  professional  man,  Mr.  Wirt 
was  ranked  among  the  first  of  his  time.  He 
died  at  Washington  City,  Feb.  18,  1834,  aged  62. 

Wisner,  Benjamin  B.,  a  distinguished  calvin- 
istic  clergyman,  of  Boston  ;  died  Feb.  9,  18)35, 
aged  40  years.  He  was  several  years  Secretary 
of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions. 


after,  in  1770  ;  he  was  an  elegant  and  profound 

scholar. 

Young,  Edward,  an  English  poet  and  divine, 

author  of"  Night  Thoughts,"  died  in  1765. 
Zeno,   stoic  philosopher,  strangled   himself 

364  B.  C.  aged  98. 

Zimmerman,  eminent  physician  and  philoso- 

pher, author  of  a  work  on  Solitude,  died  1795. 
EMPEROR  OF  GERMANY,  made  elec- 

tive 996,  renounced  that  title  and  assumed  that 

of  emperor  of  Austria,  August  11,  1804. 

ENCROACHMENTS  OF  THE  SEA.  950 
The  islands  of  Ammiano  and  Costanziaco  in 
the  Gulf  of  Venice  swept  away  bv  the  sea. 

1044-1309  Irruptions  of  the  sea  on  the  coast  of 
Pomerania  cause  terrible  ravages,  and  give 
rise  to  the  popular  story  of  the  submersion  of 
Vineta. 

1106  Malamacco,  a  large  town  in  the  Venetian 
lagoons',  engulfed  by  the  sea. 

1218  The  gulf  of  Jahde  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Weser  formed  by  inundations. 

1219-20-21-46  &  51.  A  succession  of  violent 
storms  separated  the  island  of  Wieringen 
from  the  continent,  and  prepared  the  rupture 
of  the  isthmus  which  connected  North  Hol- 
land with  Friesland. 

1277-78-80-87  The  fertile  canton  of  Reiderland, 
with  the  town  of  Torum,  and  fifty  market 
towns,  villages,  and  monasteries,  swallowed 
up  by  the  sea,  which  formed  the  gulf  of  Dol- 
lart  over  their  site, 

1282  The  ZuiderZee  formed  by  the  rupture  of 
the  isthmus  uniting  North  Holland  and  Friee- 
land  and  many  towns  swept  away. 

1240  The  Uland'of  Northstrand  separated  from 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


EPS 


662 


EXC 


the  continent,  and  a  tract  of  the  coast  of 

Sleswic  swallowed  up. 

1300-1500-1649  Violent  storms  carry  off  three- 
fourths  of  Heligoland. 
1300  The  town  of  Ciparum  in  Istria  swallowed 

up  by  the  sea. 
13.  3  A  large  part  of  the  island  of  Rugen,  and 

several  villages  on  the  coast  of  Pomerania 

engulfed  by  the  waves. 
1337  Fourteen  villages  on  Kadsand  in  Zeeland 

destroyed  by  an  inundation. 
1421   The  sea  engulfs  the  district  of  Bergse- 

weld,  and  overflows  22  villages,  forming  the 

large  gulph  of  Biesbosch. 
1475  A  strip  of  land  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hum- 

ber  with  several  villages  carried  away  by  the 

sea. 
1510  The  Baltic  forms  the  mouth  of  the  Frisch 

HafF  3600  yards  wide. 
1530-32  A  part  of  the  islands  of  North  and 

South  Beveland  with  several  towns  and  many 

villages  swallowed  up. 
1634  An  inundation  of  the  sea  engulfs  the  island 

of  Northstrand,  destroying  1338  houses,  tow- 
ers, and  churches,  and  swallowing  up  50,000 

head  of  cattle,  and  6,400  human  beings. 
1926  A  violent  storm  changed  the  salt-pans  of 

Araya  in  Cumana,  into  a  large  gulf. 
J770-1785  Heligoland  divided  into  two  isles  by 

the  encroachments  of  the  sea. 
1784  The  lake  of  Aboukir  on  the   coast  of 

Egypt  formed  by  a  storm. 
1803  The  sea  carried  off  the  ruins  of  the  priory 

at  Crail  in  Scotland. 

ENGRAVING, on  metal  plates,  first  known 
in  Europe  B.  C.  504,  by  a  map  on  brass  brought 
from  Quonia  by  Anazao-oras  of  Samos  ;  and  yet 
it  was  not  until  A.D.  1423,  that  impressions  were 
taken  on  paper  from  engraved  plates ;  the  art 
of  taking  impressions  from  engravings  on  cop- 
per as  now  used,  1511 ;  in  mezzotinto,  and  im- 
proved by  prince  Rupert,  of  Palatine,  1648;  to 
represent  wash,  invented  by  Barable,  a  French- 
man. 1761  ;  crayon  engraving  invented  at  Pa- 
ris by  Bonnet,  17<'>'.). 

Engraving  on  wood  invented  in  Flanders, 
1423;  revived  by  Alb.  Durer,  1511  ;  on  glass 
invented  17!>9,  at  Puris,  by  Boudier. 

Engraving  on  steel  became  common  about 
1830.  It  is  now  preferred  for  fine  work,  to 
copper. 

Kngravinjr,  Lithographic,  invented  by  Sene- 
frldi-r.  a  (li-rman.  about  1796. 

EPSOM  MINERAL  SPRJNG  first  discov- 
ered  1G30. 


ERA,  that  of  Nabonassar,  was  747  B.  C. ; 
Phillipic,  or  death  of  Alexander,  324,  B.  C. ;  of 
Seleucidfe,3iy  B.C. ;  the  Christians  made  their 
e-a  the  birth  of  Christ,  which  was  A.  M.  4004, 
but  did  not  use  this  reckoning  till  the  year  600, 
using  in  the  mean  time  the  civil  account  of  the 
empire  ;  the  Mahometans  began  their  Hegira 
(for  so  they  term  their  computation)  from  the 
flight  of  tlieir  prophet  from  Mecca,  when  he 
was  driven  thence  by  the  PhilarchiE,  A.  D.  622 ; 
the  Grecians  reckon  by  Olympiads,  the  first  of 
which  is  placed  in  the  year  of  the  world  3187  ; 
but  this  account  perishing  under  the  Constan- 
tinopolitan  emperors,  they  reckoned  by  indic- 
tions,  every  indiction  containing  fifteen  years, 
and  the  first  beginning  A.  D.  313,  which  among 
chronologeis  are  still  used ;  the  Romans  reck- 
oned first  from  the  building  of  their  city,  which 
was  A.  M  3251,  and  afterwards  from  the  16th 
year  of  the  emperor  Augustus,  A.  M.  3936, 
which  reckoning  was  used  among  the  Span- 
iards till  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic ; 
the  Jews  had  divers  epoeha ;  as  1  st,  from  the 
creation  of  the  world  in  the  beginning  of  time; 
2d,  from  the  universal  deluge,  A.  M.  1C56;  3d, 
from  the  confusion  of  tongues,  A.  M.  1771 ;  4th, 
from  Abraham's  journey  out  of  Chaldea  into 
Canaan,  A.  M.  2U08 ;  5lh,  from  the  departure 
of  the  children  of  Israel  out  of  Egypt,  A.  M. 
2515;  Gth,  from  the  year  of  the  jubilee,  A.  M. 
2540  ;  7th,  from  the  building  of  Solomon's  tem- 
ple, A.  M.  2999;  and  8th,  from  the  captivity 
of  Babylon,  A,  M.  3397;  but  in  historical  com- 
putation of  time,  are  used  only  the  two  most 
ordinary  epochs,  the  world's  creation,  and 
Christ  appearance  in  the  flesh  ;  the  Christian 
era  began  to  be  used  in  Italy,  &c.  in  525,  and 
in  England  in  816. 

ETCHING  on  copper  invented  with  aqua 
fortis,  1512. 

ETNA,  celebrated  volcanic  mountain  in  the 
island  of  Sicily,  risin^  to  10,936  English  feet, 
which,  on  that  parallel,  is  above  the  region  of 
perpetual  snow.  The  irruptions  of  this  remark- 
able mountain  reach  beyond  history  ;  in  mod- 
ern times,  beside  many  of  lesser  note,  there 
were  eruptions  in  1169.  1408,  1444,  1535, 1669, 
and  16!)4,  when  the  city  of  Catanea,  with  the 
adjacent  country  was  destroyed,  and  18,000 
people  perished;  aerain  in  161 '9  and  1787. 

EXCISE,  the  firs°t  used  in  England,  1643. 

EXCHEQUER,  court  of,  instituted  on  the 
model  of  the  Normans,  1074;  exchequer  bills 
invented,  1695;  first  circulated  by  the  bank, 
1706. 


HISTORICAL  AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


FIR 


663 


FIR 


FAIRS  and  markets  first  instituted  in  Eng- 
land by  Alfred,  about  886.  The  first  fairs  took 
their  rise  from  wakes;  when  the'  number  of 
people  then  assembled  brought  together  a  vari- 
ety of  traders  annually  on  these  days.  From 
these  holidays  they  were  called  feriae,  or  fair. 

FANS,  muffs,  masks  and  false  hair,  first  de- 
vised by  the  harlots  in  Italy,  and  brought  into 
England  from  France,  1572. 

FAMINE  which  lasted  seven  years,  1708  B. 
C. ;  at  Rome,  when  many  persons  threw  them- 
selves into  the  Tiber,  440  B.  C. ;  in  Britain,  so 
that  the  inhabitants  ate  the  barks  of  trees,  272 
A.  C. ;  one  in  Scotland,  where  thousands  were 
starved,  306;  in  England  and  Wales,  where 
40,000  were  starved,  310  ;  all  over  Britain,  325 ; 
at  Constantinople,  446  ;  in  Italy,  where  parents 
ate  their  children,  450;  in  Scotland,  576 ;  all 
over  England,  Wales  and  Scotland,  739 ;  an- 
other in  Wales,  747;  in  Wales  and  Scotland, 
71)2;  again  in  Scotland,  803  ;  again  in  Scotland, 
when  thousands  were  starved,  823;  a  severe 
one  in  Wales,  836;  in  Scotland,  which  lasted 
four  years,  954  ;  famines  in  England,  864,  974, 
976,  1005 ;  in  Scotland,  which  lasted  two  years, 
1047  ;  in  England,  1050, 1087 ;  in  England  and 
France,  from  1193  to  1195;  in  England  1251, 
1315, 1318, 1335, 1348 ;  in  England  and  France, 
called  the  dear  summer,  1358;  in  England  1389 
and  1438,  so  great  that  bread  was  made  of  fern 
root ;  in  15(55  two  millions  were  expended  on 
the  importation  of  corn  ;  one  in  1748  ;  another 
in  1798;  in  the  province  of  Vellore,  in  1810, 
by  which  6000  people  perished ;  in  the  diocesa 
of  Drontheim,  in  Norway,  in  consequence  of 
the  intercepting  of  supplies  by  Sweden;-  5000 
persons  perished,  1813. 

FESTIVALS  of  Christmas,  Easter,  Ascen- 
sion, and  the  Pentecost,  or  Whitsuntide,  first 
ordered  to  be  observed  by  all  Christians,  68. 
Rogation  days  appointed  469;  jubilees  in  t,li» 
Romish  church  instituted  by  pope  Boniface  VI II 
1300;  (at  first  they  were  observed  every  hun- 
dred years,  but  future  popes  reduced  them  to 
50.  and  then  to  every  period  of  25  years.) 

FEUDAL  LAWS,  the  tenure  of  land,  by 
suit  and  service,  to  the  lord  or  owner  of  it,  in- 
troduced into  England  by  the  Saxons. about  600; 
the  slavery  of  this  tenure  increased  under  Wil- 
liam I,  1068.  This  was  dividing  the  kingdom 
into  baronies,  giving  them  to  certain  persons, 
and  requiring  those  persons  to  furnish  the  king 
with  money  ,°and  a  staled  number  of  soldiers. 

FIRES.  Jijax,  a  British  ship  of  the  line, 
56* 


burned  offTenedos,  Feb.  14th,  1807,  when  350 
men  perished. 

Alexandria,  Jan.  18th,  1827,  a  most  distress- 
ing conflagration  in  a  most  inclement  season. 
Congress  made  the  sufferers  a  donation  of 
$20,000. 

Bombay  in  the  East  Indies,  Feb.  27th,  1803, 
when  the  city  was  almost  entirely  destroyed. 

Boston,  March  21,  1673,  castle  at  the  harbor 
burned;  August  8th,  1679,  80  houses,  70  ware- 
houses, and  a  number  of  vessels  destroyed ; 
Feb.  2, 1798  theatre  in  Federal  street  destroyed ; 
Nov.  3d,  1818,  the  fine  and  spacious  exchange 
consumed. 

Casan,  in  Russia,  almost  totally  destroyed, 
Sept.  8th,  1815. 

Charleston,  South  Carolina,  200  houses  of, 
consumed  July  loth,  1778. 

Constantinople,  Sept.  4th,  1778,  2,000  house* 
consumed  ;  Oct.  22,  1782, 10,000  houses  and  50 
mosques  destroyed  ;  July  8,  1783,  7,000  houses 
destroyed ;  1791,  upwards  of  30,000  houses  in 
the  course  of  the  year  ;  Sept.  22d,  1818.  great 
injury  and  many  thousand  houses  consumed; 
Jan.  28th,  1820,  destructive  conflagration  and 
insurrection. 

Copenhagen,  one  third  of  destroyed,  June  9, 
1795. 

Kingston,  Jamaica,  Feb.  8th,  1782,  confla- 
gration at,  when  property  was  destroyed  to  the 
amount  of  £500 ,000. 

London,  982,  a  fire  which  destroyed  great 
part  of  the  city ;  July  10,  1212,  London  Bridge, 
when  2000  people  perished  ;  Sept  2.  1666,  a  fire 
broke  out  near  the  monument  and  burnt  fom 
days  and  four  nights,  destroying  113,000  houses, 
the  city  gates,  Guild  Hall,  &c. ;  86  churches, 
amongst  which  was  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  and 
400  streets ;  the  ruins  of  this  city  were  436 
acres;  in  1676,  600  houses  were  burnt ;  Dec.  4, 
1716,  150  houses  were  burnt  down  at  Wapping  ; 
Dec.  23d,  1759,  50  houses  were  destroyed,  dam- 
age estimated  at  £70,000 ;  Sept.  18th,  1790,  20 
persons  lost  their  lives  by  fire;  Sept.  14,  1791, 
several  vessels  and  sixty  houses  destroyed; 
July  22d,  and  23d,  1794,  680  houses  were  con- 
sumed, with  an  East  India  warehouse,  in  which 
35.000  bajrs  of  saltpetre  were  consumed,  and 
£40,000  worth  of  sugar  were  destroyed  in  one 
surrarhonse.  The  whole  loss  was  estimated  at 
above  £1,000,000  sterling ;  Aug.  17, 1794,  Ast- 
ley's  theatre  and  19  houses  were  burnt ;  Feb 
11,  1800,  three  large  warehouses  of  West  India 
Goods,  valued  at  £300,000  were  destroyed; 
Oct.  6lh.  same  year,  30  houses  and  goods  to  the 
amount  of  £80,000  were  burnt,  and  many  Iive0 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  HISTORY. 


FOU 


664 


FOU 


were  lost ;  Feb.  12th  1814,  the  custom-house, 
and  a  whole  range  of  buildings  destroyed ; 
May  23d,  1817,  extensive  damage  done  in  Fleet 
street ;  1834,  both  houses  of  Parliament  burned. 

JVeic  Orleans,  March  21st,  1788,  a  most  ruin- 
ous conflagration,  by  which  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  city  was  reduced  to  ashes. 

wVeic  York,  Dec.  29,  1773,  government  house 
destroyed  ;  September  21st,  1776,  a  great  fire  by 
which  about  1000  houses  were  consumed  with 
Trinity  Church,  the  Charity  School,  Lutheran 
Church,  &c. ;  Aug.  7, 1778,  300  houses  destroy- 
ed ;  Dec.  9th,  171)6,  destructive  fire  in  Maiden 
Lane,  lx>tween  GO  and  70  Jfouses  were  destroyed ; 
Dec.  18,  same  year,  about  40  houses  were  con- 
sumed ;  1  oss  esti  mated  &t  $106,700;  May  19,  in 
1811,10(1  houses  destroyed;  Aug.  31st,  1816, 
21  houses  destroyed.  It  appears  that  from  the 
isd  of  Jan.  to  the"3d  Dec.  1828,  property  was  de- 
stroyed by  fires  to  the  amount  of  $680,402. 

Philadclplua,  Dec  26th  1794,  German  Luthe- 
ran or  Zion  church ;  Jan.  27th,  1797,  fire  in 
the  printing  office  and  dwelling  house  of  An- 
drew Brown,  in  Chesnut-street — his  wife  and 
three  children  perished,  and  he  lingered  until 
the  4th  of  Feb.  when  he  expired;  Dec.  17th, 
1799,  Kickett's  circus,  &c.,  destroyed;  April 
llth,  1811,  a  destructive  fire  in  Locust-street ; 
May  8th,  1816,  a  very  destructive  fire  in  Coates- 
street.  The  most  lamentable  fire  that  ever  oc- 
curred in  Philadelphia  was  that  of  the  Orphan 
Asylum,  Jan.  23d,  1822,  in  which  twenty-three 
of  the  orphans  perished. 

Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  300  houses  de- 
stroyed Dec.  26th,  1802. 

Vrnite,  destructive  fire  at,  Jan.  14,  1789. 

Washington  City,  Aug.  24th,  1814,  the  Capi- 
tol, President's  House,  many  private  houses,  the 
bridge  over  the  Potomac,  dockyard,  &c.  by  the 
British  troops. 

FIRE  ENGINE,  to  force  water,  invented 
1663. 

FONTS  for  baptism,  instituted,  A.  D.  167 

FORT  ST.  GEORGE,  in  India,  first  settled 
by  the  English  East  India  Company,  1620. 

FORTIFICATION,  the  present'mode  intro- 
duced, about  1500. 

FOUNDING  OF  CITIES,  TOWNS,  KING- 
DOMS. STATES,  &c.  Aix  la  Chapelle  built, 
79«). 

Albany,  city,  capital  of  New  York,  in  Albany 
county:  next  to  Jamestown.  Virginia,  the  old- 
est town  in  the  United  States.  Settled  by  the 
Dutch  about  1614. 

Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  built  in  17  days,  the 
walls  whereof  were  six  miles  in  circuit,  332  B.C. 


Amsterdam  first  settled,  1203;  walled,  1482; 
taken  possession  of  by  the  French,  January  18, 
1795. 

Annapolis,  Virginia:  made  a  post  town  in 
1694 ;  created  from  the  village  of  Severn. 

Antioch  built,  300  B.  C. 

Antwerp  first  mentioned  in  history,  517; 
walled,  1256;  pillaged  by  its  garrison,  1576; 
ruined,  1585;  declared  a  free  port,  1784  ;  sur- 
rendered to  the  French,  1794. 

Areopagus  first  erected  at  Athens,  1272  B.  C, 

Argos,  the  kingdom  of,  began  1586  B.  C. 

Arragon,  erected  into  a  kindom,  912. 

Ashford,  post  town.  Windham  county,  Con- 
necticut;  incorporated  in  1714. 

Assyria,  kingdom  of,  began  under  Ninus, 
2059  B.  C  ;  lasted  above  1264  years,  ended  with 
Sardanapalus  ;  out  of  its  ruins  were  formed  the 
Assyrians  of  Babylon,  those  of  Nineveh,  and 
the  Medes. 

Athens,  kingdom  of,  began  1556  B.  C. 

Attleborough,  post  town,  Bristol  county, 
Massachusetts  ;  incorporated  in  1694. 

Babylon,  the  city  of,  founded  by  Nimrod, 
2640  ;  walled,  1243';  taken  by  Cyrus,  588 ;  by 
Darius,  after  19  months  siege,  511  B.  C. 

Babylonish  monarchy  founded  2217  B.  C. 

Bagdad  built,  762. 

Balbec  built  144;  totally  obliterated  by  an 
earthquake,  1759. 

Baltimore,  city  and  port  of  entry  in  Baltimore 
county,  Maryland.  Founded  in  1729.  In  1765 
contained  but  fifty  houses.  Erected  into  a  city 
in  1797.  Its  medical  college  was  founded  in 
1807.  St.  Mary's  college,  a  Catholic  institution, 
incorporated  in  1806.  Battle  of  Baltimore 
fought  the  13th  and  14th  of  September,  1814. 

Bnrnstahle,  seaport  and  capital  of  Barnstable 
comitv.  Mass.,  on  Barnstable  bay.  Settled  by 
the  Rev.  John  Lathrop,  October  11.  1639. 

Bavaria,  dukedom  of,  founded  1180  ;  made  an 
electorate,  1028;  erected  into  a  kingdom  by 
Boriapartp.  1,-'0r>. 

Beaufort,  town.  North  Carolina,  incorporated 
in  1723. 

Bennington,  a  post  town  in  the  county  of 
Bennington,  Vermont,  founded  in  1749.  As 
the  grant  of  the  township  was  made  by  Gov. 
Wentworth  of  New  Hampshire,  it  was  called 
from  his  Christian  name,  Benning.  Stark's 
victory  gained  here.  August  16,  1777. 

Berne,  in  Switzerland,  mode  an  imperial  city, 
12!!0;  ancient  government  of,  overturned  by 
the  French,  re-established,  Dec.  24,  1813. 

Bethlehem,  borough  and  post  town,  Nortb- 
hampton  county,  Pennsylvania.  Commenced 


HISTORICAL   AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


FOU 


665 


FOU 


in  1741  by  the  Moravians,  who  removed  hither 
from  Savannah,  because  the  inhabitants  com- 
pelled them  to  bear  arms. 

Beverly,  post  town  and  seaport,  Essex  coun- 
ty, Massachusetts.  This  town  was  incorporat- 
ed in  1668,  and  the  early  settlers  gathered  to- 
gether and  erected  a  church  in  1657. 

Billerica,  post  town,  Middlesex  county,  Mass. 
Founded  in  1656. 

Bohemia,  kingdom  of,  founded,  550. 

Bradenburgh  created  a  marquisate,  925  ;  cre- 
ated a  dukedom,  1526. 

Braintree,  town,  Norfolk  county,  Massachu- 
setts. First  church  was  gathered  in  1639.  It 
originally  belonged  to  Boston,  and  was  called 
Mount  Wollaston. 

Bridgewater,  post  town,  Plymouth  county, 
Massachusetts.  Settled  1651.  Attacked  by 
Indians  and  injured  severely,  May  8,  1676. 

Britanny,  founded  as  a  kingdom,  383  ;  made 
a  duchy,  874  ;  annexed  to  the  crown  of  France, 
1150. 

British  isles ;  they  were  inhabited  originally 
by  a  people  called  Britons,  of  the  same  stock 
with  the  ancient  Gauls  or  Celt®.  The  Ro- 
mans first  invaded  them  under  Julius  Caesar, 
54  B.  C.  but  made  no  conquests.  The  emperor 
Claudius,  and  his  generals  Plautius,  Vespasian, 
and  Titus,  subdued  several  provinces  after  30 
pitched  battles  with  the  natives,  A.  D.  43  and 
44.  The  conquest  was  completed  by  Agricola 
in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  85. 

Brookfield,  post  town,  Worcester  county, 
Massachusetts.  Settled  in  1660.  Township 
granted  in  1667.  August  2, 1675,  two  or  three 
hundred  ambuscaded  Indians  attacked  a  party 
of  inhabitants,  and  killed  several.  Burnt  by 
the  Indians  in  1675.  Incorporated  1718. 

Brookline,  town,  Norfolk  county,  Massachu- 
setts. Incorporated  1705. 

Bruges  founded,  700  ;  fortified,  890. 

Brunswick  built,  361. 

Burgundy,  the  dukedom  of,  established,  890  ; 
the  kingdom  founded,  413  ;  again  in  814  ;  unit- 
ed to  the  German  empire,  103o;  disunited  by  a 
revolt,  and  divided  into  four  sovereignties,  1074. 

Byzantium,  now  Constantinople,  founded 
715  B.  C. 

Calcutta  seized  and  settled  by  the  English, 
1689. 

Cambridge,  England,  once  a  city  called  Gran- 
ta,  built  by  Carsiurus ;  university  chartered, 
538 ;  founded ,  900 ;  the  town  burnt  by  the 
Danes,  1010;  university  revived,  1110. 

Cambridge,  post  town,  Middlesex  county, 
Massachusetts.  Name  changed  from  Newtown 


to  Cambridge  in  1638,  when  Harvard  Universi- 
ty was  founded. 

Canterbury  built,  912  B.  C. ;  paved,  1477. 

Carthage  founded  by  the  Tyrians,  1259 ;  built 
by  queen  Dido,  1233 ;  destroyed,  146 ;  rebuilt, 
123  B.  C. 

Castile  and  Arragon  kingdom  begun,  1035. 

Charlestown,  Middlesex  county  Massachu- 
setts. Founded  in  1629  by  a  company  of  one 
hundred  persons.  Burned  by  the  British,  June 
17,  1775. 

Chelmsford,  now  Lowell,  post  town,  Middle- 
sex county,  Massachusetts.  Incorporated  in 
1655.  It  was  attacked  by  Indians  in  1676. 

Chelsea,  Massachusetts,  formerly  a  ward  of 
Boston,  under  the  name  of  Winnesimmet  or 
Romney  Marsh.  Incorporated  in  1738. 

Chichester  built  by  Ciffa,  516 ;  paved,  1576. 

China  empire  founded,  2100  B.  C.;  but  its 
history  does  not  extend  above  the  Greek  Olym- 
piads ;  the  first  dynasty,  when  prince  Yu  reign- 
ed, 2207  B.  C. ;  before  this  time  the  Chinese 
chronology  is  imperfect. 

Cologne  made  an  imperial  city,  959 ;  made 
archiepiscopal,  742;  electoral,  1021. 

Concord,  post  town,  Middlesex  county,  Mas- 
sachusetts. Settled  in  1635. 

Constantinople  changed  its  name  from  By- 
zantium, 329 ;  was  made  the  seat  of  an  emperor, 
1268 ;  Cadies  or  justices  introduced,  to  decide 
the  disputes  between  the  Greeks  and  Turks, 
1390  ;  taken  by  Mahomet  II  May  29, 1452,  who 
put  an  end  to  the  eastern  empire,  1453 ;  walled 
twenty  miles  round,  413. 

Copenhagen  founded,  1169 ;  made  a  citv, 
1319  ;  made  the  capital  of  Denmark,  1443. 

Corinth,  kingdom  of,  established,  1355  B.  C. 

Cork,  in  Ireland,  built,  1170. 

Corsica  dependent  on  Genoa  till  1730  ;  ceded 
to  France,  1770;  offered  to  Germany  for 
£150,000  in  1781 ;  surrendered  its  sovereignty 
to  Great  Britain,  1794  ;  relinquished,  in  1796. 

Cracow,  in  Poland,  founded,  700. 

Cronstadt  built  by  Peter  the  Great,  of  Russia, 
1704. 

Danbury,  post  town,  Fairfield  county,  Con- 
necticut. Founded  about  1693. 

Dantzick  founded,  1169 ;  first  walled  in,  1398; 
admitted  to  a  suffrage  in  the  election  of  kings 
of  Poland,  1632;  put  themselves  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Prussia,  1703  ;  compelled  to  acknow- 
ledge Stanislaus  kingof  Poland,  1707  ;  the  king 
of  Prussia  seized  upon  the  territory  round  the 
city,  1789. 

Dauphiny  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  France 
1349.  J 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY. 


FOU 


666 


FOU 


Dedham,  post  town,  and  capital  of  Norfolk 
rounly,  Massachusetts.  Commenced  in  1637. 

Delft  city  founded,  1072. 

Denmark  united  to  Norway,  1412;  separated 
from  it,  1521  ;  crown  made  hereditary,  1660 ; 
Pomerania  and  the  isle  of  Rugen  annexed  to  it 
in  exchange  for  Norway,  by  treaty,  Jan.  14, 

Domingo,  St.  given  up  by  the  French  gover- 
nor, Rochambeau,  to  the  black  troops,  Nov.  19, 
1803. 

Dorchester,  town,  Norfolk  county,  Massachu- 
setts. Settled  1630.  Church  gathered  1636. 

Dover  castle  built  by  Julius  Caesar;  town 
fortified.  1525. 

Dresden  founded,  808. 

Dublin  city  walls  built  about  838 ;  its  first 
charter  granted,  1173;  its  castle  built,  1220; 
university  founded,  1591 ;  students  admitted  to 
its  university,  January,  1594. 

Dunkirk  founded,  966. 

East  Indies  were  discovered  by  the  Romans, 
but  authors  differ  as  to  the  time ;  but  with 
certainty  we  know,  that  Alexander  the  Great 
made  extensive  conquests  in  this  country,  327 
B.C.;  by  the  Portuguese,  1497;  conquered 
in  1500,  and  settled  by  them  in  1506.— The  first 
settlement  was  Goa. 

Edinburgh  built,  950 ;  fortified,  and  castle 
erected,  1074  ;  made  the  metropolis  of  Scotland 
by  James  III,  1482;  James  II  was  the  first 
king  crowned  there,  1437. 

Egypt,  the  kingdom  of,  began.  2188  B.C.,  and 
lasted  1633  years;  reduced  to  a  province,  31 
A.  D. ;  and  subdued  by  the  Turks,  in  1525 ;  the 
French  army  entered  it  in  1798,  and  overthrew 
it,  but  were  expelled  by  the  English  in  1801. 

Elbing,  in  Prussia,  founded,  1240. 

Elsineur,  in  Denmark,  built  2  B.  C. 

Exeter,  post  town,  Rockingham  county,  New 
Hampshire.  Church  and  town  founded  in  1638. 

Falmouth,  town,  Cumberland  county,  Maine. 
Incorporated  in  1718.  Burned  by  the  British, 
October  18, 17T5,  when  one  hundred  and  thirty 
nine  dwelling  houses,  and  two  hundred  and 
thirty -eight  stores  were  destroyed. 

Favetteville,  post  town,  Cumberland  county, 
North  Carolina.  Founded  in  1785. 

Flanders  erected  into  an  earldom,  793 ;  made 
part  of  France,  1795;  annexed  to  Holland, 
1813. 

Florence  founded,  1408  B.  C. 

Fribpurg,  in  Switzerland,  founded,  1179. 

Gallipohs,  post  town  and  capital  of  Gallia 
county,  Ohio.  Land  granted  to  French  settlers 
in  1795. 


Geneva  republic  founded,  1512. 
Genoese  republic  founded,  101)6. — Genoa  an- 
nexed to  the  French  empire,  1805.— Transferred 
to  the  king  of  Sardinia,  1814. 

Georgetown,  post  town,  Lincoln  county, 
Maine.  Incorporated  in  1718. 

Georgia  colony  settled,  June  22, 1732 ;  incor- 
porated, July  31,  1752. 

Germany  was  divided  anciently  into  several 
independent  states,  which  made  no  figure  in 
history  till  25  B.  C.,  when  they  withstood  the 
attempts  of  the  Romans  to  subdue  them,  who 
conquered  some  parts  ;  but  by  the  repeated  ef- 
forts of  the  Germans  were  entirely  expelled 
about  A.  D.  290.— In  432,  the  Huns,  driven 
from  China,  conquered  the  greatest  part  of  this 
extensive  country  ;  but  it  was  not  totally  stfb- 
dued  till  Charlemagne  became  master  of  the 
whole,  A.  D.  802. 

Goree  Isle  first  planted  by  the  Dutch,  1617. 

Grand  Cairo  built  by  the  Saracens,  969. 

Gravesend  erected  to  protect  .the  river 
Thames,  1513. 

Grecian  empire  founded  by  Alexander,  331 ; 
commenced,  81 1. 

Groningen  built,  433  B.  C. 

Guilford,  borough,  post  town  and  seaport,New 
Haven  county,  Connecticut.  Settled  in  1639. 

Haddam,  post  town,  Middlesex  county,  Con- 
necticut. Incorporated  16C8. 

Hadley,  post  town,  Hampshire  county,  Mas- 
sachusetts. Settled  in  1658.  On  September 
1st,  J658,  the  town  was  attacked  bv  Indians 
during  the  services  of  the  Sabbath.  The  sava- 
ges  were  repelled  by  an  aged  man,  who  sudden 
ly  appeared  and  headed  the  inhabitants,  ar»ft 
disappeared  as  suddenly  after  the  victory  This 
man,  regarded  as  an  angel  at  the  tune,  was  . 
afterwards  discovered  to  be  Goffe,  one  of  the 
regicide  judges. 

Hamburgh  founded,  804;  walled,  811;  dis- 
franchised, and  incorporated  with  France,  Jan. 
1810 ;  restored  to  independence  by  the  allied 
sovereigns,  1814. 

Hanover,  hitherto  but  a  village,  walled,  1556 ; 
obtained  the  privileges  of  a  city,  1578 ;  made 
the  ninth  electorate,  1632;  annexed  to  West- 
phalia, by  Bonaparte,  March  IS,  1^10  ;  regained 
to  England,  Nov.  6,  1813;  principality  of  Hil- 
desheim  annexed  to  it,  1813;  erected  into  a 
kingdom,  1814  ;  assembly  of  the  states  of  the 
new  kingdom  opened  by  the  duke  of  Cambridge, 
Dec.  15,  1814 ;  East  Friesland  and  Harlingen 
added  to  it,  1815. 

Harrisburg,  the  metropolis  of  Pennsylvania, 
founded  in  1786. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


FOU 


667 


FOU 


Harwich,  post  town,  Barnslable  county,  Mas- 
sachusetts. Its  Indian  name  was  Satucket. 
Incorporated  1694. 

Heptarchy,  in  England,  commenced,  455; 
ended,  824. 

Hingham,  post  town,  Plymouth  county,  Mas- 
sachusetts. Settled  in  1635. 

Holland,  originally  part  of  the  territory  of  the 
BelgaEs,  conquered  by  the  Romans,  47  B.  C. — A 
sovereignty  founded  by  Thierry,  first  count  of 
Holland,  A.  D.  80S;  continued  till  1417,  when 
it  passed  by  surrender  to  the  duke  of  Burgundy, 
A.  D.  1534;  being  oppressed  by  the  bishop  of 
Utrecht,  the  people  ceded  the  country  to  Spain. 
The  Spanish  tyranny  being  insupportable,  they 
revolted  and  formed  the  republic,  now  called  the 
United  Provinces,  by  the  union  of  Utrecht,  1579. 
The  office  of  stallholder,  or  captain  general  of 
the  United  Provinces,  made  hereditary  in  the 
Prince  of  Orange's  family,  not  excepting  fe- 
males, 1747. — A  revolt  formed,  but  prevented 
by  the  Prussians,  1787. — Invaded  by  the  French 
in  1793,  who  took  possession  of  it,  Jan.  1795, 
and  expelled  the  stallholder. — Erected  into  a 
kingdom  by  the  command  of  Bonaparte,  and 
the  title  of  king  given  to  his  brother  Louis, 
June  5,  1806.  The  throne  abdicated  by  Louis, 
July  1, 1810.  United  to  France  by  a  decree  of 
Bonaparte,  July  9,  1310. 

Holliston,  post  town,  Middlesex  county, 
Massachusetts.  Settled  in  1710.  Incorporated 
1724.  Visited  in  1753  by  a  malignant  fever, 
which  carried  off  fifty-three  persons  out  of  a 
population  of  400. 

Hull  founded,  1296;  incorporated  by  the 
name  of  Kingston,  1299. 

Ilium  built,  1359  B.  C- 

Ionian  islands  ceded  to  Britain,  as  a  free  and 
independent  state,  by  the  allied  sovereigns  in 
congress,  Nov.  5,  1815. 

Ipswich,  post  town,  and  port  of  entry,  Essex 
county.  Massachusetls.  Settled  1634. 

Ireland ;  the  original  inhabitants  of  this  coun- 
try are  supposed  to  have  been  of  the  Celtic 
stock  ;  it  was  divided  formerly  among  a  num- 
ber of  petty  sovereigns. 

Ilalv,  kingdom  of.  began,  476  ;  ended,  964  ; 
began' again,  1805  ;  and  Bonaparte  the  Corsican 
crowned  king,  May  26. 

Jersey,  Guernsey,  Sark,  and  Alderney,  were 
appendages  of  the  duchy  of  Normandy,  and 
united  to  the  crown  of  England,  by  the  first 
prince  of  the  Norman  line. 

Jerusalem  built  1800  B.  C. ;  destroyed  by 
Titus,  7U  ;  rebuilt  by  Adrian,  130;  again  de- 
stroyed, 136  ;  taken  by  the  Saracens,  637 ;  taken 


by  the  Crusaders,  July  14, 1099,  when  70,000 
infidels  are  said  to  have  been  massacred  ;  lakeu 
from  the  Christians  by  Saladin,  1190. 

Kent,  kingdom  of,  began,  455  ;  ended,  823. 

Liverpool  was  incorporated,  1299. 

London  fortified  by  the  Romans,  50  ;  walled, 
and  a  palace  built,  294  ;  made  a  bishopric,  653 ; 
repaired  by  Alfred,  885 ;  greatly  damaged  by  a 
fire,  982,  1027,  and  1130;  not  paved,  1090; 
houses  of  timber  thatched  with  straw,  but  to 
prevent  fire,  ordered  to  be  built  with  stone,  and 
covered  vvilh  slates,  1192,  but  the  order  not  ob- 
served ;  a  charter  by  king  John  to  ihe  London- 
ers to  choose  a  mayor  out  of  their  own  body, 


annually  (this  office  formerly  was  for  life,)  to 
elect  and  remove  their  sheriffs  at  pleasure,  and 
their  common-councilmen  annually,  1208;  a 
common  hunt  first  appointed,  1226;  aldermen 
first  appointed,  1242;  the  houses  still  thatched 
with  straw,  Cheapside  lay  out  of  the  city,  1246  ; 
all  built  of  wood,  1300;  their  privileges  taken 
away,  but  restored  on  submission,  1366 ;  the 
first  lord  mayor  sworn  at  Westminster  that  went 
by  water, 1433 ;  the  lord  mayor's  show  instituted, 
1453;  a  sheriff  fined  £50  for  kneeling  too  near 
the  lord  mayor,  when  at  prayers  in  St.  Paul's 
cathedral,  1486;  the  Thames  water  first  con- 
veyed into  the  city,  1582  ;  the  city  chiefly  built 
of  wood,  and  in  every  respect  very  irregular, 
1600  ;  the  New  River  brought  to  London,  1613  ; 
the  lord  mayor  and  sheriffs  arrested  at  the  suit 
of  two  pretended  sheriffs,  April  24,  1652;  the 
greatest  part  of  the  city  destroyed  by  fire,  1666  ; 
Pilkington  and  Shule.  the  city  sheriffs,  sent 
prisoners  to  the  Tower,  for  continuing  a  poll 
after  the  lord  mayor  had  adjourned  it,  1682; 
the  charter  of  the  city  declared  forfeited  to  the 
crown,  June  12,  1662;  privileges  taken  away, 
but  restored ,  1688 ;  built  a  mansion  house,  1737 ; 
furnished  and  inhabited  the  same,  1752 ;  r^mir- 
ed  London  bridge,  1758,  when  government 
granted  them  £  15,000  and  permitted  them  lo 
pull  down  the  gates.  1760;  began  Blackfriars 
bridge,  Oct.  31,  1760  ;  the  common  council  or 
dered  to  wear  blue  mazarine  gowns,  Sept.  14, 
1761  ;  lost  their  cause  against  the  dissenters 
serving  sheriffs,  July  5,  1762;  the  city  remon* 
strated  on  the  king's  paying  no  attention  to  their 
petition  for  a  redress  of  grievances,  and  was 
censured,  March,  1770;  Brass  Crosby,  Esq. 
lord  mayor,  and  alderman  Oliver,  sent  to  the 
Tower  by  the  house  of  commons,  for  committing 
their  messenger,  March,  1771  ;  trade  gieatly 
injured  by  bankruptcies,  1772 ;  regulation  of 
admitting  the  livery  at  Guildhall,  by  Mr.  Stone's 
scheme,  1774  ;  the  common  councilmen  discon 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


FOU 


668 


FOU 


tinued  the  wearing  of  their  mazarine  gowns  in 
court,  in  1775 ;  the  city  abandoned  to  the  mercy 
of  an  ungoverned  mob,  July  3,  1780;  rebuilt 
the  compters  near  Newgate,  1789;  from  the 
year  1768  to  the  year  177(3,  the  corporation  of 
London  expended  the  following  sums  for  public 
uses,  which  show  the  opulence  of  the  city  :  in 
new  paving,  repairing  old  pavements,  lighting, 
cleansing,  and  purchasing  old  houses  to  widen 
streets,  £200,000 ;  £200,000  for  the  new  bridge 
at  Blackfriars  ;  several  large  sums  for  new  roads, 
embanking  the  river,  and  other  contingencies  ; 
£200,000  for  repairing  the  royal  exchange  ;  the 
jail  of  Newgate  cost  £  100,000.  London  is  now 
supposed  to  contain  160,000  houses,  7000  streets, 
to  cover  3000  acres,  and  to  be  in  circumference 
23  miles,  and  its  population  1 ,200,000. 

Londonderry,  post  town,  Rockingham  coun- 
ty, New  Hampshire.  Settled  by  one  hundred 
Scotch  families,  (who  came  from  Londonderry, 
Ireland,  their  temporary  residence,)  in  1719. 

Lubec  was  founded,  1140. 

Lucca  republic  founded,  100. 

Lyons,  in  France,  founded  43  B.  C.;  opposed 
the  national  convention,  by  whom  it  was  be- 
•ieged,  1793. 

Macedon,  kingdom  of,  began,  814  B.  C. 

Madrid  built,  936  B.  C.,  but  remained  an  ob- 
scure village  in  1515. 

Man,  isle  of,  formerly  subject  to  Norway; 
then  to  John  and  Henry  III  of  England,  and 
afterwards  to  Scotland  ;  governed  by  its  lords, 
from  1043 ;  conquered  by  Henry  IV  1341. 

Medford,  post  town,  Middlesex  county, Mas- 
sachusetts. Settled  in  1030.  A  ship  of  thirty 
tons  built  here  in  1633. 

Michilimackinack.  A  fort  built  here  by  the 
French  in  1073. 

Middletown,  city,  port  of  entry,  and  capital 
of  Middlesex  county,  Connecticut,  commenced 
1651. 

Milan,  the  capital  of  thb  celebrated  dukedom 
is  reputed  to  have  been  built  by  the  Cauls. 
about  408  B.  C. 

Modena  made  a  duchy,  1451. 

Mogul  empire — The  first  conqueror  was  Jen- 
ghis  Khan,  a  Tartarian  prince,  \vli  j  died,  1230. 

Morocco,  empire  of,  anciently  Mauritania, 
first  known,  1008.— Possessed  by  the  Romans, 
25  B.  C.,  and  reduced  by  them  to  a  province, 
50. — From  this  time  it  underwent  various  revo- 
lutions, till  the  establishment  of  the  Almova- 
rides. — The  second  emperor  of  this  family  hnilt 
the  capital,  Morocco.— About  1116,  Abdallah, 
the  leader  of  a  sect  of  Mahometans,  founded  the 
dynasty  of  Almahides,  which  ended  in  the  last 


sovereign's  total  defeat  in  Spain,  1312.— At  this 
period  Fez  and  Tremecen,  then  provinces  of 
the  empire,  shook  off  their  dependence. — Mo- 
rocco was  afterwards  seized  by  the  king  of  Fez; 
but  the  descendants  of  Mahomet,  about  1550, 
subdued  and  united  again  the  three  kingdoms, 
and  formed  what  is  at  present  the  empire  of 
Morocco. 

Moscow  founded,  1156. 

Munich,  in  Bavaria,  founded,  9G2;  walled, 
1157. 

Nuntucket,  island  of,  Massachusetts.  First 
settlement  commenced  at  Madakit  harbor,  1G59. 

Naples  founded,  323  B.  C. 

Naples,  anciently  Capua  and  Campania, 
kingdom  of,  began,  1020. — Great  part  of'the 
country  was  inhabited,  in  ancient  tinres,  by  the 
Etruscans,  who  built  Nola  and  Capua. 

Netherlands  declared  themselves  a  free  state, 
15(55  and  1789;  became  a  province  to  France  in 
1794  ;  placed  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  house 
of  Orange,  1814. 

Newcastle-upon-Tvne  built,  1079;  incorpo- 
rated by  king  John,  1213. 

New  Haven,  city,  seaport,  and  semi-metrop- 
olis of  Connecticut.  Built  1G38.  Its  college 
was  projected  in  1654.  Plundered  by  the  Brit- 
ish, July  5,  1779.  Made  a  city  ]784. 

New  London,  city  and  port  of  entry,  New 
London  county,  Connecticut.  Settled  in  1G48. 
Burnt  by  Benedict  Arnold,  after  his  treason, 
Sept.  6, 1781.  Made  a  city  1784. 

New  Orleans,  city,  port  of  entry  and  capital 
of  Louisiana.  Founded  in  1717.  Dreadful 
hurricane  occurred  in  1722. 

Newtown,  Massachusetts,  originally  intended 
as  a  fortified  place,  and  commenced  in  1631. 
(See  Cambridge.) 

Normandy  erected  into  a  dukedom,  876. 

Northumberland  kingdom  began,  547 ;  ended, 
828. 

Norwalk,  post  town.  Fairfield  county,  Con- 
necticut. Settled  in  1651.  Burnt  by  the  Brit- 
ish, July  12,  177!). 

Norway  attached  to  Sweden,  and  Charles 
XIII  of  Sweden  proclaimed  king  of,  November 
4,1814. 

Norwich,  city,  New  London  county,  Connec- 
ticut. Settled  in  1GGO.  Made  a  city  in  1784. 

Nottingham  built, !','!. 

Ottoman  empire  begun,  1293. 

Oxford  university, "founded  by  Alfred,  886; 
i's  <  i.-tle  built,  1071  ;  archdeaconry  erected, 
10'..2:  Beaumont  place  finished,  about  1128; 
chancellor's  court  established,  1244;  bishoprick 
taken  from  Lincoln,  and  founded,  1541  ;  firs* 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


FOU 


669 


FOU 


public  lecture  in  Arabic  read  there,  1636;  new 
theatre  built,  1669  ;  a  terrible  fire  at,1644  ;  again, 
1671;  library  built,  1745;  hospital  begun,  May  1, 
1772;  observatory  built,  1772;  visited  by  Geo. 
Ill,  &c.  Oct.  12,  1785. 

Padua  built,  1269  B.  C  ;  surrounded  with  a 
wall,  &c.  by  the  Venetians,  1019. 

Paris  founded,  357;  made  the  capital  of 
France,  510 ;  the  city  of,  consumed  by  fire,  588 ; 
first  paved  with  stones,  1186;  barricadoes  of, 
1586,  to  oppose  the  entry  of  the  duke  of  Guise  ; 
again,  Aug.  27,  1748,  in  opposition  to  the  re- 
gency ;  first  parliament  there,  1302. 
•  Persian  empire  founded,  536  B.  C. 

Petersburg!],  in  Muscovy,  built  by  the  czar. 
Petfr  1,  1703. 

Pisa  republic  founded,  1403. 
Plymouth,  seaport  and  capital  of  Plymouth 
county,  Massachusetts.     First  company  of  Pil- 
grims la'nded  Dec.  23,  1620.     First  house  built 
Dec.  25,  of  the  same  year  . 

•Poland,  once  the  country  of  the  Vandals,  who 
left  it  to  invade  the  Roman  empire ;  it  was 
made  aduchy,  694  ;  kingdom  of,  began,  by  the 
favor  01  Otho  III,  emperor  of  Germany,  under 
Boleslaus,  999. 

Portland,  city  and  port  of  entry,  Cumberland 
county,  Maine.  Incorporated  1786. 

Portugal,  kingdom  of.  began,  1139  ;  united  to 
Spain  in  1580,  and  continued  so  till  1640,  when 
they  shook  off  the  Spanish  yoke. 

Providence,  city  and  port  of  entry.  Provi- 
dence county.  Rhode  Island.  Settled  by  Roger 
Williams  in  IG36.  Thirty  houses  destroyed  by 
the  Indians,  March  2:t,  1676. 

Prussia,  anciently  possessed  by  the  Venedi, 
whose  kings  were  descended  from  Athirius,  first 
king  of  the  Heruli,  OH  the  Baltic,  320  B.  C. 
Ratisbon  built,  lle'7  B.  C. 
Riga,  founded  in  112d,  by  a  colony  of  Bre- 
meners. 

Roman  empire  began,  44  B.  C.;  ended,  63 
A.  D.;  began  in  the  west, 74  ;  ended,  92  ;  began 
in  the  east.  364  ;  ended,  1553  ;  it  was  2000  miles 
broad,  and '3000  in  length. 

Rome,  its  foundation  laid  by  Romulus,  its 
first  king,  753  B.  C.  according  to  most  chronol- 
ogers;  by  sir  Isaac  Newton's  chronology,  627, 
B.C. 

Rostock  founded.  1169. 

Roxbury.  town,  Norfolk  county,  Massachu- 
setts. Settled  in  1630. 

Russia,  or  Muscovy,  anciently  Sarmatia,  and 
inhabited  by  the  Scythians ;  not  renowned  till 
the  natives  attempted  to  take  Constantinople, 
A.D.  864. 


Sa*!em.  seaport  and  capital  of  Essex  county, 
Massachusetts.  In  1678  contained  but  eighty- 
five  houses.  The  first  pavement  finished,  1773. 

Sardinia  conquered  by  the  Spaniards.  1303, 
in  whose  possession  it  was  till  1708,  when  it 
was  taken  by  an  English  fleet,  and  given  to  the 
duke  of  Savoy,  with  the  title  of  king. 

Savoy,  part  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  which 
submitted  to  the  Romans,  118  B.  C. 

Saybrook,  post  town,  Middlesex  county, 
Connecticut.  Fort  erected  in  16:%.  An  eccle- 
siastical constitution,  called  the  "Saybrook 
Platform,"  adopted  by  the  Synod,  Sept.  1708. 

Scotland,  anciently  Caledonia,  history  of,  be- 
gan, 328  B.  C.,  when  Fergus  I  was  sent  over  by 
the  people  of  Ireland ;  received  the  Christian 
faith,  A.  D.  203. 

Sicily  first  peopled  from  Italy,  1262  B.  C. 

Southwark  annexed  to  London,  1550. 

Spain,  New,  established,  1520. 

Spain  was  first  civilized  by  the  Phoenicians, 
who  possessed  great  part  of  it;  these  called  in 
the  Carthaginians ;  it  was  afterwards  invaded 
by  the  Rhodians ;  the  Carthaginians  however 
made  new  conquests,  209 ;  and  after  the  de- 
struction of  ancient  Tyre,  became  the  most  pow- 
erful in  this  country. — Conquered  by  the  Ro- 
mans, 216  B.  C. 

Springfield,  post  town  and  capital  of  Hamp- 
den  county,  Massachusetts.  Settled  in  1636. 
Burnt  by  the  Indians  in  1675. 

Stockholm  built,  1253. 

Sweden,  anciently  Scandinavia,  kingdom  of, 
began, 481. 

Switzerland  inhabited  formerly  by  the  Hel- 
vettii,  who  were  subdued  by  Caesar,  57  B.  C. 

Syracuse,  in  the  isle  of  Sicily,  founded,  709 
B.C. 

Thebes  built  by  Cadmus,  493  B.  C. 

Trenton,  the  metropolis  of  New  Jersey. 
Founded  by  William  Trent  in  1724. 

Troy  built,  '14dO ;  the  kingdom  of,  began 
1446  B.C. 

Vandals  began  their  kingdom  in  Spain,  412; 
ended,  534. 

Venice. — The  first  inhabitants  of  this  country, 
were  the  Veneti ;  conquered  by  the  Gauls,  and 
made  a  kingdom,  about  356 ;  conquered  for  the 
Romans,  by  Maicellus,  221  B.  C. 

Vienna  was  very  obscure  till  1151;  it  was 
walled  and  enlarged  by  Henry  I,  of  Austria, 
1122,  with  the  ransom  of  king  Richard  I,  of 
England. 

Wallachia.  incorporated  with  Russia,  1810. 

Wales  first  inhabited  by  Britons,  on  their 
being  expelled  England  by  the  Saxons,  685- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


FRO 


670 


GAR 


divided  into  North  Wales,  South  Wales,  and 
Powis  Land,  970 ;  conquered  and  divided  by 
William  I.  among  the  conquerors,  1001  ;  Grif- 
1th  the  last  king  died,  1137;  the  sovereign, 
from  that  time,  was  a  prince  only. 

Washington  city,  in  America,  founded,  1791. 

WaterfoVd,  in  Ireland,  built  1162. 

Wirtcmberg  erected  into  a  county  in  1078 ; 
into  a  duchy,  at  the  diet  of  Worms,  1495 :  into 
a  kingdom,  1803. 

Woburn,  post  town,  Middlesex  county,  Mas- 
sachusetts. Settled  in  1642. 

York  built,  1223  B.  C. 

FROST,  in  Britain,  lasted  five  months,  220. 
The  Pontus  sea  was  entirely  frozen  over  for  the 
space  of  20  days,  and  the  sea  between  Constan- 
tinople and  the  Scutari,  401 ;  so  severe  a  frost 
all  over  Britain,  that  the  rivers  were  frozen  up 
for  above  two  months,  508 ;  one  so  great  that 
the  Danube  was  quite  frozen  over,  55ti  ;  the 
Thames  frozen  for  six  weeks,  when  booths  were 
built  on  it,  695 ;  one  that  continued  from  Oct. 
1,  to  February  26,  760;  one  in  England  which 
lasted  nine  weeks,  827;  carriages  were  used  on 
the  Adriatic  sea,  859;  the  Mediterranean  sea 
was  frozen  over,  and  passable  in  carts,  860 ; 
most  of  the  rivers  in  England  frozen  for  two 
months,  !H)8;  the  Thames  frozen  thirteen 
weeks,  923;  one  that  lasted  120  days,  which 
began  December  22,  987 ;  the  Thames  frozen 
five  weeks,  998  ;  a  frost  on  midsummerdav,  so 
vehement,  that  the  corn  and  fruits  were  destroy- 
ed, 1035 ;  the  Thames  frozen  fourteen  weeks, 
10G3;  a  frost  in  England  from  November  to 
April,  1076;  several  bridges  in  England  being 
then  of  timber,  broken  down  by  a  frost.  1114  ; 
a  frost  from  January  14  to  March  22,'  1205  ; 
one  of  fifteen  weeks,  1207  ;  the  Mediterranean 
nea  was  frozen  over,  and  the  merchants  passed 
with  tlioir  merchandise  in  carts,  in  1234;  the 
Cattegatt,  or  sea  between  Norway  and  Den- 
mark, was  frozen,  and  that  from  Oxslo,  in  Nor- 
way, they  travelled  on  the  ice  to  Jutland,  in 
12!>4;  the  tea  between  Norway  and  the  prom- 
ontory of  Scagernit  frozen  over,  and  from  Swe- 
den f.  Gothland,  12!iO;  tlie  Baltic  was  covered 
with  ice  fourteen  weeks,  between  the  Danish 
and  Swedish  islands,  in  1:506 ;  the  Baltic  was 
passable  for  foot  passengers  and  horsemen,  for 
Hix  weeks,  in  1323;  the  era  was  frozen  over, 
and  passable  from  Stralsund  to  Denmark,  in 
1349;  the  Baltic  was  quite  fro/en  over  from 
Pomerania  to  Denmark,  in  1402;  the  whole  sea 
between  Gothland  and  Geland  was  frozen,  and 
from  Restock  to  Gezoer,  in  1408;  the  ice  bore 
riding  on  from  Lubec  to  Prussia,  and  the  Bal- 


tic was  covered  with  ice  from  Mecklenburgh 
to  Denmark,  in  1423,  1426,  and  in  1459;  the 
eea  between  Constantinople  and  Iskodar,  was 
passable  on  ice  in  1420;  in  1709,  the  Adriatic 
sea  was  frozen  and  the  olive  trees  killed  in  the 
south  of  Europe  ;  in  1779-80,  the  ice  was  driven 
out  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  into  the 
Mexican  gulf— a  circumstance  never  known 
before  or  since  ;  in  1788,  which  lasted  only 
from  November  to  January,  1789,  when  the 
Thames  was  crossed  opposite  the  custom  house, 
the  tower  Execution  dock,  Putney,  Brentford, 
&c. ;  it  was  general  throughout  Europe,  partic- 
ularly in  Holland,  at  the  same  time  ;  the  most 
severe  on  Dec.  25th,  1796,  that  had  been  felt  in 
the  memory  of  man ;  severe  one  in  January, 
1814,  when  booths  were  erected  on  various 
parts  of  the  Thames,  and  the  antiquarian  soci- 
ety of  Newcastle  recorded,  that  the  rapid  river 
Tyne  was  frozen  to  the  depth  of  twenty  inches ; 
severe  frost  at  Quebec,  Aug.  7,  1815.  In  the 
United  States,  lat.  42,  January,  1835,  thermom*. 
eter  30  degrees  below  zero,  in  Maine,  40  de- 
grees below. 

FRUITS  of  foreign  countries  first  brought 
into  Italy,  70  B.  C.,  and  flowers,  sundry  sorta 
before  unknown,  were  brought  into  England  in 
the  reigns  of  Henry  VII,  and  VIII,  from  about 
1500  to  1578.  Among  others  of  less  note,  the 
musk  and  damask  roses,  of  great  use  in  medi- 
cine, and  tulips.  Several  sorts  of  plum  trees 
and  currant  plants;  also  saflron,  woad,  and 
other  drugs  for  dyeing,  attempted  to  be  culti- 
vated, but  without  success. 

G. 

GAMUT  in  music  invented  by  Guy  L'Are 
tin,  1025. 

GANSEVOORT  FORT,  built  1812. 

GARDENING  introduced  into  England  from 
the  Netherlands,  from  whence  vegetables  were 
imported,  till  1509;  the  pale  gooseberry,  with 
salads,  garden  roots,  cabbages,  &c.  brought 
from  Flanders,  and  hops  from  Artois  1520;  rye 
and  wheat,  from  Tartary  and  Siberia,  where 
they  are  yet  indigenous;  barley  and  oats  un- 
known, but  certainly  not  indigenous  in  Eng- 
land ;  rice  from  Ethiopia;  buckwheat.  Asia; 
borage,  Syria  ;  cresses,  Crete  ;  cauliflower.  Cy- 
pnis  ;  asparagus.  Asia;  chervil,  Italy ;  fennel, 
Canary  Islamls;  anni.se  and  parsley,  Egypt; 
irurlir.  the  East ;  shallots,  Siberia;  horserad- 
ish. China;  kidney  beans,  Lust  Indies;  gourds, 
Astracan;  lentils,  France;  potatoes,  Brazil; 
tobacco,  America;  cabbage,  lettuce,  &c.  Hoi 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


GRJ 


671 


HAN 


land.  Jassamine  comes  from  the  East  Indies  ; 
the  elder  tree  from  Persia ;  the  tulip  from 
Cappadocia  ;  the  daffodil,  from  Italy  ;  the  lily-, 
from  Syria;  the  tube  rose  from  Java  and  Cey- 
lon ;  the  carnation  and  pink,  from  Italy,  etc. ; 
rananculus,  from  the  Alps;  apples,  from  Syria  ; 
apricots,  from  Epirus  ;  artichokes,  from  Hol- 
land;  celery,  from  Flanders;  cherries,  fr^ni 
Pontus ;  currants,  from  Zante ;  damask  and 
musk  roses,  from  Damascus,  as  well  as  plums  ; 
hops,  from  Artois  and  France  ;  gooseberries 
from  Flanders ;  gillidowers,  carnations,  the 
Provence  rose,  &c.  from  Thoulouse,  in  France  ; 
oranges  and  lemons  from  Spain  ;  beans  and  peas 
from  Spain. 

GAS.  use  of,  introduced  in  London,  for 
lighting  shops  and  streets,  1814 ;  first  into  the 
United  States,  at  Baltimore,  1821. 

GAUZE,  lawn,  and  thread  manufactures, 
began  at  Paisley,  in  Scotland,  in  175.9.  which  in 
17d4  yielded  £575,185,  and  employed  26,664 
hands.  In  gauze  alone,  £35'J,900. 

GAZETTES,  of  Venetian'  origin,  and  so 
called  from  the  price  being  gazetta,  a  small 
piece  of  money  ;  the  first  published  in  England, 
was  at  Oxford".  Nov.  7,  1G65. 

GEORGIUM  SIDUS  discovered  by  Hersch- 
el,  1781. 

GILDING  with  leaf  gold  on  bole  ammoniac, 
art  of,  invented  by  Maro-aritone,  1273 ;  on  wood, 
1680. 

GIPSIES  quitted  Egypt  when  attacked  by 
the  Turks  in  1515,  and  wandered  over  almost 
all  Europe. 

GLASS,  the  art  of  making  it,  known  to  the 
Romans  at  least  before  79 ;  known  to  the  Chi- 
nese about  200;  introduced  into  England  by 
Benedict,  a  monk,  674;  glass  windows  began 
to  be  used  in  private  houses  in  England,  lie1;)  ; 
glass  first  made  in  England  into  bottles  and 
vessels,  1557;  the  first  plate  glass  for  looking 
glasses  and  coach  windows,  made  at  Lambeth, 
1673;  in  Lancashire.  1773;  window  glass  first 
made  in  England,  1557. 

GLOBE  of  the  earth,  the  first  voyage  round 
it  was  by  sir  Francis  Drake,  1580  ;  the  second 
by  Magellan,  1591 ;  the  third  by  sir  Thomas 
Cavendish,  1538 ;  by  lord  Anson  in  1740  ;  by 
captain  Cook  in  1763;  and  by  Peyronse  in 
179:3-4. 

GRAPES  brought  to  England  and  planted 
first  at  Blaxhall,m  Suffolk,  1552  :  cultivated  in 
Flanders  1276. 

GREEN  DYE  for  cotton,  invented  by  Dr.  R. 
Williams,  1777. 

GRISTMILLS  invented  in  Ireland,  214. 
57 


GUINEAS  were  first  coined,  1673,  from  gold 
brought  from  the  coast  of  Guinea. 

GUNPOWDER  invented,  1330  ;  first  made 
in  England,  1418;  first  used  in  Spain,  1344. 

CUNS,  great,  invented,  1330;  used  by  the 
Moors  at  the  siege  of  Algesiraa,  in  Spain,  in 
1344  ;  used  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  in  1346  ;  when 
•  Edward  had  4  pieces  of  cannon,  which  gained 
him  the  battle;  they  were  used  at  the  siege  of 
Calais,  in  1347;  in  Denmark,  1354;  at  sea  by 
Venice-  against  Genoa,  1377;  first  used  in  Spain, 
1406;  first  made  in  England  of  brass,  1635; 
of  iron,  1547  ;  invented  to  shoot  whales,  J731  ; 
first  used  in  England;  at  the  siege  of  Berwick, 
1405  ;  bombs  and  mortars  invented,  1634. 


H. 


HABEAS  CORPUS  ACT  in  England,  pass- 
ed, 1641,  and  May  27,  1679;  attempt  made  in  the 
senate  of  the  United  States  to  suspend  it,  but 
rejected  bv  the  house  of  representatives,  1806. 

HACKNEY  COACHES  first  used,  20  in 
number,  in  London,  1G25. 

HAIR  POWDER  in  use,  1590  ;  a  guinea  per 
year  tax  on  those  who  wear  it,  1795. 

HANDKERCHIEFS  first  manufactured  at 
Paisley,  in  Scotland.  1748,  when  £15,886  worth 
were  made;  in  1784  the  manufacture  yielded 
above  £164.385. 

HANSEATIC  LEAGUE.  In  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  sea  and  land  were 
infested  with  pirates  and  robbers.  The  German 
trade  being  exposed  to  accidents  by  land  and 
sea,  Hamburg  and  Lubeck  in  the  year  1241,  en- 
tered into  a  confederacy,  in  which  they  agreed 
to  defend  each  other  from  all  attacks  and  from 
every  act  of  violence.  This  league  was  soon 
after  joined  by  Brunswick  ;  it  was  named  by 
way  of  eminence,  the  Hanse,  meaning  a  league 
for  mutual  defence.  Many  other  towns  joined 
and  in  a  short  time,  became  so  numerous  that 
in  1260,  a  meeting  of  the  members  was  held  at 
Lubeck,  and  continued  to  meet  there  every 
three  years. 

In  the  fourteenth  century,  this  league  attain- 
ed every  where  a  high  political  importance,  and 
enjoyed  extensive  and  uncommon  privileges, 
till  at  last  it  became  the  mistress  of  lands  and 
seas  and  crov/ns.  So  it  continued  for  a  length 
of  time,  til!  the  travelling  becoming  more  se- 
cure, and  the  circumstances  that  gave  it  rise 
being  changed,  the  Hanseatic  League  began  to 
fall,  and  in  1630,  the  last  diet  was  held  at  Lu- 
beck. The  largest  number  of  the  Hanse  towns 
was  eighty-five. 


••    * 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


HIE 


672 


HIE 


HATS  invented  at  Paris,  1404  ;  first  made  in 
London, 1510. 

HEMP  and  flax  first  planted  in  England, 
1533.  There  are  180,()OUlb.  of  rough  hemp  use d 
in  the  cordage  and  sails  of  a  first  rale  man  of 

WJHERALDRY  had  its  rise,  1100. 

HERRING  FISHERY,  first  practised  by 
the  Hollanders,  11(54;  herring  pickling  first 
invented  131)7. 

HIEROGLYPHICS:  Or  sacred  engraving, 
was  the  name  given  first  to  the  sculptures  and 
inscriptions  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt — it  is 
now  often  used  to  denote  simply  picture  icrit- 
injr,  which  is  seen  in  its  rudest  state,  upon  the 
buffalo  skins  of  our  North  American  Indians, 
&c.  But  a  new  charm  has  been  given  to  sim- 
ilar sculptures,  and  indeed  to  the  study  of  anti- 
quity in  general  by  Champollion's  discovery  of 
the  key  to  these  so  long  inexplicable  mysteries. 

This  indefatigable  scholar,  after  many  years 
of  toil  has  at  last  succeeded  in  deciphering 
every  inscription  presented  to  him  !  He  discov- 
ers that  these  hieroglyphics  were  usually  em- 
ployed as  mere  alp/tabetic  letters;  that  when 
thus  read,  they  give  us  regular  composition  in 
the  Coptic  or  old  Egyptian  language.  As  the 
Coptic  is  understood  by  many  learned  men,  we 
are  in  a  fair  way  of  knowing  all  that  the  Egyp- 
tian records  so  formed  can  teach.  These  monu- 
mental records  of  the  earliest  ages  are  of  two 
kinds. 

A.  The  con-  (  dcmotica  and  demode  by  Herodotus  and 
MON,        j      Diodorus. 

called       4  cnchuria  by  the  Rosetta  inscription. 

I  epistolographica  by  Clement  of  Alexan- 


B.The 
divided  by 
Clement  of 
Alexandria 


I      dria 


Hieratic,    or    sacerdotal     writing, 
i  hirh  may  be  called  hierogrnphic. 


b.  Hiero-    «.  Cyrlologic,  by  means  of 
glyph  ic,         the  first  letters  of  the  al- 
compos-        iihnlwt. 
ed  of          A..Symbol 

by     imitii 
lion. 

the          2.  Tropiral  or 
metaphor- 
ical. 
^.Enigmatical. 

Tbotieroflyphic  writing  is  eminently  monu- 
mental. It  is  from  the  nature  of  the  signs  which 
it  employs  a  species  of  painting,  and  it  presents 
a  various  and  picturesque  aspect,  which  distin- 
guishes it  essentially  from  every  other  method 
of  writing.  The  hieroglyphic  characters  do  in 
fact  exhibit  images  of  almost  every  material 
object  in  creation.  But  the  whole  number  of 
»•(!  alphabetically,  observed  by  Cham- 
pollion,  after  more  than  20  years'  study,  was 


only  8fi4,  viz.  celestial  bodies,  10;  human  fig- 
gures  in  various  positions  120;  human  limbs, 
taken  separately,  GO  ;  wild  quadrupeds.  24  ;  do- 
mestic quadrupeds,  10;  limbs  cf  animals,  22; 
birds,  whole  or  in  parts,  50  ;  fishes,  10  ;  reptiles, 
whole  or  in  parts,  30;  insects,  14;  vegetables, 
plants,  flowers  and  fruits,  CO;  buildings,  24; 
furniture,  100 ;  coverings  for  feet  and  legs, 
head-dresses,  weapons,  ornaments  and  sceptres, 
80  ;  tools  and  instruments  of  various  sorts,  150  ; 
vases,  cups  and  the  like,  30  ;  geometrical  figures, 
20 ;  fantastic  forms,  50.  The  figures  are  ar- 
ranged in  columns,  vertical  or  horizontal,  and 
grouped  together,  as  circumstances  requiied,so 
as  to  leave  no  spaces  unnecessarily  vacant. 
We  cannot  go  into  a  larger  detail  of  the  other 
methods  of  Egyptian  writing,  which  may  be 
understood  by  an  attentive  examination  of  the 
table  above,  but  give  a  familiar  specimen  of  the 
phonetic  and  alphabetic..  To  write  the  name 
BOSTON,  (See  cut  fig.  A.)  for  B.  the  Egyptians 
would  look  for  some  familiar  object,  the  no  me 
of  which  began  with  1).  say  a  censer,  which  id 
called  in  Egyptian  Uerbe,  and  the  engraving 
would  be  the  more  appropriate  to  use,  from  the 
church-going  character  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Boston.  &c.  ;  in  looking  round  for  an  object 
whose  name  begins  with  O.  the  literary  char- 
acter of  the  city  would  suggest  the  reed,  an 
instrument  of  writing,  anciently,  and  now  so 
used  in  the  East ;  this,  in  Egyptian,  is  01;e;  for 
S.  take  a  star  ;  Sum,  for  T.  a  hand,  tot.  for  O, 
again,  to  have  a  variety,  instead  of  the  Egyptian 
tufted  reed,  as  above,  they  might  take  an  abbre- 
viation of  it,  the  curled  line  ;  forN.  we  have  the 
vulture,  noure,  or,  better,  the  sign  for  inunda- 
tion, neph.  Fig.  B.  gives  a  perfectly  Egyptian 
specimen  of  the  symbolical  style,  in  what  is 
generally  called  an  anaglyph.  It  is  a  female 
winged  sphinx  found  upon  a  block  of  black  gran- 
ite. "The  sphynx  was  an  emblem  of  strength,  and 
wisdom,  the  bodv  being  that  of  a  lion,  and  the 
head  human.  The  name  Tnunilnnot.,  (daugh- 
ter of  Horus,  a  king  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty 
of  Egypt.)  is  read  in  the  oval.  This  then  is  a 
symbolical  image  of  the  queen  herself;  and 
the  flowers  of  lotus,  underneath,  are  evidently, 
though  emblematically,  taken  for  the  Nile,  and 
for  the  whole  country  of  Egypt.  The  sphynx 
instead  of  a  paw,  lias  a  hand, -raised  in  the  atti- 
tude of  protection.  The  whole  then  seems  to 
be  in  praise  of  a  monarch,  and  to  signify  "a 
monument  raised  to  the  memory  of  queen 
Tmauhmot,  styled  the  Guardian  and  Protec- 
tress of  the  land  of  Egypt,  by  her  wisdom  and 
strength." 


§  * 


/W  W  W  VV  AM  AW  MA  /W  AM  WV  AM  AM 


Hieroglyphics,  or  Sacred  Engraving. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


JUD 


673 


LAB 


HOUR  GLASSES  were  invented  in  Alex- 
andria, 240,  and  introduced  at  Rome,  158  jears 
B.C. 

HUDSON'S  BAY  discovered  by  captain 
Hudson,  1G07. 

HUGUENOTS  murdered  at  Paris,  Aug.  24, 
1672. 

HURRICANE,  violent  winds,  particularly 
in  the  torrid  zone,  and  in  a  manner  particularly 
destructive  in  the  West  Indies :  The  following 
is  a  list  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  pheno- 
mena. 1G70,  1674, 1675,  Barbados;  1091,  An- 
tigua; 1700,  1702,  Baibados;  1707,- Caribbee 
Islands  in  general ;  1712,  Jamaica ;  1720,  Bar- 
bados ;  1722,  Jamaica,  August  31 ;  1733,Carib- 
bee  Islands  in  general;  1744,  Jamaica;  1764, 
Martinico,  Carthagena,  and  particularly  over 
some  of  the  Caribbee  Islands;  1772,  most  of  the 
Caribbee  Islands;  1780,  October  3d,  Jamaica, 
1828,  February  18,  violent  gale  at  St.  Ubes, 
Portugal,  British  ship  Terror,  and  100  men  lost. 

I. 

INDIGO,  first  produced  in  Carolina  1747; 
cultivated  in  the  open  air  at  Vaucluse,  in 
France,  1603. 

INOCULATION  first  tried  on  criminals, 
1721. 

INSURANCE  onshipping began  in  England, 
J560. 

INSURANCE  OFFICES  established  in 
London,  and  its  vicinity.  1696. 

INSURANCE  POLICIES  were  first  used  in 
Florence  in  1523 ;  first  society  established  at 
Hanover,  1530;  that  at  Paris,  1740. 

INTEREST  first  mentioned  as  legal,  1199, 
at  10  per  cent.;  in  1300,  at  20  per  cent. ;  in 
1558,  at  12  per  cent. ;  in  1571,  at  10  per  cent. ; 
in  1625,  at  8  per  cent. ;  in  1749,  the  funds  were 
reduced  from  4  to  3£  and  3  per  cent. 

IRON  discovered  by  the  burning  of  mount 
Ida,  1406  B.  C. ;  first  cast  in  England  at  Back- 
stead,  Sussex,  1544  ;  first  discovered  in  Amer- 
ica, in  Virginia,  1715;  bullets  first  used  in  Eng- 
land, 1550. 

ITALIAN  method  of  book-keeping,  pub- 
lished in  England,  1569. 


JEREMIAH  wrote  his  Lamentations,  610 
B.C. 

JOSHUA,  book  of,  written  1415  B.  C. 

JUDE,  St.  Wrote  his  epistle,  71 ;  festival  in- 
stituted, 1030. 


JUPITER'S  SATELLITES  discovered  by 
Jansen.  1590. 

JURIES  first  instituted  by  Ethelred,  979; 
the  plaintiff  and  defendant  in  those  times  used 
to  feed  them  ;  whence  the  common  law  of  de- 
nying sustenance  to  a  jury  after  hearing  evi- 
dence. 

JUSTINIAN  published  his  codex  of  the 
civil  law,  529  ;  and  four  years  after,  his  work 
of  the  same  kind,  called  the  digest. 

K. 

KAMTSCHATKA  discovered  by  the  Rus- 
sians, 1739. 

KING  of  the  Romans  in  Germany,  first  in- 
stituted. 1096. 

KINGDOMS,  origin  of,  by  Niinrod,  at  Bab- 
ylon, 2233  years  B.  C. 

KING'S  SPEECH,  the  first  delivered,  1107, 
by  Henry  I. 

KING'S  EVIL,  supposed  to  be  cured  by  the 
touch  of  the  kings  of  England.  The  first  who 
touched  for  it  was  Edward  the  Confessor,  1058. 
It  was  dropped  by  George  1. 

KISSING  the  pope's  foot  first  practised,  709. 

KNEE  ordered  to  be  bent  at  the  name  of 
Jesus,  1275. 

KNITTING  stockings  invented  in  Spain, 
about  1550. 

KNIVES  first  made  in  England,  1563. 


LABOR,  price  of— A.  D.  1352,  25  Edward 
III,  wages  paid  to  haymakers,  was  but  one  pen- 
ny a  day.  A  mower  of  meadows  5d.  per  day,  or 
Gd.  an  acre  ;  reapers  of  corn,  in  the  first  week 
of  August,  2d.  in  the  second  3<Z.  per  day,  and 
so  till  the  end  of  August,  without  meat,  drink, 
or  other  allowance,  finding  their  own  tools ;  a 
master  carpenter  '3d.  a  day,  other  carpenters  2d. 
per  day,  a  master  mason  4d.  per  day  ;  other 
masons  '3d.  per  day  ;  and  their  servants  l^d.  per 
day.  By  the  34th  of  Edward  III,  1361,  chief 
masters  of  carpenters  and  masons  4.d.  a.  day, 
and  the  others  '3d.  or  2d.  as  they  are  worth ; 
13th  Richard  II,  1389,  the  wages  of  a  bailiff  of 
husbandry  13s.  4d.  per  year,  and  his  clothing 
once  a  year  at  most ;  the  carter  10s.;  shepherd 
10s.;  oxherd  6s.  8d.;  cowherd  6s.  tid.;  swine- 
herd Gs.  ;  a  woman  laborer  6s. ;  driver  of 
plough  7s.  From  this  up  to  the  time  of  23d  of 
Henry  VI,  lH>  price  of  labor  was  fixed  by  the 
justices  by  proclamation.  In  time  of  harvest,  a 
mower  4rf.  a  day  ;  without  meat  and  drink  Gd.', 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


LAW 


074 


LAW 


reaper  or  carter  &/.  a  day  ;  without  meat  and 
drink  M.  ;  woman  laborer,  and  other  laborers, 
yd.  a  day  ;  without  meat  and  drink  4£d.  per  day. 
By  the  1  1th  Henry  VII,  1400,  there  was  a  like 
rate  of  wages,  only  with  a  little  advance  ;  as, 
for  instance,  a  freemason,  master  carpenter. 
rough  mason,  bricklayer,  master  tiler,  plumber, 
glazier,  carver,  joiner,  was  allowed  from  Easter 
to  Michaelmas  to  take  C<d.  a  day.  without  meat 
and  drink,  or  with  meat  and  drink  4d.  from 
Michtelmas  to  Easter  to  abate  a  \d.  ;  a  master. 
having  under  him  six  men.  was  allowed  a  Id.  a 
day  extra.  By  the  6th  of  Henry  VIII.  1515, 
the  wages  of  shipwrights  were  fixed  as  follows  : 
a  master  sh;p  carpenter,  taking  charge  of  the 
work,  having  men  under  hitn,~5rf.  a  clay  in  the 
fcummer  season,  with  meat  and  drink  ;  other 
ship  carpenter,  called  an  hewer,  4d.;  an  able 
clincher,  &/.;  holder  2d.;  master  caulker  4,7.;  a 
mean  caulker  &/.;  a  day  laborer,  by  the  tide.  4d. 

LACK.  Flanders,  more  valuable  than  gold  — 
one  ounce  of  fine  Flanders  thread  has  been  sold 
in  London  for  £4.  Such  an  ounce  made  into 
lace  may  be  sold  for  £41),  which  is  ten  times 
the  price  of  stindard  gold,  weight  for  weight. 

LACTEALS,  the,  discovered  by  chance,  in 
opening  a  dog,  by  Asellius,  July  23,  16T>2;'  in 
birds,  fish,  &c.  by  Mr.  Hewson,  surgeon,  of 
London,  177!}. 

LAKE  OF  HARANTOREEN,;n  the  coun- 
ty of  Kerry,  Ireland,  a  mile  in  circuit,  sunk  into 
the  ground  with  all  its  fish,  March  25,  1792. 

LAMP  f  >r  preventing  explosion  by  fire-damp 
in  coal  mines,  invented  by  sir  Humphrey  Daw, 
161.-,. 

LAM)  CARRIAGE,  fish  first  brought  to 
London  by,  1761. 

LAND,  piece  of,  in  Findhnd,  400;)  square 
ells  in  extent,  sunk  fifteen  fathoms,  but  most 
of  the  inhabitants  escaped,  February,  17<i3.  A 
tract  of,  amounting  to  120  English  acres,  and 
of  the  depth  of  sixty  feet,  slid,  with  a  tremend- 
ous crash,  into  the  river  Nid,  near  Drontheim 
in  Norwnv.  March  7,  I'M  (J 

LANCASTRIAN  SCHOOLS  of  education 
established  in  most  of  the  principal  towns  of 
England.  l-l'i. 

LANTERNS  invented  by  king.  Alfred,  890. 

LAWNS  AND  THREAT)  <f.\r/K  wor- 
in  1784,  manufactured  at  Paisley  t-.>  the  value  of 
-  '-.  i;..V. 


L  \\VS.COURTS  OF  JUSTICE,  OATHS, 
TAXES 


Abjuration  oath,  first  required,J701. 

Admiralty.  c<>;irt  of,  erected    I3o7;  i 

rated  June  22,  17Gd. 


ncorpo- 


Adultcry  punished  by  cutting  off  the  nose 
and  ears,  1031  ;  made  capital,  1050. 

Affirmation  of  the  Quakers  first  accepted  as 
an  oath.  1702:  alteration  made  in  it.  December 

13,  iwi: 

African  bill,  to  supply  that  trade  with  cali- 
coes, 17(>5. 

Agrarian  law  introduced  at  Rome,  48G  B.  C. 
By  this  law  the  public  lands  were  divided  be- 
tween all  the  citizens. 

Ale  and  ale-houses  in  England  made  mention 
of  in  the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of  Wessex  ;  first 
licensed.  1551. 

Aliens  forbidden  to  hold  chnrch  livings,  and 
juries  for  their  trials  to  be  half  foreigners.  1430  , 
prevented  from  exeicising  any  trade  or  handi- 
craft by  retail,  1483. 

Allegiance,  oath  of,  first  administered,  1GOG. 

Almanack  stamps  increased,  1781. 

Ambassadors  first  protected  by  a  law,  1709; 
their  protection  restrained.  1773. 

American  duties,  act  passed,  17G4 ;  on  tea, 
1707. 

Arbitration  act  passed  in  England,  1698. 

Armorial  bearings  introduced  into  England, 
to  distinguish  nobles.  1100;  taxed.  17!'8,  1808. ' 

Arrest,  vexatious  ones,  prevented  by  an  act, 
May  17,  1733;  for  less  than  £10  forbidden, 
1779;  for  less  than  £20,  or  on  a  bill  of  ex- 
change  for  £15,  June  14.  IclO. 

Artificers'  bill,  to  prevent  their  seduction, 
1787. 

Assaying  of  crold  and  silver,  legally  establish- 
ed, 1354.  " 

Assize  of  bread  and  ale  in  England  establish- 
ed. 12(;<i;  again,  legally,  1710. 

Auction  and  sales  tax  began,  1779. 

Bachelors'  tax,  1G95  andl796. 

Bankrupts  in  England  first  regulated  bylaw, 
1543.  Enacted  tint  members  of  the  house  of 
commons  becoming  bankrupts,  and  not  paying 
their  debts  in  full,  shall  vacate  their  peats,  1812. 

Birth  of  children  taxed,  ltl'.'5.  1 7 •-':'.. 

Boston  port  bill,  for  its  removal,  1775. 

Bread  ordered  not  to  be  sold,  till  24  hours  old, 
to  lessen  its  consumption.  March,  1SIO. 

Brokers  regulated  in  London,  by  law,  1(107. 

Buckingham  house  bought  for  the  queen  of 
England.  1775. 

Bonapnrte.  bill  for  detaining  him  in  custody 
in  the  island  of  St.  Helcnn.  passed  April  9, 181(5. 

burials  taxed  in  England,  Hi! '5,  17K5. 
Buttons  and  button  holes  of  cloth  prohibited 
by  law,  17:21. 

Canon  law  first  introduced  into  England, 
1140. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


LAW 


675 


LAW 


Caps. — A  law  enacted  that  every  person 
above  seven  years  of  age,  should  wear  on  Sun- 
days and  holidays,  a  cap  of  wool,  knit  made, 
thickened  and  dressed  in  England,  by  some  of 
the  trade  of  cappers,  under  the  forfeiture  of 
three  farthings  for  every  day's  neglect,  except- 
ing maids,  ladies  and  gentlewomen,  and  every 
lord,  knight,  and  gentleman,  of  twenty  marks 
of  land,  and  their  heirs,  and  such  as  have  borne 
office  of  worship  in  any  city,  town,  or  place, 
and  the  wardens  of  the  London  companies, 
1571. 

Chancery,  court  of,  in  England,  established 
r>05.  The  first  person  qualified  for  chancellor 
by  education,  was  sir  Thomas  More,  1530,  the 
office  before  being  rather  that  of  a  secretary  of 
state,  than  the  president  of  a  court  of  justice. 

Christenings  taxed  in  England,  1783. 

Circuits,  justiciary,  established,  1176 ;  in 
Scotland.  1712. 

Clergy  forbidden  drunkenness  by  law,  in  En- 
gland, 741. 

Clocks  and  watches  taxed,  1797 ;  repealed, 
1798. 

Common  pleas  in  England,  court  of,  estab- 
lished 1215. 

Copy-right  secured,  by  an  act  passed  1710; 
farther  secured,  in  England,  by  an  act  passed 
in  1814. 

Corn,  bill  to  permit  the  exportation  of.  passed 
1314,  to  permit  the  importation  when  British 
wheat  shall  be  at  80s.  per  quarter,  1815. 

Courts  of  justice  instituted  at  Athens,  1272 
B.C. 

Criminals  ordered  for  transportation  instead 
of  execution,  1590 ;  Henry  VIII  executed  72,000 
during  his  reign. 

Cur'Vw  beh  pstah'-shed  bv  William  the  cor,- 
queror,  106«;  abolished  in  1100. 

East-India  company's  act  in  England,  passed, 
1718. 

Exchequer  chamber,  court  of,  erected  bv  Ed- 
ward 111,  1359  ;  improved  by  Elizabeth,  1584. 

Feodal  or  feudal  laws,  the  tenure  of  land  by 
suit  and  service  to  the  lord  or  owner  of  it,  in- 
troduced into  England  by  the  Saxons  about  600. 
The  slavery  of  this  tenure  increased  under 
William  I,  1068.  This  was  dividing  the  king- 
dom into  baronies,  giving  them  to  certain  per- 
sons, and  requiring  those  persons  to  furnish  the 
king  with  money,  and  a  stated  number  of  sol- 
diers. It  was  discountenanced  in  France  by 
Louis  XI,  about  1470;  restored,  and  limited  by 
Henry  VII,  1495;  abolished  by  statute,  12 
Charles  II,  1662. 

Fiery  ordeal  enforced  in  England,  1042. 


Forgery  first  punished  with  death  in  England, 
1634. 

French  tongue  abolished  in  the  English  courts 
of  justice,  1362. 

Game  acts  passed  in  England,  1496,  1670, 
1753,  1784, 1785,  and  1808. 

Gipsies  expelled  out  of  England,  1563. 

Gladiators,  the  combats  of.  abolished,  325. 

Hackney  coaches  established  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment, June  24,  1694  ;  regulated  1784,  1786, 
1800,1815. 

Hanover  succession  established  by  law,  1701. 

Harlots  obliged  to  wear  striped  hoods  of  party 
colors,  and  their  garments  the  wrontr  side  out- 
wards, 27  Edward  III,  1355. 

Hat  tax  commenced,  October  1, 1784  ;  stamps 
for  ditto,  1796;  repealed,  1811. 

Juries  first  instituted,  970 ;  trial  by,  in  civil 
causes,  in  Scotland,  passed  into  a  law,  March, 
1815. 

Justices  of  the  peace  first  appointed  in  Ens- 
land,  1076. 

Justinian  published  his  codex  of  the  civrl 
law,  529  ;  and  four  years  after,  his  work  of  the 
same  kind,  called  the  Digest. 

Land  tax,  the  first  in  England,  991 ,  amount- 
ed annually  to  £  82,000,  in  1018 ;  every  hide 
of  land  taxed  3*.  in  1109. 

Laws  primitive. — The  laws  of  Moses  were 
given,  B.C.  1452;  those  of  Minos  in  Crete, 
1406;  of  Lycurgus,  at  Sparta,  884;  those  of 
Draco,  and  Solon  at  Athens,  the  former  623,  the 
latter  580  ;  of  the  Twelve  Tables  at  Rome,  451 ; 
of  Locri  by  Dalericus,450;  and  of  Thurium,in 
Italy,  by  Charondas,  446. 

Latin  tongue  abolished  in  courts  of  law,  1731. 

Laws  of  the  land  first  translated  into  Saxon, 
rv>P,  published,  610. 

Laws  of  Edward  the  confessor  composed, 
1065. 

Legacies  taxed,  1780  ;  advanced,  1796, 1808. 

Licenses  for  public  houses  first  granted,  1551; 
for  brewers  and  exciseable  articles  enforced, 
1784. 

Longitude,  a  reward  promised  by  parliament 
for  the  discovery  of,  1714. 

Lords  lieutenants  of  counties  instituted,  July 
24, 1549. 

Luxury  restricted  by  an  English  law,  where- 
in the  prelates  and  nobility  were  confined  to 
two  courses  every  meal,  and  two  kinds  of  food 
in  every  course,  except  on  great  festivals;  it 
also  prohibited  all  who  did  not  enjoy  a  free  es- 
tate of  £100  per  annum,  from  wearing  furs, 
skins  or  silk  ;  and  the  use  of  foreign  cloth  was 
confined  to  the  royal  family  alone,  to  all  othert 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


LAW 


676 


LEA 


it  was  prohibited,  1337.  An  edict  was  issued 
by  Charles  VI,  of  France,  which  says,  "  Let  no 
one  presume  to  treat  with  more  than  a  soup 
and  two  dishes,"  1340. 

Ma<rna  charta  granted  by  king  John,  June 
12,  1215. 

Mail  coaches  first  established  to  Bristol,  1784  ; 
to  other  parts  of  England,  and  an  act  to  regu- 
late and  encourage  them,  1765,  and  exempt 
them  from  tolls. 

Maiminor  and  wounding  made  capital.  1670. 

Marriages  taxed,  1695.  1784. 

Marriage  act  passed,  June,  1753;  amended 
1781. 

Marriages  of  the  royal  family  restrained  by 
an  act  passed  1772. 

Mortmain  act  passed,  in  1279;  and  another, 
May  29,  17:36. 

Mutiny  act  first  passed,  in  1689. 

Nantz,  edict  of,  passed  by  Henry  IV,  by 
which  Protestants  enjoyed  toleration  in  France. 
1508;  revoked  by  Louis  XIV,  1G85;  by  this 
infamous  policy  50,000  French  Protestants  left 
France,  and  came  to  England,  and  other  parts 
of  Europe. 

Naturalization,  first  law  for  in  England.  1437 
and  1709. 

Naturalization  of  Jews,  bill  passed  1753 ;  re- 
pealed December  following. 

Navigation  act  first  passed,  1381  ;  again  1541 ; 
ngnin  for-  the  colonies,  1646, 1651  ;  which  secur- 
ed the  trade  of  the  British  colonies,  1660  and 
1778. 

New  style  act  passed  1752. 

Notes  and  hills  first  stamped,  1782;  advanced 
1796,  1808.  1815. 

Ordoa'.by  firn  an:l  water,  abc»:shod  V2f»l. 

Papal  authority  abolished  by  law,  1391. 

Papists  excluded  the  throne  of  England.  1689 ; 
their  estates  valued  at  £375.284  15s.  3£d.  per 
annum,  in  171!) ;  taxed  £100,000,  November 
23,  1722. 

Parliament  of  England,  began  under  the 
Saxon  government;  the  first  regular  one  was 
in  king  John's  reign,  1204;  the  epoch  of  the 
house  of  commons,  January  23,  1265;  peer's 
eldest  son,  Francis  Russell,  son  of  the  earl  of 
Bedford,  was  the  first  who  sat  in  the  house  of 
commons,  154!»;  the  lord  mayor  and  an  alder- 
man of  Londpn  committed  to  the  Tower,  by  the 
house  of  commons,  1771. 

Pleading  introduced  786;  changed  from 
French  to  English,  I'.'.r.-'. 

Polygamy  forbidden  by  the  Romans,  in  393. 

Poor,  the  first  act  for  the  relief  of,  in  Eng- 
land, 1597. 


Popery  abolished  in  England,  by  law,  1536. 

Registers,  parochial,  first  appointed  in  Eng- 
land, 1530. 

Registers  of  births,  baptisms,  marriages,  and 
burials,  law  for  the  better  regulation  of,  passed 
July  28,  1813. 

Roman  Catholics  in  England  relieved  by  an 
act  passed  1776,  and  1791. 

Roman  Catholics  in  Ireland,  relieved  by  an 
act  passed  1792. 

Salic  law  first  quoted  1327. 

Secretaries  of  state  first  appointed  in  England; 
lord  Cromwell  was  so  made  by  Cardinal  VVool- 
scy,  152!). 

Septennial  parliament,  act  passed  1716. 

Shoes — the  people  had  a  way  of  adorning 
their  feet;  they  wore  the  beaks  or  points  ol 
their  shoes  so  long,  that  they  encumbered 
themselves  in  their  walking,  and  were  forced 
to  tie  them  up  to  their  knees ;  the  fine  gentle- 
men fastened  theirs  with  chains  of  silver,  or 
silver  gilt,  and  others  with  laces.  This  ridicu- 
lous custom  was  in  vogue  from  the  year  1382, 
but  was  prohibited,  on  the  forfeiture  of  20s.  and 
the  pain  of  cursing  by  the  clergy,  l-lt/7. 

Slave — a  statute  made  in  England,  enacting 
that  a  runagate  servant,  or  any  one  who  lives 
idly  for  three  days,  be  brought' before  two  jus- 
tices of  the  peace,  and  marked  V.  with  a  hot 
iron  on  thejpreast,  and  adjudged  the  slave  of 
him  who  brought  him  for  two  years;  he  waste 
take  the  said  slave,  and  give  h'im  bread,  water, 
or  small  drink,  and  refuse  meat,  and  cause  him 
to  work  by  beating,  chaining,  or  otheiwise; 
and  if,  within  that^spRee,  he  absented  himself 
fourteen  days,  was  to  be  marked  on  the  fore- 
head or  cheek,  by  a  1ml  iron,  with  an  S.  and  be 
his  masters  slave  for  ever  ;  second  desertion, 
felony  ;  lawful  to  put  a  ring  of  iron  round  his 
neck,  arm  or  le?;  a  beggar's  child  might  be 
put  apprentice,  and  on  running  away,  u  slave 
to  his  master,  1547  ;  obtained  their  freedom  by 
arrival  in  England,  1772. 

Stamp  act  in  America,  passed  1764  ;  repealed 
March  18.  1766. 

Swearing  on  the  Gospel,  first  used  in  Eng- 
land, 528. 

Tithes  first  granted  in  854. 

Transportation  of  felons  introduced  1590. 

Treason  requiring  two  witnesses,  in  England, 

Tribute  of  wolves'  heads  paid  in  England, 
971  ;  paid  by  the  English  to  the  Danes-in  one 
year,  48.000?.  997. 

LEADEN  PIPES  for  conveying  water  in- 
vented, 1236. 


HISTORICAL    AND  BIOGRAPHICAL. 


L1V 


677 


LIV 


LETTERS  invented  by  Memnon,the  Egyp- 
tian. 1822B.  C. 

LIBRARY,  the  first  private  one,  the  prop- 
erty of  Aristotle,  334  B.  C. ;  the  first  public 
library  in  history  was  founded  at  Athens,  by 
Hipparchus.  52li'B.  C. ;  the  second  of  any  note 
was  founded  at  Alexandria,  by  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus,  284.  It  was  burnt  when  Julius  Cassar 
set  fire  to  Alexandria,  47  B.  C.  (400,000  valuable 
books  in  MS.  are  said  to  have  been  lost  by  this 
catastrophy.)  The  first  library  at  Rome  was 
established,  1G7;  at  Constantinople,  founded 
by  Conslanline  the  Great,  about  A.  D.  335; 
destroyed,  477;  a  second  library  formed  from 
the  remains  of  the  first  at  Alexandria,  by  Ptole- 
my's successors,  and  reputed  to  have  consisted 
of  700,000  volumes,  was  totally  destroyed  by 
the  Saracens,  who  heated  the  water  of  their 
baths  for  six  months,  by  burning  books  instead 
of  wood,  by  command  of  Omar,  caliph  of  the 
Saracens,  (542;  the  Vatican  at  Rome,  by  pope 
Nicholas  V,  1446 ;  rebuilt  and  the  library  con- 
siderably improved  by  Sixtus  V,  1588  ;  the  im- 
perial of  Vienna,  by  Maximilian  I,  about  1500; 
the  royal  of  Paris,  by  Francis  I,  about  1520; 
the  escurial  at  Madrid,  by  Philip  II,  1557;  of 
Florence,  by  Cosmo  do  Medicis,  1500;  the  Bod- 
leian at  Oxford,  founded  40  Eliz,  1598;  the 
Cottonbn,  formerly  kept  at  Cottonhouse,  West- 
minster, founded  by  sir  Robert  Cotton,  about 
HillO  ;  appropriated  to  the  public  use  and  bene- 
fit, 13  William  III,  1701  ;  partly  destroyed  by 
fire.  1731;  removed  to  the  British  museum, 
1753:  the  Radcliffeian,  at  Oxford,  founded  by 
the  will  of  Dr.  Radcliffe,  who  left  £40,000  to 
the  university  for  that  purpose,  1714  ;  at  Cam- 
bridge. 1720,  to  which  George  I  gave  £5,000 
to  purchase  Dr.  Moore's  collection. 

LINEN  first  made  in  England,  1253;  the 
luxurious  wore  linen,  but  the  generality  woollen 
shirts.  Table  linen  very  scarce  in  England, 
1386. 

LIVING  CHARACTERS.  Allston,  Wash- 
ington. American  painter. 

Baillie,  Joanna,  a  single  lady,  native  of  Scot- 
land, distinguished  for  her  writings. 

Beecher,  Dr.  Lyman,  an  eloquent  calvinistic 
preacher,  native  of  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Bernadotte,  king  of  Sweden,  born  in  17G4,at 
Pau,  at  the  foot  of'the  Pyrenees,  in  France. 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel,  celebrated  mathemati- 
cian, and  translator  of  the  Mechanique  Celeste, 
of  La  Place,  native  of  Salem,  Mass. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  an  American  poet 
of  high  reputation,  native  of  Cornington,  Mass. 

Bulwer,  Edward  Lytton,  novelist. 


Bonaparte,  Joseph,  brother  to  Napoleon,  born 
in  1768.  at  Ajaccio,  in  Corsica. 

Citlhoun,  John,  native  of  South  Carolina, 
born  in  1781 . 

Campbell,  Thomas,  poet,  born  at  Glasgow, 
Sept.  7,  1777. 

Canterbury,  archbishop  of,  born  in  1755. 

Cass,  Lewis,  born  1782,  at  Exeter,  New 
Hampshire. 

Charles  X,  late  king  of  France,  born  in  1757. 

Chateaubriand,  Francois  Auguste,  Viscount 
de.  born  in  Combourg  in  Britany,  1769. 

Clav,  Henry,  born  in  Hanover  Co.  Virginia, 
in  1770. 

Cobbett,  William,  native  of  Surrey,  England. 

Constantine,  Grand  Duke  of  Russia  and  vi- 
ceroy of  Poland. 

Cooper,  James  Fennimore,  novelist,  born  at 
Bordentown,  N.  J.  1789. 

Edge  worth,  Maria,  native  of  Edgeworthtown, 
Ireland. 

Gallatin,  Albert,  native  of  Geneva. 

Gait,  John,  novelist  and  traveller,  born  at 
Greenock,  1779. 

Greenough,  Horatio,  American  sculptor,  born 
at  Boston,  in  1800. 

Hogg,  James,  the  Ettrick  Shepherd,  native 
of  Ettrick,  Scotland. 

Humboldt,  baron  Frederick,  traveller,  born 
at  Berlin,  Prussia,  176!>. 

Hunt,  Leigh,  born  in  England,  1784. 

Hyde  de  Neuville,  count,  native  of  France — 
minister  to  the  United  States. 

Irving,  Washington,  native  of  the  city  of 
New  York,  born  about  1783. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  President  of  the  Unitod 
States,  born  at  Wraxaw.  S.  C.  in  1767. 

Jerlery,  Francis,  celebrated  lawyer,  now  Lord 
of  Session — born  at  Edinburgh,  in  1773. 

Kemble,  Charles,  an  actor  of  some  merit,  born 
in  Wales,  1775. 

Livingston,  Edward,  born  at  Clermont,  N. 
Y.  in  1764. 

Lockhart,  John  G.  native  of  Scotland,  born 
about  17S4,  son  in  law  of  Sir  Walter  Scotland 
editor  of  London  Quarterly  Review. 

Louis  Philippe,  king  of  the  French,  born  at 
Paris,  Oct.  6,  1773. 

Lyndhurst,  Lord  John  Singleton  Copley,  born 
at  Boston,  1773. 

Macomb,  Alexander,  major  general,  born  at 
Detroit,  1782. 

Madison,  James,  born  in  Virginia,  March  5, 
1750,  (old  style.)  where  he  now  resides ;  edu- 
cated at  Princeton  College,  N.  J.  member  of 
the  Virginia  Legislature,  1 775 ;  one  of  the  coun- 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


L1V 


678 


LON 


cil  of  Virginia,  177G  ;  elected  a  member  of  the 
congress  of  the  revolution  ;  prominent  member 
of  the  convention  which  framed  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States.  With  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton and  John  Jay,  wrote  the  Federalist,  being 
an  able  defence  of  the  constitution ;  elected  a 
member  of  the  first  congress  under  the  consti- 
tution, and  remained  many  years  a  distinguish- 
ed member  of  that  body  ;  became  Secretary  of 
State  March  5,  1801,  and  President  of  the  U. 
Stales  March  4,  1809,  and  remained  in  that 
office  eight  years. 

Marshall,  John,  Chief  Justice  of  the  United 
States,  native  of  Virginia,  born  1755. 

Martineau,  Harriet,  popular  writer  on  politi- 
cal economy,  and  the  improvement  of  society  ; 
native  of  England. 

Me  Lane,  Louis,  born  in  Delaware,  1786. 

Metternich-Winebourg,  prince,  born  in  Aus- 
tria, in  1775. 

Montgomery,  James,  poet,  born  in  Ayrshire, 
in  1771. 

Moore,  Thomas,  celebrated  poet,  native  of 
Dublin. 

Opie,  Mrs.,  born  at  Norwich,  1771. 

Peele,  Sir  Robert,  Eng.  statesman,  born  1787. 

Percival,  James  G.,  a  poet  and  scholar,  born 
at  Berlin,  Conn.  1795. 

Rossini,  Gioachimo,  the  first  living  musical 
composer,  born  in  Romagna,  in  1702. 

Sedgwick,  Catherine,  daughter  of  Hon.  The- 
odore Sedgwick,  a  native  of  Stockbridge,  Mas- 
sachusetts. 

Southey,  Robert,  a  celebrated  writer,  born  at 
Bristol,  England,  in  1774. 

Talleyrand,  Perigord,  prince  de,  a  celebrated 
politician,  born  in  France,  1754. 

Thorwaldsen,  Albert,  the  first  living  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Copenhagen,  in  1772. 

Trumbull,  John,  painter,  born  at  Lebanon, 
Conn.,  in  175G. 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  born  at  Kinderhook,  N. 
Y.  1782. 

Webster,  Daniel,  born  at  Salisbury,  N.  H., 
1782. 

Wellington,  Duke  of,  Arthur  Wellesley, 
born  in  Ireland,  May  1709. 

Wilkie,  David,  painter,  born  in  Fifeshire, 
Scotland  in  1785. 

William,  IV,  king  of  England,  born  August, 
21,17(r,. 

Wilson,  John,  professor  at  Edinburgh,  born 
at  Paisley,  1789. 

Wordsworth,  William,  poet,  born  in  1770. 

LOADSTONE,  polar  attraction  of,  known 
in  France  before  JJ«0. 


LOCUSTS,  the  country  of  Palestine  infested 
with  such  swarms  of,  that  they  darkened  the 
air,  and  after  devouring  the  fruits  of  the  earth, 
they  died,  and  their  intolerable  stench  caused  a 
pestilential  fever,  400.  A  similar  circumstance 
occurred  in  France,  873;  a  large  swarm  of. 
flew  over  the  city  of  Warsaw,  June  17,  1816; 
swarms  of,  made  their  appearance  near  Aschers- 
leben,  Juno  24,  1816. 

LOGLINE  in  navigation  used.  1570. 

LOGWOOD  first  cut  in  the  bay  of  Hondu- 
ras and  Campeachy  by  the  English,  1662. 

LpNGEVITY.  Jane  Simonds,  119,  1772, 
in  Fishmonger's  almshouse. 

Clun,  widow  138,  1772,  near  Litchfiold  Eng. 

McFindley,  Charles,  of  Tipperary,  143,  a  cap- 
tain in  reign  of  Charles  I,  1773. 

Bealey,  Wm.  130,  1774,  in  Londonderry,  Ire- 
land. 

Gordon.  Peter,  131,  1775,  at  Aucterless  N. 
Britain. 

Movet,  Mr.,  surgeon,  139,  1796,  near  Dum- 
fries. 

Brookrnan,  Sarah,  166,  1776,  Glastonbury, 
England. 

Cockey,  Thomas,  132, 1778,  Surrey,  En<r. 

Horton,  Mary  Brook,  148,  17s7,  Stafford- 
shire, England. 

Scot,  Judith,  162,  1792;  Islington,  Eng. 

Lopez,  Catharine,  134,  1806,  at  Jamaica,  W. 

"LONGEVITY  OF  THE  LEARNED.  Greek 

— Zenophilus,  169  years  of  age,  died— B.  C.; 
Theophrastus,  106,  288;  Zenophanes,  100, 
500;  Democritus,  100.  — ;  Isocrates,  !)8,  33S  , 
Thales,  92,  348;  Carneades,  90,  —  ;  Pyrrho. 
90, 284 ;  Sophocles,  91 , 4(16 ;  Simonides,  90, 468 , 
Zeno,  97,  264,  Pythagoras,  90,  5JO,  Ilyppo- 
crates,  80.  —  ;  Chrysippus.  83,204  ;  Diogenes, 
88,  —  ;  Pharycides,  K>,— ;  Solon,  82,  558; 
Periander,  87,  579;  Plato.  81,  348;  Thucydi- 
des.  80,  391  ;  Zenocrates,  81,  314;  Zenepnon, 
89,359;  Polybius.  81,  124  ;  Socrates, poisoned, 
70,  400;  Anaxagoras,  72,  428;  Euripides,  76, 
407;  ^Kschylus,  70,  456;  Aristotle,  63,  322; 
Anaximander,  64,  547;  Pindar,  69,  452— 
Greek  authors  30— died  above  100,  4;  90,  8  j 
80,  1 1  ;  60,  7.  Roman — Varro,  87  years  of  age, 
died  28  years  B.  C. ;  Lucian,  80,  — ;  Epicurus, 
73,  168;  Cicero,  63,  43;  Livy,  by  a  violent 
death,  67,  A.  D.  17;  Pliny,  the  elder,  56,  79, 
Pliny,  the  younger,  by  a  violent  death, 52, 113  ; 
Ovid,  59, 17  ;  Horace,  57,  — ;  Virgil,  51,  B.  C. 
19. 

LONGEVITY  OF  MODERN  AUTHORS. 
Adams,  John,  died  July  4, 1826,  aged  91  years 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL.       ' 


MAR 


679 


MAS 


Bacon,  Roger,  1294,  80;  Bacon,  chancellor, 
1025.  57;  Boerhaave.  1738,  70;  Boyle.  1691, 
65;  Brahc  Tycho.  1001.55;  Burnet,"l725,  85; 
Camden,  165»,72;  Copernicus,  1543.  71  ;  Eras- 
mus, 1530,  69 ;  Fnntenelle.  1557,  ll'O;  Fother- 
jnll,  1780,  08;  Franklin,  Benjamin,  1790,84; 
Fredeiftk  II.  178(5.  74;  Gallileo,  1623,  76; 
Grotius.  1645.  62 ;  Hale,  sir  Matthew.  1070, 
07;  Hal'ler,  1777,69;  Hales,  1761,84 ;  Halley, 
1742.  85;  Hoadley,  1701,  83;  Hobbes,  1079. 
!)2;  "'Jefferson,  Thomas,  July  4th,  1826,  84; 
Johnson.  Samuel,  1784,  75 -/Locke.  1704,73; 
Liebnitz,  1715,  69';  Milton,  1674,  06  ;  Murray, 
Lindley,  1820,  80;  Newton,  1727.84;  Puffen- 
dorff,  1693.  02;  Robertson,  1793.  72;  Scaliger, 
J.  J.  1609,  69  ;  Scaliger,  J.  C.  1558.  74  ;  Selden, 
1654,70;  Sherlocke,  1762.  84;  Sloane,  Hans, 
1752.  92  ;  Swede nborg,  1772.  83 ;  Voltaire.  177!!, 
85  ;  Vossius,  J.  Gerard.  1649,  72;  Vossius/Isaac, 
1683,  70  ;  Whiston.  1762.  95. 

LOOKING-GLASSES  made  only  at  Ven- 
ice, 1SOO. 

LOOMS,  the  power-loom  invented  by  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Cartwright,  a  clergyman  of  Kent,  in 
England.  1787. 

LOTTERIES,  the  first  mentioned  by  histori- 
ans for  sums  of  money,  1630;  established  1693. 

M. 

MAGNIFYING-  GLASSES  invented  by- 
Roger  Bacon.  1260. 

MALT  LIQUOR  used  in  Egypt  450  B.  C. 

MAMMOTH,  a  complete  one  discovered  on 
the  boarders  of  the  Frozen  Ocean.  1799;  the 
skeleton  of  one  found  in  the  ice  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Lena,  in  Siberia,  1809;  the  skele- 
ton of  an  enormous  one  discovered  in  erecting 
a  causeway  in  the  county  of  Hout  in  Germany, 
1814. 

MANUFACTURES  OF  ENGLAND,  at 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  were  computed  at 
82  millions.  In  the  statistical  researches  pub- 
lished by  the  prefect  of  the  Seine  in  1823.  the 
shawls  and  fancy  tissues  made  at  Paris  are  val- 
ued in  round  numbers  at  £15,000,000;  the 
goldsmiths  work  and  jewelry  at  £27.000.000; 
the  clock  and  watch  making  at  £19,000,000; 
the  gilt  bronzes  at  £50.000,000;  and  on  these 
goods  alone,  the  mere  wages  paid  to  workmen 
in  the  city,  amount  annually  to  £  22,000.000  or 
$07.680,000. 

MARK,  St.  wrote  his  gospel,  44. 

MARRIAGE  in  Lent  forbidden,  354  ;  forbid- 
den the  priests.  1015  ;  first  celebrated  in  church- 
es, 1226 ;  banns  of,  first  published  in  churches, 


about  1200;  net  of  solemnizing  it  by  justices  of 
the  peace,  1653  ;  first  celebration  of  a  marriage 
in  Virginia,  1608. 

MASSACRES,  of  all  the  Carthaginians  in 
Sicily,  397  B.  C. ;  2,000  Tyrians  crucified,  and 
8,000  put  to  the  sword  for  not  surrendering 
76 ;  Tyre  to  Alexander,  331  B.  C.  The  Jews  of 
J70,  Antioch  fall  upon  the  other  inhabitants  and 
massacre  100,000,  for  refusing  to  surrender  their 
arms  to  Demetrius  Nicanor.  tyrant  of  Syria, 
]  54  ;  a  dreadful  slaughter  of  the  Tuetones  and 
Ambrones.  nCar  Aix,  by  Marius  the  Roman 
general,  20y,(jOO  being  left  dead  on  the  spot, 
102;  the  Romans  throughout  Asia,  women  and 
children  not  excepted,  cruelly  massacred  in  one 
day,  by  order  of  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontua, 
89 ;  a  great  number  of  Roman  senators  massa- 
cred by  Cinna.  Marius,  and  Sertorius,  and  sev 
eral  of  the  patricians  despatched  themselves  to 
avoid  their  horrid  butcheries,  86 ;  again,  under 
Sylla,  and  Catiline  his  minister  of  vengeance. 
82  and  79 ;.  at  Prceneste.  Octavianus  Ceesar 
ordered  300  Roman  senators,  and  cither  persons 
of  distinction  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  manes  of 
Julius  Ccesar.  44  ;  at  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, 1,000.000  Jews  were  put  to  the  sword,  A. 
D_.  70 ;  Cassius,  a  Roman  general,  under  the 
emperor  M.  Aurelius,  put  to  death  37,000  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Seleucia,  197;  at  Alexandria,  of 
many  thousand  citizens,  by  order  of  Antoninus 
213;  the  emperor  Probus  put  to  death  700,000 
of  the  inhabitants  upon  his  reduction  of  Gaul, 
277;  of  eighty  Christian  fathers,  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Grat'ian.  at  Nicomedia  ;  they  were  put 
into  a  ship,  which  was  set  on  fire,  and  driven 
out  to  sea,  370 ;  of  Thessalonica,  when  upwards 
of  7,000  persons,  invited  into  the  circus,  were 
put  to  the  sword  by  order  of  Theodosius,  390  ; 
Belisarius  put  to  death  above  30,000  citizens  of 
Constantinople  for  a  revolt,  on  account  of  two 
rapacious  ministers  set  over  them  by  Justinian, 
532;  of  the  Latins,  by  Andronicus,  1184  (at 
Constantinople) ;  the  Sicilians  massacred  the 
French  throughout  the  whole  island,  without 
distinction  of  sex  or  age,  on  Easter-day,  the 
first  bell  for  vespers  being  the  signal ;  this  hor- 
rid affair  is  known  in  history  by  the  name  of 
the  Sicilian  vespers,  1282;  at  Paris  1418;  of 
the  Swedish  nobility  at  a  feast,  by  order  of 
Christian  II.  1520;  of  70,000  Huguenots,  or 
French  protestants,  throughout  the  kingdom  of 
France,  attended  with  circumstances  of  the 
most  horrid  treachery  and  cruelty  ;  it  began  at 
Paris  in  the  night  of 'the  festival  "of  St.  Barthol- 
omew, August  25,  1572,  by  secret  orders  from 
Charles  IX,  king  cf  France,  at  the  instigation 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


MAS  680  MET 


# 

of  the  queen  dowager,  Catharine  de  Medicis,  MASSACRE    OF  THE    GREEKS   in  the 

his  mother,  which  is  styled  in  history  the  mas-  island  of  Scio,  to  the  number  of  20  or  30,000, 

sacre  of  S.t.  Bartholomew ;  of  the  Christians  in  June,  1822,  by  the  Turks;  and  again  of  the 

Croatia,  by  the  Turks,  when  05,000  were  slain,  Greek  garrison  and  inhabitants  of  the  island  of 

15!>2;  of  a  great  number  of  protestants  at  Thorn,  Hydra,  1824,  which  was,  however,  most  severe- 

who  were  put  to  death  under  a  pretended  legal  ly  retaliated   upon  the  Turks  in  a  few  d^iys,  a 

sentence  of  the  chancellor  of  Poland,  for  being  body  of  Greek  troops  landing  and  putting  the 

concerned  in  a  tumult  occasioned  by  a  popish  whole  Turkish  force  to  the  sword;  April  23d, 

procession.   1724;    at    Balavia,    where    12,000  1820,  the  inhabitants  and    garrison  of   Missi- 

Chinese  were  killed  by  the  natives,  Oct.,  1740 ;  longhi,  were  murdered  under  circumstances  of 

in  England,  300  English  nobles,  by  Hengist,  accumulated  horrors. 

A.  D.  475  ;  of  the  Danes,  in  the  southern  coun-  MATTHEW,  ST.  wrote  his  gospel,  44. 

ties  of  England,  in  the  night  of  November  13,  MERCATOR'S  CHART  invented,  1550. 

1002,  and  the  23d  Etheldred  II,  at  London;  it  METEORS.— A  very  extraordinary  exhibi- 

was  the  most  bloody,  the  churches  being  no  tion  of  these,  called  "  Falling  Stars,"  took  place 

sanctuary;  amongst  the  rest  Gunilda,  sister  of  in  America,  November  13th,  1833.     It  is  thus 

Swein,  king  of  Denmark,  left  in  hostage  for  the  described  by  an  eyewitness  : 

performance  of  a  treaty  but  newly  concluded  ;  We  were  about  five  miles  southwest  of  Bos- 

of  the  Jews,  (some  few  pressing  into  Westmin-  ton,  and  a  little  before  five  in  the  morning,  on 

ster  Hall,  at  Richard  I's  cornation,  were  put  to  looking  out  of  the  window  saw  several  stars 

death  by  the  people,  and  a  false  alarm  being  shooting    downward,    leaving    behind   a   long 

given,  that  the  king  had  ordered  a  general  mas-  shining  train.     This  excited  our  attention  and 

sacre  of  them,  the  people  in  many  parts  of  En-  calling  up  a  learned  friend  who  was  sleeping  in 

gland,  from  an  aversion  to  them,  slew  all  they  an  adjacent  room,  we  sallied  forth. 

met;  in  York,  500,  who  had  taken  shelter  in  The  scene  was  indeed  beautiful,  and  almost 

the  castle,  killed   themselves,  rather  than  fall  fearful.     On  all  sides  of  us,  nearly  without  ces- 

into  the  hands  of  the  people,)  1189 ;  of  the  En-  sation,  the    meteors   were   streaming   through 

glish,  by  the  Dutch  at  Amboyna,  1024;  of  the  the  heavens;  sometimes  one  alone,  sometimes 

protestants  in  Ireland,  when  40,000  were  killed,  two  or  three  or  more  together.     Some  of  them 

1041  ;  of  the  Macdonalds  at  Glencoe,  in  Scot-  were  small  and  soon  disappeared;  others  were 

land,  for  not  surrendering  in  time  according  to  more  brilliant,  and  had  a  longer  and  more  glori- 

king  William's  proclamation,  though  without  ous  career.     We  were  standing  among  some 

the  king's  knowledge,  1092;   several  dreadful  trees,  the  strong  shadows  of  which  were  often 

massacres   in   France    during  the   revolution,  thrown  upon  the  ground,  as  the  meteors  hurried 

from  1789  to  1704  ;  massacre  of  000  negroes,  by  by. 

the  French  at  St.  Mark's,  1802 ;  massacre  at  There  was  a  boy  with  us  whose  exclamations 
Algiers,  March  10,  1800;  insurrection  and  were  amusing  arid  descriptive.  "See  there, 
dreadful  massacre  at  Madrid,  May  2,  1808;  see,  see!"  said  he,  "  there  goes  a  whole  hand- 
dreadful  massacre  of  the  Mamelukes  in  the  ful !  there  's  one,  cracked  all  to  pieces  !  Look 
citadel  of  Cairo,  March  1,  1811.  up  there  ;  that  one  's  made  a  mark  on  the  skv 

MASSACRES   IN  THE  U.  STATES,  of  like  a  piece  of  chalk  !" 

the  first  settlers  of  Virginia,  of  whom  347  were  It.  may  well  be  believed  that  our  feelings  be- 
murdered  in  one  night,  1022,  by  the  savages;  came  deeply  interested,  and  that  an  exhibition 
at  WUlwcbaiTe  by  the  British  and  savages,  July  so  wonderful,  produced  emotions  amounting  to 
3d,  1778;  by  the  British  and  savnges  at  Cherry  awe.  It  seemed  as  if  the  very  stars  were  leap- 
Valley,  in  New  York,  November  11th,  1778—  ing  from  their  places,  and  after  a  rapid  flight, 
both  these  sanguinary  acts  were  done  under  vanishing  into  air.  If  philosophy  taught  us 
the  direction  of  colonel  John  Butler ;  of  the  better,  still  the  imagination  could  not  be  re 
Moravian  Indians,  by  a  party  from  the  western  strained,  and  the  mind  pressed  forward  to  that 
part  ol  Pennsylvania,  headed  by  colonel  Wil-  predicted  hour  when  the  heavenly  bodies  shall 
liamson,  June,  17c-i ;  American  garrison  of  vanish  like  a  scroll,  and  the  glittering  vault 
Chicago,  tin  tlu-ir  retreat  from  the  place,  by  the  above,  like  a  vesture,  be  finally  rolled  up. 
savuges,  August  15th,  1812;  of  the  American  This  phenomenon  was  seen  nearly  over  the 
wounded  prisoners  at  Fronchtown,  on  the  river  whole  of  North  America,  and  far  out" to  sea. 
Raisin,  January  22d,  1813,  by  the  Indians,  with  Other  similar  phenomena  have  been  observed 
the  privity  of  the  British.  from  timc  to  tinip  in  different  countries. 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


MET 


631 


MIL 


METEORIC  STONES.— A  shower  of  them 
fell  in  Connecticut,  December  14th,  1807.  It 
was  ou-ertfed  about  a  quarter  past  six.  The  day 
had  just  dawned,  and  there  was  little  light  ex- 
cept from  the  moon,  whioh  was  just  setting.  It 
seemed  to  be  half  the  diameter  of  the  full  moon ; 
and  passed,  like  a  globe  of  fire,  across  the  north- 
ern margin  of  the  sky.  It  passed  behind  some 
clouds,  and  when  it  came  out  it  flashed  like 
heat  lightning.  It  had  a  train  of  light,  and  ap- 
peared like  a  burning  firebrand  carried  against 
the  wind.  It  continued  in  sight  about  half  a 
minute,  and,  in  about  an  equal  space  after  it 
faded,  three  loud  and  distinct  reports,  like  those 
of  a  four  pounder  near  at  hand,  were  heard. 
Then  followed  a  quick  succession  of  smaller  re- 
ports, seeming  like  what  soldiers  call  a  running 
rire.  The  appearance  of  the  meteor  was  as  if 
it  took  three  successive  threes,  or  leaps,  and  at 
each  explosion  a  rushing  of  stones  was  heard 
through  the  air,  some  of  which  struck  the 
ground  with  a  heavy  fall. 

The  first  fall  was  in  the  town  of  Huntington, 
near  the  house  of  Mr.  Merwin  Burr.  He  was 
standing  in  the  road,  in  front  of  his  house,  when 
the  stone  fell,  and  struck  a  rock  of  granite  about 
fifty  feet  from  him.  with  a  loud  noise.  The 
rock  was  stained  a.  dark  lead  color,  and  the 
stone  was  principally  shivered  into  very  small 
fragments,  which  were  thrown  around  to  a 
distance  of  twenty  feet.  The  largest  piece  was 
about  the  size  of  a  goose  egg,  and  was  still 
warm.  . 

The  stones  of  the  second  explosion  fell  about 
five  miles  distant,  near  Mr  William  Prince's 
residence,  in  Weston.  He  and  his  family  were 
in  bed,  when  they  heard  the  explosion,  and  also 
heard  a  heavy  body  fall  to  the  earth.  They 
afterwards  found  a  hole  in  the  earth,  about 
twenty-five  feet  from  the  house,  like  a  newly 
dug  post-hole,  about  one  foot  in  diameter,  and 
two  feet  deep,  in  which  they  found  a  meteoric 
stone  buried,  which  weighed  thirty-five  pounds. 
Another  mass  fell  half  a  mile  distant,  upon  a 
rock,  which  it  split  in  two,  and  was  itself  shiv- 
ered to  pieces.  Another  piece,  weighing  thir- 
teen pounds,  fell  half  a  mile  to  the  northeast, 
into  a  ploughed  field. 

At  the  last  explosion,  a  mass  of  stone  fell  in 
a  field  belonging  to  Mr.  Elijah  Seely,  about 
thirty  rods  from  his  house.  This  stone  falling 
on  a  ledge,  was  shivered  to  pieces.  It  ploughed 
up  a  large  portion  of  the  ground,  and  scattered 
the  earth  and  stones  to  the  distance  of  fifty  or  a 
hundred  feet.  Some  cattle  that  were  near,  w%re 
very  much  frightened,  and  jumped  into  an  en- 


closure. It  was  concluded  that  this  last  stone, 
before  being  broken,  must  have  weighed  about 
two  hundred  weight.  These  stones  were  all  of 
a  similar  nature,  and  different  from  any  com- 
monly found  on  this  globe.  When  first  found, 
they  were  easily  icduced  to  powder  by  the  fin- 
gers, but  by  exposure  to  the  air  they  gradually 
hardened. 

Other  showers  of  meteoric  stones  have  been 
known,  but  this  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  meteor  was  more  than 
a  mile  in  diameter. 

MICROSCOPES  first  used,  1621 ;  the  double 
ones,  1624  ;  solar  microscopes  invented,  1740. 

MILITARY  and  RELIGIOUS  KNIGHTS, 
and  TITLES  OF  HONOR. 

Admiral,  the  first  in  England,  1297. 

/Ediles  first  created  at  Rome,  971  B.  C. 

Alexander,  St.  knighthood  began  in  Russia, 
1700. 

Aldermen  of  London  first  appointed,  1242. 

Andrew,  St.  order  of  knighthood  instituted  in 
Scotland,  80');  renewed  in  Scotland,  1452, 
1005  ;  in  Russia,  1698. 

Baron,the  title  first  by  patent  in  England,1388. 

Baronets  first  created  i»  England,  1011. 

Bath,  order  of  knighthood,  instituted  in  Eng- 
land at  the  coronation  of  Henry  IV,  1399  ;  re- 
newed, 1725. 

Cincinnatus  order  began  in  America,  1783. 

Common  council  of  London  first  appointed. 
1208. 

Consuls  first  made  at  Rome,  307  B.  C. 

Creation  by  patents  to  titles  first  used  by  Ed 
ward  III,  1344. 

Decemviri,  first  creation  of,  450  B.  C. 

Defender  of  the  Faith,  the  title  of,  given  to 
the  king  of  England,  1520. 

Dennis,  St.  order  began  in  France,  1267. 

Dey  of  Tunis  first  appointed.  1570. 

Dictators  began  at  Rome,  498  B.  C. 

Duke,  title  of,  first  given  in  England  to  Ed- 
ward, son  of  Edward  III,  March  17",  1336. 

Earl  first  used  by  king  Alfred  in  920,  as  a 
substitute  for  that  of  king. 

Earl,  the  first  created  in  England,  October 
14. 1066. 

Electors  of  Germany  began,  1298. 

Eminence,  the  title  of,  first  given  to  cardinals, 
1644. 

Esquire,  first  used  to  persons  of  fortune,  not 
attendants  on  knights,  1345. 

Garter,  order  began,  April  23,  1349;  altera- 
tion in.  1557,  and  1788.  It  is  remaikable,  that 
this  is  the  only  order  which  has  been  giaated 
to  foreign  princes. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


MOU 


682 


MU3 


r  iiiuuria,  ii.'*«. 

King  of  England,  tin-  title  first  used,b20 ;  of 
!land,1542;  oftireat  Britain.  Kill,"). 


Golden  Fleece,  order  of  knighthood,  began 
in  Flanders. 

K 
Irel 

King  of  France,  the  title  assumed  by  tlic 
king  of  England,  and  his  arms  quartered  with 
the  English,  and  the  motto  "Dieu  etrnonDroit," 
first  used,  Feb.  21,  1340:  relinquished  Jan.  1, 
1801. 

Kin"  of  the  French  began,  1791  ;  abolished, 
1792. 

Knighthood  first  used  in  England.  897. 

Legion  of  Honor,  instituted  by  Bonaparte, 
continued  by  Louis  XVIII,  1614. 

Lord  mayors  of  London  first  appointed  annu- 
ally,  1208. 

Louis,  St.  order  of  knighthood,  began  May 
10,1698;  abolished,  17!'l. 

Majesty,  the  title  used  to  Henry  VIII,  of 
England. 

Poet  Laureat,  the  first  in  England,  1487. 

Pope,  the  title  first  assumed,  154. 

MiSSI.-SHTI  BUBBLE,  in  France,  ceased 
June  27,  1720,  when  its  amount  was  one  hun- 
dred million  pounds  sterling. 

.MONASTERY,  the  first  founded,  where  the 
Bister  of  St.  Anthony  retired,  £70  ;  the  first 
founded  in  France,  near  Poictiers,  by  St.  Mar- 
tin, ',UM;  Constantine  IV  sends  for  a  great 
number  of  friars  and  nuns  to  Ephesus.  orders 
them  to  change  their  black  habits  for  white, 
and  to  destroy  their  images;  on  their  refusal, 
he  orders  their  eyes  to  be  put  out,  banishes 
them,  and  sells  several  monasteries,  appropriat- 
ing the  produce,  770;  they  were  totally  sup- 
pressed b^r  act  of  parliament  in  lf>:'>9. 

MONEY,  first  mentioned  as  a  medium  of 
commerce  in  the  twenty-third  chapter  of  Gen- 
esis, when  Abraham  purchased  a  field  as  a  sep- 
ulchre for  Sarah,  in  the  year  of  the  world, 
2131)  ;  first  made  at  Argos,  894  B.  C.;  has  in- 
creased eighteen  times  its  value  from  1290  to 
HMO;  and  twelve  times  its  value  from  1530  to 
1600. 

MOUNT  AUBURN.  A  retired  and  imia- 
mented  pltu.e  of  sepulture,  about,  four  miles 
from  Boston,  was  publicly  dedicated,  as  a  cem- 
etery, Sept.  24,  1KU.  There  are  upv. 
fifty  acres  enclosed,  and  the  whole  is  under  the 
direction  of  the  Massachusetts  Hortir-ultiiral 


nd  it 


Society,  which  was  incorporated  for  tin:  pur- 
pone  9y  the  Massachusetts  Legislature,  June, 
Ilie  lots  however  are  purchased  by  in- 
dividuals and  are  permanently  secured  to  them, 
and  their  legal  representatives.  The  grounds 
are  planted  with  shrubbery,  flowers  and  trees, 


and  are  laid  out  in  walks.    Various  i 

tombs  and  cenotaphs  iiave  been  erect 

is  probably  as  a  "  city  of  the  dead  "Destined  to 

rival  the  tar  lamed  Pere  la  Chaise  of  I'aris. 

MULBERRY  TREES  first  planted  in  Eng- 
land, 1009;  in  the  English  provinces  of  .North 
America,  about  1750,  for  cultivating  silk. 

MUSIC.  According  to  Mosaic  records,  Jubal 
the  son  of  Lanicch,  played  on  musical  instru- 
ments even  before  the  deluge.  At  a  later  period, 
we  find  mention  made  of  the  harp,  the  trumpet 
and  the  drum.  The  oldest  scng,  is  that  which 
Meriiim  sang  after  the  passage  of  the  lieu  Se;i.  • 
Music  readied  its  highest  perfection  among  the 
Hebrews,  at  the  lime  of  David  and  Solomon. 

The  Greeks  are  said  to  have  received  the  nr'. 
of  music  from  Lydia  and  Arcadia.  But  it  was 
not  till  the  (Jth  century  that  much  of  the  science 
of  music  was  understood.  Labus,  a  (mvk,  wh .•> 
lived  about  54(5  B.  C.,  wrote  something  on  tin- 
theory  of  music.  In  the  time  of  Pericles,  Da- 
inou  is  said  to  have  been  a  distinguished  teacher 
of  music. 

In  the  time  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  many  ini 
provements  in  music  were  nnde;  lhc.se  philos- 
ophers considering  music  useful  ;;s  a  i:-eans  <•!' 
'education.  At  the  time  of  Alexander,  Aristox- 
enus  distinguished  himself  as  a  writer  on  music. 
He  composed  many  treatises,  and  nr.ule  many 
great  changes  and  improvements.  Ho  intro- 
duced the  chromatic  scale.  We  have  on  the 
whole  but  little  light  on  the  subject  of  the  mu- 
sic of  the  ancients,  as  the  existing  writings  are 
very  obscure  and  unintelligible. 

The  Romans  seem  f>  have  received  their  sa- 
cred music  from  the  Etruscans,  and  their  war- 
like music  from  the  Greeks.  Stringed  instru- 
ments were  introduced  into  Rome,  166  B.  C. 
Under  Nero,  music  was  cultivated  as  a  luxury. 
After  his  death,  live  hundred  singers  and  musi- 
cians were  dismissed. 

In  the  middle  ages,  the  progress  of  music  was 
promoted  by  its  being  consecrated  to  the  service 
of  religion,  and  education  was  not.  thought  com- 
plete without  some  knowledge  of  music.  Guido, 
of  Arezzo,  made  great  improvements  in  the 
manner  of  writing  the  notes  in  music,  and  in 
the  fifteenth  century  still  farther  improvement 
was  made  by  Johannes  de  Muris. 

At  the  same  period,  music  was  treated  scien- 
tifically in  the  Netherlands,  France  and  Spain. 
The  invention  of  the  opera  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  has  chiefly  contributed  to  the  splendor 
and  variety  of  modern  vocal  music,  and  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  there  were  immense  im- 
provements made  in  musical  instruments. 


, 


m     I 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


NIA 


683 


NIA 


The  merit  of  the  advancement  of  vocal  music 
is  claimed  by  the  Italians;  that  of  instrumental 
music  by  the  Germans  and  French. 

MUSICAL  NOTES  as  now  used,  1330. 

MUSKETS  first  used  in  France  at  the  siege 
of  Arras,  1414;  in  general  use, "1521. 

MUSLINS  from  India,  first  in  England, 
1670 ;  first  manufactured  there,  1781 . 


NATIONAL  DEBT  in  England,  first  con- 
tracted in  Henry  VII's  reign,  £14,301. 

NEEDLES  were  first  made  in  England  by  a 
native  of  India,  1545,  the  art  lost  at  his  death ; 
recovered  by  Christopher  Greening,  in  1560, 
who  was  settled  with  his  three  children,  Eliza- 
beth, John,  and  Thomas,  by  Mr.  Darner,  ances- 
tor of  the  present  earl  of  Dorchester,  at  Long 
Gredon,  in  Bucks,  where  the  manufactory  has 
been  carried  on  from  that  time  to  the  present 
daf. 

NEW  STYLE  first  introduced  into  Europe, 
1582;  into  Holland  and  the  Protestant  states, 
1700;  in  England,  1752. 

NEWSPAPER,  first  published  in  England, 
entitled  the  "  English  Mercury,"  July  28,  1588  ; 
after  the  revolution,  first  daily  paper  was  called 
the  "  Orange  Intelligencer,"  and  from  that  time 
to  1G!)2,  there  were  twenty-six  newspapers ;  in 
1700,  there  were  eighteen  weekly  and  one  daily 
paper,  the  "  London  Courant;  "  in  17H5,  there 
were  published  in  London,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
land, one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  papers;  in 
1809,  there  were  two  hundred  and  seventeen 
newspapers  in  the  United  Kingdom  ;  the  num- 
ber conveyed  by  post  in  England,  in  1704, 
amounted  to  near  12,000,000  pe'r  annum. 

The  first  printing  press  in  North  America, 
opened  at  Cambridge,  163i).  Among  the  first 
books  printed  were  an  Indian  version  of  the 
Bible,  and  Sandy's  translation  of  Ovid.  Two 
licensers  were  appointed  in  Massachusetts, 
1G62;  presses  were  forbidden  in  Virginia,  1(>83; 
the  first  printer  in  Connecticut,  1709. 

NIAGARA  FALLS.  It  is  said  that  the 
best  station  for  viewing  this  magnificent  natu- 
ral curiosity  is  on  the  Canada  side  of  the  river, 
though  a  greater  variety  of  interest  is  said  to  be 
on  the  American  side.  The  surface  of  the 
country  about  the  Falls  is  flat  and  uninteresting, 
and  from  one  side  gives  little  indication  of  the 
approach  to  any  remarkable  scene  ;  the  noise  of 
the  fall  of  waters,  gradually  increases,  and  the 
mist  rises  in  dense  volumes,  forming  clouds  in 
the  air.  The  illustrative  engraving  was  drawn 
58 


upon  the  spot  by  Mr.  Bake  well,  to  whom  we 
are  indebted  for  the  description ;  a  strict  regard 
to  pictorial  proportion  has  been  dispensed  with, 
in  order  to  present  all  the  leading  features  in 
one  view.  From  the  hotel  (A)  there  is  a  gra- 
dual descent  to  a  very  steep  bank  (B)  about 
140  feet  high,  which  caps  the  limestone  rock  ; 
•having  descended,  you  walk  over  planks 
laid  on  the  marshy  ground,  to  the  extent  of 
200  yards,  which  leads  to  the  brink  of  the  pre- 
cipice (c),  where  the  whole  scene  bursts  at 
once  on  the  sight.  You  are  here  on  a  level 
with  the  river  immediately  before  it  rushes 
down  the  dreadful  abyss.  The  loud,  solemn, 
all-pervading  roar  of  the  waters  is  indescribably 
awful.  The  water  from  violent  agitation  is  per- 
fectly white  for  some  distance  below  the  Falls, 
producing  a  thick  cream  colored  foam  which  is 
seen  floating  down  the  stream  in  large  apparent 
masses.  The  sublimity  of  the  scene  cannot  be 
exceeded.  We  find  ourselves  suddenly  in  the 
presence  of  a  Superior  Power,  and  feel  an  im 
pressive  consciousness  of  our  own  nothingness. 
This  Fall  (from  its  concave  form  called  the 
Horse-shoe  Fall)  is  GOO  yards  wide,  and  158  feet 
perpendicular.  The  descent  of  the  rapids  im- 
mediately above  the  Falls  (  d  )  is  58  feet,  making 
the  whole  216  feet.  Goat's  Island  (e)  which 
divides  the  A'merican  and  Canada  Falls,  pre- 
sents a  bare  face  of  perpendicular  rock  (  h ), 
which  extends  about  500  yards  north  and  south. 
The  American  Falls  are  about  200  yards  in 
width,  and  164  feet  in  height.  A  spiral  stair- 
case (f)  is  erected,  by  which  a  descent  can  be 
made  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  Falls.  The 
ferry  (g)  is  rather  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  from  the  Falls,  in  a  direct  line.  The  small 
town  of  Manchester  (i)  is  situated  about  half  a 
mile  above  the  Falls,  and  several  large  mills 
give  a  cheerful  appearance  to  this  part  of  the 
picture.  Sucli  is  the  comparative  tranquillity 
of  the  water  at  the  ferry,  that  you  may  be  taken 
across  by  a  boy  to  the  landing  place  on  the 
side  immediately  below  the  American  Falls. 
The  waters  which  expand  to  form  the  Ameri- 
can and  Canada  Falls,  after  uniting,  are  here 
contracted  into  a  stream  not  more  than  160  yards 
broad.  The  river  is  confined  between  perpen- 
diculnr  rocks,  and  the  quantity  of  water  that 
falls  is  estimated  to  be  100,000,000  tons  in  an 
hour  !  A  railed  platform  ( m  )  has  been  con- 
structed on  the  rocks  extending  over  the  water 
from  the  island  to  the  commencement  of  the 
curve,  which  forms  the  concave  central  part  of 
the  Horse-shoe.  In  regard  to  the  History  of  the 
Falls,  we  copy  the  following  from  an  eloquent 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY. 


PAI 


C)84 


PAI 


article  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Greenwood,  of  Boston, 
written  upon  visitiugthe  Falls  in  1831.  "  These 
Falls  are  not  without  their  history  ;  but  like 
their  depths,  it  is  enveloped  with  clouds.  Geolo- 
gists suppose,  and  with  good  apparent  reason, 
that  time  was  when  the  ^Niagara  fell  over  the 
abrupt  bank  at  Queenstown,  between  six  and 
rioveri  miles  below  the  place  of  the  present  Falls, 
and  that  it  has,  in  the  lapse  of  unknown  and 
incalculable  years,  been  wearing  away  the  gulf 
in  the  intermediate  distance,  and  toiling  and 
travellinor  through  the  rock,  back  to  its  parent 
lake." 

NINEVEH  destroyed  by  the  Medes,  G12B.C. 

NON-IMPORTATION  law,  March.  1811. 

NON-INTERCOURSE  law  conditionally 
repealing  the  embargo,  March,  1809;  against 
England  and  France,  passed  by  congress,  May 
1,  1810;  repealed  as  to  France,  Nov.  1810. 

NOOTKA,  in  the  northwest  of  America,  dis- 
covered, 177rt;  settled  by  the  English.  1789 ; 
captured  by  the  Spaniards,  1790,  but  afterwards 
confirmed  to  the  EnoTish  by  treaty. 

NORTHEAST  PASSAGE  to  Russia  dis- 
covered,  1553. 

NOTARY  PUBLIC,  began  in  the  first  cen- 

"NOTES  and  bills  first  stamped,  1782. 
NOVA  ZEMBLA  discovered,  1553. 


O 


OPERA,  first  in  London,  1C92;  by  Handel, 
1735;  opera  house  burnt,  1789;  new  one  built, 
1790  ;  another  in  the  strand,  1810 ;  opera  house 
in  Rome,  roof  fell  in,  January  18,  1762. 

ORATORIO,  the  first  in  London,  was  per- 
formed in  Lincoln's-inn  play-house,  Portugal 
street,  in  1732. 

ORGANS  brought  to  Europe  from  the  Greek 
empire,  were  first  invented  and  applied  to  relig- 
ious devotion  in  churches.  758. 

ORRERY  invented.  Ki70. 

OTAHEITE,  or  George  Ill's  island,  discov- 
ered June  18,  17(15. 

OWHYHE  island  discovered,  1778,  where 
captain  Cooke  was  killed. 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY,  founded  by  Al- 
fred, 886. 


P. 


PADLOCKS  invented  at  Nuremburg,  1540. 

PAINTING.  The  earliest  account  we  have 
of  the  existence  of  painting  is  in  the  rei<m  of 
Minus,  about  2000  B.  C.  Egypt  was  decidedly 


the  birthplace  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  though 
but  few  of  its  paintings  remain,  and  their  date 
is  uncertain.  The  Greeks  were  very  little  ad- 
vanced in  the  art  of  painting  at  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  war. 

The  first  important  fact  in  the  history  of 
painting  is.  that  700  years  B.  C.,  a  king  of  Lydia 
purchased  a  picture  of  a  Greek  artist,  and  paid 
him  its  weight  in  gold.  In  the  year  400,  Zeu- 
xis  introduced  a  new  style  of  painting  into 
Greece,  and  at  this  period  much  progress  was 
made  in  the  art.  About  the  year  328  B.  C. 
Apelles  commenced  a  new  era  in  painting, 
and  many  distinguished  painters  were  his  con- 
temporaries. 

Before  Greece  was  taken  by  the  Romans, 
the  art  of  painting  had  arrived  at  a  high  degree 
of  perfection,  but  at  that  time  the  spirit  which 
had  animated  her  arts  had  departed,  and  with 
her  liberty,  her  arts  perished. 

The  first  name  worthy  of  record  in  the  amials 
of  Italian  painting  is  Cimabue,  a  native*  of 
Florence,  who  painted  in  fresco  1300  A.  D. 

In  1445,  Leonardo  de  Vinci  was  born  at  Flor- 
ence. Many  subsequent  painters  are  indebted 
to  this  great  artist  for  his  improvements  in  the 
art.  During  his  time,  the  use  of  oil  in  painting 
was  discovered. 

Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti  \vas  born  in  the 
year  1474.  He  erected  an  academy  of  painting 
and  sculpture  at  Florence,  and  is  considered  a's 
the  founder  of  the  Florentine  School.  Raph- 
tel.  born  1463,  was  the  founder  of  the  Roman 
School.  Titian,  born  1477,  was  the  founder  of 
the  Venetian  School.  Coiregio,  born  14;»4, 
founded  the  Lombard  School.  The  establish- 
ment of  these  four  schools  embraces  the  golden 
age  of  painting. 

Of  the  German  schools  there  are  three  dis- 
tinct ones,  the  German.  Flemish  and  Dutch. 
The  Gothic  style  of  painting  originated  in  Ger- 
many, and  terminated  at  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  century. 

Albert  Durer,  born  in  1471,  was  the  prince 
of  German  artists,  and  the  De  Vinci  of  his 
country.  The  head  of  the  Flemish  School  was 
sir  Peter  Paul  Reubens,  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1577.  What  Reubens  did  for  the  Flemish 
School.  Rembrandt  did  fur  the  Dutch,  he  gave 
it  a  character.  He  died  in  1674. 

There  seems  to  have  been  no  regular  Span- 
ish school  of  painting,  itlthough  many  Spanish 
artists  have  distinguished  themselves,  particu- 
larly Velasquez  and  Murillo.  The  Spanish 
style  holds  an  intermediate  rank  between  the 
Venetian  and  Flemish. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


PAI 


685 


FED 


It  is  difficult  to  assign  a  decided  era  to  the 
oeginning  of  painting  in  Fiance.  The  first 
name  worthy  of  particular  mention,  is  Jaqucs 
I5!anchard,  who  was  born  in  Paris,  A.  D.  1000. 
His  paintings  were  very  popular,  and  one  of 
them  is  still  preserved  in  the  church  of  Notre 
Dame.  Poussin  flourished  about  the  same  time, 
and  painted  many  pictures  for  the  Gallery  of 
the  Louvre. 

Louis  XIII  founded  the  first  school  of  France. 
Of  this,  the  great  master  is  Le  Brun,  born  in 
1(590.  His  best  performances,  are  five  large 
pictures  from  the  life  of  Alexander.  At  this 
period.  Claude  Lorraine  flourished. 

In  'the  18th  century,  French  painters  were 
numerous,  but  the  art  gradually  sunk  into  me- 
diocrity. The  name  of  Vernet,  however,  de-' 
serves  to  be  mentioned.  He  excelled  in  marine 
pieces. 

The  founder  of  the  modern  school  of  paint- 
ing in  France  was  David,  who  was  born  in 
1750.  He  remedied  many  of  the  defects  of  his 
contemporaries,  and  produced  many  fine  pic- 
tures. 

Painting  did  not  begin  to  flourish  in  England 
till  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIJ.  Before  that  pe- 
riod, nothing  like  genius  was  observable  in  the 
rude  productions  of  the  artists.  During  this 
reign,  Hans  Holbein,  under  the  patronage  of 
the  monarch,  settled  in  England  as  a  portrait 
painter. 

During  the  reign  of  Charles  I,  a  gallery  of 
pictures  by  the  great  masters,  was  established 
at  White  Hall.  Vandyke  and  Jamesone  flour- 
ished at  this  time.  In  1097,  Wm.  Hogarth  was 
born.  His  style  was  one  in  which  he  acquired 
lasting  celebrity,  and  was  wholly  his  own. 

A  royal  academy  was  planned  in  England  in 
17G8,  of  which  sir  Joshua  Reynolds  was  made 
president.  He  was  born  in  1723,  and  very 
early  in  life  gave  proofs  of  his  future  genius. 
His  influence  on  the  taste  of  Great  Britain  was 
great,  and  will  be  lasting. 

Gainsborough  and  Wilson  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  English  school  of  landscapes.  Barry 
was  an  historical  painter  of  .great  eminence. 
The  close  of  the  18th  century  produced  many 
names  worthy  of  record.  Fuseli  was  made 
keeper  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Among  other 
pictures,  lie  painted  47  pictures  from  Milton's 
works,  in  the  year  1790.  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence 
was  considered  the  first  portrait  painter  in  Eu- 
rope. He  was  president  of  the  Royal  Academy 
at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1830.  The  celebrated 
living  artist  John  Martin,  was  born  in  1769. 
All  his  pictures  have  been  engraved  by  himself. 


The  United  States  has  produced  many  artist 
of  reputation  ;  among  others,  Benjamin  Wcat, 
who  died  1620,  aged  b2 ;  also  Gilbert  C.  Stuart, 
born  1755.  who  was  one  of  the  first  portrait 
painters  of  his  time.  Among  living  artists, 
Allston  approaches  the  old  masters  in  his  style  ; 
Leslie  has  great  fame  ;  Newton  has  executed 
several  clever  things.  There  are  several  others 
»f  some  note. 

PALMYRA,  ruins  of,  in  the  deserts  of  Syria, 
discovered  1678. 

PAPER  CURRENCY  established  in  A mer- 
ica,  May  13,  1775. 

PAPER  MONEY  first  used  in  America, 
1740. 

PAPER  made  of  cotton  was  in  use  in  1000; 
that  of  linen  rags,  in  1319;  the  manufacture  of, 
introduced  into  England  at  Dartford,  in  Kent, 
1583;  scarcely  any  but  brown  paper  made  in 
England,  till  1690;  white  paper  first  made  in 
England,  1090. 

PARCHMENT  invented  by  kinor  Attalus, 
887. 

PARROT,  an  extraordinary  one  belonging 
to  Colonel  Kelly,  died  at  the  age  of  30,  at  his 
house  in  Piccadilly,  October  9th,  1802.  This 
bird  appeared  to  possess  in  some  degree  the 
faculty  of  reason,  for  when  it  made  a  mistake 
in  either  words  or  tune  of  the  numberless  songs 
it  was  master  of,  it  would  correct  itself  and 
begin  the  song  again. 

PATENT  granted  for  titles,  first  used  1344  ; 
first  granted  for  the  exclusive  privilege  of  pub- 
lishing books,  159J. 

PEARL  ASHES  manufactory  first  set  up  in 
Ireland,  17S3. 

PEARLS,  artificial,  were  invented,  1686. 

PEDESTRIANS— Powell,  a  lawyer,  walked 
from  London  to  York  and  back  again  in  six 
days,  being  a  distance  of  above  402  miles,  Nov. 
27,  1773  ;  walked  it  again  when  of  the  age  of 
57  years,  June  20th,  1788;  Captain  Barcley 
finished  at  Newmarket,  the  task  of  walking  a 
thousand  miles  in  a  thousand  successive  hours, 
walking  one  mile  in  each  hour,  April  1809 ; 
Thomas  Standen,  near  Silver  Hill  barracks, 
completed  a  similar,  but  more  arduous  task,  by 
walking  eleven  hundred  miles  in  as  many  suc- 
cessive hours,  July  14,1811;  Aiken.  Mr.  started 
from  Westminster  to  go  to  a  spot  near  Ashford 
in  Kent,  and  return,  the  distance  being  108 
miles,  which  he  performed  in  nine  minutes 
less  thnn  24  hours,  July  31st,  J813;  Baker,  of 
Rochester,  a  thousand  and  one  miles  and  three 
quarters  in  twenty  days,  November  20,  1815; 
Eaton  completed  "the  task  of  walking  eleven 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


PLA 


686 


POM 


hundred  miles  in  eleven  hundred  successive 
hours,  walking  a  mile  in  eacli  hour,  upon  Black- 
heath,  December  27,  1815. 

PENDULUMS  for  clocks  invented,  1C5G. 
PENN\FOST  set  up  in  London  and  sub- 
uibs,  by  one  Murray,  an  upholsterer,  1081,  who 
afterwards  assigned  the  same  to  one  Dockwra; 
afterwards  claimed  by  the  government,  who 
allowed  the  latter  a  pension  of  £200  a  year,  in 
1711 ;  first  set  up  in  Dublin,  1774;  it  was  im- 
proved considerably  in  and  round  London,  July, 
1794  ;  made  a  two-penny  post  in  1801. 

PENS  for  writing  were  fust  made  from  quills 
in  635. 

PERGAMOS  (now  Bergamo)  a  city  of  My- 
sia,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  referred  to  in  Rev.  li. 
12,  is  situated  on  a  river,  which  was  formerly 
caJled  Caycus,  now  Gremakli,  with  a  harbor, 
about  fifteen  miles  from  the  sea.  Pergamos 
was  anciently  a  kingdom,  which  began  in  the 
year  470  from  the  building  of  Rome,  and  con- 
tinued 133  years,  when  the  last  king,  Attalus 
III,  dying  without  children,  made  the  Roman 
people  lus  heir.  In  this  city  was  a  celebrated 
library,  by  Plutarch,  said  to  contain  200,000 
volumes.  It  was  transported  to  Alexandria  by 
Anthony  and  Cleopatra.  In  1820,  the  popula- 
tion of  Bergamo  was  estimated  at  15,000.  The 
streets  are  wider  and  cleaner  than  in  most  other 
cities  of  Natolia. 

PERSIA,  king  of,  Feeth  Ali  Schah,  died 
ia34 ;  succeeded^by  Abbas  Mirza. 

PETER,  St.,  wrote  his  first  epistle,  GO;  his 
second  epistle,  66. 

PHYSIC,  the  practice  of,  was  confined  to  ec- 
clesiastics, from  about  1206  to  about  l.r>()0. 

PIAZZA  PLANET,  discovered  1801. 
•ISTOLS  first  used  by  the  cavalry,  1544. 

PITCH  and  tar  made  from  pit-coal,  discov- 
ered at  Bristol,  1779. 

PLAGUE— the  whole  world  visited  by  one, 
767  B.  C. ;  in  Rome,  when  10,000  persons  died 
in  a  day,  78;  in  Chichestor,  when  34,000  died, 
1772;  in  Scotland,  which  swept  away  40,000 
inhabitant*,  954 ;  in  Unhand,  1025^  1247,-and 
1347,  when  50,000  died  in  London,  1500  in  Lei- 
cester, &<-..  •  in  Germany,  which  cut  off  00,000 
|)«-o|,],-.  13H;  in  Paris  and  London  very  dread- 
ful. J:iii7;  again  ]::?!>;  in  London,  which  killed 
:i;),(MH)  persons,  1407;  again,  when  more  \yere 
destroyed  than  in  fifteen  yi-.-irs  v.ar  I  .e  fore,  1477; 
neain,  when  30,000  dird  In  London,  J 499;  again 
1548;  again,  15! M  ;  which  carried  off*  in  London 
a  fourth  part  of  its  inhabitants,  l(i('4  ;  it  Con 
stan tinople,  when  2i!0,00()  persons  died.  Kill 
at  London,  when  35,417  died,  1025,  and  Ki.U 


at  Lyons,  in  France,  died  60,000,  1G32;  again 
at  London,  which  destroyed  68,000  persons,  in 
1005;  at  Messina,  February,  1743;  at  Algiers, 
1755  ;  in  Persia,  when  80.000  persons  perished 
at  Bassorah,  1773;  at  Smyrna,  that  carried  off 
about  20,000  inhabitants,  1784  ;  and  at  Tunis, 
32,000,  1784  ;  in  the  Levant,  1786  ;  at  Alexan- 
dria, Smyrna,  &c.  1791  ;  in  Egypt,  in  171J2, 
where  nearly  800.000  died;  the  yellow  fever 
destroyed  2,000  at  Philadelphia,  in  17!)3;  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  particularly  at  Barbary, 
3,000  died  daily  ;  at  Fez,  247,000  died  in  June, 
1799;  1,800  died  at  Morocco,  in  1800,  in  one 
day  ;  in  Spain  and  at  Gibraltar,  where  great 
numbers  died  in  1804  and  1805;  at  Malta, 
where  it  committed  great  ravages,  1813;  in 
lesser  Asia,  Syria,  and  the  adjacent  islands,  by 
which  Smyrna  is  computed  to  have  lost  30,000 
persons,  1814  ;  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  where 
it  committed  considerable  ravao-es,  1810.  (See 
Cholera.) 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS,  the  way  first  found 
out  for  taking  a  likeness  in,  1470. 

PLATE  GLASS  MANUFACTORY  estab- 
lished at  Lancashire,  in  1773;  first  in  France, 

less. 

PLAYS  first  performed  in  England,  1378; 
that  by  the  parish  clerks,  in  1390.  Suppressed 
by  parliament,  in  1047;  restored  1659. 

POET  LAUREAT,  the  first  was  Bernard 
Andrews,  148G;  John  Kay,  1490;  Rev.  John 
Skelton,  died  June  21st,  1529;  Edmund  Spen- 
cer died,  1598;  Samuel  Daniel,  died  1019; 
Ben  Johnson,  1619,  died  August  6th,  1037  ;  sir 
Willian  Davenant,  died  April  7th,  1008  ;  John 
Dryden,  esq.  106S,  dismissed  as  a  papist.  1688; 
Thomas  Shadwelt,  died  December  1692;  Na- 
hum  Tate  died  August  12th,  1715;  Nicholas 
Howe,  died  December  6,  1718;  Rev.  Laurence 
Eusden,  died  December  27th,  1757;  William 
Whitehead,  died  April  14th,  1785;  Reverend 
Thomas  Wharton,  K.  D.  died  May  21st,  1790; 
Henry  James  Pye,  Esq.  his  successor. 

POLICY  of  insurance  in  writing  first  used  at 
Florence.  1509. 

POLIGAMY  forbid  by  the  Romans  in  393. 

POMPKII.  ruins  of. — By  recent  accounts 
from  Naples  it  appears  that  the  excavations  are 
still  carried  on  at  Pompeii  with  activity.  Dur- 
ing Ilie  last,  month,  (November.  1«M)  the  whole 
nfthe  street  leading  from  the 'Temple  of  For- 
tune to  the  gate  of  Isis,  and  which  crosses  the 
centre  of  the  city,  has  been  discovered.  Great 
progress  has  also  been  made  in  the  traverse 
streets,  onepf  which  leads  to  the  theatre,  and 
the  other  to  the  temple  of  Augustin.  At  the 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


POP 


687 


PYR 


extremity  of  the  first,  an  altar  has  been  found, 
richly  decorated  with  the  protecting  genius, 
represented  in  the  form  of  a  serpent.  Two 
houses  in  the  street  of  Fortune  have,  at  length, 
been  entirely  excavated,  and  a  great  many  very 
curious  articles  in  bronze,  iron,  and  ivory  have 
been  discovered. 

POPE,  the  title  of,  formerly  given  to  all  bish- 
ops. The  emperor,  in  GOG,  confined  it  to  the 
bishops  of  Rome  ;  Hygenus  was  the  first  bishop 
of  Rome  that  took  the  title,  154  ;  the  pope's 
supremacy  over  the  Christian  church  established 
bv  Boniface  111,  G07 ;  custom  of  kissing  the 
pope's  toe  began  708;  pope  Stephen  111,  was 
the  first  who  was  carried  to  the  Lateran  on 
men's  shoulders,  752 ;  the  pope's  temporal  gran- 
deur commenced,  755;  Sergius  II,  was  the 
first  pope  that  changed  his  name  on  his  elec- 
tion, 844  ;  John  XIX,  a  layman,  made  pope  by 
dint  of  money.  10524  ;  the  first  pope  that  kept  an 
urmy  was  Leo  IX,  1054.  Their  assumed  au- 
thority carried  to  such  excesses  as  to  excom- 
municate and  depose  sovereigns,  and  to  claim 
the  presentation  of  all  church  benefices,  by 
Gregory  VII.  and  his  successors,  from  1073  to 
15ixf;  pope  Gregory  obliged  Henry  IV,  empe- 
ror of  Germany,  to  stand  three  days  in  the 
depth  of  winter,  barefooted  at  his  castle-gate,  to 
implore  his  pardon,  1077;  pope  Celestine  III> 
kicked  the  emperor  Henry  I  V's  crown  off  his 
head,  while  kneeling,  to  show  his  prerogative 
of  making  and  unmaking  kings,  1191  ;  the 
pope's  authority  first  introduced  into  England, 
107:);  the  pope  demanded  an  annual  sum  for 
every  cathedral  and  monastery  in  Christendom, 
but  refused,  1226  ;  collected  the  tenths  of  the 
whole  kingdom  of  England,  1226  ;  residence  of 
tnc  pope  removed  to  Avignon,  whpre  *t  con- 
tinued 7!)  years.  1308;  their  demand  on  Eng- 
land refused -by  parliament,  13*53;  three  at  one 
time  in  1414;  Leo  X  made  a  cardinal  at  four- 
teen ye:irs  old  ;  elected  pope,  March  11,  1513, 
aged  3<>;  died  1521 ;  Clement  VII  began  to 
reign,  who  brought  pluralities  to  their  consum- 
mation, making  his  nephew.  Hippolito,  Cardi- 
nal de  Medicis,  commendatory  universal, grant- 
ing to  him  all  the  vacant  benefices  in  the  world, 
for  six  months,  and  appointing  him  usu-fructu- 
ary  from  the  first  day  of  his  possession,  1523; 
Rome  sacked  and  Clement  imprisoned.  1527; 
moved  their  residence  to  Avignon.  1531  ;  kiss- 
ing the  pope's  toe,  and  some  other  ridiculous 
ceremonies  abolished,  and  the  order  of  Jesuits 
suppressed  by  the  late  pope  Clement  XIV, 
1773 ;  visited  Vienna  to  solicit  the  emperor  in 
favor  of  the  church,  March  1782;  suppressed 


monasteries,  1782;  destitute  of  all  political  in- 
fluence in  Europe  1787. 

POST  HORSES  and  stages  established  in 
England,  1483 

POST  OFFICES  first  established  in  Paris 
14G2;  in  England,  1581  ;  the  mail  conveyed  in 
stage  coaches  in  England,  began  in  1785. 

POTATOES  first  brought  to  England  from 
America,  by  Hawkins,  in  1563;  introduced  into 
Ireland  by  sir  Walter  Raleigh,  in  1586,  and 
were  not  known  in  Flanders  till  1G50. 

POTTERY,  great  discoveries  made  in  it  by 
Mr.  Wedgewood,  17G3. 

PRESBYTERIAN  MEETING  HOUSE, 
the  first  in  England  at  Wandsworth,  in  Sur- 
rey, Nov.  20, 157-2. 

PRESSING  SEAMEN  commenced  in  1355. 

PRIiNCE  OF  WALES,  the  title  of,  first 
given  to  the  king's  eldest  son,  128G. 

PRINTING  invented  by  J.  Faust,  1441  ;  first 
made  public  by  John  Gottenburgh,  of  Mentz, 
1458;  wooden  types  first  used,  1470;  brought 
into  England  by  William  Caxton,  1471,  who 
had  a  press  in  Westminster  Abbey  till  1494; 
first  patent  granted  for  it,  15'J1  ;  first  introduced 
into  Scotland,  1509  ;  first  used  at  Lyons,  1488 ; 
first  set,  up  at  Constantinople,  in  17c!4  ;  printing 
in  colors  invented,  1G2G. 

PROMETHEUS  struck  fire  from  flints  about 
1715;  he  being  the  first  person  is  said  to  have 
stolen  it  from  heaven. 

PUMPS  in  vented  1425. 

PYRAMIDS,  colossal  structures  of  the  an- 
cient Egyptians.  The  cause  of  their  erection 
is  unknown.  Some  maintain  that  they  werr 
consecrated  to  the  sun  ;  others,  that  they  servod 
as  a  kind  of  gnomon  for  astronomical  observa- 
tion? ,  according  to  Diderot,  for  the  presf>rva- 
tion  and  transmission  of  historical  information  ; 
according  to  others,  and  this  was  the  prevailing 
opinion  among  the  ancients,  that  they  were 
designed  as  sepulchres,  or  chambers  for  mum- 
mies. Among  the  most  renowned  are  those  of 
Cheops  and  Cephrenes  ;  in  building  the  former, 
100,000  men  were  employed  20  years.  There 
have  been  various  statements  regarding  the 
size  of  these  immense  structures.  Herodotus 
gives  800  feet  as  the  height  of  the  largest  one, 
and  says  that  this  also  is  the  length  of  its  base 
on  each  side.  Strabo  makes  it  625,  Diodorus 
000  feet.  The  French  ascertained  it  to  be  480 
feet  wide.  The  largest  was  built  by  Cheops, 
and  is  supposed  to  contain  the  bones  of  that 
king. 

The  Egyptian  Pyramids  are  quadrangular 
and  hollo'vv,  having  a  broad  base,  contracting 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


RED 


688 


REL 


gradually  towards  the  top,  sometimes  terminat- 
ing in  a  point,  sometimes  in  a  plain  surface. 
They  are  built  of  large  though  not  very  hard 
limestone.  There  are  about  40  of  them  all ; 
these  are  included  within  the  space  of  a  few 
miles  in  the  vicinity  of  Memphis.  The  group 
near  Gises,  are  the  most  remarkable.  That  of 
Cheops,  before  mentioned,  is  one  of  them,  and 
is  the  largest. 


QUADRANT,  solar,  introduced  290  B.  C. 
QUICKSILVER,  use  of,  discovered  in  refin- 
ing silver  ore,  1540. 

Q.UILLS  were  first  used  for  pens  in  635. 

R. 

RAILROADS,  first  used  near  Newcastle 
npon  Tyne,  about  1650. 

RAIN,  violent  in  Scotland,  for  five  months, 
553  ;  a  continual  rain  in  Scotland,  for  5  months, 
J)18;  so  violent  in  England  the  harvest  did  not 
begin  till  Michaelmas,  1330;  so  heavy  that  the 
corn  was  spoiled,  1335;  from  the  beginning  of 
October  to  December,  1338;  from  midsummer 
to  Christmas,  so  that  there  was  not  one  day  or 
night  dry  together,  1348;  in  Wales,  which  de- 
stroyed 10.000  sheep,  September  19,  1752;  in 
Lnnguedoc,  which  destroyed  the  village  of  Bar 
le  Due,  April  20, 1770;  in  the  island  of  Cuba, 
on  the  21st  of  June,  1791,  when  3,000  persons 
and  11,700  cattle  of  various  kinds  perished,  by 
the  torrents  occasioned  by  the  rain.  Quantitv 
of  rain  which  fell  at  Philadelphia  in  1827  an'd 
1^28,  S3  indicated  by  the  rain  ^uac-e,  was,  in 
H27.  :Kf>i)  inches  ;  in  1628,  37.3!)  inches. 

REBELLIONS  remarkable  in  British  his- 
tory :  against  William  I,  in  favor  of  Edward 
AtheUng,  by  the  Scots  and  Danes,  A.  D.  1069  ; 
against  William  II  in  favor  of  his  brother  Robert, 
1083;  <.f  tin-  Welsh,  who  defeated  the  Normans 
and  EngKtth,  1095;  in  England,  in  favor  of  the 
empms  Maude,  1139;  prince  Richard  against 
his  father  Henry  II,  118'J;  of  the  barons^April 
1215;  compromised  by  the  grant,  of  magna 
chartn,Juno  15,  following;  of  the  lords  spiritual 
ami  temporal  tigainst  Edward  II,  on  account  of 
his  favorites  the  Gavestons,  1312;  and  again  on 
account  of  the  Spensers,  1321  ;  of  Walter,  the 
tiler,  of  Deptford,  vulgarly  called  Wat  Tiler, 
occasioned  by  the  brutal  rudeness  of  a  tax- 
gatherer,  to  ]>in  daughter  —  having  killed  the 
collector  in  his  rage,Tie  raised  a  party  to  oppose 
the  tax  itself,  which  was  a  grievous  poll-tax, 


1381 ;  of  Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  caused 
Richard  IT  to  be  deposed,  139!) ;' in  Ireland, 
when  Roger,  earl  of  March,  the  viceroy  and 
presumptive  heir  to  the  crown,  was  slain,  1399; 
against  Henry  IV,  by  confederated  lords,  1403; 
under  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  who  was 
defeated  at  Bramham  More,  and  slain,  1458 ;  of 
Jack  Cade,  in  favor  of  the  duke  of  York,  1450; 
in  favor  of  the  house  of  York,  1452,  which 
ended  in  the  imprisonment  of  Henry  VI,  and 
seating  Edward  IV,  of  York,  on  the  throne, 
1466;  under  Warwick  and  Clarence,  1470, 
which  ended  with  the  exptrfsion  of  Edward  IV, 
and  the  restoration  of  Henry  VI  the  same  year ; 
under  Edward  IV,  1471,  which  ended  with  the 
death  of  Henry  VI ;  of  the  earl  of  Richmond, 
against  Richard  III,  1485,  which  ended  with 
the  death  of  Richard  ;  under  Lambert  Simnel, 
who  pretended  to  be  Richard  Ill's  nephew, 
I486,  which  ended  the  same  year,  in  discover- 
ing that  Simnel  was  a  baker's  son  :  he  was  par- 
doned ;  under  Perkin  Warbeck,  14i'2.  which 
ended  in  the  execution  of  Warbeck,  1499 ;  under 
Flamoc,  1497,  owing  to  taxes,  which  ended 
with  the  ba,ttl«»  of  Blackheath;  of  the  English, 
on  account  of  destroying  the  monasteries,  J53G, 
ended  the  same  year;  in  favor  of  lady  Jane 
Grey,  against  queen  Mary.  1553,  which  ended 
in  the  death  of  lady  Jane  ;  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics against  queen  Elizabeth.  1559;  under  the 
earl  of  Essex,  against  Elizabeth,  1600.  which 
ended  in  his  death,  1(501;  against  Charles  I, 
1639.  which  ended,  with  his  death,  1659;  of 
the  Scotch.  16(i6:  under  the  duke  of  Mon 
month,  1685,  which  ended  in  his  death;  of  the 
Scotch,  under  the  old  pretender,  1715  ;  of  the 
Scotch,  under  the  young  pretender.  1745. 

REFLECTING  TELESCOPES  invented, 
1657. 

RELIGIOUS  ORDERS,  SECTS,  &c.  Albi- 
genses  had  their  origin  1160  ;  Anabaptists  began 
1525,  arrived  in  England  1549;  Anchorites^be- 
gan  1255;  Angelites  494;  Antinomian  sect  began 
1538;  Antonines  began  329;  Arian  sect  began 
290;  Armenian  began  1229  ;  Augustines  began 
389,  first  appeared  in  England  1350  ;  Bartholo- 
mites  sect  founded  at  Genoa  1307 ;  Begging  fri- 
ars established  in  France  1587 ;  Beguines  began 
1208;  Benedictines  founded  548;  Bethleht-m- 
ites  began  1248  ;  Bohemian  brethren,  the  sect 
of,  began  in  Bohemia,  1467 ;  Brigantines  began 
1370;  Brownists  s.>ct  began  1660;  Calvinists 
sect  began  1546;  Canons,  regular,  began  400: 
Capuchins  began  1525 :  Cardinals  began  853, 
red  hats  given  them  1242,  the  purple  1464,  the 
title  of  eminence  1644  ;  Carmelites  began  1141 ; 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


REV 


689 


RIO 


Carthusians  began  1084  ;  St.  Catharine's  began 
1373  ;  Celestines  began  1272  ;  Chaplines  began 
12-13;  Dominicans  began  1215;  Flagellantes, 
the  sect  of,  arose  1259;  Franciscans  began 
1206;  settled  in  England,  1217;  Gray  friars 
began  1122  ;  Hermits  began  1257,  revived 
1425;  Holy  Trinity  began  1211;  Jacobites  be- 
gan lli)3  ;" Jesuits'  society  began  1536;  expel- 
led England  1604 ;  Venice,  1606;  Portugal, 
September.  1759 ;  France,  May  5, 1602 ;  Spain, 
1767;  Naples,  1768;  Rome  and  Prussia,  1773; 
order  abolished,  August  17.  1773 ;  in  Prussia 
and  other  states,  177l>;  revived  in  Russia,  1784  ; 
restored  in  Rome  and  other  states,  1814  ;  all 
monks  of  the  order  of,  banished  from  St.  Peters- 
burg, January  2,  1816  ;  Jesus,  the  sisters  of,  so- 
ciety began  162o ;  Lutheran  sect  began  1517; 
Mahometan  sect  began  622 ;  Manichees'  sect 
began  343;  Methodism  commenced  1734;  Mi- 
nors began  1009;  Monks  first  associated  323; 
Moravians,  or  Unitas  Fratruni,  appeared  in  Bo- 
hemia 1457;  in  England  1737;  Predestinarian 
sect  began  371  ;  Protestants  began  1529  ;  Puri- 
tans began  1545  ;  Quakers'  sect  began  1650 ; 
Quietists  began  1685;  Swedenborgians'  sect 
began  1780;  Trappists  order  of  monks  solemnly 
installed  at  Port  Ringeard,  department  of  May  - 
enne,  January  21,  1815;  Trinitarians,  order  of, 
instituted  1198;  Unitarians  began  1553;  Ursu- 
lines  established  1198. 

REPRISALS  AT  SEA  were  first  granted, 
1295. 

REVOLUTIONS  remarkable  in  ancient  his- 
tory. The  Assyrian  empire  destroyed,  and  that 
of  the  Medes  and  Persians  founded  by  Cyrus 
tne  Great,  546  B.  C.;  the  Macedonian  empire 
1  bunded  on  the  destruction  of  the  Persian,  on 
the  defeat  of  Darius  Codomanus,  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  331  B.  C.;  the  Roman  empire  estab- 
lished on  the  ruins  of  the  Macedonian,  or  Greek 
monarchy,  by  Julius  Caesar,  47  B.  C.;  the  east- 
ern empire  founded  by  Constantine  the  Great, 
on  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Romans,  A..  D. 
306;  the  empire  of  the  Western  Franks  began 
under  Charlemagne,  A.  D.  302;  this  empire 
underwent  a  new  revolution,  and  became  the 
German  empire,  under  Rodolph  of  Augsburg, 
the  head  of  the  house  of  Austria,  A.  D.  1273, 
from  whom  it  is  also  called  the  monarchy  of  the 
Austrians ;  the  eastern  empire  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  A.  D.  1300. 

Revolution  in  England,  in  16GS;  Poland,  in 
1704,  1709  and  1795;  Turkey,  in  1730  and 
1803;  Persia,  in  1748  and  1753:  Russia,  1682, 
1740  and  1762;  Sweden,  in  1772  and  1809; 
America,  in  1775;  France,  in  1789;  Holland, 


1795;  Venice,  May  17,  1797;  Rome ,  February 
26,  1797;  South  America,  April  19,  ItilO. 

RICE  was  cultivated  in  Ireland  in  1585;  in 
England  1600  ;  had  its  first  cultivation  in  South 
Carolina,  by  chance,  1702. 

RIOTS  in  British  History.— Some  rioters, 
citizens  of  London,  demolished  the  convent  be- 
longing to  Westminster  Abbey ;  the  ringleaders 
were  handed,  and  the  rest  had  their  hands  and 
feet  cut  off,  6  Henry  III,  A.  D.  1221.— The 
goldsmiths'  and  tailors'  company  fought  in  the 
streets  of  London ;  several  were  killed  on  each 
side  :  the  sheriffs  quelled  it,  and  thirteen  were 
hanged,  1262.  A  riot  at  Norwich ;  the  rioters 
burnt  the  cathedral  and  monastery ;  the  king 
went  thither,  and  saw  the  ringleaders  executed, 
1271.  A  riot  in  London  in  June,  1628,  and  Dr. 
Lamb  killed  by  the  mob.  Another,  under  pre- 
tence of  pulling  down  bawdy  houses  ;  four  of 
the  ringleaders  hanged,  1688.  Another  at 
Guildhall,  at  the  election  of  sheriffs,  1682 ;  sev- 
eral  considerable  persons  were  concerned ;  they 
seized  the  lord  mayor;  but  the  city-lieutenancy 
raised  the  militia  and  released  him ;  at  Edin- 
burgh and  Dumfries,  on  account  of  the  union, 
1707 ;  in  London  on  account  of  Dr.  Sacheverel's 
trial ;  several  dissenting  meeting  houses  broke 
open,  the  pulpit  of  one  pulled  down,  and  with 
the  pews  burnt  in  Lincoln's-inn  fields,  1709; 
riots  of  the  Whig  and  Tory  mobs,  called  Or- 
mond  and  Newcastle  mobs,  2  George  1, 1715  ; 
the  riot  act  passed  the  same  year,  great  mischief 
having  been  done  by  both  parties  in  London  ; 
the  Mug-house  riot  in  Salisbury  court,  between 
the  Whigs  and  Tories,  one  person  shot  dead  by 
the  master  of  the  house  ;  quelled  by  the  guards, 
1716.  Rioters  in  Herefordshire  demolished  the 
turnpike  :  quelled  after  a  smart  engagement 
with  the  posse  comitatus.  1735.  Of  the  Spital- 
fields  weavers,  on  account  of  employing  work- 
men come  over  from  Ireland,  1736.  Between 
Irish,  Welsh  and  English  haymakers.  1736.  At 
Edinburgh  the  mob  rose,  set  fire  to  the  prison 
door,  took  out  captain  Porte  us  (who  had  been 
pardoned  for  letting  his  soldiers  fire  and  kill  one 
of  the  mob  at  a  former  riot)  and  hanged  him 
upon  a  sign-post,  and  then  dispersed,  1736.  Of 
the  nailers  in  Worcestershire  ;  they  marched  to 
Birmingham,  and  obliged  all  the  ironmongers 
to  sign  a  paper  allowing  them  an  advanced  price 
on  nails,  1737.  Of  the  Spitalfields  weavers, 
1765.  Of  the  people  in  all  parts  of  England,  on 
account  of  the  dearness  of  provisions,  1766  and 
1767.  A  mob  in  St.  George's  fields,  to  see  Mr. 
Wilkes  in  the  King's  Bench  Prison,  1768. 
Damage  of  £20,000  done  to  the  public  prisons 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


RIO 


690 


ROS 


and  private  buildings  in  London,  June  6,  1780, 
for  which  many  were  hanged.  At  Glasgow, 
umonir  the  cotton  manufacturers,  when  several 
were  Ttilled  by  the  soldiers,  September  4,  1787. 
A  riot -at  Maidstone,  at  the  trial  of  A.  O'Connor 
nnd  others,  May  32,  1793,  at  which  the  earl  of 
Thanet,  Mr.  Ferguson  and  others,  were  active 
in  endeavoring  to  rescue  O'Connor,  and  for 
which  they  were  tried  and  convicted.  April  25, 
1799.  In  different  parts  of  England,  owing  to 
the  high  price  of  bread,  September,  1800.  Of 
weavers,  near  Manchester,  May  24,  1808.  At 
Liverpool,  occasioned  by  a  party  of  the  19th 
regiment  of  light  dragoons  having  quarrelled 
with  a  press-gang,  June  27,  1809.  O.  P.  riot 
at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  September,  1809, 
fir  old  prices  ;  terminated  January  4.  1810.  Jn 
Piccadilly,  in  consequence  of  the  warrant  of 
the  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons  to  commit 
sir  Francis  Burdett  to  the  Tower,  April  (i-9, 
1810.  At  the  Liverpool  theatre,  in  imitation  of 
the  O.  P.  at  Covent  Garden,  July,  1810.  At 
Bridport,  on  account  of  the  price  of  bread,  which 
was  quelled  by  the  exertions  of  the  principal  in- 
habitants, May  G,  1816.  At  Biddeford,  to  pre- 
vent the  exportation  of  a  cargo  of  potatoes,  May 
20, 1816.  At  Bury,  to  destroy  a  machine  called 
a  spinning  jenny,  in  which  the  rioters  were  de- 
feated by  the  magistrates  and  principal  inhabi- 
tants, May  22,  1810.  At  Littleton  and  Ely,  by 
a  body  of  insurgent  fenmen,on  the  same  day — 
quelled  by  the  military,  after  bloodshed,  May 
24.  At  Halstead,  Essex,  to  liberate  four  per- 
sons who  had  been  taken  up  for  destroying  ma- 
chinery, May  23,  181G.  At  Preston,  on  account 
uf  a  diminution  of  wages,  August  17,  1810. 
Among  the  convicts  in  Newgale,  which  WPS 
quelled  by  threats  of  withholding  from  them 
their  allowance  of  food,  August  2(5.  181(5.  At 
Nottingham,  by  the  Luddites,  who  destroyed 
more  than  thirty  frames,  October  12,  181(5.  At 
Merthys-Tydvil,  in  Glamorganshire,  by  the 
workmen  in  the  iron  works,  on  account  of  a 
reduction  of  wages,  October  18.  181G.  By  the 
colliers,  at  Calder  iron  works,  near  Glasgow, 
on  account  of  a  suspension  of  wages,  in  conse- 
quence of  arrests  for  debt,  which  continued  for 
several  days,  October  19.  181(5.  In  the  town  of 
Birmingham,  October  28, 181G.  In  London,  in 
consequence  of  a  popular  meeting  in  Sp:i  fields. 
for  the  purpose  of  presenting  a  petition  to  the 
prince  regent,  from  the  distressed  manufactur- 
ers nnd  mechanics;  the  shops  of  several  gun- 
smiths were  attacked  for  arms,  and  in  that  of 
Mr.  Beck  with  on  Snowhill,  a  Mr.  Platt,  who 
happened  to  be  in  the  shop,  was  shot  in  Uie 


body  by  one  of  the  rioters,  December  2/1816. 
Several  of  the  rioters  were  apprehended,  and 
one  of  the  name  of  Watson  wa^  tried  for  high 
treason  and  acquitted,  June  1C,  1817.  At  Dun.- 
dee,  on  account  of  the  sudden  rise  in  the  price 
of  meal ;  upwards  of  one  hundred  shops  of  va- 
rious descriptions  were  plundered,  and  the 
house  of  Mr.  Lindsey,  an  extensive  corn  dealer, 
set  on  fire,  December  7,  181G.  At  Preston,  by 
the  unemployed  and  distressed  workmen,  Sep- 
tember, 181(5.  At  Almwick  in  Wales,  to  pre- 
vent a  vessel  laden  w*th  flour  from  leavinc  the 
wharf,  March,  1817. 

ROADS  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  were 
begun  by  Gen.  Wade,  in  1726,  and  finished 
in  1737;  in  England  first  repaired  by  act  of 
parliament.  1524. 

ROSARY,  or  beads,  first  used  in  Romish 
prayers,  1093. 

ROSBACH,in  the  upper  circle  of  Saxony, 
totally  disappeared,  in  October,  1792,  supposed 
by  an  earthquake. 

ROSS'S  EXPEDITION.— The  following 
account  of  this  expedition  is  condensed  from  an 
excellent  article  upon  the  subject,  which  ap- 
peared in  the  People's  Magazine  in  1834. 

The  news  of  the  safe  return  of  Captain  Ross 
has  been  received  both  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  with  unfeigned  sensations  of  joy. 
The  hardy  navigator  with  his  nephew.  Com- 
mander Ross,  and  the  whole  of  his  party  except 
three,  two  of  whom  died  on  the  pa^ao!'  oul. 
and  one  at  a  later  period,  arrived  at  Hull  on 
Friday  morning,  the  18th  of  October,  I-"-. 

It  was  in  lfciJ9  that  Captain  Ross  fitted  oul 
his  expedition  to  determine  the  practicability  >->»' 
a  new  passage,  which  hiid  been  confidently 
etited  to  exist,  particularly  r-v  Prince  Regent's 
Inlet,  but  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  the  fore- 
mast of  his  vessel,  the  Victory,  he  was  obliged 
to  relit  nt  Wideford,  in  Greenland.  The  ac- 
counts  of  his  departure  from  thence  on  the  27th 
July,  1829,  formed  the  last  authentic  intelli- 
gence received  of  the  expedition  By  the  sub- 
sequent details  it  will  be  perceived  that  he  was 
picked  up  by  the  Isabelle  of  Hull,— the  very 
ship— by  a  singular  coincidence,  in  which  he 
made  his  first  voyage  to  the  Arctic  regions. 

By  Captain  Ross's  ssccount  it  appears,  that 
the' first  season  (that  of  1^2!>.)  was  the  mildest 
that  had  ever  been  recorded,  and  the  £••:•  w.-is 
more  clear  of  ice  than  had  been  experienced 
during  any  preceding  voyages.  On  the  Kith 
of  August",  Captain  Ross  readied  the  spot  where 
the  stores  of  his  majesty's  late  ship,  the  Fury, 
were  landed. 


* 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SAP 


691 


scu 


On  the  1st  of  September,  1832,  he  visited 
Leopold  South  Island,  now  established  to  be 
the  north-east  point  of  America,  in  latitude  73, 
56,  and  longitude  90  west.  From  the  summit 
of  the  lofty  mountain  on  the  promontory  he 
could  see  Prince  Regent's  Inlet,  Barrow's 
Strait,  and  Lancaster  Sound,  which  presented 
one  impenetrable  mass  of  ice,  just  as  it  had  ap- 
peared in  1818. 

The  circumstance  that  Captain  Ross  was  res- 
cued by  the  ship  he  commanded  in  1818,  is  a 
curious  and  happy  conclusion  of  the  voyage, 
the  result  of  which  has  established  that  there  is 
no  new  north-west  passage  south  of  seventy- 
four  degrees. 

The  true  position  of  the  magnetic  pole  has 
been  discovered,  and  much  valuable  informa- 
tion obtained  for  the  improvement  of  geograph- 
ical and  philosophical  knowledge.  Captain 
Ross  had  a  good  opportunity  of  verifying  his 
former  survey  of  the  coast  of  Baffin's  Bay, 
which  every  master  of  a  Greenland  ship  can 
testify  to  be  most  correct. 

On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  this  expedi- 
tion has  done  more  than  any  that  preceded  it ; 
and  let  it  be  remembered  that  Captain  Ross  and 
his  nephew  were  volunteers,  serving  without 
nay,  for  the  attainment  of  a  great  national  ob- 
ject, in  prosecuting  which  they  have  lost  their 
all. 

RUM  imported  into  England  in  1789,  was 
3,300,000  gallons  ;  in  1796  there  were  import- 
ed 4,196,198  gallons. 


SAILCLOTH  first  made  in  England,  1590; 
cotton  sailcloth  made  at  Baltimore  and  at  Pat- 
terson, N.  J.  and  brought  into  use  in  the  United 
States,  1824. 

SAINT  HELENA  first  possessed  by  the 
English.  1600. 

SAINT  LAWRENCE  river  discovered  and 
explored  by  the  French.  1~>0-;. 

SALT  MINES  in  Staffordshire  discovered, 
1670;  rock  salt  was  discovered  about  950;  in 
Poland,  in  1289. 

SALTPETRE  first  made  in  England,  1625. 

SANCTUARIES,  or  cities  of  refuge,  were 
instituted  bv  the  Jews  immediately  alter  their 
establishment  in  Palestine  about  14t)l)  B.  C. ; 
such  use,  or  rather  abuse,  was  made  of  the 
heathen  temples,  particularly  those  of  Hercules; 
Christian  churches  commenced  to  be  used  as 
such,  A.  D.  (J17;  abolished  in  England.  1534. 

SAPPHO,  a   Greek  poetess,  who  after  the 


death  of  her  husband,  is  said  to  have  become 
enamoured  of  Phaon,  and,  in  consequence  of  hw 
neglect,  to  have  thrown  herself  into  the  sea. 

SATELLITE,  moon  or  secondary  planets ; 
of  which  there  is  known  to  exist,  attending  the 
Earth  one,  Jupiter  four^  Saturn  nine,  if  his  two 
rings  are  included,  and  the  Herschel  six,  mak- 
ing twenty  in  all — eighteen  globular,  and  the 
two  rings  of  Saturn  circular.  Of  these  bodies, 
except  the  moon  of  the  earth,  the  attendants  of 
Jupiter  were  first  discovered.  Simon  Marius, 
astronomer  to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  in 
November,  1609,  observed  three  little  stars 
moving  round  the  body  of  Jupiter,  and  in  1610 
discovered  a  fourth  ;  similar  observations  were 
made  at  the  same  time  in  Italy  by  Galileo. 

Satellite  of  Saturn,  the  fourth,  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Huygens,  March  25th,  1655;  four 
more  were  discovered  by  Cassini,  between  1671- 
84;  and  Dr.  Herschel,  1787-89,  discovered  two 
more,  and  completed  the  list  of  the  attendants 
of  Saturn. 

Satellite  of  the  Herschel,  or  Georgian  planets, 
six  in  number,  were  all  discovered  by  Dr.  Her- 
schel, from  January  1 1th,  1787,  to  March  26th, 
1794.  The  existence  of  these  satellites  of  the 
Georgian  planet,  rests  upon  the  authority  of 
Dr.  Herschel  alone. 

SAXON  GREEN,  in  dying,  invented  1744. 

SCARCITY-ROOT,  a  kind  of  parsnep,  in- 
troduced and  propagated  in  England,  1787. 

SCENES  first  introduced  into  theatres,  1533. 

SCULPTURE.  The  antiquity  of  sculpture 
is  proved  by  referring  to  the  Bible.  In  the 
book  of  Exodus,  we  read  of  Laban's  images,  of 
the  golden  calf  made  by  Aaron,  and  of  the  stat- 
ues of  the  cherubim.  Herodotus  tells  us  that 
the  Egyptians  first  carved  figures  of  animals  in 
stone."  Almost  all  the  sculpture  of  Egypt  was 
employed  for  sacred  purposes ;  it  was  of  stu- 
pendous magnitude.  The  pyramids,  colossal 
statues,  and  sphynx  are  gigantic  works  of  art, 
and  strike  those  who  behold  them  with  aston- 
ishment. The  eras  of  Egyptian  sculpture  ex- 
tend through  the  dominion  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Under  the  latter,  much  improvement 
was  made  in  the  art. 

Hindoo  sculpture  strongly  resembles  that  of 
Egypt,  but  is  generally  very  inferior.  Chinese 
sculpture  also  slightly  resembles  the  Egyptian. 
Dtedalus  may  be  considered  the  first  sculptor  in 
Greece,  as  before  his  time,  the  attempts  at  the 
art  were  rude  and  imperfect,  though  there  were 
schools  established  at  Sicyon,  Egina.  Corinth 
and  Athens.  Daedalus  was  born  1234  B.  C. 
He  formed  something  like  a  school  of  sculpture 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF   HISTORY 


SCU 


692 


SCU 


at  Athens  The- Irst  statues  were  formed  of 
wood,  and  metal  was  also  used  iu  various  parts 
for  sculpture. 

About  G4G  B.  C.  statues  in  marble  were  exe- 
cuted, and  a  school  called  the  Chian  School, 
was  founded  by  Malas.  The  marble  was  pro- 
cured from  the  Ionian  islands,  where  a  school 
was  also  established  called  the  Ionian  School. 
In  517  B.  C.,  great  improvements  were  intro- 
duced in  the  art  of  sculpture  in  marble. 

After  the  battle  of  Marathon,  4LH)  B.C..  sculp- 
ture flourished  and  the  schools  produced  many 
eminent  artists,  among  whom  was  Phidias.  He 
executed  statues  in  bronze,  marble,  and  a  com- 
position mostly  of  ivory.  His  works  were  nu- 
merous and  splendid,  and  he  stands  without  a 
rival  among  the  ancient  masters.  From  this 
period  till  the  fall  of  Greece,  many  eminent 
sculptors  appeared,  but  after  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander, the  arts  began  to  decline,  and  continued 
in  thi"  state  for  nearly  two  hundred  years,  when 
Greece  became  a  Roman  province. 

Italian  sculpture  may  be  divided  into  two 
distinct  classes,  the  Etruscan  and  the  Roman. 
The  sculptors  were  mostly  Greeks,  as  the  Ro- 
mans possessed  only  sufficient  knowledge  to 
value  the  genius  of  others.  After  Constantino, 
the  annals  of  ancient  art  may  be  considered  as 
closed. 

Schools  for  sculpture  were  formed  in  Italy 
in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  and 
before  the  close  of  the  thirteenth,  a  school  was 
founded  by  Nicolas  Pisano,  a  native  of  Pisa. 
Before  the  close  of  the  next  century,  sculpture 
was  successfully  practised  throughout  Italy. 
Donatello,  born  in  1:383,  was  a  very  eminent 
sculptor,  and  executed  many  magnificent  stat- 
ues. His  pupils  were  the  chief  masters  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  In  the  sixteenth  century, 
Michael  Angelo  commenced  his  career.  Many 
eminent  sculptors  were  his  contemporaries, 
among  whom  was  Torrigiani.  After  Bernini 
in  1GIO,  the  art  rapidly  declined  in  Italy,  till  it 
was  again  revived  b'y  Canova.  This  distin- 
guished artist  was  born  in  Possagno,  in  the 
Venetian  territory  in  1757.  His  statues,  mon- 
umental works,  and  tablets  in  relievo,  are  emi- 
nently beautiful  He  died  in  182?,  lamented  by 
all  who  knew  him. 

Thorwaldsen,  the  Dane,  is  the  chief  master 
of  the  modern  school  of  sculpture.  He  was 
born  at  Copenhagen,  in  1772.  His  designs  are 
very  original,  and  his  taste  and  execution  very 
fine. 

The  first  eminent  French  sculptor  appears  to 


have  been  Jean  Goujon.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  John  of  Bologna  established 
a  school  for  sculpture  in  France.  At  the  head 
of  this  school  stood  Girardon  and  Puget.  The 
former  was  an  artist  of  great  merit,  but  the  lat- 
ter was  a  favorite  with  his  countrymen,  who 
compared  him  with  Michael  Angelo.  He  was 
born  at  Marseilles,  in  1G62.  The  succeeding 
artists  imitated  his  style. 

The  French  sculptors  of  the  present  day  are 
more  distinguished  for  science,  than  for  fee-ling 
or  invention.  Their  statues  have  correct  pro- 
portions, but  no  sentiment  nor  expression. 

Berruguete.  a  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo,  found- 
ed the  first  regular  school  in  Spain,  of  which 
Paul  de  Cespides'  was  the  chief  ornament.  He 
was  very  eminent.  In  the  seventeenth  century, 
Hernandez  executed  many  noble  works.  Pujol 
and  Montaguez,  were  also  celebrated  artists.  In 
the  eighteenth  century,  Salvador  and  Philip  di 
Castro  contributed  greatly  to  the  improvement 
of  sculpture  in  Spain. 

Before  the  seventeenth  century,  we  find  little 
said  of  German  sculpture,  and  even  subsequent- 
ly to  that  period,  there  are  not  many  distin- 
guished artists.  The  art  in  Germany  rather 
languishes,  though  there  were  some  artists  of 
great  eminence  at  the  commencement  of  the 
last  century. 

When  the  Romans  conquered  Great  Britain, 
the  natives  learned  the  art  of  sculpture  from 
their  conquerors,  and  for  two  hundred  years 
after,  continued  to  cast  great  works  in  bronze. 
In  1242,  many  statues  of  kings,  queens  and 
saints  were  executed  for  the  adornment  of  a 
cathedral  at  Wells,  but  they  are  ill  designed, 
and  rude. 

Edward  III  encouraged  sculpture  and  archi- 
tecture, and  the  cathedrals  were  filled  with 
splendid  monuments  and  statues.  Westminster 
Abbey  has  many  specimens  of  English  art  at 
this  period. 

The  first  name  of  eminence  in  British  art,  is 
that  of  Gibbons  about  JGT>2.  Charles  I,  em- 
ployed him  in  ornamenting  his  palaces,  and  his 
chapel  at  Windsor.  His  chief  excellence  lay  in 
ornamental  carving,  of  which  there  are  exqui- 
site specimens  at  Chatsworth.  the  seat  of  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire.  Cibber,  born  in  1C30,  at 
Holstein.  rose  to  great  eminence.  Roubilliac, 
though  a  Frenchman,  is  ranked  among  British 
sculptors,  as  .all  his  celebrated  works  weie  exe- 
cuted in  England. 

Thomas  Banks  was  born  in  1735.  He  studi- 
ed the  art  at  Rome,  and  after  practising  there 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


SEA 


G93 


SEA 


seven  years,  he  returned  to  fill  his  own  coun- 
try with  his  noble  works.  Joseph  Nollekins 
flourished  at  the  same  time.  He  was  famous 
for  his  busts,  of  which  he  executed  great  num- 
bers, from  distinguished  persons.  John  Bacon, 
born  in  174D.  was  another  eminent  sculptor; 
his  works  are  very  numerous. 

Mrs.  Darner  born  in  1748  deserves  mention 
among  the  artists  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Flaxman,  born  in  1755,  is  distinguished  as  a 
sculptor  in  modern  days.  He  successfully 
awoke  the  dormant  energies  of  sculpture,  and 
restored  the  simple  and  grand  style  of  antiquity. 
The  school  of  sculpture  now  in  England, 
headed  by  the  celebrated  Chantrey,  is  based 
upon  sound  principles,  and  will  soon  attain  a 
high  degree  of  excellence. 

Greenough,  an  American  artist  now  in  Italy, 
promises  to  add  the  name  of  an  American,  to 
those  of  other  countries,  renowned  in  the  annals 
of  sculpture. 

SEA    FIGHTS    IN    MODERN    TIMES. 

893  Fight  between  England  and  the  D;mes, 

when  Alfred  defeated  12;)  ships  of  Dorsetshire. 

1 38!)  Eighty  French  ships  taken  by  the  English. 

1416  The  Duke  of  Bedford  took  500  French 

and  3  Genoese  vessels. 
1449  The  French  fleet  taken  by  the   Earl  of 

Warwick. 

1571  Oct.  7,  between  the  Christian  powers  and 
the  Turks,  in  which  the  latter  lost  25,000, 
with  4000  prisoners  and  335  vessels. 
1588  Between  the  English  fleet  and  Spanish 

Armada. 
IG53  July  29th,  the  Dutch  lost  30  men-of-war, 

and  Admiral  Tromp  was  killed. 
1GG4  Dec.  4th,  the  Duke  of  York  took  130  of 

the  Bourdeaux  fleet. 

1G92  May  19th.  the  French  fleet  entirely  de- 
feated, and  21  lanre  men  of  war  destroyed. 
1702  Oct.  12,   the    Vigo  fleet    taken    by  the 

Dutch  and  English. 

1704  Aug  24th,  the  French  are  beaten  by  the 
English  and  entirely  relinquish  to  them  the 
dominion  of  the  sea. 

1775  A  British  vessel  captured  by  the  Ameri- 
cans ;  the  first  capture  in  the  war  of  the  rev- 
olution. 
1779  Sept.  23.  Paul  Jones  captured  the  British 

frigate  Serapis. 
1782  April  12,  Admiral   Rodney  defeated  the 

French  going  to  attack  Jamaica. 
1794  June  1 ,  Lord  Howe  totally  defeated  the 

French  fleet. 

1797  Oct.  11,  the  Dutch  fleet  defeated  by  Ad- 
miral Duncan  on  the  coast  of  Holland. 


1798  Aug.  1,  the  famous  battle  of  the   Nile. 

The  French  fleet  of  17  ships  totally  defeated 

by  Nelson. 
1801  April  2,  the  Danish  fleet  of  28  sail  taken 

by  Lord  Nelson  oiF  Copenhagen. 

1804  Stephen  Decatur  succeeded  in  obtaining 
possession  of  the  frigate  Philadelphia  from 
the  harbor  of  Tripoli.     He  then  set  fire  to 
her,  and  20  of  the  enemy  were  destroyed. 
Lieutenant  Decatur  did  not  lose  a  man.  The 
same  year  in  August  and  September,  Com- 
modore Preble  made  several  famous  attacks 
upon  the  town,  fortress  and  naval  forces  of 
Tripoli. 

1805  Oct.  21 ,  French  and  Spanish  fleets  totally 
•  defeated  off  Cape  Trafalgar,  and  Lord  Nelson 

was  killed  in  the  action. 

1308  June  14,  French  squadron  in  the  harbor 
of  Cadiz  surrendered  to  the  Spanish  patriots. 

181 1  May  10,  rencontre   between  the   British 
sloop   of   war   Little    Belt,  and   the    United 
States  frigate  President,  Commodore  Rodgers. 

1812  August  13,  the  British  sloop  of  war  Alert, 
taken  by   the  United   States  frigate    Essex, 
Captain  Porter. 

Aug.  19,  the  British  frigate  Guerriere  taken 
by  the  United  States  frigate  Constitution, 
Captain  Hull. 

Oct.  18,  the  British  brig  Frolic,  by  the 
United  States  sloop  Wasp,  Captain  Jones; 
same  day.  the  Wasp  and  Frolic  were  captured 
by  the  British  74  Poictiers,  Capt.  Beresford. 

Oct.  25,  British  frigate  Macedonian,  cap- 
tured by  the  frigate  United  States,  Commo- 
dore Decatur. 

Dec.  29,  British  frigate  Java,  captured  by 
the  United  States  ship  Constitution,  Captain 
Bainbridge. 

1813  Feb.  25,  Peacock,  British  sloop  of  war, 
captured  by  the  United  States  ship  of  war 
Hornet,  of  inferior  force.     The  Peacock  sunk 
with  a  great  part  of  her  crew. 

June  1,  United  States  frigate  Chesapeake, 
captured  by  the  British  ship  Shannon;  a 
most  distinguished  action  in  the  naval  history 
of  the  United  States,  in  which  the  gallant 
commander,  James  Lawrence,  fell. 

June  3.  United  States  armed  vessels  Growl- 
er and  Eagle,  taken  after  a  smart  action,  by 
the  British  gun-boats. 

Aug.  14.  United  States  sloop  of  war  Argus, 
taken  by  the  sloop  of  war  Pelican. 

Sept.  4,  British  ship  Boxer  taken  by  the 
Enterprize. 

Sept.  13,  Commodore  Oliver  Perry,  in  a 
gallant  action  of  the  United  Stales  squadron 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


SIG 


694 


SOU 


under   his   command,  captured   the   British 
fleet  on  Lake  Erie. 

1614  March  20,  the  United  States  frigate  Essex, 
taken  by  the  British  frigate  Phoebe,  and  sloop 
of  war  Cherub,  after  a  desperate  and  sanguin- 
ary defence. 

April  21,  United  States  ship  Frolic,  taken 
by  a  British  squadron. 

April  21),  British  ship  Epervier,  taken  by 
the  United  States  ship  Wasp. 

Sept.  1,  British  ship  Avon,  taken  by  the 
Wasp. 

1815  Jan.  15,  United  States  frigate  President. 
Decatur  commander,  captured  by  a  British 
squadron,  consisting  of  the  Endymion,  Tene- 
dos  and  Pomone  frigates,  and  the  Majestic 
razee — a  distinguished  and  gallant  action  on 
the  part  of  Decatur,  who,  after  being  captur- 
ed, refused  indignantly  to  deliver  his  sword  to 
any  other  than  the  commander  of  the  squad- 
ron. 

Feb.  20,  the  British  ships  Cyane  and  Le- 
vant, taken  by  the  United  States  frigate 
Constitution. 

March  '23,  the  United  States  ship  Hornet 
captures  the  British  ship  Penguin. 
1627  Famous  battle  of  Navarina ;  the  Turkish 
navy  annihilated,  by  the  combined  English, 
French,  and  Russian  fleets,  under  command 
of  Admiral  Sir  E.  Codrington. 
SEXTANT  invented  by  Tycho  Brahe,  in 
1550. 

SHIP.— The  first  seen  in  Greece  arrived  at 
.Rhodes  from  Egypt,  1-135  B.  C.;  the  first  double 
decked  one  built  in  England  was  of  1000  tons 
burden,  by  order  of  Henry  VI 1,  1509;  it  was 
called  the  Great  Harry,  and  cost  £14,000  ;  be- 
fore this,  twenty-four  gun  ships  were  the  largest 
in  the  nivy,  and  these  had  no  port-holes,  the 
guns  being  on  the  upper  decks  only.  Port-holes 
and  other  improvements  were  invented  by  De- 
charges,  a  French  builder  at  Brest,  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XII,  1500:  there  were  not  above  four 
merchant  ships  of  120  tons  burden,  before  1551 . 
SHIP  BUILDING,  the  art  of,  attributed  to 
the  Egyptians,  as  the  first  inventors,  the  first 
ship  being  brought  from  Egypt  to  Greece  by 
Danaus,  1485  B.  C.  The  first  ship  of  the  bur- 
den of  800  tons  was  built  in  England  in  1597 
SHOEING  OF  HORSES  introduced,  481 
SHOES  of  the  present  fashion  first  worn  in 
England,  1G33;  but  the  buckle  was  not  intro- 

.iurr.l  till   IliTlt. 

SIDE-SADDLES  first  used  in  England,  13SO. 
SIGNALS  at  sea  first  devised  by  James  II, 
1666. 


SIERRA  LEONE  coast  discovered,  14GO, 
nearly  destroyed  by  a  French  frigate  in  1795. 

SILK,  wrought,  brought  from  Persia  to 
Greece,  325  B.C.  From  India,  A.  D.  274; 
known  at  Rome  in  Tiberius's  time,  \vlien  a  law 
passed  forbidding  men  to  debase  themselves  by 
wearing  silk,  fit  only  for  women;  Heliogabulua 
first  woie  a  garment  all  of  silk,  220;  silkworms 
were  brought  to  Europe  300  years  later;  in 
J130,  Greek  manufacturers  of  silk  brought  by 
Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  to  Europe,  settled  at  Pa- 
lermo, where  they  taught  the  Sicilians,  not  only 
to  breed  up  the  silk- worms,  but  to  spin  and  to 
weave  silk  ;  which  art  was  carried  afterwards 
to  Italy  and  to  the  south  of  France ;  Venice  in- 
veigled silk  weavers  from  Greece  and  Palermo, 
in  Sicily,  1207 ;  silk  mantles  worn  by  some  no- 
blemen •  ladies  at  a  ball,  at  Kennelworth  castle, 
in  128(J ;  silk  manufactured  in  England,  1004; 
first  silk  manufacture  in  France,  1521 ;  silk 
worms  and  mulberry  trees  propagated  by  Henry 
IV  through  all  France,  1559;  broad  silk  manu- 
facture from  raw  silk  introduced  into  England, 
1G20  ;  Lombe's  famous  oilk  throwing  machine, 
erected  at  Derby,  in  1719. 

SILVER  first  coined  at  Rome,  2G9  B.  C. 

SILVER  PLATE,  or  vessels,  first  made  use 
of  in  England,  by  Welfred,  a  Northumbrian 
bishop,  709;  silver  knives  and  forks,  spoons 
and  cups.  1300. 

SINGAPORE  is  an  island  with  a  town  of 
the  same  name,  near  the  south  coast  cf  Malacca, 
which  gives  name  to  the  narrow  sea  called  the 
Straits  of  Sincapoura.long.  103,  30  east,  lat.  1, 
12  noith.  This  town  which  a  few  years  since 
had  only  about  200  inhabitants,  was  stated  in 
1820  to  have  about  10,000,  and  to  have  become 
a  place  of  considerable  commerce.  It  belongs 
to  the  English. 

SLAVE  TRADE  from  Congo  and  Angola, 
begun  by  the  Portuguese  in  1482:  begun  witli 
England,  1563  ;  in  South  America,  1550  ;  abol- 
ished by  the  Quakers,  1784  ;  by  the  French 
convention,  1794;  by  the  British  parliament. 
1807  ;  by  the  Prince  of  the  United  Netherlands, 
1614  ;  in  France  by  Bonaparte.  March  29, 1815 . 
abolished  in  Pennsylvania,  1784  ;  in  1768,  there 
were  104,000  brought  in  the  West  Indies,  at 
£15  each,  amounting  to  .£  1 ,582,000,  sterling, 
chiefly  by  barter ;  by  the  French  convention, 
February  4, 1794. 

SOAP  first  made  at  London  and  Bristol, 
1524. 

SOUTH  SEA  ACT  passed,  May  G,  171(5; 
its  bubble,  1720,  by  which  many  thousands  were 
ruined. 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


sov 


695 


sov 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  FRANCE. 

Henry  III    beSant..D. 

1039 

Leo  V   beganA..D 

,006 

Charlemagne  beg  an  A  D, 

,768 

Henry  IV  

105ii 

Christopher  

906 

Louis  1  

814 

Henry  V  

1106 

SergiusIII  

907 

Charles  the  Bald   

843 

Lotharius  1  1  ,  the  Saxon  

1125 

Anastatius  

910 

Louis  II,  the  Stammerer  

877 

Conrad  III  

1138 

Lando  

912 

879 

Frederick  I  (B  irbarossa)  

11  5* 

JohnX  

91?! 

Charles  the  Fat  

884 

Henry  VI  .-.  

1190 

Leo  VI  

928 

Hugh  

888 

Philip  and  Otho  IV  

1198 

Stephen  VIII  

Charles  the  Simple  

898 

Frederick  II  

12i2 

John  XI  

931 

Robert  

9-?2 

Conrad  IV  

1250 

Leo  VII  

936 

Ralph  

923 

William  of  Holland  

1254 

Stephen  IX  

940 

LouisIV  

996 

Richard,  I),  of  Corn  wall  

1257 

Martin  II  

943 

Lotharms  
Louis  V   

954 

98S 

Rodolph  of  Hapsburgh  
Adolphus  of  Nassau  

J273 
J292 

A?apetII  
John  XII  

946 
956 

Hugh  Capet  

9S7 

Albert  I,  of  Austria  

1298 

BenedictV  

965 

Robert  the  I'ious  

997 

Henry  VII  

1308 

John  XIII  

966 

Henryl  

1031 

Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  Fred- 

Domne II    

973 

Philip  I  

IfltiO 

erick  of  Austria  

1314 

Benedict  VI   

973 

Louis  VI,  the  Gross  

11(18 

Charles  IV  

1346 

Benedict  VII  „ 

974 

Louis  VII  

1137 

1378 

John  XIV   

984 

Philip  II  (Augustus)  

1180 

Robert  

1400 

John  XV  

985 

Louis  VIII  

1223 

Sigismund  

1411 

John  XVI  

986 

Louis  IX  (St.  Louis)    

122ti 

Albert  II,  of  Austria  

1437 

Gregory  V  

996 

Philip  III,  the  Bold  

1270 

Fredericklll  

1440 

Silvester  II  

999 

Philip  IV,  the  Fair  
r.ouis  X,  King  of  Navarre  

1285 
1314 

Charles  V   

1493 
1519 

JohnXVH  
John  XVIII  

1003 
1003 

Philip,  King;  of  Navarre  

131(5 

Ferdinandl  

1558 

gergiusIV  

100ft 

Charles  IV,  the  Fair,  Kin?  of 

Maximilian  II   

1504 

Benedict  VIII   

1019 

1322 

Rodolph  II  

1576 

John  XIX  

10v>4 

Philip  VI,  the  Fortunate    .... 

1328 

Matthias  

1612 

Benedict  IX  

1033 

John  I,  the  Good  '.... 

1350 

Ferdinand  II  

1G19 

Gregory  VI  

1044 

Charles  V,  the  Wise    

13(54 

Ferdinand  III  

1637 

Clement  II  

1047 

CharlesVI  

13*0 

Leopold  I  

1(158 

Damasiall  

1048 

Charles  VII,  the  Victor  

Joseph  I   

1705 

Leo  IX  

1049 

Louis  XI,  the  Prudent  

1461 

Charles  VI  

1711 

Victor  II  

1055 

Charles  VIII,  the  Affable  

1483 

Charles  VII,  of  Bavaria  

Stephen  X  

1057 

Louis  XII    

1498 
1515 

Francis  I,  of  Lorrain   

1745 

Nicholasll  

1058 

Henry  II  
Francis  II  

1547 
1559 

Joseph  II  
Leopold  II  

17(15 
1790 

Gregory  VII    
Victor  III  

1073 
1085 

Charles  IX  

IfiHO 

Francis  II*  

1792 

Urban  II  

1087 

I8i)6 

Pascal  II  

Henrv  IV,  the  Great    

)5«9 

Germanic  Confederation  

1815 

Gelasius  II  

1118 

Louis  XIII  
Louis  XIV,  the  Great  

1610 
1643 

•  Upon  the  establishment  of  the  Coofede- 
ration  of  the  KV-.  ,  hi!8u8   r-.-m'-ii  ceased  to 

Calixt.isII  
HonoriusII  

1119 
1125 

Louis  XV  
Louis  XVI  
Republick   
Napoleon,   Emperor    of    the 

1715 
1774 
1792 

be  Emperor  of  Germany,  anil  became  Km- 
peror  of  Austria,  under  the  title  of  Francis  I. 
In  1815,  he«i-  il.-rl.ired  hereditary  head  of 
the  Germanic  Confederation. 

Celestine  11  
Lucius  II  
Eugene  III  

1130 
1143 
1144 
1145 

French  

1804 

OF  PAPAL  STATES. 

Anastasiiis  IV  

1154 

Louis  XVIII  

1814 

Adrian  I  lenan  ».  v 

.772 

Adrian  IV  

1155 

1824 

Leo  III  

Alexander  III  

1459 

Louis  Philippe  I,  King  of  the 

Stephen  V  

816 

Lucius  HI  

1181 

French  

1830 

Paschal  I  

817 

Urban  III  

1185 

OF  GERMANY. 

Eugene  II    
Valentine  

820 
824 

Gregory  VIII  
Clement  HI    

1187 
1187 

Charlemagne  be  gan  A.B 

.  800 

Gregory  IV    

827 

Celestine  III  

1190 

LouisI  

814 

SergiusII    

843 

Innocent  III  

1196 

Louis  II  

843 

Leo  IV  

847 

Honorius  III  

1217 

Carloman  

87(5 

Benedict  III  

855 

Gregory  IX  

1227 

Louis  III,  the  Youneer  

87(5 

Nicholas  1   

858 

Celestine  IV  

1241 

Charles  the  Fat  

876 

Adrian  II  

InnocentIV  

1243 

Arnold  

887 

John  VIII  

873 

Alexander  IV  

1254 

Louis  IV,  the  Infant   

699 

Alartin  I  

883 

Urban  IV  

1262 

ConradI  

911 

Adrian  lit  

884 

Gregory  X  

1264 

Henrv  I,  the  Fowler  

919 

Stephen  VI  

885 

Clement  IV    

1265 

891 

1276 

Otholl  

973 

Stephen  VII  

897 

Adrian  V  

1276 

OthoIIl  

983 

Hotnanus  Formosus  

901 

John  XX  

1276 

Henry  II,  the  Saint  
Conrad  II,  the  Salick  

1002 
1024 

John  IX   
BenedictIV   

901 
905 

Nicholas  HI  
Martin  IV  

1277 
1281 

59 

CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY 


sov 


696 


sov 


HonoriusIV  
Mchulus  IV   

fcf«mi.D.  1285     Ighorl  beSan  A 
.   ...   12f8     Swatoslawl  

.  D.  913     Swerker  began 
..     945     Eric  IX  

.     972     Charles  Swerkersou  

A.D.  1135 

....  1155 
1101 

Celestme  V  
Boniface  VIII.... 
Benedict  X  
Clement  V  

li*)5     Waldimir  the  Great  
','.  1303     Swatopolk  
...  1305    Jaroslaw  I,  of  Kiew  
',  1316     Isaslaw  I  

..  1015     Swerkerll  
..  1018     EricX  
..  1051     John  I  

1167 
1199 
1210 
1216 
1222 

Alexander  II  
Benedict  XI   
Clement  VI  
Innocent  VI  

l'£>7     Is  watosla  w  II  
1334     Wse  wolod  I   
...  1342     Swatopolk  II  
...1353     Waldimirll  

..   1078     Waldamar  I  • 
1093     Magnus  Ladulos  
1113     Birger  
..  1125     Magnus  (I  

..  1250 
.   1275 
1290 
1319 

Urban  V  
Gregory  XI  
Urban  VI  
Boniface  IX  
Innocent  VII  
Gregory  XII  
Alexander  V  
John  XX  II  
MartinV  
Eugene  IV  
Nicholas  V  
CalixtusIIl   

1371     Jaropolkll  
1378     Wsewolod  II  
1390     Isaslaw  II  • 
I".".  1404     Jurjel,  Duke  
..  1406     Andrej  

1132     Albert  of  Mecklen   
.  1138     Margaret  
1146     Eric  XIII  
...  1149     Christopher  III  
...  1157     Chailes  VIII  

1363 
...   1369 
.  1412 
1449 
1448 
1483 
J52i) 
1523 
15-0 
1569 
1592 
...   1604 
..  1611 
'  1032 
IC54 

1409     Michel  I  
"  14)0     Wsewolod  HI   

...  1177     Christian  II  
...  1213     Gustavus  Vasa  
,..  1217     Kric  XIV  
...  1238     John  III  
.  .  .  1245     Sigismund  
...   1262     Charles  JX  
...  1270     Gnstavus  Adolphus  
...   ]275     Christiana  
...  1281     CharlesX   

!!!  1431     Constantine  
1447     Jaroslaw  11  
..1455     Alexander  Newskoi    
I'/.  1458     Jaroslaw  III  

Paul  II  

fi^nrviii-:: 

Alexander  VI... 
Piiislll  

1464     Wasilejl  
1471     Dimitrej   

,..  1492     Danilo  
1503     Micliailow  
..1503     June  III  

...   1294     Charles  XI  
...   1305     Charles  XH    
...1317     Ulrica  Eleanora  

...  1697 
1719 
172;> 

LeoX  
Adrian  VI  
Clement  VII.... 

1513     Iwan  I,  of  Moscow  
1522     Semen  
1523     Iwan  II    
1534     Dimitrej  II  

...1340     Adolphus  Frederick  ... 

1758 
1771 

','.'.'.   1359     C.ustavus  IV,  Auolphus 
....   13C3     Charles  XIII  
....  1389     Charles  John  XI  V(Berm 
1425 
1462           OF  OTTOMAN  E! 

1792 
Ife09 
idotte)  1818 

VIPIRE. 
»A.P.  1300 
J3Q« 
....  1359 
1390 

Julius  HI  
Marcellinui  11   .. 
Paul  IV   
PiusIV  
PiusV  
CreKoryXIII... 

1551)     Dimitrej  III    
1555     Wasilejll  
,  1556     Wasileilll  

...  1566     W:»silejIV  
1572     Iwan  YVasilejevitch  • 
.  .  .  1585     Feodore  I  

.  1505     Otliman  I  beSa 
1533     Orcan  I  
1584     Amnrath  I  

Urban  VII  
Gregory  XIV... 
Innocent  IX  ... 
Clement  VIII  .  . 

1590     Boris  Godnnow  
1590     Wasilej  Schuiskoi   
1591     Michel  Fedrowitsch    
1592     Alejej  Michel   

...lOOli     Mohammed  I  
1613     Amuratlill  • 
....   If  45     Mohammed  11*  

1413 
.  1421 
1451 
1481 

{£#::::::::: 

S^:::: 

Innocent  X  
Alexander  VII  . 
Clement  IX.... 

1(505     Feodnre  II  
','.'.'.  1605     Iwan  Alexander  
1621     Peter  the  Great  
1023     Catharine  I  
1044     Peter  11   

..  1682     Selim  I  
..  1685     Solyman  1  
17'ii     fsefim  II   
...  1727     Amnrath  III  
1730     Mohammed  III  

...   1512 
','.  1520 
1566 
1574 
....   1595 

1(T,7     Iwan  III  
]ti70     Elizabeth  

...  1740     Achrnet  1  
1741     Mustapha  '.  
1762     Otliman  II  
1762     Amurath  IV   

..   1617 
'.......  16)8 
1623 
1640 
1648 
1687 
1691 
1695 

Innocent  XI  ... 
Alexander  VIII 
InnoctntXIl.. 
Clement  XI... 
Innocent  XIII 
Benedict  XIII. 
Clement  XII  .. 
Benedict  XIV  . 
Clement  XIII  . 
<•l--mr.it  XIV.. 
Pin*  VI    
Pin*  VII  
Leo  XII   
I'm.  VII  I  

OP 
Rivlek  
Oleg  

1676     Peter  111  

lf,9l      Paul  I  
1700     Alexander  
1721     Nicholas  
1724 

1796     Ibrahim  I   
1801     MohammedlV  
1825     Solyman  II  
Arhmetll  

1730                     OF  SWEDEN 
1740     Regnard  Lobrock  .  .  begi 
1758     Kric,  the  Victor  
1769     OlafSckotkong  
1775     Edmund  Jncobson   
1800     KiimundlH   
18<33     Stenkill   
18S9     Kric  VII  
Eric  VIII  

Mustapha  II  
,ni.D.825     Aclunet  III  
..     9!5G     Mahtnoud  1  
..    904    OtbnanlU  
1026     MiistaphalU  
1051     Abdul  Hamed  

1703 
1730 
1754 
1757 
1774 
1789 
1807 
1808 
furkinh  F.mpero* 
ilj  he  eooquereii 

1066     MitstaphalV  
,  1066     Mahmoudll   

RUSSIA.                        Hncon  Rwde  
frf/WA.D.  862     Ingonnct  Haldstan   .... 
,,T.  879     Philip  and  Ingo  II    .... 

,  1067         .  Mot,.mm,<]  II  the  firrt  ' 
1080      rfQMgC*b.«U*< 
1112      iuA.D.1453. 

HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


STO 


697 


STO 


OF  PRUSSIA. 

Frederick  V  begun  A.  D.  1743 

Alexander  be<rnn  A.  D. 

1815 

Frederick  I  began  A.  D 

1701 

Christian  VII  17tiB 

Nicholas  

1825 

Frederick  William  1  

i7i:< 

Frederick  VI  1808 

Frederick  ir,  the  Great  
Frederick  William  11  

1740 
1783 

OF  NAPLES. 

Maximilian  Joseph  be,'an  A.  D. 

1805 

Frederick  William  IU  

1797 

Charles  II  began  A.D.  1713 

Louis  

Io25 

OF  SARDINIA. 
Victor  Am.  II  began  A.  D. 
Charles  Emamiel  III  

1720 

mo 

Ferdinand  IV  1759 
Joseph  Napoleon  »  180!i 
Joachim  I,  (Murat)  1803 

OFWIRTEMBUKG. 
William  

1806 
1816 

Victor  Amadeus  HI  

1773 

Ferdinand  I*  1815 

OF  HOLLAND 

Charles  Emanuel  IV   
Victor  Emanuel  
diaries  Felix  
Charles  Araadeus  

1796 
1802 
1821 

isyi 

Francis  I  182o 

•  Of  the  United  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sici- 
lies, formerly  Ferdinand  IV,  of  Naplet,  and 
intermediately  Ferdinand  111  of  Sicily. 

Louis  Napoleon  .  .  bejttn  A.  o. 
Un  ited  to  France  
William  I,  (lately  King  of  the 
Netherlands)  

1806 
1810 

1815 

OF  BELGIUM. 

OF  PORTUGAL. 

Leopold  I  bevan.  A.  D.  1831 

OF  SAXONY. 

John  V  bevan\.Q. 

1701 
1750 

OF  POLAND.          A.  D. 

Frederick  Augustus  begun  A.  D. 

1806 
1827 

Maria  

1777 

Stanislaus  (Lescinskv)    began.  1704 

Frederick,  Retreat  -.  .  .  *  . 

1831 

John  VI  

1799 

Augustus  II  1709 

PedroIV  

18215 

Augustus  III  1733 

OF  GREECE. 

Donna  Maria  

1828 

Stanislaws  (Poniatowski)  1764 

Otho  I  beven  A.D. 

1832 

Don  Miguel  ,  

IS»rt 

1st  Partition  1772 

Donna  Maria  

1834 

2d  Partition  1793 

OF  HANOVER. 

3d  Partition  1795 

George  I  (George  III  of  Great 

OF  DENMARK. 
Frederick  IV  bc<ra.n  A.D. 
Christian  VI  

1599 
1730 

Dutchy  of  Warsaw  formed  by 
Napoleon,  and  the  King  of 
Saxony  made  Grand  Duke     1807 

Britain)  began  A.D. 
George  11  (George  IV)  
William  I  (William  IV)  

1814 
1820 
1830 

SPEAKER  of  the  House  of  Commons  first 
chosen.  1340. 

SPEAKING  TRUMPETS  invented  by  Kir- 
chrr,  a  Jesuit,  1652. 

SPECTACLES  invented  by  Spina,  a  monk 
of  Pisa,  1299. 

SPHERE  invented  by  Archimedes,  of  Syra- 
cuse. 209  B.  C. 

SPINNING  WHEEL  invented  at  Bruns- 
wick, 1530  ,  another  invented  by  Mr.  Swindell, 
at  Stockport  in  Yorkshire,  which  finishes,  on 
each  spindle,  three  lays  of  thirty  hanks  to  the 
pound  in  an  hour,  1785. 

SPURS  in  use  before  1400. 

STEAM  ENGINE  invented  by  Savary,  for 
taking  ballast  or  gravel  out  of  rivers,  and  for 
raising  great  quantities  of  water,  anrJ  patents 
granted  for,  1618. 

STEAMBOAT,  Rumsey's,  succeeded  in 
North  River,  New  York,  October,  1807. 

STEAM  applied  to  the  purpose  of  inland 
navigation  in  America,  1810. 

STEREOTYPE  PRINTING  invented  by 
William  Ged,  a  goldsmith,  of  Edinburgh,  1725. 

STIRRUPS  first  used  in  the  sixth  centurv. 

STOCKINGS,  silk,  first  worn  by  Henry 'II, 
of  France,  1547;  Howell  says,  that  in  1560 
queen  EHzabiHh  was  presented  with  a  pair  of 
black  silk  knit  stockings  by  her  silk  woman, 
and  she  never  wore  cloth  ones  any  more ;  he 
adds  that  Henry  VIII  wore  ordinarily  cloth 
hose,  except  there  came  from  Spain  by  great 


chance  a  pair  of  silk  stockings,  for  Spain  very 
early  abounded  in  silk;  his  son,  Edward  VI, 
was  presented  with  a  pair  of  Spanish  silk  stock- 
ings by  sir  Thomas  Gresham,  and  the  present 
was  then  much  taken  notice  of — consequently 
the  invention  of  knit  silk  stockings  came  from 
Spain ;  the  weaving  of  them  was  invented  by 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Lee,  of  Cambridge,  158!). 

STONE  BUILDINGS  first  introduced  into 
England.  674. 

STONE  BULLETS  in  use  in  England  so 
late  as  1514. 

STONE,  artificial,  for  statutes,  &c.  discover 
ed  by  a  Neapolitan,  J776;  introduced  into  Eng- 
land by  Mrs.  Coade,  near  London. 

STOPS  in  literature,  introduced  1520;  the 
colon  1580  ;  semicolon  1599. 

STORMS.  234  A  storm  in  Canterbury  threw 

down  200  houses  and  killed  several  families. 

344  Hailstones  fell  that  were  larger  than  hen'a 

eggs. 
701  Storm  at  Lincoln,  which  threw  down  100 

houses. 

944  1500  houses  blown  down  at  London. 
1194  A  violent  storm  almost  desolated  a  great 

part  of  Germany  and  Denmatk. 
1359  When  Edward  III  was  on  his  march  with- 
in two  leao-ues  of  Chartres,  a  storm  of  pierc- 
ing wind,  rain,  and  hail  killed  6000  of  his 
horses,  and  1000  of  his  best  troops. 
1479  A   storm   of    hail,   when   the   hailstones 
measured  eighteen  inches  round. 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF   HISTORY, 


STO 


C9S 


TAV 


,310  A  violent  hailstorm  in  Italy  is  said  to 
have  destroyed  nearly  all  the  beasts,  birds 
ind  fishes  in  the  country. 
515  A  hurricane  in  Denmark  rooted  up  whole 
forests,  and  blew  down  the  steeple  of  the 
great  church,  at  Copenhagen. 

1658  Sept.  £.  the  day  that  Cromwell  died,  a 
violent  and  terrible  storm  extended  all  over 
Europe. 

1G'>7  April  20,  a  storm  of  hail  in  Cheshire  and 
Lancashire  did  great  damage  ;  some  of  the 
hailstones  weighing  half  a  pound. 

1703  Nov.  27,  the  most  terrible  hurricane  that 
ever  happened  in  England,  attended  with 
lightning.  Whole  groves  of  trees  were  torn 
up  by  the  roots,  many  houses  and  churches 
were  unroofed,  many  ships  were  cast  away 
and  15(K)  seamen  lost  their  lives. 
737  Oct.  1 1 ,  a  storm  took  place  in  India,  when 
20,000  vessels  were  cast  away,  300,000  people 
were  lost,  and  the  water  rose  40  feet  higher 
than  usu.i). 

1751  Aug.  10,  a  storm  at  Jamaica  occasioned 
£300,000  damage. 

1772  July  1(3,  a  hailstorm  at  St.  Jago,  where 
the  hailstones  were  as  large  as  oranges. 

1773  A  most  terrible  storm  near  Boston. 

1782  April  22,  a  storm  in  the  East  Indies,  which 
destroyed  7000  inhabitants. 

1784  Great  damage  done  by  a  storm  in  New 
England. 

1786  July  17,  a  hurricane  in  Devonshire,  Eng- 
land, removed  13  elm  trees  200  yards,  where 
they  remained  and  look  root. 

17111  A  storm  of  thunder  and  lightning,  which 
melled  the  bells  of  a  church  in  Kent  and  did 
great  damage. 

1798  Sept.  25.  £100,000  damage  done  by  a 
storm  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia. 

1810  Nov.  10,  a  tremendous  storm  at  Boston, 
which  deluged  the  country  all  around. 

1914  Dec.  17,  a  violent  gale  prevailed  through 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  by  which  great 
damage  was  done. 

1815  September,  a  tremendous  gale  from  the 
southeast  swept  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North 
America,  and  did  great  damage,  particularly 
in  New  England.  The  sea  water  was  carried 
in  the  form  of  spray  '2.')  miles  inland  It  is 
called  the  Great  September  <;,i!,.. 

181G  A  tremend  >us  gale  of  wind  which  did 
much  damage  to  the  shipping  on  the  Kn^li.^i 
coast. 

1818  A  most  destructive  storm  raged  at  Ilin- 
dMtan. 

lead  A  ievere  gale    in   September  from   the 


southeast,  in  New  England,  and  the  middle 
states,  along  the  coast. 

STUCCO  WORK  revived  by  D'Udine,  about 
1500. 

STYLE  altered  by  pope  Gregory,  who  took 
twelve  days  off  the  calendar  in  I5e2;  the  Gre- 
gorian style  received  at  Paris,  by  taking  off  ten 
days.  December  15,  1582  ;  received  at  London, 
by  taking  eleven  days  off  the  calendar,  Sept.  2, 
1752.  See  article  Dominical  Letter. 

SUGAR  first  mentioned  by  Paul  Eginetta,  a 
physician,  625;  produced  in  Sicily,  1148;  first 
produced  in  Madeira,  141!);  in  the  Canary 
islands,  1503 ;  carried  to  the  West  Indies,  by 
the  Poituguese  and  Spaniards,  1510 ;  cultivated 
at  Barbados,  1641  ;  sugar  refining  first  discov- 
ered by  a  Venetian,  1503;  practised  first  in 
England,  in  1569. 

SUN,  spots  seen  in,  for  the  first  time,  1611 ; 

r  observed  in  1779;  several  spots  observed 
in  the  centre  of  the  apparent  size  of  the 
earth's  diameter.  June.  1810. 

SUNDAY  SCHOOLS  first  established  in 
Yorkshire,  1784  ;  became  general  in  England 
and  Scotland,  in  1789. 

SUNDIALS  invented  558  B.  C.;  the  first 
erected  at  Rome  was  that  by  Papirius  Cursor, 
when  time  was  divided  into  hours,  308  B.  C.; 
first  set  up  against  churches.  613. 

SUPREMACY  OF  THE  POPE  above  the 
emperor  introduced,  607 ;  the  first  prince  that 
shook  off  the  yoke  of  Rome,  and  settled  the 
supremacy  in  himself,  was  Henry  VI II,  1533. 

SURNAMES  first  introduced  into  England 
by  the  Normans,  1102;  became  common,  1200. 

SURVEY  OF  ENGLAND  made,  at  first, 
by  order  of  Alfred,  DOO  ;  by  William  the  Con-, 
queror.  1080  ;  by  Charles  ll,  1668. 

SWEARING  on  the  holy  gospel  first  used 
A.  D.  528. 

SYDNEY.  The  principal  town  in  New  Hol- 
land, founded  in  1788,  as  a  British  settlement 
for  the  colony  of  convicts  originally  intended 
for  Botany  Bay.  It  is  well  built  and  is  a  flour 
ishing  town. 

T. 

TANNING  LEATHER,  a  new  and  expe- 
ditidiis  method  invented,  171:5. 

TAPESTRY  invented  by  sir  Francis  Crane, 
161!);  for  the  encouragement  of  winch  king 
James  I  jmve  £2000  to  build  a  house  at  Mort- 
kke.  in  Surrey,  1619. 

TAVERNS  restrained  by  an  act  of  Edward 
VI,  1552,  to  forty  in  London. 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TAX 


699 


TOA 


TAXATION  of  England  from  William  I,  to 
William  III. 


William  H 
Henry  1 
Stephen 
Ueniy  II 
Richard 
John 

Henry  FI  I 
Edward  I 
Edward  II 
Edward  III 
Richard  II 
Henry  IV 
Henry  V 
Henry  VI 


Taxation.  Reigns. 
£40rJ,0!M  Edward  IV  ) 
35  J,OW  Edward  V   \ 
3')3,00<J  II  ic  hard  III  ) 
250,80!)  Henry  VII 
2W,OJ;I  Henry  VIII 
150,030  Edward  VI 
100,'WO  Mary 

80,000  Elizabeth 
150,000  James 
100,000  Charles 
154,139  Commonwealth 
130,000  Charles  II 
100,000  James  II 

7ti,b43  William  III 

64,976IAnne 


£100,000 

400,000 

800,000 

490,000 

450,000 

500,000 

600,000 

895,819 

1,517,247 

J,  800,000 

2,000,000 

3,895,205 

4,691,803 


S-«   Years- 


z 

• 


SI 

sis 


si* 
-t  t» 


TAXES  were  raised  arbitrarily  in  England, 
1100  ;  amounted  to  £  7,513.340  in  1754  ;  and  to 
£16,500,000  in  1797. 

TEA  first  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company,  early  in  1591 ;  destroyed 
at  Boston  by  the  inhabitants,  1773. 

TELEGRAPHS  invented,  1637*  put  into 
practice  by  the  French,  in  1794;  by  the  Eng- 
lish, Jan.  28,  1796. 

TELESCOPES  invented  by  Z.  Jansen,~« 
spectacle  maker  at  Middleburgh,1590;  the  first 
reflecting  one  made  on  the  principles  of  sir 
Isaac  Newton,  1692. 

THEATRE  ;  that  of  Bacchus  at  Athens,  the 
first  ever  erected,  built  by  Philos,  420  B.  C. ; 
the  ruins  still  exist ;  first  introduced  into  Eng- 
land, 1566;  the  first  royal  license  for  one  in 
England  was  in  1574,  to  James  Burbage  and 
four  others,  servants  to  the  earl  of  Leicester,  to 
act  plays  at  the  Globe  Bankside,  or  in  any  part  of 
Eno-land  ;  plays  were  opposed  bv  the  Puritans, 
1633,  and  suspended  till  1660,  when  Charles  II 
licensed  two  companies,  Killigrew's  and  Da- 
venant's ;  till  this  time  boys  performed  wo- 
men's parts;  Italian  opera  first  introduced  in 
the  United  States,  at  the  Park  Theatre  in  New 
York,  with  great  success,  1825. 

THERMOMETERS  first  invented  by  Dre- 
bel,a  Dutchman,  1620  ;  improved  by  Reaumur, 
1730,  and  Fahrenheit,  1749. 

THREAD  first  made  at  Paisley,  in  Scotland, 
in  1722. 

THU1LLERIES  in  Paris,  built,  1677. 

TIDES,  the  first  theory  of,  by  Kepler,  1598. 

TILES  first  used  in  England.  1246. 

TILTS  AND  TOURNAMENTS  instituted 
in  Germany,  919. 

TIME-MEASURE  BAROMETER  intro- 
duced by  Scipio  Nasica,  159;  king  Alfred's 
time-keeper,  was  six  large  wax  tapers,  each  12 
inches  long;  as  they  burnt  unequally,  owing 
to  the  wind,  he  invented  a  lantern  made  of 
wood  and  thin  scraped  plates  of  ox  horns, 
glass  being  a  great  rarity,  887.  The  anciente 
had  three  sorts  of  time  measures,  hour  glasses, 
sun-dials,  and  a  vessel  full  of  water  with  a  hole 
in  its  bottom. 

TIN  found  in  Germany,  1241  ;  in  no  place 
before  but  in  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  in  Bar- 
bary,  1640;  in  India,  1740;  in  New  Spain, 
1782. 

TOAD,  a  live  one  found  in  a  block  of  stone, 
at  Newark,  April  loth,  1806;  another  found 
alive  in  the  heart  of  an  oak  tree,  about  thirty 
inches  in  diameter,  at  Rainfurd,  Lancashire, 
January  1810. 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


TRE 


700 


TRE 


TOBACCO  first  discovered  in  St.  Domingo, 
in  I4!J6;  afterwards  by  the  Spaniards  in  Yuca- 
tan, 1520;  first  brought  into  England,  1583; 
allowed  to  be  cultivated  in  Ireland,  1779. 

TOURNAMENTS  began  in  170;  instituted 
by  Henrv.  emperor  of  Germany,  919. 

TOWERS,  high,  first  erected  to  churches, 
in  1000. 

TRAGEDY,  the  first  acted  at  Athens,  on  a 
waaon,  by  Thespis,  585  B.  C. 

TREATIES.     A  bo,  peace  of,  1 743, 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  peace  of,  1668. 

do.     1748. 

Akermann,  peace  of,  1820. 
Alt  Knnstadt,  peace  of,  170G. 
Amiens,  peace  of,  1802. 
Armed,  neutrality,  treaty  of,  1800. 
Arras,  treaty  of,  14:15. 

do!1       14«2. 

Augsburg,  league  of,  1686. 
Baden,  peace  of,  1714. 
Barrier  Treaty,  1715. 
Basle,  peace  of,  1795. 
Bavonne,  treaty  of,  1808. 
Belgrade,  peace  of,  1739. 
Berlin,  peace  of.  1742. 

decree,  1806. 

convention  of,  1808. 

Breda,  peace  of  1(567. 
Cambray,  league  of,  1508. 

peace  of,  1529. 

Camp'i  Fonnio,  treaty  of,  1797. 
Carlowitz,  peace  of,  169!). 
Carlsbad,  congress  of,  1319. 
Cateau  Cambresis,  peace  of.  1559. 
Chambord,  treaty  of,  1552. 
Chaumont,  treaty  of,  1814. 
Chiernsco.  treaty  of,  1(531. 
Cintra.  convention  of,  1808. 
Clostersevon,  convention  of,  1757. 
Coalition,  first,  against  France,  1792. 


second 
third 
f  Mirth 
fifth 
sixth 


do. 

to, 


1799. 
1805. 
1606. 
1809. 
1813. 


Concordat  1801. 

Conflans.  treaty  of,  1465. 

Constantinople,  peace  of,  1712. 

Copenhagen,  peace  of,  1660. 

Definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  Great  Brit- 
tain  and  America,  1783. 

Definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Holland  1764. 

Dn-«rien.  peace  of,  1745. 

Family  Compact,  1761.     Falczi,  peace  of,  1711. 


Fontainbleau,  peace  of,  1679. 

treaty  of,  1785. 

concordat  at,  1813. 

Friedwald,  treaty  of,  1551. 
Fuessen,  peace  of,  1745. 
Ghent,  pacification  of,  1576. 

peace  of,  1814, 

Golden  Bull,  1356. 
Grand  Alliance,  1689. 
Hague,  treaty  of  the,  1659. 

do.  1669. 

Halle,  treaty  of,  1610 

Hamburg,  peace  of  1762. 

Hanover  treaty,  1725. 

Heilbron,  treaty  of,  1633. 

Holy  Alliance,  1815. 

Hubertsberg.  peace  of,  1763. 

Interim,  1548.     Kiel,  treaty  of,  1814. 

Kutchnk  Kainarji,  peace  o'f  1774. 

Laybach,  congress  of,  1621.     League,  1676. 

Leipsick,  alliance  of,  1631. 

Leoben,  peace  of,  1797. 

Liebau,  treaty  of,  1656. 

Lisbon,  peace  of,  1668. 

London,  treaty  of.  I -,:'.!. 

Lubecki  peace  of.  1C29. 

Luneville,  peace  of,  1801. 

Methuen  treaty,  170:).     Milan  decree,  1807. 

Munster,  peace  of,  1648. 

Naumberg,  treaty  of,  1554. 

Nice,  treaty  of,  1518. 

Nimeguen.  peace  of,  1678. 

Nipchoo,  treaty  of.  1727. 

Noyou.  treaty  of.  1516. 

Nuremburg,  treaty  of,  1532. 

Nystett,  peace  of,  1721.     Oliva,  peace  of,  1660. 

Pitcquigni.  peace  of,  1475. 

Paris,  peace  of,  1763.     do.  treaty  of.  1796. 

Paris,  peace  of.  1610.     do.  capitulation  of,  1814. 

Paris,  treaty  of,  1614.     do.  peace  of,  1814. 

Paris,  peace  of,  1815.     do.  treaty  of,  1815 

Paris,  treaty  of,  1817. 

Partition,  first  treaty  of,  16?8. 

second  treaty  of.  1700. 

Passarowitz,  peace  of,"  1718. 
Passau,  treaty  of,  1552. 
Petersburg,  peace  of,  1762. 

treaty  of  1772. 

do.        1605. 

Peterswalden,  convention  of,  1813. 

Pilnilz,  convention  of,  1701. 

Poland,  partition  of,  1795. 

Pragmatick  Sanction.  1439.     do.    1713. 

Prague,  peace  of,  1653. 

Presburg,  peace  of  1805. 

Public  Good,  league  for  the,  1464. 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


TUR 


701 


Pyrenees,  treaty  of  the,  1659. 

Quadr.i  pie  Alliance,  1718.       /    « 

RadsUidt,  peace  of,  1714.  do.  congress  of,  1707. 

Ratisbon,  peace  of,  1630. 

Religion,  peace  of,  1555. 

Rhine,  confederation  of,  180G. 

Ryswick,  peace  of,  1697. 

St.  Germain,  peace  of,  1570. 

St.  Germnin  en  Laye,  peace  of,  1C79. 

St.  Ildefonso,  alliance  'of,  1796. 

Seville,  peace  of,  1792. 

Siorod.  peace  of,  1613. 

Stnalc.'ld.  league  of,  1529. 

Stettin,  peace  of,  1570. 

Stockholm,  peace  of,  1719. 

--  treaty  of,  1724. 

--      do.        1813. 

Temeswar.  truce  of,  1GC4. 

Teschen,  peace  of,  1779. 

Teusin,  peace  of,  15!)5. 

Tilsit.  |.  ace  of,  1807. 

Tolentino,  treaty  of,  1793. 

Toplitz,  treaty  of,  1817. 

Tripple  Alliance,  1717. 


WAN 
U. 


of  the  Hague,  1668. 
of,  1820. 


Troppau,  congres 

Troyes,  treaty  of,  1420. 

Turkmauchay,  peace  of,  1828. 

Ulrn,  peace  of,  1020. 

Utrecht,  union  of,  1579.     do.  peace  of,  1713. 

Valencay.  treaty  of,  1813. 

Verona,  congress  of,  1822. 

Versailles,  peace  of,  1783. 

Vienna  treaty,  1725. 

-  -  treaty  of  alliance  of,  1731  . 

-  definitive  peace  of,  1737. 

-  peace  of,  1809. 

--  treaty  of  March  23d,  1815. 
---  -  —  May  31st,  1815. 
--  Juiie  4th,  1815. 
Vossem,  peace  of,  1073. 
Warsaw,  treaty  of,  1768. 
--  alliance  of,  1683. 
Westminster,  peace  of,  1674. 
Westphalia,  peace  of,  1648. 
Wilna,  treaty  of,  1561. 
Worms,  edict  of,  1521. 
Wurzhoiircr,  treaty  of,  1610. 

TRUMPETS  first  sounded  before  the  kings 
of  England,  by  order  of  Offa,  kinor  of  Mercia, 
790. 

TULIPS  first  brought  into  England.  1578. 

TURKEYS  came  into  England,  1523. 

TURNPIKES  first  legally  erected  in  Eng- 
land, 16G3;  yielded  in  17d3  about  £508,000. 


UNION  of  the  crowns  of  England  and  Scot- 
land, 1603;  of  the  two  kingdoms  attempted, 
1(504,  but  failed;  again  ditto,  1070;  carried  into 
eftect,  May  1st,  17u7,  and  thence  the  island  is 
called  Great  Britain;  union  of  Britain  and 
Ireland  took  place,  January  1",  1801. 


V. 


VACCINE  inoculation,  introduced  1799,  by 
Dr.  Jenner,  who  received  £IO,UUO  for  the  dis- 
covery, from  parliament.  1802. 

VATICAN  LIBRARY  founded,  1448. 

VENEREAL  DISEASE  was  brought  into 
Europe  in  the  first  voyage  of  Columbus,  and 
broke  out  in  the  French  army  at  Naples,  14'J4; 
whence  the  French  term,  mal  de  J\*aples ;  in 
the  Netherlands  and  England  it  obtained  the 
appellation  of  mal  de  France,  though  in  the 
latter  country  it  was  known  so  early  as  the 
12th  century;  about  the  same  period,  too,  at 
Florence,  one  of  the  Medici  family  died  of  it. 

VESUVIUS,  Mount,  threw  out  such  a  quan- 
tity of  flame  and  smoke,  that  the  air  was  dark- 
ened, and  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Hercula- 
neum  were  overwhelmed  by  the  burning  lava, 
with  250,000  people,  A.  D.  79.  Hercukneum 
was  discovered  in  1737,  and  several  curiosities 
have  been  dug  out  of  it  ever  since  ;  but  every 
thing  combustible  had  the  marks  of  being  burnt 
by  fire. 

VINES  planted  in  Germany  and  North  Gaul 
276. 

VIOLINS  invented  about  1477;  and  intro- 
duced here  by  Charles  II. 

VOLCANO,  in  the  isle  of  Ferro,  broke  out 
September  13th,  1777,  which  threw  out  an  im- 
mense quantity  of  red  water,  that  discolored 
the  sea  for  several  leagues ;  a  new  volcano 
appeared  in  one  of  the  Azore  islands,  May  1st, 
1808;  volcano  in  the  sea,  near  St.  Michaels, 
broke  out  February,  1811 ;  Volcano  at  Albay, 
in  Manilla,  burst  forth  February  1st,  1814,  the 
eruption  lasted  ten  days  ;  five  populous  towns, 
and  the  greater  part  of  Albay,  were  destroyed, 
1200  persons  killed,  and  many  more  dreadfully 
burnt;  Tomboro  mountain,  in  the  island  of 
Sambaron,  burst  forth,  by  which  much  ship 
ping  and  many  lives  were  lost,  May,  1815. 

W. 

WANDERING  JEW.  This  poetical  per- 
sonage owes  his  existence  to  the  story  of  our 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


WAR 


702 


WAR 


Saviour's  resting  upon  a  stone  before  the  house 
of  a  Jew,  when  bearing  his  cross.  Upon  this 
Jew's  driving  our  Saviour  away,  Jesus  turned 
to  him  and  said,  "  Thou  shall  wander  on  the 
earth  till  I  return  "  Driven  by  fear  and  re- 
morse, the  Jew  has  since  wandered  from  place 
to  place,  and  has  never  yet  found  a  grave. 
This  story  has  furnished  materials  for  many 
writers. 

WARS  of  England.  France,  Spain,  &c.,  from 
10C8.  With  Scotland,  10G8;  peace  with  Scot- 
land, 1091  ;  peace  with  France,  1113;  war  with 
France,  1110;  peace  with  France,  1118;  peace 
with  Scotland,  1139;  war  with  France,  1161  ; 
peace  with  France,  1186;  war  with  France. 
with  success,  1 194 ;  peace  with  France,  1 1!J5 ; 
war  with  France,  1201;  war,  civil,  renewed, 
1215 ;  war  ended,  1216 ;  war  with  France,  1224  ; 
war  ended,  1243;  war,  civil,  1262;  war,  civil, 
ended,  12G7  ;  war  with  France,  1294  ;  war  with 
Scotland,  12% ;  peace  with  France,  1299  ;  peace 
with  Scotland,  March  30,  J 323;  war  again  with 
Scotland, 1327 ;  war  ended,1328  ;  war  asrain  with 
Scotland,  1333;  war  with  France,  133!);  peace 
with  France,  May  r-th,  1360;  war  with  France, 
1368  ;  war,  civil,  1400 ;  war  with  Scotland,  1400; 
peace  with  France,  May  31st,  1420  ;  war  with 
France,  1422  ;  civil  war  between  York  and  Lan- 
caster, 1452;  peace  with  France,  October,  1471; 
war,  civil,  1486  ;  war  with  France  October  6th, 
1492 ;  peace  with  France,  November  3d,  follow- 
ing; peace  with  Scotland,  1502;  war  with 
France,  February  4th,  1512 ;  war  with  Scotland, 
1513;  peace  with  France,  August  7th,  1514; 
war  with  France,  1522;  war  with  Scotland, 
1522;  peace  with  France,  1527;  peace  with 
Scotland,  1542;  war  with  Scotland  directly 
after;  peace  with  France  and  Scotland,  June 
7,1546;  war  with  Scotland,  1547;  war  with 
France,  1541);  peace  with  both,  March  Gth, 
1550;  war,  civil,  1553;  war  with  Scotland, 
June,  1557;  war  with  France,  1557;  peace 
with  France,  1559;  peace  with  Scotland,  1560; 
war  with  France,  1562;  peace  with  France, 
1564  ;  war  with  Scotland,  15~  ;  war  with  Spain, 
1588;  peace  with  Spain,  August  18,  1604  ;  war 
with  Spain,  1624.;  war  wrth  France,  1627; 
peace  with  Spam  and  France,  April  14,  1629; 
war,  civil,  1642;  war  with  the  Dutch,  1651; 
peach  with  the  Dutch,  April  5th,  1654  ;  war 
with  Spain,  1655;  peace  with  Spnin,  Scpti-m- 
ber  10th,  1660;  war  with  France,  January  26th, 
166<i ;  war  with  Denmark,  19th  October  follow- 
ing ;  peace  with  the  French,  Danes  and  Dutch, 
August  24th,  1667  ;  peace  with  Spain,  Feb.  13, 
1068;  war  with  the  Algerines,  September  6th. 


1669;  peace  with  the  Algerines.  November  19, 
1671 ;  war  with  the  Dutch,  March,  1(172  ;  peace 
with  the  Dutch,  February  28, 1674  ;  war  with 
France,  May  7,  1679;  peace,  general,  t-eptem-3 
ber  20,  1689;  war  with  France,  May  4th,  1702.;  J 
peace  of  Utrecht,  July  13th,  1713;  war  with 
Spain. .Dec.  1718  ;  peace  with  Spain.  1721  ;  war  f 
with  Spain,  October  19, 1739 ;  war  with  France, 
March  31,  1744  ;  peace  with  France,  &c.  Octo- 
ber 18th,  1748 ;  war  with  France,  1756  ;  war 
with  Spain,  January  4, 17G2 ;  peace  with  France 
and  Spain,  February  10,  1763;  peace  between 
Russia  and  the  Turks,  1773 ;  war,  civil,  in 
America,  commenced  June  14,  1774  ;  war  with 
France,  February  6, 1778;  war  with  .Spain.  April 
17th,  1780  ;  war  with  Holland,  December  21st, 
1780;  peace  with  France,  Spain,  Holland  and 
America,  1783;  war  with  France,  1793,  by  the 
English,  Prussians,  Austrians,  Sardinians,  and 
Italir.n  states ;  peace  between  Prussia  and 
France,  17SJ5 ;  peace  between  France  and  Spain, 
1795;  peace  between  France  and  Naples,  17i;6  ; 
peace  between  the  French  and  Sardinians. 
1796;  war  between  England  and  Spain.  Nov. 
11,  1796;  war  between  France.  Naples  nnd 
Sardinia.  November,  1798  ;  peace  between  Aus- 
tria and  France,  February  9, 1801  ;  war  between 
Spain  and  Portugal,  February  28th,  1801  ;  peart- 
between  Naples  and  France, 'March,  l.Sil  ;  pe-.ic-c 
between  Portugal  and  Spain,  June  10th,  l.-lil  ; 
peace  between  France  and  Portugal,  September 
29,  1801 ;  peace  between  France  and  the  Porte, 
October  17th,  1801  ;  peace  between  England, 
France,  Spain  and  Holland,  March  '27th,  1802, 
war  between  England  and  France,  April  2!ith. 
1803;  war  between  England  and  Spain,  Dee. 
14th,  1804;  war  between  France.  Russia  and 
Austria,  Sept.,  1805;  peace  between  France  and 
Austria,  December  27tli,  lrt!.">;  war  between 
Sweden  and  France,  October  31st,  18l'5;  war 
between  England  and  Prussia,  April.  J>-(  (!;  war 
between  Prussia  and  France,  October,  1806; 
peace  between  France  and  the  elector  of  Sax- 
ony, December  11,  1806;  peace  between  Eng- 
land and  Prussia.  January  28.  1807;  peace  be- 
tween France  and  Russia,  July  19th,  1807;  war 
between  England  and  Denmark,  November  4, 
1807;  war  between  Russia  and  Sweden,  Feb. 
10,  1808;  war  between  Denmark  and  Sweden, 
Feb.  29,  1808;  war  between  Prussia  and  Swe- 
den, March  6th,  ItfOS;  war  between  Spain  and 
France,  June  6,  1808;  peace  between. England 
and  Spain.  June  6, 1808;  peace  between  Swe- 
den and  Russia,  Sep.,  17th,  180!) ;  peace  be- 
tween France  and  Austria, October  15th,  1809; 
peace  between  France  aud  Sweden,  January 


HISTORICAL   AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


WAV 


703 


WAV 


G,  1810;  peace  between  England  and  Russia, 
August  1,  1812  ;  peace  between  England  and 
Sweden,  August  4-17th,  1812;  war  between 
"ngland  and  A;nerica,  June  18th,  1812;  war 
oetween  Sweden  and  Denmark,  September  13, 
1813;  peace  between  Sweden  and  Denmark, 
January  14.  1814;  peace  between  France  and 
the  allies  (England,  Russia  and  Prussia)  May 
30th,  1814;  peace  between  France  and  Spain, 
July  20th,  1814;  peace  between  England  and 
America,  December  24th,  1814 ;  peace  between 
Saxony  and  Prussia,  May  18th,  1815;  wars  with 
Spain,, between  1589  and  1593.  cost  queen  Eliz- 
abeth £  1, 300,000, besides  the  double  subsidy  of 
£280,000  granted  by  parliament.  In  the  Irish 
rebellion,  she  spent  £3,400,000  in  ten  years; 
the  expenses  of  the  war  of  1756,  cost  England 
£90,000.000. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  wars  between  Eng- 
land and  France,  with  the  terms,  of  their  dura- 
tion, since  the  one  which  commenced  in  1 1 10  : 
1 1  16,  lasted  twenty-five  years ;  1 141,  one  year ; 
1201,  fifteen  j  1224,  nineteen  ;  1294,  five  ;  1339, 
twenty -one;  1308,  fifty-two;  1422,  forty-nine  ; 
J492,  one  month  ;  1512,  two  years  ;  1521,  six ; 
1549,  one  ;  1557,  two  ;  1502,  two  ;  1627,  two  ; 
1666,  one  ;  1 689,  ten ;  1702,  eleven  ;  1744,  four ; 
175(3,  seven;  1778,  five;  1793,  which  termi- 
nated March  27, 1802  ;  1803,  which  terminated 
Mav.  1814. 

WATCHES  invented  at  Nuremberg,  in 
Germany,  1477  ;  first  used  in  astronomical  ob- 
servations, 1500.  The  emperor  Charles  V,  was 
the  first  who  had  any  thing  that  might  be  called 
a  watch,  though  some  call  it  a  stnalftable-clock, 
1530.  Watches  first  brought  to  England  from 
Germany,  1577.  Sprincr  pocket  ones  invented 
by  Hooke,  1658. 

WATCR  first  cor.veyed  to  London  by  leaden 
pipes,  21st  Henry  III,  1237  ;  it  took  nearly  fifty 
years  to  complete  it. 

WATERMILLS  for  grinding  corn  were  in- 
vented by  Behsarius,  while  besieged  in  Rome 
by  the  Goths,  555.  The  ancients  parched  their 
corn,  and  pounded  it  in  mortars;  afterwards 
mills  were  invented,  which  were  turned  by 
men  and  beasts  with  great  labor  ;  and  yet  Pliny 
mentions  wheels  turned  by  water. 

WAV  F. R L E Y ,  Author  of  In  a  former  part 
of  this  work  we  have  give/r  the  life  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  We  now  add  the  chronology  of  his  vari- 
ous works,  showing  the  date  of  their  publication. 

1799.  Goetz  de  Berliohigen,  a  tragedy,  trans- 
lated from  Goethe.  1  volume. 

1802.  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border,  3 
volumes,  8vo. 


1804.  Sir  Tristam,  1  volume,  8vo. 

1805.  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  1  vol 
ume,  8vo. 

1806.  Ballads  and  Lyrical  Poetry,  1  volume, 
8vo. 

1807.  Marmion.l  volume,  8vo.    The  Works 
of  Dryden,  18  volumes,  8vo. 

1809.  Papers  and  Letters  of  Sir  Ralph  Sadler, 

2  volumes,  8vo.     Collection  of  Papers  of  Lord 
Somers,  13  volumes,  8vo. 

1810.  The  Poetical  Works  of  Miss  Seaward, 

3  volumes,  8vo.     The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  1  vol- 
ume, 8vo. 

181 1.  The  Vision  of  Don  Roderick,  1  volume, 
8vo. 

1813.  Rokeby,  1  volume,  8  vo. 

1S14.  The  Works  of  Swift,  19  volumes,  8vo. 
The  Bridal  of  Triermain,  1  volume,  8v<>.  Mon- 
umental Antiquities  on  the  Frontier  of  England 
and  Scotland,  2  volumes  4to.  Waverley,  3  vol- 
umes, 12mo. 

1815.  Letters  of  Paul,  1  volume,  8vo.  The 
Battle  of  Waterloo,  2  volumes,  8vo.  Guy  Man- 
nering,  8  volumes,  12mo. 

181'G.  The  Antiquary. 5  volumes,12mo.  Tales 
of  My  Landlord,  1st  series.  The  Black  Dwarf 
and  Old  Mortality,  4  volumes,  12  mo. 

1817.  Rob  Roy,  3  volumes,  12mo. 

1818.  Tales  of  My  Landlord,  2d  series.     The 
Heart  of  Mid  Lothian.  4  volumes,  8vo. 

1819.  Tales  of  My  Landlord,  3d  series.     The 
Bride  of  Lamermuir,  and  the  Legend  of  Mon- 
trose,  4  volumes.     Provincial  Antiquities  and 
Picturesque    Views    of   Scotland,  4    volumes, 
12mo.     Poems,  &c.  of  P.  Corey,  1  volume,  8vo. 

1820.  Ivanhoe,  2  volumes,  12mo.     The  Mo- 
nastery. 3  volumes,  12mo.     The  Abbot,  3  vol- 
umes, 12  mo. 

1821 .  Kenil worth,  3  volumes,  12mo. 

1822.  The   Pirate,  3  volumes,  12mo.     Nigel, 
3  volumes,  12mo.  ttalidown  Hill,  1  volume,  8vo. 

1823.  Peverel  of  the  Peak,  4  volumes,  12mo. 
Quentin  Durward,  3  volumes,  12rno. 

1824.  St.  Ronan's  Well,  3  volumes,  12mo. 
Redgauntlet,  3  volumes,  I2mo. 

1825.  Tales  of  tin  Crusaders;  the  Betrothed 
and  Talisman,  4  volumes.  12mo. 

1826.  Woodstock,  "  volumes,  12mo. 

1827.  Chronicles  of  the  C:mongate,  1st  series, 
2  volumes,  12mo.    Life  of  Napoleon,  3  volumes, 
8vo. 

1828.  Anne  of  Geirstein.    Third  series  of  the 
Chronicles  of  the  Canontrate.  translated  under 
the  title  of  Charles  the  Bold,  3  volumes,  12mo. 
Memoirs  of  Madame  la  Rochejacquelin.  1  vol- 
ume, 8vo.     Letters  from  Malchi  Malgrowther 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY 


WOO 


704 


ZOD 


exports  of  that  country,  but  that  they  have  nov 
another  woollen  manufacture  of  most  excellent 
beauty,  such  as  that  of  the  Corai,  a  people  of 
Asia  from  whence  the  rams  were  brought  at  a 


mon  by  a  Layman,  &c.  3  volumes,  - 

1830.  The  Airsl.yre  Tragedy,  1  volume,  fevo. 
Tales  of  a  Grandfather,  3d  series,  3  volumes,8vo 
18:51  Tales  of  a  Grandfather,  4th  series,  3 
volumes,  8vo.  Letters  on  Demonology,  1  vol- 
ume, 8vo.  Last  series  of  the  Chronicles  of  the 
Canongate,  4  volumes,  8vo. 

T«  i  ;,^..x,  .,,IIT  KO  aridprl  about  four  volumes  in 
pn»cf  »u,,,,«,....s  -,.-,_—  notices,  essays, 
&c.  inserted  originally  in  the  Supplement  to 
the  Encyclopedia  Bntanica.  The  articles  fur- 
nished aiso  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  to  the  different 
Reviews,  &c.  would  besides  make  up  not  less 
than  4  volumes,  8vo. ;  and  during  the  last  four 
years  he  lias  a  revision  of  his  works,  added  to 
the  amount  of  6  volumes,  8vo.  in  notes  and 

-e-S~* — --  AND   MEASURES  invented, 


iv  ooueii  w»«  .— ctories  commenced  at 

Sedan  in  France,  1(546  ;  the  first  made  in  Eng- 
land in  1331 ;  medley  cloths  first  made,  Ibl4; 
ereatly  improved  by  the  Walloons,  1688  ;  farst 
Led  and  dressed  in  England,  in  1667.  Its  ex- 
port from  Great  Britain  in  1787  was  £3,t>b7,,9.> 
12,  2<Z  value.  In  1779.  272,755  pieces  of  broad 
cloth,  containing  8,806,688  3™**^*°*.  }^l£l 

yards,  were  manufactured  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  being  an  increase  on  the  year 
1778,  a  produce  of  48,596  pieces,  or  l,G/2;o74 
yards  of  broad  cloth,  and  315,602  pieces,  or 
1,196.964  yards  of  narrow  cloth. 

WORSHIPPING  IMAGES  introduced_mto 
England,  763;  forbidden  in  Hungary,  1785. 


WHALE  FISHERY,  the  first  by  the  Dutch,    3C5  days,  5  hours   a 


nd  49  minutes,  283  ;  .ntro- 


fire  and 
'  ac  in  1829.     It  has 


at  Cape  Breton,  1521;  first  mentioned  brought    Americans 
'"wirVLEs'kii'led  at  Newfoundland  and  Ice-    damaged.'by  Martin  a  maniac 
&itfttL^E£=£JS    "vO^^CHy  -  SUU,    «. 
no  stays  worn  by  ladies.  °gyof»  rr-u»  1497 

WHIG  AND  TORY  factions  took  their  rise        Discovery  of  Cabot 
about  1649,  and  were  at  their  greatest  height 
about  1704. 

WIGS,  full  bottom,  were  first  worn  by  the 
judges,  in  1674. 

WINDMILLS  invented  1299. 
\Vl\ES   sold  by  apothecaries  as  a  cordial, 
1300  ;  in  England,  sold  at2')s.  per  ton  ;  and  the 
second  sort  at  13s.  4rf.,  1389.     In  1790  there 
wert-  1 1'VKl'l  pip"s  of  wine  made  in  Portugal. 

WINE  from  raisins  first  made  in  England,  in 
1635. 

WOOD  CUTS  invented,  1460. 
WOOLLEN  CLOTH,  manufacturers  of,  in 
all  civilized  cou-itries,  and  in  very  remote  ages, 
and  probably  of  linen  also.     Diodorus  Sicilus, 
who  wrote  in  Augustus  Cassar's  time,  21  B.  C. 
relates  tint  in  the  isle  of  Malta, several  mercan- 
tile wares  were    made,  particularly   very   fine  ,  ,       »    ..:. 
cloth.     Strabo,  speaking  of  Turtetania,  in  Lusi-         ZODIAC,  sign  of  the,  invent 
Unia,  says,  in  34,  that  cloths  were  formerly  the    mander,  517  B.  C. 


.Uiscovery  ui  ^ui^i. 

Hudson's  discovery  of  the  bay  and  /    16Q9 

First  buildings  in  the  city 

First  Dutch  governor 

City  taken  by  the  English  *•*** 

Retaken  by  the  Dutch 

Fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English 

First  Colonial  legislature  1' 

Seventeen  chests  of  tea  thrown  into  ?    im 

the  river  by  the  citizens 
City   taken  by    the   British  1776,  1    1793 

evacuated  25th  November 
First  congress  under  the  constitu- 
tion met  at  the  city 
Population    of    the   city    200,000 


probably 


1799 


1335 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


705 


Alurat.  King  of  Naples;  and  his  son-in- 
gene  Viceroy  of  Italy.  Facts  astouu 
themselves,  not  more  strongly  illustrath 


REVIEW   OF    THE   NINETEENTH 
CENTURY. 

In  France,  at  the  commencement  of  the  cen- 
tury, there  existed  a  consular  government — Bo- 
naparte being  first  consul — a  government  raised 
upon  the  ruins  of  a  sad  and  memorable  revolu- 
tion ;  in  lc'J2,  Bonaparte  became  consul  for 
life ;  in  1304,  Emperor ;  in  1308,  he  deprived  the 
Pope,  who  crowned  him,  of  his  territories;  in 
1809,  he  divorced  h'.s  wife  ;  in  1810,  he  married 
Marie  Louise.  Between  the  commencement  of 
his  career  and  its  close,  he  created  three  king- 
doms, Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Wirtemberg.  He 
made  his  brother  Joseph,  King  of  Spam ;  his 
brotiier  Louis,  King  of  Holland ;  his  brother  Je- 
rome, King  of  Westphalia;  his  brother-in-law 
-law  Eu- 
nding  in 
ive  of  the 

re  volutions  of  the  present  century  as  connected 
with  France  and  its  Emperor,  than  as  exhibiting 
the  generality  of  revolutions  as  to  the  other  na- 
tions in  which  those  family  promotions  were 
made. 

Keeping  our  eye  then  upon  France,  %ve  see  in 
1814  the  exiled  and  denounced  Bourbons  re- 
stored to  their  throne—Russian  cossacks  bivouac 
in  the  Champs  Elysees,  and  English  soldiers 
mount  guard  at  the  Tuileries — Bonaparte  is 
banished  to  Elba — his  family  are  dethroned  and 
degraded— from  Elba  he  escapes,  returns  to 
Paris,  is  again  in  the  ascendant;  reigns  for  his 
Hundred  Days,  and  then,  by  a  series  of  victories 
crowned  and  consummated  by  that  of  Waterloo, 
is  beaten  down  never  to  rise  again  :  unable  to  es- 
cape, he  makes  a  merit  of  surrendering  to  Eng- 
land, and  for  the  sake  of  peace  in  Europe,  is 
sent  to  St.  Helena,  where  he  dies.  On  his  de- 
parture, the  Bourbons  again  succeed ;  Louis 
XV1IJ,  dies  at  a  good  old  age  in  his  palace  ;  and 
is  succeeded  by  Charles  X.  The  son  of  the  Due 
de  Berri,  murdered  before  his  infant's  birth,  is 
heir  presumptive  to  the  throne — a  new  revolu- 
tion breaks  out — Charles  X.  abdicates — his  mi- 
nisters are  tried  and  imprisoned  for  life — the 
throne  is  occupied  by  his  nephew,  as  Citizen 
King  of  the  French — the  son  of  Bonaparte  dies 
— the  widow  of  the  Due  de  Berri  is  imprisoned — 
marries  a  second  husband — has  another  child, — 
and  France,  altogether  in  the  strictest  alliance 
with  England,  her  oldest  and  most  inveterate  en- 
emy, is  only  kept  from  a  revolution,  by  the  un- 
flinching severity  of  the  "  liberal"  king,  who  was 
forced  upon  the  throne  by  the  last  one.  All  these 
events  have  occurred  during  this  century 

In  Portugal,  after  the  measures  of  the  French 


had  driven  the  prince  Regent  and  his  family  to 
the  Brazils,  the  English  rescued  that  country 
from  French  tyranny.  In  1821,  the  King  (as  he 
had  then  become  by  the  death  of  his  father)  re- 
turned to  his  throne ;  in  1820,  his  eldest  son,  Don 
Pedro,  having  formally  dissolved  the  union  be- 
tween Brazil  and  Portugal,  caused  himself  to  be 
proclaimed  Emperor  of  Brazil ;  Don  John  VI, 
died  in  1826,  when  Don  Pedro  claimed  the  crown 
of  Portugal  for  his  daughter,  Donna  Maria ;  Don 
Miguel,  second  son  of  Don  John,  claimed  the 
throne,  as  the  law  of  the  land  and  the  decree  of 
Lamego  warranted.  In  the  meantime,  a  revolu- 
tion occurred  in  Brazil,  and  the  emperor  took  to 
flight — his  son,  a  cluid,  is  now  the  emperor.  The 
struggle  between  the  brothers  is  too  familiar  to 
need  a  word  of  remark ;  the  claim  of  Don  Pedro 
for  his  daughter  is  at  present  successful,  and 
Donna  Maria,  a  child,  occupies  the  Portuguese 
throne. 

Spain,  on  the  renewal  of  the  war  in  1803,  was 
compelled  by  France  to  take  active  measures 
against  England;  in  1804,  she  declared  war 
against  England  ;  in  1805,  Nelson,  with  his 
hearts-blood,  bought  the  glorious  victory  of  Tra- 
falgar, in  which  the  Spanish  fleet,  combined  with 
that  of  France,  was  destroyed  ;  in  1808,  Bona- 
parte threw  off  the  mask  as  to  Spanish  affairs ; 
Charles  IV,  abdicated,  and  Ferdinand  VII,  was 
proclai  med .  A  t  this  period ,  Charles  1 V ,  ha v  i  ng 
been  induced  to  declare  his  abdication  a  com- 
pulsory act,  was  also  induced  to  throw  himself 
for  safety  on  Bonaparte's  kindness.  Then  it 
was  that  Bonaparte  invited  Ferdinand  to  come 
and  meet  him  on  his  road  to  Madrid — the  king 
was  deceived  and  went — he  arrived  at  Viltoria, 
where  he  was  surrounded  by  French  troops,  and 
where  he  received  a  letter  from  Bonaparte,  ad- 
dressed him,  not  as  King  but  as  Prince  of  Aus- 
trias,  assuring  him  that  he,  Bonaparte,  not  only 
as  his  friend,  but  as  the  general  protector  and 
benefactor  of  Europe,  was  visiting  Spain  merely 
with  a  view  to  make  such  reforms  as  might  be 
most  agreeable  to  the  popular  feeling,  and  best 
tend  to  the  pacification  of  the  country. 

Upon  the  receipt  of  this  friendly  communica- 
tion Ferdinand  continued  his  journey  to  Bay- 
onne  where  he  dined  with  his  illustrious  friend 
and  patron;  and,  after  dinner,  heard  from  his 
imperial  host,  that  he  thought  it  good  to  fill  the 
throne  of  Spain  by  placing  one  of  his  own  bro- 
thers on  it.  Ferdinand  found  himself  in  fact  a 
prisoner,  and  was  shortly  after  compelled  to  re- 
•  nounce  his  crown  at  the  desire  of  his  father,  ex- 
pressed in  the  presence  of  Bonaparte  himself, 
to  whom  that  father  had  the  day  before  sold  his 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


706 


kingdom  and  his  birth-right  for  a  stipulated  sum, 

This  compulsory  step  caused  the  patriotic  re- 
volution in  Spain.  Joseph  Bonaparte  arrived 
at  Madrid  to  assume  the  legal  power;  but  the 
inherent  force  of  the  nation  was  irresistible,  and 
he  was  driven  from  his  precarious  dignity.  Then 
came  the  Peninsular  war  with  all  its  glories,  and 
its  expenditure  of  blood  and  treasure.  In  1814, 
Ferdinand  returned  to  his  country.  He  married 
four  times;  and  by  his  last  wife  had  one  daugh- 
ter, which  daughter  he  proclaimed  heir  to  the 
throne,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  brother  Don  Car- 
jos.  This  declaration  he  subsequently  annulled, 
but,  eventually,  confirmed.  Don  Carlos,  at  his 
brother's  death,  asserted  his  claims  to  the  sov- 
reignty,  with,  as  it  A  said,  the  support  and  con- 
currence of  a  great  majority  of  the  people.  Fo- 
reign interference  has  hitherto  thwarted  the 
views  of  Don  Carlos,  whose  consort,  harassed 
by  misfortunes,  privations,  and  anxieties,  has 
fallen  a  victim  to  persecution,  and  died  in  the 
parsonage  house  of  a  village  near  Gosport.  The 
success  of  the  widow  of  Don  Ferdinand,  has 
enabled  her  to  proclaim  her  daughter  as  Queen 
of  Spain,  she  herself  assuming  the  title  and 
character  of  Regent.  By  this  revolution,  for 
such  it  is,  the  Spanish  throne  is  occupied  by  a 
child. 

Belgium  and  Holland  have  been  separated ; 
Antwerp  has  been  besieged  by  the  French ;  the 
Prince  of  Saxe  Coburg,  widower  of  the  Princess 
Charlotte  of  Wales,  has  been  made  King  of  the 
Belgians,  and  married  a  daughter  of  the  occupier 
of  the  French  throne.  The  affairs  of  Greece, 
which  have  been  so  long  unsettled,  are  as  unset- 
tled still,  with  this  difference,  that  England  has 
furnished  her  with  a  King,  in  the  person  of 
Prince  Otho  of  Bavaria,  whose  revenue  is  de- 
rived from  that  country,  but  whose  period  of 
domination  is  fortunately  not  to  be  calculated 
upon  with  any  degree  ot  certainty. 

In  Russia,  after  the  murder  of  Paul,  Alexander 
succeeded,  and  did  not  die  without  some  suspi- 
cion of  foul  play.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Nicholas  the  First,  whose  elder  brother, 
Constantine,  with  a  most  remarkable  diffidence, 
or  indifference  to  imperial  sway,  declined  the 
throne  in  his  favor. 

It  must  be  evident  that,  if  the  extent,  or  pre- 
tensionsof  this  article  would  admit  of  our  lakimr 
a  review  of  the  public  affairs  of  all  the  nations 
in  the  world  during  the  period  to  which  it  refers, 
it  would  exhibit  a  series  of  mutations  calculated 
equally  to  justify  our  opinion  of  the  eventful- 
ness  of  the  last  thirty-four  years,  with  those  we 
Lave  hastily  touched.  Let  us,  however,  be  par- 


ticular iu  looking  at  results  relating  to  England. 
In  England  the  circumstances  connected  with 
the  succession  have  been  complicated  and  ex- 
traordinary. In  1820,  George  the  Third  died, 
having  survived  his  fifth  son,  the  Duke  of  Kent, 
six  days.  The  Princess  Charlotte  died,  with  her 
infant,  in  1318;  Queen  Charlotte  in  JrtlS;  the 
Duchess  of  York  in  1820;  in  1821,  Queen  Caro 
line  ;  in  1827,  the  lamented  Duke  of  York  ;  in  ' 
1828,  the  Queen  of  Wirtomberg,  princess  royal 
of  England  ;  and  in  1830,  his  late  majesty.  The 
present  king  has  no  surviving  issue;  and  the 
crown  hereafter  devolves  upon  the  daughter  of 
his  late  majesty's  fifth  son — a  child. 

In  1814.  the  electorate  of  Hanover/was  erect- 
ed into  a  kingdom,  the  crown  of  which  belongs 
to  the  King  of  England,  but  is  separated  from 
it  whenever  a  queen  governs  that  empire  ;  con- 
sequently upon  -the  accession  of  the  princess 
Victoria  to  the  British  throne,  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, as  next  heir  to  the  crown,  becomes 
King  of  Hanover — the  Salic  law  in  that  king- 
dom excluding  females. 

There  are  peculiarities  of  circumstance  in  the 
mortality  of  the  royal  family  of  England  (which 
it  would  neither  be  right,  nor  indeed  have  we 
space  to  enter  into  them.)  which  render  the 
cause  and  order  of  these  events  more"  remark- 
able. Not  less  so  have  been  the  casualties  h> 
which  the  ministers  of  the  crown  and  mam 
eminent  men  have  been  removed  from  their  sty 
tions  during  the  period  to  which  these  observa 
tions  refer.  After  the  death  of  Pitt,  avowedly 
accelerated,  if  not  actually  caused,  by  his  devo- 
tion to  his  country,  how  soon  died  his  great  op- 
ponent, Fox?  Lord  Granville  is  dead  :  Percival 
was  murdered;  Lord  Liverpool  stricken  by  a 
calamity  which  left  his  body  living  after  the 
mind  was  dead ;  Windham  and  Huskisson,both 
victims  of  accidents :  Canning  prematurely  lost ; 
and  Lord  Londonderry  fallen  by  his  own  hand  : 
Nelson,  and  Moore, and  Abercrombie  in  battle ; 
with  a  host  of  heroes  equally  deserving  the  tears 
and  praises  of  their  countrymen. 

Remember  that  such  men  as  Thurlow,  Ersk- 
ine,  Gifford,  Law,  Kenyon,  Grattan,  Curran,     . 
have  lived  and  died  within  this  century.  In  lite-    1 
rature,  and  wit,  and  poetry,  can  we  forget  She-    ', 
ridan,  Murphy,  Cumberland,  Cowper,  Byron, 
and   ^cott !    in  science,  Banks  and  Davy  ;  in 
art,  West  and  Lawrence  ;  or  the  stage,  Siddons 
and  Kemble. — All  these  are  gone, — faded  from 
the  scenes  which  they  exalted  and  adorned.    We 
mention  but  the  very  leaders,  but  taking  every 
branch  of  art  and  science  into  calculation,  the 
aggregate  amount  of  loss  within  the  last  thirty 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL 


707 


four  years  will,  hereafter,  when  time  and  reflec- 
tion shall  hive  overcome  jealousy  and  envy,  be 
found  vastly  to  exceed  that  which  England  has 
sustained  during  any  other  period  of  equal  du- 
ration. 

But  now  let  us  look  at  things  less  questionable. 
In  the  present  century,  the  bright  career  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  may  be  said  to  have  been 
run  ;  for  although  his  services  before  and  up  to 
the  capture  of  Seringapatam,  in  1799,  had  raised 
his  character  and  spread  his  fame,  it  was  in  this 
century  that  his  celebrated  battle  of  Assaye  was 
fought.  From  his  arrival  in  Europe,  until  the 
year  1813,  he  gained  that  series  of  victories 
which  have  immortalized  him.  But  that  is  not 
all  that  we  have  to  illustrate  our  point ;  besides 
the  splendid  days  of  Oporto,  Vimiera,  Talavera, 
Buzaco,  Salamanca,  Badajos,  Vittoria,  Nice, 
Toulouse,  St.  Jean  de  Luz,  the  Pyrenees,  and 
WATERLOO,  we  are  able  to  show  that  more 
general  actions  were  fought,  and  more  lives  lost 
by  the  fortune  of  war  from  1800  to  1815  than 
ever  were  fought  in  a  period  of  ten  times  the 
same  extent ; — among  them,  Marengo,  Alexan- 
dria, Austerlitz,  Corunna,  Aspen  and  Essling, 
Wagrara,  Borossa,  Elbuera,  Borodino,  Lulzen, 
Toplitz,  Leipzic,  Orthes,  Ligny,  besides  others, 
amounting  to  nearly  two  hundred  general  actions. 

But,  then,  let  us  see  what  has  taken  place  in 
civil  life.  England  has  been  united  with  Ireland; 
the  test  and  corporation  acts  have  been  repealed; 
thirty  millions  of  taxes  have  been  removed  ;  the 
Roman  Catholics  have  been  emancipated  ;  sla- 
very has  been  abolished  ;  parliament  has  been 
ref  jrmed ;  the  poor-laws  have  been  changed;  the 
constitution  of  the  church  of  Ireland  has  been 
altered  ;  several  bishops  have  been  reduced  ;  the 
East  India  Company's  privileges  have  been  ab- 
rogated ;  the  bank  lias  resumed  cash  payments ; 
bank  notes  are  now  a  legal  tender  ;  the  game 
laws  have  been  repealed,  since  which  time 
poaching  has  increased  in  a  ten-fold  degree;  beer 
houses  have  been  permitted  in  order  to  better 
the  morals  of  the  lower  classes,  which  are  said 
to  have  produced  drunkenness  to  an  unparal- 
leled extent ;  for  humanity's  sake,  forgery  has 
been  made  punishable  with  transportation  and 
not  death,  since  which  forgery  has  increased 
very  much  in  the  same  ratio  as  drunkenness  and 
poaching.  It  would,  however,  greatly  exceed 
our  limits,  as  we  have  already  said,  to  enter  into 
minute  details  of  the  wonderful  alterations 
which  have  been  worked  during  the  century  ; 
we  shall,  therefore,  select  a  few  of  those  wi*ch 
strikes  the  senses  most  forcibly,  and  which,  from 
circumstances  and  localities,  are  most  familiar. 


Well  then,  say  we,  this  introduction  of  steam, 
or  rather  its  adaptation  to  vessels  and  locomo- 
tive carriages,  has  been — and  it  is  in  its  infancy 
yet — one  of  the  greatest  strides  ever  made  in  so 
short  a  space  of  time.  Next  comes  gas.  Let 
any  body  read  Mr.  Davies  Giddy 's,  now  Mr. 
Davies  Gilbert's,  formal  denunciation  in  the 
House  of  Commons  of  the  bare  idea  of  obtaining 
light  and  profit  from  gas,  and  the  case  will  be 
made  as  strong  as  we  can  wish  it.  Not  only  is 
the  use  of  gas  as  a  light  universal,  but  if  any 
body  will  take  the  trouble,  or  rather  give  them- 
selves the  pleasure,  of  visiting  the  gallery  of 
national  sciences,  in  the  Lowtner  arcade,  they 
will  find  cookery  performed  by  gas  in  the  most 
perfect  and  satisfactory  manner. 

During  this  century  England  has  acquired  the 
Cape,  Ceylon,  Curacoa,  "Demarara,  St.  Eusta- 
tius,  Mauritius,  Bourbon,  Maderia,  Malta,  Mar- 
tinique, Senegal,  and  Surinam — several  of 
which  have  been  ceded,  but  what  are  these?— 
what  are  her  conquests  in  Egypt  ? — what  her 
successful  warfare  at  Nepaul  or  in  the  Burmese 
country  ? — what  her  wonderful  extension  of  ter- 
ritory in  India  ? — what  her  sovereignty  of  the 
Ionian  Islands  ? — what  the  recollections  of  the 
share  she  has  borne  in  the  actions  of  the  world, 
under  Providence,  compared  with  the  strides 
she  has  made  in  art,  science,  and  mechanism 
since  1800? 

In  1800  would  any  man  have  believed — and 
in  1800  men  fancied  they  travelled  at  a  most  ex- 
traordinary pace — would  any  man  have  believed 
that  he  could  leave  London  in  a  stage-coach  in 
the  morning  and  eat  his  supper  by  eleven  o'clock 
at  night  in  Manchester  ?  or  if  his  credulity  could 
have  been  stretched  so  as  to  admit  of  such  a 
possibility,  would  he  have  suffered  himself  to 
be  told  with  impunity  that  if  he  chose,  instead 
of  supping  at  Manchester,  he  might  proceed  to 
Liverpool  in  one  hour  and  three-quarters — a 
distance  of  upwards  of  thirty  miles — that  he 
might  steam  himself  over  to  Dublin  in  time  for 
breakfast  the  next  morning,  all  of  which  he  may 
now  do,  supposing  the  conveyance  ready  ?  but, 
as  it  is,  and  without  any  hurry  or  trouble,  a  man 
breakfasts  at  the  Bull  and  Mouth  in  London  on 
the  Monday,  and  breakfasts  in  Dublin  on  the 
Wednesday,  according  to  the  ordinary  and  es- 
tablished rules  of  stage  coach,  rail-road,  and 
steam  travelling. 

Within  the  present  century,  vaccination  has 
superseded,  nay,  annihilated,  that  tremendous 
affliction  the  small-pox — an  event  to  which  the 
wonderful  decrease  in  the  mortality  of  all  classes, 
proportionably  to  the  general  increase  of  the 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    HISTORY. 


708 


population,  may,  in  a  great  degree,  be  attributed, 
despite  the  evidence  to  the  contrary  afforded 
in  the  report  of  the  parliamentary  committee. 
Again,  reducing  as  we  must,  our  sphere  of  ob- 
servation, for  want  of  room,  let  us  look  at  the 
metropolis  within  the  present  century  ;  hovels 
and  alleys  have  disappeared,  and  palaces  and  ter- 
races risen  in  their  places.  Look  at  those  splen- 
did bridges,  Waterloo  and  London — the  vast 
iron  bridge  across  the  Thames  in  the  city,  and  the 
extremely  useful  one  at  Vauxhall — see  those 
stupendous  works,  the  West  India  Docks,  East 
India  Docks,  St.  Catherine  Docks,  Surry  Canal 
Docks,  all  erected  within  this  century — the  mag- 
nificent Custom-house,  the  healthy  and  spacious 
Bedlam,  the  London  University,  the  King's  £,  J- 
lege. — Within  this  century  Ranelagh  has  van- 
ished from  the  earth,  the  Pantheon  has  become 
a  bazaar,  every  theatre  in  London,  except  the 
opera  house,  which  had  just  risen  from  a  confla- 
gration, has  been  either  burned  or  pulled  down 
— Covent  garden, Drury  lane, the  English  Opera 
House,  the  Surry  theatre  once,  and  Astley's 
twice,  been  burned  and  rebuilt— the  Haymarket 
pulled  down,  the  Royalty  pulled  down,  both  re- 
built, and  the  latter,  under  the  title  of  the  Bruns- 
wick, destroyed  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye. 

Carlton  House,  with  all  its  splendor  and 
gaieties,  and  all  the  associations  of  wit  and 
mirth  has,  with  the  noble  and  joyous  company 
which  made  its  walls  ring  with  festivity,  van- 
ished. ThePrimce!  Fox,  Sheridan,  Fitzpatrick, 
Hanger,  Erskine,  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  and  fifty 
others,  are  in  their  graves,  the  scene  of  their 
revels  exists  no  more,  splendid  terraces  and 
magnificent  squares  occupy  its  site.  The 
wretched  streets  between  Pall  Mall  and  Oxford 
street  have  given  place  to  grand  and  commodi- 
ous drives  and  promenades. 

The  interior  of  St.  James's  Park,  which  was 
a  swampy  meadow  for  the  dull  diversion  of 
smoke  dried  cows,  has  become  a  beautiful  gar- 
den ;  and  Buckingham  House,  built  in  the  full 
uniform  of  bad  taste-"  red  with  white  facings" 
—has  given  place  to  a  palace  much  censured 
.  originally,  and  lately  much  disfigured';  but 
which  still  is  a  palace  worthy  of  the  country.  In 
the  Regent's  Park,  groves,  canals,  villas,  par- 
ades, dioramas,  (what  did  we  know  of  dioramas 
in  1800?)  crescents,  and  terraces,  ranges  of 
splendid  buildings,  occupy  a  space  previously 
monopolized  by  grazing  cattle;  while  a  naviga- 
ble canal,  which  circumvents  London, and  forms 
a  military  ditch  round  her  assailable  parts,  in 
case  of  rebellion,  brings  all  the  commodities  of 


the  world  floating  to  the  very  doors  of  ware 
houses    in    the    most  inland  part  of  the 
tropolis. 

Of  greater  things,  look  at  the  Breakwater  at 
Plymouth,  at  the  Tunnel  under  the  Thames, — 
even  unfinished  as  it  is,  and  unprofitable  as  it 
ever  will  be,  it  is  a  triumph  of  science  and  per- 
severance— look  at  those  bridges  hanging,  as  it 
were,  in  air,  spanning  arms  of  the  sea,  which,  in 
1800,  no  man  vould  have  thoupht  possible  by 
such  means.  That  pretty  toy,  the  chain  pier  at 
Brighton,  is  a  toy  that  no  man  would  have  im- 
agined in  1800.  Who,  in  1800.  would  have  ex- 
pected to  find  water  without  digging  for  it? — 
Who  would  have  engraved  upon  stone  ?  Who 
would  have  thought  of  calculating  sums  by  ma- 
chinery ?  Who  would  have  thought  of  stuffing 
cushions  with  iron  for  softness  ?  Who  would 
have  worn  a  caoutchouc  cloak  or  Indian  rubbe 
shoes  to  keep  them  from  the  wet  ? 

We  pass  by  the  revolution  in  Greece,  the  wa 
in  Poland  ;  we  omit  the  discoveries  in  Africa 
which  have  let  in  the  light  to  the  very  heart  o 
that  vast  peninsula,  and  displayed  the  entir 
course  of  the  mysterious  Niger ;  we  omit  th 
changes  and  discoveries  in  Asia,  and  pause  fo 
a  moment  to  contemplate  the  great  strides  o 
revolution  in  this  Western  Hemisphere. 

The  peninsula  of  South  America,  within  thi 
present  century  has  passed  from  colonial  vas 
salage,  to  a  state  of  independence,  with  the  ex 
ception  of  Brazil,  and  the  small  possession 
of  two  European  powers  in  Guiana.  Mexic 
and  Guatimala  have  also  thrown  off  the  yoke 
and  thus  the  continental  portions  of  the  new 
world,  have  become  separated  forever  from  tha 
kingdom  to  which  they  owed  their  discovery 
and  under  whose  sway  they  existed  for  thre 
entire  centuries. 

If  we  look  to  the  United  States,  the  revolu 
tions  have  been  even  greater  and  more  aston 
isliing  than  in  any  other  country.  It  is  true  tha 
our  form  of  government  is  the  same ;  but  ou 
territory  is  more  than  doubled  ;  our  populatio 
is  almost  tripled,  and  our  station  among  nat.'on 
has  risen  to  that  of  the  most  commanding  eleV  a 
tion.  Steam  navigation,  canals,  and  railroa'ds 
have  their  entire  history  within  the  present  cen 
tury  ;  our  large  cities  are  doubled  in  their  pop 
ulation  ;  and  thousands  of  towns  and  villages 
have  sprung  up.  studding  to  a  vast  extent  wha' 
was  before  a  wilderness,  and  seeming  to  the  dis 
tant  spectator  to  come  into  existence  as  the  star 
emerge  from  the  grey  mist  of  twilight,  an' 
sparkle  in  the  sky. 


HISTORICAL  AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


709 


TO  THE   REVIEW  FROM   1835 

TO  1841. 

FRANCE,  still  continues  under  the  sway  of 
Louis  Phillipe,  though  the  elements  of  commo- 
tion occasionally  display  themselves  Louis  Na 
poleon,  the  youngest  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte,  and 
Hortense  Beauharmois,  daughter  of.  Josephine, 
has  twice  attempted  to  raise  a  revolt  in  his  own 
favor,  both  distinguished  by  their  utter  folly  and 
hopelessness.  On  the  second  occasion,  he  char- 
tered a  steamboat  in  England,  to  take  him  to 
the  co:i^t  of  France,  without  informing  the  cap- 
tain of  his  intentions,  and  even  leaving  several  of 
his  devoted  attendants,  among  whom  was  Count 
Montholon,  ignorant  of  them.  On  landing,  this 
infatuated  young  man  proclaimed  himself  ruler 
of  France,  as  the  successor  of  Napoleon.  An 
been  trained  to  perch  upon  the  head  of 
•oleon,  by  placing  the  bird's  food  upon 
it,  and  this  stage  trick,  seems  to  have  been  his 
main«ilependence  for  rousing  the  enthusiasm  of 
liic  French  nation.  The  prepared  omen,  how- 
ever, failed  of  its  effect ;  and  he  was  seized, 
tried,  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life,  in 
the  fortress  of  Ham,  where  Polignac  and  the  other 
ministers  of  Charles  X.  were  confined.  Within 
a  Tew  months  after,  the  great  pageant  of  remov- 
:iuins  of  Napoleon  from  St.  Helena  to 
t'aris,  took  place,  presenting  the  singular  spec- 
tacle, of  the  political  canonization  of  the  head  of 
the  Bonaparte  family,  while  the  nephew  was  in- 
;  for  life,  for  urging  his  claim  as  heir  to 
tlie  verv  man  to  whose  bones  all  France  was  pay- 
lage, 

French   government   has  permitted,    at 
if  not  ordered,  a  ship  of  war,  bearing  their 
,  to  outrage  the  law  of  nations,  and  of  human- 
by  forcing  upon   the  defenceless  inhabitants 
Society  and  Sandwich  Islands,  at  the  can- 
's mouth,    French  missionaries   and  French 
As  both  groups  of  Islands  are  under 
sh  protection,  it  is  astonishing  that  the  gov- 
ent  of  that  nation  has  patiently  suffered  this 
i  their  unoffending  dependents  to  re- 
'  nted. 

TV  a  native  of  France,  M.  Daguerre,  the  world 
indebted  for  the  wonderful  discovery  of  the 
Sthod  by  which  a  reflected  image  may  be  im- 
assod  in  such  a  manner  oti  metallic  plates,  as 
be  transferred  from  them  to  paper,  rendering 
process  of  engraving  unnecessary,  in  order 
^ecure  representations  of  objects  of  sight  — 


• 


The  instrument  by  which  this  result  is  produced, 
is  called,  (Vomits  discoverer,  the  Daguerreotype. 
The  French  still  retain  possession  of  Algiers', 
though  their  conquest  is  disputed  by  the  Arabs 
on  its  borders.  It  is  a  striking  remark  of  the 
British  Quarterly  Review,  in  a  late  number,  that 
while  the  French  capital  excels  all  other  cities  in 
the  world  for  tiie  perfection  to  which  every  re- 
finement of  luxury  is  carried,  the  provinces  have 
been  stationary,  if  not  retrogradmo-  for  manv 
years.  While  Turks,  Egyptians,  Hindoos,  Cos^- 
sacs  of  the  Don,  and  Siamese  are  travelling  by 
stearn,  the  provincial  roads  of  France  are  unim- 
proved, and  almost  impassable,  and  the  peasantry 
in  the  remote  provinces  arc  as  destitute  of  edu- 
catifr-.  and  of  comforts,  as  they  were  two  cen- 
turies ago. 

Don  Miguel  has  abandoned,  at  least  for  the 
present,  Ins  pretensions  to  the  throne  of  POR- 
TUGAL, and  it  is  quietly  occupied  by  Maria  De 
Gloria,  daughter  of  Pedro  II.  Though  born  in 
1819,  she  has  been  twice  married, 'both  times  to 
German  princes.  Her  present  husband  is  one  of 
the  house  of  Saxe  Cobourg.  They  have  two 
children. 

The  Queen  Regent  of  SPAIN  following  the 
example  of  her  sister,  the  Duchesse  De  Berri, 
and  her  cousin,  the  Empress  Maria  Louisa,  has 
married  a  man  of  very  inferior  birth.  Becoming 
enamored  with  the  personal  appearance  of  a 
soldier  of  her  guards,  she  has  abandoned  the  Re- 
gency, Spain,  and  her  daughter,  the  Queen,  then 
not  ten  years  of  age,  leaving  Espartero,  a 
soldier  of  fortune,  sole  regent,  who  occupies  the 
place  of  the  kings  of  Spain  in  all  ceremonies  and 
processions. 

BELGIUM  is  in  a  state  of  repose  under  the 
sceptre  of  Leopold  I.  "  the  most  fortunate  of  the 
fortunate  house  of  Cobourg." 

HOLLAND  has  recently  presented  a  very 
singular  spectacle.  Its  King,  William  the  first, 
born  1772,  resigned  his  throne  to  his  son,  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  in  1840,  in  order  to  marry  a 
woman  whose  birth  was  too  unequal  to  entitle 
her  to  share  it.  Since  Mars  has  been  out  of 
business  on  the  Continent,  Cupid  seems  to  have 
had  his  time  fully  occupied  among  the  royal 
families.  Besides  this  uncommon  specimen  of 
antiquated  attachment,  Constantine  waived  his 
right  to  the  throne  of  the  Czars,  rather  than 
give  up  his  plebeian  wife.  Nicholas,  and  his 
son,  the  Grand  Duke  Alexander,  the  Princess 
Charlotte,  and  her  cousin,  Queen  Victoria,  have 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


710 


all  made  love  matches,  not  to  recur  again  to  the 
cases  cited  under  the  head  of  Spain. 

The  King  of  PRUSSIA,  Frederick  William  the 
3rd,  has  died  and  been  succeeded  by  his  son 
William  the  4th,  born  in  1795,  who  is  already 
patronising  literature  and  science  by  filling  the 
professorships  of  his  universities  with  the  most 
celebrated  scholars. 

The  following  statement  will  shew  the  number 
of  inhabitants  in  most  of  the  German  States  : 

States.  Population. 

The  kingdom  of  Prussia,  14,271,530 

The  kingdom  of  Bavaria,  4,315,469 

The  kingdom  of  Wurtcmburg,  1 ,649,839 

The  kingdom  of  Saxony,  1,652,1 14 

The  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  1,277,403 

Electorate  of  Hesse,  704,700 

Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse  (with  Homburg)  907,671 
Duchy  of  Nassau,  336,221 

The  Thuringian  Union,  908,478 

Free  city  of  Frankfort  on  Maine,  54,000 

Total, 


The  Hanseatic  cities  of  Lubeck,  Ham- 
burg and  Bremen,  245,500 

Total, 


It  is  understood  that  Brunswick  has  exhibited 
an  inclination  to  separate  from  the  Northwestern 
Union,  of  which  she  is  now  a  member,  and  to 
join  the  association,  and  the  accession  of  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg  is  likely  soon  to 
swell  still  higher  the  total  population  of  the 
States  thus  united,  which  constitutes  already  the 
most  industrious,  enlightened,  and  prosperous 
people  of  Germany. 

Three  of  the  German  States  have  not  yet  ac- 
ceded to  the  association,  but  have  formed  a 
separate  Commercial  and  Customs  Union,  viz  : 

States.  Population. 

The  kingdom  of  Hanover,  1,772,107 

The  Grand  Duchy  of  Oldenburg,  266,536 

The  Duchy  of  Brunswick,  251,000 


Total. 


2,289,648 


And  a  few  of  the    States  of   Germany  have 

neither  acceded  to  the  association,  nor  formed 

any  special  union  among  themselves — these  are, 

.SVd/r.v.  Population. 

The  Duchies  of  Ilolstein  and  Lunenburg 

(belonging  to  the  King  of  Denmark,)  471,276 
The  Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg 

Schwerin,  482,925 

The.  Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg  Stre- 

l.tz, 


RUSSIA  has  marie  no  active  demonstrations  of 
late,  except  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  subdue  tho 
inhabitants  of  Caucasus,  which  has  been  repelled 
by  efforts  of  valor  which  border  on  the  marvel- 
lous. Forts,  defended  most  desperately  by  the 
Russians,  have  been  scaled,  and  carried  by  storm, 
without  the  aid  of  cannon,  and  by  the  sword  and 
musket  alone,  and  it  seems  very  uncertain 
whether  Nicholas,  with  his  immense  power,  will 
be  able  to  conquer  these  wild,  but  brave  patriots. 
In  ITALY,  there  has  not  been  much  change. 
The  Grand  Duke  of  Lucca  has  turned  Protestant, 
to  the  great  sorrow  of  his  Holiness  Pope  Gre- 
gory the  16th,  whose  power  seems  to  be  on  the 
decline  in  Catholic  countries,  and  increasing  only 
in  Protestant  ones.  It  is  certainly  strange,  that 
while  no  new  convents  are  endowed  on  the  Con- 
tinent, and  old  ones  are  in  many  places  abolished, 
they  should  be  increasing  every  year  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States. 

In  sketches  of  Turkey  in  1831  and  1832,  by 
Dr.  DeKay,  the  following  singular  circumstance 
is  related,  immediately  after  a  description  of  the 
ceremonies  with  which  the  present  Sultan,  then 
a  child  of  nine  years  of  age,  was  consigned  to  the 
care  of  his  instructors. 

"  We  have  seen  how  near  the  present  royal 
dynasty  was  to  becoming  extinct  in  the  person  of 
the  present  Sultan,1'  (the  late  Mahmoud  2nd.) 
"To  some  enquiries  touching  the  succession,  in 
case  of  failure  in  the  present  reigning  family,  we 
learned,  to  our  great  astonishment,  that  the  near- 
est heir  to  the  throne,  and  the  validity  of  whoso 
claim  would  be  acknowledged  by  the  Turks  them- 
selves, was  an  old  class  mate  in  Edinburgh. 
Among  the  odd  characters  assembled  in  1818 
and  1819,  within  the  gloomy  lecture  rooms  of 
that  venerable  university,  from  various  quarter* 
of  the  globe,  was  a  queer  fish,  farniliarlv  known 
under  the  name  of  Kitty.  Ho  sported  on  his 
cards  "Sultan  Gerry.  Krim  Gerry,  Kitty  Gerry 
an9  of  Caucasus,"  and  was  remarkable  for  the 
astounding  English  with  which  he  clothed  his 
oriental  ideas.  He  was  represented  to  us  as 
having  been  a  Mussulman  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  sent  at  the  expense  of  the  Emperor  of 
Russia,  to  bo  initiated  into  the  learning  of  tna 
West." 


HISTORICAL   AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


711 


"  I  have  since  learned  that  he  married  a 
Scotch  lassie,  much  against  the  wishes  of  her 
family,  and  took  her  with  him  to  Russia,  where 
he  now  resides.  He  is  a  lineal  descendant  of 
the  ancient  Khans  of  the  Crimea,  and  we  were 
informed  by  one  of  the  officers  of  government 
here,  that  in  default  of  male  issue  in  the  present 
royal  line,  he  will  certainly  be  called  to  the  Otto- 
man throne.  His  immediate  predecessor  sold 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Crimea  to  Russia,  and  he 
is  now  a  dependant  upon  its  bounty.  That  gov- 
ernment with  its  usual  long  sighted  policy, 
doubtless  reserve  him  or  some  of  his  descendants, 
in  order  to  make  a  claim  upon  the  Turkish 
throne,  and  fill  it  with  one  of  their  own  vassals." 

Mahmoud  2nd,  has  been  succeeded  by  Abdool 
Metzib,  the  child  alluded  to  above,  who  though 
but  nineteen,  is  in  a  deep  decline.  If  Dr.  De 
Kay  was  correct  in  the  singular  story  quoted 
from  his  book,  a  short  time  may  witness  a 
Christian  Emperor  of  Constantinople. 

SOUTH  AMERICA  is  still  in  commotion. 
Scarcely  a  single  province  remains  undisturbed 
by  political  convulsions.  New  Grenada,  Peru, 
and  the  Equador  are  rent  by  civil  wars,  promoted 
by  the  priests,  who,  in  the  former,  particularly, 
are  striving  to  re-establish  monastic  institutions, 
which  had  been  abolished,  at  the  request  of  the 
diocesan  prelate,  and  by  almost  the  unanimous 
vote  of  the  legislature.  The  President,  Mar- 
quez,  says,  that  the  remoter  cause  of  these  ca- 
lamities is  to  be  found  in  the  ignorance  of  the 
masses,  &c.,  and  recommends  popular  education 
as  the  remedy. 

Among  the  wonders  of  the  age  may  be  men- 
tioned the  strong  desire  lately  manifested  in  the 
Island  of  CUBA  to  repress  the  slave  trade. 

William  the  4th  of  Great  Britain  has  de- 
scended to  the  grave,  and  the  daughter  of  his 
brother,  the  Duke  of  Kent,  has  succeeded  him 
by  the  title  of  Queen  Victoria  the  1st,  while  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland,  a  younger  brother,  became 
King  of  Hanover,  females  not  being  eligible  to 
the  crown  of  that  kingdom.  Her  Majesty  mar- 
ried her  cousin,  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe  Cobourg, 
and  a  Princess  Royal  is  at  present  the  heiress 
apparent  of  Great  Britain. 

Her  reign  thus  far  has  been  distinguished  by 
great  events.  The  power  of  Great  Britain  has 
been  exerted  in  a  manner  to  produce  effects  to 
the  end  of  the  world.  By  the  conquests  ob- 
tained over  the  Pacha  of  Egypt  at  Beyrout  and 
Acre,  in  Syria,  the  name  of  Great  Britain  is 
60* 


known  and  respected  throughout  the  East,  and 
through  its  influence,  toleration  is  extended  to 
Europeans  and  Americans,  and  the  whole 
Christian  world  seem  to  unite  in  demanding  pro- 
tection for  the  persecuted  children  of  Israel. 
Communications  have  taken  place  between  the 
different  Christian  Potentates,  having  for  their 
object  the  restoration  to  the  Jews  of  the  equality 
of  rights  which  has  been  for  many  ages  denied 
them. 

In  Persia,  too,  English  influence  is  strong,  and 
in  India,  she  is  constantly  extending  her  posses- 
sions. But  the  most  wonderful  event  of  latter 
days,  is  the  war  with  China.  Some  English 
sailors,  during  a  frolic  in  the  neighborhood  o: 
Canton,  became  involved  in  a  quarrel,  and  in  the 
course  of  it  a  Chinese  was  killed.  The  English- 
men took  refuge  in  their  ships,  and  it  being  im- 
possible to  ascertain  who  among  them  had  dealt 
the  chance  blow  which  had  proved  fatal,  their 
commander  refused  to  deliver  up  to  certain  death, 
persons  who  might  have  been  entirely  innocent 
of  even  accidentally  producing  the  catastrophe. 
The  port  of  Canton  was  immediately  closed,  all 
trade  with  foreigners  forbidden,  and  various 
hardships  and  indignities  offered  to  British  sub- 
jects. This  is  stated  by  Dr.  Parker,  the  Amer- 
ican Missionary  Physician,  who  has  had  greater 
access  to  the  Chinese  than  any  other  man,  to 
be  the  origin  of  the  quarrel,  and  not  the  opium 
trade,  though  that  afterwards  became  involved 
with  it.  Steam  ships,  and  other  vessels  of  war, 
were  sent  by  England  to  defend  her  subjects,  and 
the  result,  thus  far  is,  that  the  Island  of  Chusan 
has  been  taken,  and  occupied,  though  since 
abandoned  on  account  of  its  unhealthiness ;  all 
the  defences  of  the  great  commercial  emporium, 
Canton,  destroyed,  and  the  city  itself  entirely  in 
the  power  of  the  invaders,  and  this  important 
result  has  been  achieved  without  the  loss  of  a 
single  man  on  the  side  of  the  English.  Thus  the 
barrier  which  has  so  long  existed  to  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity  among  the  millions  of 
China,  is  broken  down. 

7'he  improvements  ia  steam  vessels  and  the 
extended  voyages  which  have  been  made  with 
them  since  1835,  has  formed  a  new  era  in  the 
world;  steam  ships  of  war  appear  destined  to 
supersede  all  other  classes  of  armed  vessels,  and 
even  coast  fortifications.  England  kas  now 
regular  steam  packets  to  Portugal,  to  Boston, 
and  New  York,  and  a  line  to  India  by  the  way 
of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea,  and  a 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF  HISTORY. 


712 


late  account  mentions  that  a  si  earn  vessel  is 
navigating  the  waters  of  Siam.  There  is  also 
a  regular  line  of  steam  packets  from  England  to 
Brazil,  Montevideo,  and  Buenos  Ayres,  and  an- 
other to  the  West  Indies. 

Tne  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  former 
edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  1335,  has 
brought  many  changes,  and  some  improvements 
to  the  United  States.  Within  that  period,  Ar- 
kansas, and  Michigan  Territories  have  been  ad- 
ded to  the  Union,  as  States,  and  Iowa  and  Wis- 
consin Territories  created  from  what  remained 
of  tin;  North  Western  Territory.  The  census, 
ordered  by  Congress,  has  been  nearly  completed, 
and  as  far  as  the  result  has  transpired,  is  here 
given. 

POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. — The 
following  table  is  the  first  official  account  of  the 
census  of  1840,  yet  published.  It  was  furnished 
to  the  Senate  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  in 
obedience  to  a  resolution  of  that  body,  and  or- 
dered to  be  printed : 

Slates  ana        While    Free  Col.  All  other 

Territories,  population,  persons,  persons.  Total. 
Mrne,  511(1,433  1,355  0  5(il,7'J3 

New  Iljmpstiire,     254,036         537  1     •  2S1.751 

Miisachiwelts,        729,030      8,668  1        737,699 

Kli.it,' Island,          105.5-7       3,238  '6        108,830 

Connecticut,  31)1,856      8,105  ]7        309,948 

Vermont,  291,2)8         730  0        291,1)  IS 

New  York,  2,378.8'.)0    50,027  4     2,428,921 

New  Jersey,  351,538    21,044  674        373,308 

IVuis-yivania,       1,676.115    47,851  64      1,724,033 

MBWMV,  58.561     16.919        2,605         78,085 

Maryland,  317,717    62,020       29,495        469,232 

\irjMi.a,  740,968    49,842     448.W.-7      l,2:u,7'.»7 

Nor. h  Carolina,  484.870  22,732  245.817  753,419 
South  Carolina,  353,084  8,276  327,038  994.398 
Geortra.  407,695  2,753  280,844  !>!)]. :);'•: 

Alabama,  335,185      2,039      253.532        51(0,756 

Mi"«i*>iupi,  179,074       1,366      195.211        375,651 

IxMiisiana,  153,983    24,368      165,219        344590 

T.Tiii-xiee,  640.627       5,524      1*3.059        829510 

Kentucky,  537,542      7,309      182,072        7761923 

<>"'".  1,5(12.122     17.342  3      1.5I9.-107 

Ii''1""-'.  676,691      7.105  3        G.-J  Sf.fi 

lllinoin.  471.351      3,598  331         47f,.|s:< 

Missouri.  323888       1,574       58,240        383.702 

Arki..s:,s,  77.174         406        19,935          97,574 

Mi.'duan.  211,500          707  0         212  "67 

Pion.l:t  Territory,  27.728  830  85,599  5l!T«T 
W.«*on<inTem.  30.5BO  178  g  30752 

lowri  Trrrilory.         42,8«4         153  18          43015 

Dm:,  or  Columbia,    30,657      4,361         4,694         «,7|J 

14,181,575  38(1,069  2.483.536   17,051.180 

l.afiyp'te  Parish.  La.,  not  inelvded  in  the  above        7  832 

1'opula.  of  Carter  Co.  Ky.  not  returned,  3,000 


Seamen  in  the  service  or  the  II.  8.,  June  1,  ] 
Total  popalalion  of  the  United  Slates, 


On  the  evening  of  December  16th,  1835,  the 
business  portion  of  the  city  of  New  York  was 
swept  by  the  most  destructive  conflagration 
which  has  ever  occurred  in  the  country.  Five 
hundred  and  twenty-nine  buildings  were  con- 
sumed, including  the  South  Dutch  Church,  and 
the  Merchants  Exchange.  Loss  in  buildings, 
§4,000,000.  Loss  in  merchandize,  13,000.000. 
Total  §17,000,000.  New  York,  however,  re- 
covered sufficiently  from  this  great  disaster  to 
rebuild  the  large  space  which  the  fire  had  made 
a  heap  of  ruins. 

The  number  of  buildings  in  the  compact  part 
of  the  city  is  32,,!  16;  of  which  there  are  used 
as  breweries,  distilleries,  tanneries,  and  the  like, 
46  ;  as  dwelling  houses  exclusively,  16,458  ;  as 
dwellings  with  shops,  6,614;  as  stores  and  offices 
exclusively,  3,855 ;  as  taverns  and  private  board- 
ing houses,  736 ;  as  baths,  9  ;  as  factories,  with  en- 
gines equal  to  1 100  horse  power,  74;  as  large  fac- 
tories with  labor-saving  power,  172  ;  as  private 
stables,  2,603  ;  as  livery  stables,  137  ;  as  dairy 
stables,  57;  churches,  155;  miscellaneous,  1,200. 
The  valuation  of  the  real  estate  in  the  city,  as 
corrected  by  the  Board  of  Supervisors  in  1840, 
is  §187,222,714;  and  of  personal  estate,  £65,- 
023,801.  Aggregate,  $252,235,515. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  enterprize  of  the 
citizens  of  New  York  in  thus  recovering  so  soon 
from  the  effects  of  such  an  appalling  calamity,  a 
series  of  adversity  has  paralized  its  energies  for 
several  years  past.  The  financial  and  commer- 
cial embarrassments  of  the  country,  have  fallen 
most  heavily  upon  it,  and  the  great  number  of 
persons  thrown  out  of  employment,  is  truly  la- 
mentable. To  add  to  the  distress,  Europe  is 
emptying  her  almshouses  and  prisons,  on  the 
wharves  of  N.  Y.  ;  thus  adding,  every  day,  to 
the  number  of  those  whom  destitution  and  vice 
impel  to  criminal  actions.  From  1st  of  January, 
to  1st  of  July,  1841,  the  arrivals  at  New  York 
from  foreign  ports,  exceeded  21,000.  The  evil 
has  become  so  intolerable  as  to  call  loudly  on 
our  Government,  to  put  a  stop  to  the  deluge  of 
vice  and  poverty  which  is  threatening  the 
country.  It  is  singular,  that  while  Austria, 
Italy,  and  France,  are  doing  nothing  to  instruct 
their  own  crossly  ignorant  population,  they  have 
all  established  societies  to  enlighten  a  commu- 
nity, which,  bevond  any  other,  possess  schools 
and  bibles.  While  they  croud  our  seaports 
°'  fi-luo  with  their  paupers,  and  criminals,  ami  we  are 
17,068,112  taxed  to  support  them,  either  in  hospitals  or 


HISTORICAL    AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


713 


prisons,  their  sovereigns  including  the  Pope,  are 
raising  money  from  even  the  poorest  of  their  mis- 
erable vassals,  to  make  converts  to  the  Romish 
faith,  in  the  United  States.  And  yet,  Ameri- 
cans cannot  be  taught  to  fear  such  machinations. 
They  must  be  in  danger,  when  they  do  not  re- 
sent with  indignation,  the  audacity  with  which 
aliens  demand  that  the  laws  of  the  country  shall 
be  altered  to  suit  their  views.  The  persons  who 
make  this  modest  request,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered, are  not  even  naturalized  citizens  of  the 
United  States.  The  leaders  are  priests,  who 
hold  jointly  with  their  American  diocese,  an 
European  one,  and  designate  themselves  by 
both.  These  persons  voluntarily  come  to  this 
country,  and  while  they  professedly  believe  it 
the  "  land  of  liberty,"  quarrel  with  its  laws  and 
habits.  They  found  institutions,  literary  and 
monastic,  surround  them  with  high  walls,  and 
place  gratings  on  the  windows,  like  those  on 
prisons,  for  the  greatest  criminals,  and  establish 
within  them  a  discipline  entirely  subversive  of 
the  freedom  of  action  enjoyed  by  all  others  in 
the  country,  and  entirely  independent  of  the  laws 
of  the  land.  No  magistrate  ever  exercises  su- 
pervision over  the  inmates  of  these  prisons.  No 
one  knows  when  they  die,  or  from  what  cause — 
and  yet,  the  people  of  this  country  see  nothing 
suspicious,  in  building  up  walls  to  prevent  re- 
cluses from  running  away  from  the  Juippy  life 
they  are  said  to  prefer  to  all  others  !  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  these  unpresuming  foreigners  de- 
mand, that  our  laws  and  our  legislative  acts 
should  he  altered,  at  their  dictation,  as  if  the  laws 
which  satisfy  Americans  were  not  good  enough 
for  those  who  chose  to  leave  their  own  country 
for  this,  without  being  invited.  The  friend  of 
Washington,  and  of  the  United  States,  LA 
FAYETTE,  warned  us  with  the  utmost  solem- 
nity, that  "  if  the  liberties  of  the  United  States 
were  ever  subverted,  it  would  be  by  JESUITES.'' 
And  yet  when  "THE  INQUISITOR  GENERAL 
FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES,"  for  such  is  the  office 
of  John  England,  Bishop  of  CHARLESTON,  &c., 
(the  name  of  his  foreign  bishopric  not  being  re- 
membered.) visits  Rome  almost  every  year,  to 
report  the  progress  he  is  making,  and  encourage 
the  heart  of  the  Pope  to  persevere — Americans 
see  no  danger ! 

Steam  power  is,  in  this  country  as  well  as  in 
Europe,  a 'fording  most  wonderful  facilities  for 
transportation,  manufactories,  and  defence. — 
The  improvements  in  steam  ships  of  war,  in 


mortars,  rockets,  and  fire  arms,  are  so  great, 
as  to  probably  deter  nations  from  quarrelling 
on  slight  grounds  of  offence,  because  the  con- 
sequences of  collision  become  more  and  more 
tremendous.  Since  steam  ships  are  only  from 
sixteen  to  twelve  and  a  half  days  in  coming  from 
England  to  the  United  States,  "it  becomes  doubly 
important  to  the  inhabitants  of  both  copntries  to 
be  upon  terms  of  friendship. 

The  village  of  Waterford,  N.  Y.  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  fire  on  Sunday  the  llth  of  July, 
1841.  128  buildings;  constituting  the  most  val- 
uable part  of  the  town,  and  including  the  Mansion 
House  Hotel,  Episcopal  Church,  and  Bank,  were 
consumed.  The  proportion  of  property  burned 
in  comparison  with  that  saved,  was  greater  than 
at  any  other  fire  in  the  United  States. 

The  most  striking  circumstances  which  have 
occurred  in  our  country  for  many  years,  and  are 
altogether  unparalleled  in  its  annals,  is  the  elec- 
tion of  General  Harrison  to  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent, by  the  unprecedented  vote  of  nineteen 
States  out  of  twenty-six,  and  his  death,  just  one 
month  after  his  inauguration.  A  brief  sketch  of 
the  principal  events  of  his  life,  will  form  a  very 
appropriate  conclusion  to  this  review  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  William  Henry,  the  youngest 
son  of  Benjamin  Harrison,  was  born  on  the  9th 
of  February,  1773,  at  Berkeley  in  Charles  City 
county,  Virginia,  about  twenty-five  miles  below 
Richmond.  His  father,  who  was  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
speaker  of  the  house  of  delegates  in  Virginia, 
and  governor  of  that  State,  was  a  descendent  of 
the  General  Harrison  who  held  a  commission 
under  Cromwell.  His  mother  was  Elizabeth 
Bassett,  a  niece  of  the  wife  of  General  Wash- 
ington. At  the  time  of  Benjamin  Harrison's 
death,  in  1782,  his  estate  having  become  em- 
barrassed in  the  public  service,  William  Henry 
was  at  Hampden  Sidney  College,  qualifying  him- 
self for  the  study  of  medicine,  but  when  the  news 
of  the  Indian  outrages  on  the  frontiers  reached 
Virginia,  he  determined  to  enter  the  army.  This 
resolution,  which  was  opposed  by  his  guardian, 
the  celebrated  financier  Robert  Morris,  was 
warmly  approved  by  the  illustrious  Washington, 
who  gave  him  the  commission  of  ensign  in  the 
1st  regiment  of  United  States  artillery,  then 
stationed  at  Fort  Washington,  on  the  Ohio,  near 
the  spot  where  Cincinnati  now  stands.  Just 
after  he  arrived  at  the  post,  the  news  of  Gen.  St: 
Clair's  defeat  by  the  Indians,  on  the  Wabash, 


CYCLOPEDIA   OF    HISTORY. 


714 


reached  it,  and  though  he  was  urged  to  relin- 
quish his  new  profession,  on  the  grounds  of  the 
extreme  hardships  and  deprivations  of  the  ser- 
vice, and  his  youth,  and  apparently  slender  con- 
stitution, he'  promptly  and  decidedly  rejected 
the  advice.  Soon  after,  he  was  entrusted  with 
the  command  of  ihe  escort  of  a  train  of  pack 
horses,  destined  to  furnish  supplies  to  Fort  Ham- 
ilton, on  the  Miami,  twenty  or  thirty  miles  north 
of  Fort  W.  This  service  required  especial  pru- 
dence and  sagacity,  and  was  performed  by  him, 
though  a  mere  youth,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
obtain  the  warm  commendation  of  Gen.  St. 
Clair. 

Judge  Bui-net,  in  his  "  Transactions  of  the 
Historical  Society  of  Ohio,"  speaks  thus  of  this 
circumstance.  "  Soon  after  the  battle  and  de- 
feat of  St.  Clair,  which  was  on  the  4th  of  Nov. 
1791,  General  Harrison,  then  a  subaltern,  was 
sent  in  command  of  a  small  detachment  from 
Fort  Washington  to  Forts  Hamilton  and  Jeffer- 
son. It  was  in  the  midst  of  one  of  the  severest 
winters  ever  known  in  this  country.  Subalterns, 
as  you  know,  were  not  permitted  to  march  on 
horseback.  Of  course  this  youthful  hero,  not 
then  twenty  years  of  age,  marched  on  foot, 
through  the  snow,  at  the  head  of  his  detachment, 
with  his  knapsack  on  his  back  ;  and  although 
the  woods  were  swarming  with  Indians,  who  had 
been  released  from  the  necessity  of  watching 
the  army,  he  marched  to  the  place  of  his  desti- 
nation in  safety,  after  as  severe  an  exposure  to 
frost,  fatigue  and  danger,  as  was  endured  at  any 
time  during  the  war." 

But  a  still  more  remarkable  trait  of  his  char- 
acter was  thus  early  developed,  in  the  extraordi- 
nary self-control  he  exercised  in  avoiding  the 
vice  of  intemperance,  which,  in  the  absence  of 
the  restraints  of  society,  and  friends,  had  made 
fearful  progress  in  the  western  army.  Young 
Harrison  saw  the  depth  of  the  precipice,  and 
would  not  even  approach  the  brink. 

From  this  time  forward,  the  best  years  of  his 
life  were  devoted  to  his  country.  A  list  of  his 
public  acts  is  all  that  the  limits  of  this  work  will 
allow.  In  1792  he  was  made  a  lieutenant,  and 
in  1793,  he  joined  the  army  under  Gen.  Wayne, 
at  Fort  Washington,  who  soon  after  appointed 
him  one  of  his  aides  de  camp,  which  he  continued 
to  be,  during  the  war.  In  October  of  that  year, 
the  troops  fortified  themselves  at  a  place  on  the 
Miami,  about  40  miles  north  of  Fort  Washington, 
which  they  named  Greenville.  On  the  23d  of 


December,  he  went  with  a  party  detached  to  the 
field  of  St.  Glair's  defeat,  to  bury  the  bones  of 
the  slain,  and  to  construct  a  fortification  which 
was  called  Fort  Recovery.  In  the  general  or- 
ders, Lieutenant  Harrison  is  particularly  praised 
for  his  "  voluntary  aid  and  services.''  The  next 
summer,  the  Fort  was  several  times  attacked  by 
the  Indians,  who  were  at  last  compelled  to  retreat 
with  great  loss. 

On  the  20th  August,  1794,  in  marching  down 
the  Maumee,  Gen.  Wayne,  with  900  men,  was 
attacked  by  the  Indians,  to  the  number  of  2000, 
and  put  them  to  flight.  In  his  official  account 
he  mentions  that  his  "faithful  and  gallant  Aid, 
Lieutenant  Harrison,  rendered  most  essential 
service,  by  communicating  orders  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  by  his  conduct  and  bravery,  exciting 
the  troops  to  press  for  victory."  In  August, 
1795,  peace  was  concluded  at  Greenville.  Soon 
after,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  ol  Captain, 
and  placed  in  command  of  Fort  Washington. 
About  the  same  period  he  married  Anna,  daugh- 
ter of  John  Cleves  Symmes,  the  founder  of  the 
Miami  settlements,  a  most  estimable  lady,  and 
one  who  truly  appreciated  his  admirable  traits 
of  character. 

When  Gen.  Wayne  died,  in  1797,  Capt.  Har- 
rison resigned  his  commission,  and  was  made 
Secretary  of  the  North  Western  Territory,  and 
ex-officio,  Lieutenant  Governor,  Gen.  St.  Clair 
being  Governor ;  which  office  he  filled  with  so 
much  approbation,  that  he  was  chosen  by  the  in- 
habitants their  first  delegate  to  Congress.  His 
popularity  was  increased  by  his  wish  that  the  pub- 
lic lands  should  be  sold  in  small  quantities,  to 
actual  settlers,  instead  of  permitting  speculators 
to  purchase  them  in  targe  ones,  which  object'  he 
accomplished,  as  well  as  a  reform  in  the  method 
of  locating  military  land  warrants.  The  N.  W. 
Territory  being  divided  into  two,  Ohio  and  Indi- 
ana, he  was  made  Governor  of  the  latter  in  1799, 
in  which  office  his  power  was  very  extended,  in- 
cluding that  of  Superintendent  of  Indian  affairs, 
and  Commissioner  for  treating  with  the  Indians; 
yet  he  never  was  suspected  of  violating  in  any 
instance  the  strictest  integrity  and  honor,  not 
even  owning  on  acre  of  the  thousands,  of  which 
he  had  the  sole  disposal,  nor  benentting  himself 
a  dollar,  by  the  vast  sums  which  passed  through 
his  hands.  In  1804,  he  made  a  treaty  with  tho 
Sac  and  Fox  Indians,  by  which,  the  nation  gained 
the  tract  on  the  Mississippi,  including  tho  whole 
region  between  that  river  and  the  Illinois,  the 


HISTORICAL    AND    BIOGRAPHICAL. 


715 


targest  ever  ceded  at  one  time  by  the  Indians. 
Beside  this,  he  obtained  all  the  tract  between 
the  Ohio  and  the  Wabash,  as  far  north  as  the 
road  from  Louisville  to  Vincennes,  &c. 

In  1805,  Indiana  was  raised  to  the  second  rank 
of  Territorial  government,  and  he  was  made 
Governor.  While  holding  this  office,  he  mana- 
ged the  public  lands  in  the  most  judicious  man- 
ner, and  would  never  accept  any  fees,  which 
other  Governors  had  been  in  the  habit  of  doing. 

In  1806,  Tecumthe,  a  Shawncse  chief,  began 
his  plan  of  an  union  among  the  different  tribes  of 
Indians  on  our  borders,  to  resist  the  whites,  and 
regain  a  portion  of  the  territory  they  had  ceded, 
and,  with  his  twin  brother,  the  Prophet,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  keeping  them  united.  At  first,  Gov. 
Harrison  could  not  believe  that  they  had  the  te- 
merity to  meditate  a  war  with  the  whites  ;  but  to 
in  their  real  intentions,  he  invited  the 
rs  to  meet  him  at  Vincennes.  Governor 
H.  flb  requested  them  not  to  bring  more  than 
30  wairiprs,  but  he  brought  400,  armed.  About 
40  werefpresent  at  the  council,  which  consisted 
of  the  Governor,  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
several  officers  of  the  army,  Winnemac,  a  friendly 
chief  of  the  Pottawatamies,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  unarmed  citizens.  During  the  meet- 
ing, Tecumthe  made  a  movement  which  showed 
»in  intention  of  making  a  personal  attack  upon 
Gov.  Harrison,  which  induced  him,  the  chief, 
and  the  officers,  to  seize  their  arms,  while  the 
citizens  laid  hold  on  any  thing  they  could  reach 
to  defend  themselves.  The  guard  rushed  in,  but 
Harrison  would  not  suffer  them  to  fire.  Tecum- 
the the  next  day  apologized,  but  still  continuing 
hostile,  the  Governor  received  orders  to  march 
a-jainst  him.  He  gave  him  a  most  signal  defeat 
at  Tippecanoc,  north  of  the  upper  Wabash,  Nov. 
6th,  1811,  both  parties  fighting  most  desperately ; 
Gov  Harrison  narrowly  escaped  death,  the  hair 
of  his  head  being  cut  off  by  a  rifle  ball.  For  his 
omduct  on  this  occasion,  he  received  the  thanks 
L  of  the  States  of  Kentucky  and  Indiana.  Presi- 
r*  dent  Madison,  in  his  message  to  the  lift*  Con- 
gress, particularly  commended  him.  This  oattle 
so  humbled  the  Indians,  that  they  were  wishing 
for  peace,  when  the  war  with  Great  Britain,  in 
1812,  again  encouraged  them.  Soon  after  the 
commencement  of  hostilities,  Gen.  H.  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  a  portion  of  the  Ken- 
tucky militia,  which  was  ordered  to  march  for 
the  protection  of  the  Territory  of  which  he  was 
Governor.  The  remainder  was  sent  to  reinforce 


Gen.  Hull,  who  was  already  in  difficulty.  While 
getting  his  troops  ready  for  Vincennes,  Gen.  H. 
heard  from  officers  of  the  army  at  Detroit,  that 
they  had  no  confidence  in  Hull,  their  apprehen- 
sions of  disaster  and  disgrace,  and  their  wishes 
that  he  might  be  placed  in  command  of  the  army, 
in  which  the  Kentuckians  most  warmly  concur- 
red. But  the  authority  he  had  received,  did  not 
allow  him  to  act,  except  for  the  defence  of  In- 
diana and  Illinois.  The  emergency  was  so  great, 
however,  as  to  induce  Gov.  Scott,  of  Kentucky, 
to  consult  Shelby,  the  Governor  elect,  Henry 
Clay,  Judge  Todd,  and  others,  and  they  unani- 
mously advised  him  to  give  a  brevet  commission 
of  Major  General  in  the  Kentucky  militia,  to 
Gen.  H.  and  authorise  him  to  command  the  de- 
tachment marching  to  Detroit.  Just  at  this 
time,  the  news  of  Hull's  surrender  reached  them, 
and  Gen.  H.  received  the  commission  of  Briga- 
dier General  in  the  U.  S.  army,  which  he  de- 
clined, being  desirous  that  the  appointment  he 
had  received  from  Gov.  Scott,  should  be  known 
at  Washington.  In  the  latter  part  of  September, 

1812,  he  was  appointed    by   the    President  to 
command  the  North  West  army.     In  January, 

1813,  Winchester's  defeat   and  the    subsequent 
massacre  of  the  wounded,    at  the  river  Raisin, 
took  place,  but  the  state  of  the  roads,  lakes,  &r. 
made   it  impossible   to  transport    troops  to  De- 
troit, in  time  to  have  prevented  those  calamities. 
Gen.  H.  expecting  the  British  would  attack  For: 
Meigs,   reached  there  the  10th  of  April,  and  did 
every  thing   possible  to  put  it  in  a  state  of  de- 
fence.    April    28th,    the    British    ascended   the 
Maumee,  and  the  Indians  reached  the  vicinity  of 
the  Fort  by  land.     On  the  night  of  the  4th  of 
May,  an  attack  was   made  by  the    Americans, 
which  would  undoubtedly   have    been    entirely 
successful,  as  the  besiegers  were  taken  by  sur- 
prise, but  for  a  blunder  of  the  officer  who  led  the 
troops,  which  caused  the  loss  of  half  the   de- 
tachment, but  their  batteries  being  taken  by  tho 
remaining  troops,    under   Gen.  H.,  the   British 
and   their  allies  returned  to   Maiden.     On  the 
25th  of  July,  he  received  authority  to  call  on  the 
Ohio  and  Kentucky  militia.     On  the  5th  of  Oct. 
he  gained  a  splendid  victory  over  the  British  and 
Indians  on  the  river  Thames,  in  Upper  Canada. 
During  the  engagement   Tecumthe    was  slain. 
This  battle   gave  peace  to  Upper  Canada,  and 
our  North  Western  and  Western  borders. 

In    1814,   General    Armstrong,    Secretary  of 
War,  submitted  a  plan  to  the  President  for  the 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF  HISTORY. 


716 


campaign  for  that  year,  which  intentionally  lim- 
ited Gen.  Harrison's  command  to  the  8th  military 
section,  and  he,-  feeling  that  he  could  not  retain 
his  commission  with  propriety,  under  what  he 
considered  a  studied  act  of  injustice,  resigned  it, 
which  resignation,  Gen.  Armstrong,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  President,  accepted,  to  the  great 
regret  of  Mr.  Madison.  In  1814,  with  General 
Cass,  and  Governor  Shelby,  he  made  a  treaty 
with  the  Indians.  In  1815.  he  made  one  with 
other  tnbes  at  Detroit.  In  1816,  he  was  elected 
representative  to  Congress,  and  at  his.  request, 
a  committee,  the  chairman  of  which  was  Richard 
M.  Johnson,  late  Vice  President  of  the  Union, 
investigated  the  charges  formerly  made  against 
his  management  of"  the  commissariat  during 
some  of  his  campaigns,  which  slanders  had  pre- 
vented a  Vote  of  thanks  from  Congress  for  his 
great  services.  After  the  fullest  examination, 
the  committee  pronounced  the  charges  entirely 
false,  and  a  gold  medal  was  voted  him  unani- 
mously in  the  Senate,  and  with  but  one  dissent- 
ing voice  in  the  House.  It  may  be  as  well  to 
mention  here  an  instance  of  his  magnanimity. 
Having  been  traduced  by  a  Scotchman,  by  the 
name  of  Mclntosh,  with  respect  to  his  treaties 
with  the  Indians,  and  it  being  alluded  to  in  Con- 
gress when  he  was  not  a  member  of  either  house, 
he  felt  it  due  to  his  character  that  the  truth 
should  he  made  known.  He  therefore  instituted  - 
a  suit  for  defamation  against  Mclntosh,  and  his 
counsel  promoted  the  closest  investigation  into 
his  acts,  not  only  in  regard  to  those  transactions. 
but  all  others.  Extraordinary  pains  were  taken 
to  ensure  the  accused  an  impartial  trial,  which, 
notwithstanding,  resulted  in  his  conviction,  and  a 
sentence  of  -?4000  damages,  which  in  a  new  coun- 
trv  was  very  l.ir_re.  During  the  absence  of 
Harrison,  a  tract  of  Mclntosh's  land  was  set  up 
for  sale,  to  pay  the  verdict,  and  bought  by  the. 
General's  agent.  Harrison  returned  two  thirds 
to  Mclnto.-,h,  and  divided  the  other  among  the 
orphan  children  of  several  persons  who  had  fallen 
during  the  war  of  1812.  In  1819,  he  was  elect- 
ed to  the  Ohio  Senate  for  two  years.  Jn  1821; 
he  was  chosen  a  Senator  of  the  United  States. 
In  1S2^;  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Colombia; 
and  landed  at  Maracaybo  on  the  22d  of  Dec.  and 
proceeded  to  Bogota.  But  Bolivar;  who  int-'iid- 
ed  to  assume  despotic  powers;  \vns  di- 
with  his  republican  plainness;  and  made  his  situ- 
npleasant; but  unsafe.  Gen. 


ation  not   only  un 

Jdc.kson,  ho'.sevoi; 


him  the  very  day  of 


his  own  inauguration.  Before  he  left  Colombia; 
Gen.  H.  wrote  a  letter  to  Bolivar;  worthy  of  the 
pou  of  Washington.  One  sentence  alone  will 
suffice  for  a  specimen.  "  I  contend  that  the 
strongest  government  is  that  which  is  the  most 
free." 

From  the  time  of  his  return  from  South  Amer- 
ica; Gen.  Harrison  lived  on  his  farm  at  North 
Bend;  laboring  with  his  own  hands  for  the  sup- 
port of  his  numerous  family.  Called  from  his 
honorable  retirement  to  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment by  the  almost  unanimous  voice  of  the 
country  he  had  so  many  years  faithfully  served 
in  council;  and  the  battle-field;  his  sudden  and 
untimely  death  was  as  much  lamented  as  his  life 
hud  been  patriotic  and  virtuous. 

On  the  reception  of  the  news  of  President  Har- 
mon's death,  minute  guns  were  fired,  hells  tolled, 
and  resolutions  expressive  of  the  most 
regret  adopted  in  almost  every  town  and  vi 
throughout  the  Union.  It  being  the  firt 
stance  of  the  death  of  a  chief  magistrate  whjb  oc- 
c;ipyi:>g  the  Presidential  chair,  the  imjjfssion 
made  was  doubly  strong.  The  funeral  ceremo- 
nies at  Washington  were  very  impressive. — 
President  Tyler,  who  was  Vice  President,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  office  of  Chief  Magistrate,  issued  a 
recommendation  to  the  people  of  the  L'nion  to 
observe  the  14th  of  May  as  a  day  of  fasting  and 
humiliation,  in  consequence  of  the  afnY-u.m  the 
nation  had  sustained.  It  was  almost  unanimously 
observed,  and  vcrv  lew  rier^ymcii  in  the  country 
failed  to  improve  the  opportunity  to  impress  upon 
the  minds  of  their  hearers  tho  weight  of  our 
national  sins,  and  the  solemn  lesson  given  them 
of  the  vanity  of  all-  earthly  distinctions  and 
honors. 

But  the  State  of  Ohio  could  not  relinquish 
her  claim  to  the  remains  of  one;  who,  from  the 
age  of  nineteen,  had  been  devoted  to  her  best 
interests.  A  committee  of  her  most  respectable 
inhabitants  went  on  to  Washington,  a 
permitted  to  convey  them  to  North  Be.nd,  where,' 
on  theyMPid  under  which  they  are  deposited,  is 
to  be  erected  a  monument  which  shall  point  to 
the  eye  of  the  traveller  as  he  navigates  the  Ohio, 
the  spot,  where  rests  the  Patriot,  Hero,  and 
Christian,  WILLIAM  HKXKV  Ifunnsuv. 

•.  i-iov  OF  THK  UNIT;::)  STATES. — The 
following  tables,  will  be  found  interesting,  as  they 
show  the  progress  of  po:>  >  country 

for  six  different    p  .-ing  fi'ty  years. 

It  will  be  seen  th.it  the  wiii'e  population  is  now 


HISTORI 


C*L 


AND   BIOGRAPHICAL. 


717 


tnan  four  times  the  number  that  it  was  in 
irhile  the  ratio  of  increase  of  the   slaves, 
h  great,    is    rather    less  than  that  of  the 
$lt  will  surprise  some,  we  ha',  e  no  doubt, 
:  that  more  than  half  of  the  free  colored 
ta  are  in  the  slave  States. 
.Lice  Titic  of  the  Population 
tics  in  1830,  and  1840. 

Census  1830.        Census  1S40. 
10.526,2 1^ 
319,599 
2,009,0-13 
5,318 


the  present  year.  In  the  corresponding  months 
of  183!),  the"  number  of  travellers  was  109,217; 
in  1840,  118,005. 

From  January  1st  to  July  1st,  1841. 
Between  New  York  and  Newark.  123.960 

Elizabethtown,     11,674§ 


17,008,112 


Increase  in  10  Years. 

3,650,327,  or  about  35  per  cent. 

07,470,         ••         21 
477,325.   .     "        23|      " 
White  Population. 

1830.  18-lO.Incr.p.c 
anil  Territories.  6,865,700  9.555.922  39 
sand  Territories,  3,660,518  4,630,653 

Free  colored. 

&c.  137,32!)        170.704 

*,&c.  182,270       215.365 

of  Population  in  the  U 


•Ejiizaoeuuu 

of  the  United  '* Between  New  York  and  Rahway,  9,750 y 

New  Brunswick,  15,144'; 
Between  Newark  and  Elizabethtown,         6,093  \ 

Rahway,  2,156 

"  "  New  Brunswick,    2,452 

Way  passengers  to  and  from  places  be- 
tween Elizabethtown  and  N.  Brunswick,  3,846 


14,160,575 

386,0fls> 

2,486,3* 

6,100 


White 

3,172.118 

4.813,841 

7,-f,1.9Uti 


Free  colored. 
511,511- 
110,072 
186,446 
238.161 
319.539 
2>t;.069 


l.lb'1,364 
1,539.064 
2.009.043 

2,486,368 


I4.lMJ.i75 

.1  ilie  census  for  1S40,  the  county  of  Carter, 

and  the  Parish  of  La  Fayette,  in  Louisiana, 

e  jio-iu'ation  of  the  U.  S.  is  now  greater 
Eagtand  and  Wales  in  1831— the  latter  was 

'4. 

AC  WORKS 'ix  OHIO. — The  loan  effected 
id  Commissioners  of  the  State  has 
juted  among  its  public  works  as  fol- 

Erie  Canal, 
Canal, 
Canal, 
ey  Canal, 
nprovement, 

re  and  Maumee  Road,   15,( 
id  Granville  Road,         5,000 


§581,000  00 
SY  RAIL  ROAD.— The  following 
!  number  of  passengers  who  travel- 
road  during  the  first  six  months  of 


Total  passengers,  175.083 

The  number  of  passengers  carried  in  the  Phila- 
delphia lines,  for  which  a  transit  duty  of  8  cents 
each  is  paid  to  the  State  of  New  Jersey  : 

1839— January  1st  to  July  1st,         35.320J 
2t>  ^^.        1840— January  1st  to  July  1st,         36,477£ 
1841— January  1st  to  July  1st,         44,299i 
16         '    COMPARISON- OF  NEW  YORK  WITH  THE  PIIIN- 
9Sl'«ves      CIPAL  CITIES  OF  EUROPE. — The    population  of 
ivJ7,i:,.c     the  city  of  New  York,  by  the  census  of  1840,  is 
312,932.     Only  six  of  the  European  cities   now 
surpass  it,  as  follows: 

1.  London  and  suburbs,         .         .    1,650,000 

2.  Paris,  ....       900,000 

3.  Constantinople,        .         .         .       600,000 
•  4.  St.  Petersburgh,      .         .         .      450,000 

5.  Naples,  ....      364,000 

6.  Vienna,  ....       333,000 
The  cities  next  in  population  are — 

Lisbon, 

Moscow, 

Berlin, 

^Dublin, 

*Glasgow, 

Amsterdam, 

Madrid, 

*Manchester, 

^Liverpool, 

Palermo, 

Lyons, 

^Edinburgh, 


260.000 
250,000 
240.000 
204,000 
202,000 
201,000 
201,000 
187,000 
185,000 
173,000 
165.000 
162,000 
154,000 


*  Wthe  census  of  1831,  tins  was  about  the  population 
of  these  cities.  The  census  of  Great  Hritain  lor  1641, 
now  being  taken,  will  show  a  great  increase. 


/ 


L.' 


University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

305  De  Neve  Drive  -  Parking  Lot  17  •  Box  951388 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA  90095-1388 
Return  this  material  to  the  library  from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


^sir 


•ni 


